CHAPTER-THREE

Transient Circuit analysis

OCT, 2024/2025
Tesfahun M.(MSc.)

1
 Ohm’s Law

Georg Simon Ohm (1787–1854), a German physicist, in 1826 experimentally

determined the most basic law relating voltage and current for a resistor.
Ohm’s law states that the voltage v across a resistor is directly
proportional to the current i flowing through the resistor.

2
 Fig. (a) Short circuit (R = 0), (b) Open circuit Fig. Circuit symbol for: (a) a
(R = ∞). variable resistor in general, (b) a
potentiometer.

➢ The direction of current i and the polarity of voltage v must conform with
the passive sign convention,
➢ If the current flows from a higher potential to a lower potential in order
for v = i R.
3 ➢ If current flows from a lower potential to a higher potential, v = −i R.
 EXAMPLE:
calculate the current i, the conductance G, and the power p.

4
 EXERCISE (From Text book)
For the circuit shown in Fig. 2.9, calculate the voltage v, the
conductance G, and the power p.

5
 Nodes, Branches, and Loops
➢ A network is an interconnection of elements or devices, whereas a
circuit is a network providing one or more closed paths.
➢ In network topology, we study the properties relating to the
placement of elements in the network and the geometric
configuration of the network.
➢ Such elements include branches, nodes, and loops.
➢ A branch represents a single element such as a voltage
source or a resistor
➢ A node is the point of connection between two or more
branches

6
 Fig.2.10 Nodes, branches, and loops. Fig.2.11 The three-node circuit of Fig. 2.10 is
redrawn.

➢ A node is usually indicated by a dot in a circuit. If a short circuit (a connecting

wire) connects two nodes, the two nodes constitute a single node.
➢ A loop is any closed path in a circuit.
➢ A loop is said to be independent if it contains at least one branch which is not a
part of any other independent loop.
7 ➢ Independent loops or paths result in independent sets of equations.
 ➢ A network with b branches, n nodes, and l independent loops
will satisfy the fundamental theorem of network topology:

➢ Two or more elements are in series if they exclusively share

a single node and consequently carry the same current.
➢ Two or more elements are in parallel if they are connected to
the same two nodes and consequently have the same
voltage across them.

8
 EXAMPLE
⚫ How many branches and nodes does the circuit in Fig. 2.14
have? Identify the elements that are in series and in parallel.

9
 Kirchhoff’s Laws
➢ Kirchhoff’s first law is based on the law of conservation of
charge, which requires that the algebraic sum of charges
within a system cannot change.
➢ Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of
currents entering a node (or a closed boundary) is zero.
➢ Mathematically,

➢ where N is the number of branches connected to the node

and in is the 𝑛𝑡ℎ current entering (or leaving) the node.

10
 ➢ To prove KCL, assume a set of currents 𝑖𝑘 (t) , k = 1, 2,…,
flow into a node. The algebraic sum of currents at the node is
………….(2.0)
➢ Integrating both sides of Eq. (2.0) gives
➢ …………..(2.1)

where 𝑞𝑘 (t) = ∫ 𝑖𝑘 (t) d t and 𝑞𝑇 (t) = ∫ 𝑖 𝑇 (t) d t . But the law of conservation of
electric charge requires that the algebraic sum of electric charges at the
node must not change; that is, the node stores no net charge. Thus, 𝑞𝑇 (t) = 0
11 → 𝑖 𝑇 (t) = 0, confirming the validity of KCL.
 ➢ Consider the node in Fig. 2.16. Applying KCL gives

Fig.Currents at a node illustrating KCL

……………(2.2)
or

12
 or

Fig. Current sources in parallel: (a) original

circuit, (b) equivalent circuit.

13
 Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL

➢ Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of

all voltages around a closed path (or loop) is zero.
Mathematically,

➢ KVL can be applied in two ways: by taking either a clockwise

or a counterclockwise trip around the loop. Either way, the
algebraic sum of voltages around the loop is zero.

14
 Fig. A single-loop circuit illustrating KVL.

Sum of voltage drops = Sum of voltage rises

15
 Fig. Voltage sources in series: (a) original
circuit, (b) equivalent circuit.

16
 Example
⚫ For the circuit in Fig. 2.21(a), find voltages v and v .
1 2

17
 Exercise
⚫ Find v and v in the circuit of Fig. 2.22.
1 2

18
 Example
⚫ Determine v and i in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.23(a).
o

19
 Exercise
⚫ Find vx and vo in the circuit of Fig. 2.24.

Answer: 20 V, −10 V.

20
 Series Resistors and Voltage Division

⚫ Series circuit:
➢ The equivalent resistance of any number of resistors connected in series is the
sum of the individual resistances.
➢ For N resistors in series then,

Mathematically,

RT = R1 + R2 + R3 +………. +RN
Vs = VR1 + VR2 + VR3+…..…+RN

21 Is = IR1 = IR2 = IR3 =…………. =IRN

 B) Voltage Divider Rule
⚫ States that the amount of voltage drops across each element is
directly proportional to the source voltage and resistance value

22
 ⚫ Example 1:-Use the voltage divider rule to determine the voltage
across each of the resistors in the circuit shown inFigure2.Show that
the summation of voltage drops is equal to the applied voltage rise in
the circuit.
Solution:
RT= 6Ω +12 Ω +7 Ω =25.0 Ω
6Ω
V1= (25Ω )(18V) = 4.32 V

V2= (12Ω
25Ω
)(18V) = 8.64 V Fig2.resistors connected in series to a voltage source

7Ω
V1= (25Ω )(18V) = 5.04 V

The total voltage drop is the summation

VT = 4.32 V + 8.64 V + 5.04 V =18 V =E
23
 Parallel Resistors and Current Division
⚫ Two or more components which are connected to common nodes are said to
have a parallel connection.
Parallel circuit:-In a simple parallel circuit
⚫ The voltage across each element is the same.
⚫ The total current is the sum of the individual branch currents

Fig. 2 parallel circuit

24
 ⚫ Mathematically,
1 1 1 1
= + + .......+
RT R1 R2 RN
Vs = VR1 = VR2 = VR3=………..= VRN

Is = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 =…………. =IRN

25
 C) Current Divider Rule

⚫ States that the amount of current flow through each element is

directly proportional to the total current and inversely proportional to
the resistance value

26
 Example

⚫ Find Req in the Fig. a) & b) below.

a) b)

27
 In the figure shown below
a) determine the current I using the current divider rule
b) determine the voltage drop at 500Ω resistor
c) Validate your answer using Kirchhoff’s laws

28
 Star and Delta Connection of Resistances

Fig. Star connections of three resistors

29
 Fig. Delta connections of three resistors

30
 Delta-Star transformations

Fig. a) Given Delta b) Equivalent Star

➢ To call these two arrangements equivalent, the resistance between any two
terminals must be the same in both types of connections.

➢ The equivalent star resistance between any terminal and star point is equal
to the product of the two resistances in the delta, which are connected to the
same terminal, divided by the sum of all three delta-connected resistances.
31
 Fig. Delta and equivalent Star
32
 Star-Delta Transformations

Fig. Given Star Equivalent Delta

➢ The equivalent delta-connected resistance to be connected between any two

terminals is the sum of the two resistances connected between the same two
terminals and star point respectively in star, plus the product of the same two
star resistances divided by the third star resistance.

33
 Fig. Star and Equivalent Delta

34
35
36
 Capacitors and Inductors
➢ Unlike resistors, which dissipate energy, capacitors and inductors
do not dissipate but store energy.
➢ For this reason, capacitors and inductors are called storage
elements.

37
 Capacitors
➢ A capacitor consists of two conducting plates separated by an
insulator (or dielectric).

➢ In many practical applications, the plates may be aluminum foil

while the dielectric may be air, ceramic, paper, or mica.
38
 ➢ Capacitance is the ratio of the charge on one plate of a capacitor to
the voltage difference between the two plates, measured in farads
(F).

Fig. A capacitor with applied voltage v.

➢ Alternatively, capacitance is the amount of charge stored per plate

for a unit voltage difference in a capacitor.
39
 1 farad = 1 coulomb/volt.
➢ For the parallel plate capacitor shown in Fig. above, the capacitance
is given by

Fig. Circuit symbols for capacitors:

(a) fixed capacitor, (b) variable capacitor. Fig. Fixed capacitors: (a) polyester capacitor, (b) ceramic
capacitor, (c) electrolytic capacitor.

40
 ➢ To obtain the current-voltage relationship of the capacitor, we take
the derivative of both sides

➢ differentiating both sides,

➢ The voltage-current relation of the capacitor can be obtained by

➢ integrating both sides

41
 ➢ where v(t0) = q(t0)∕C is the voltage across the capacitor at time t0. The
above equation shows that capacitor voltage depends on the past
history of the capacitor current.
➢ Hence, the capacitor has memory, which is often exploited.
➢ The instantaneous power delivered to the capacitor is

➢ The energy stored in the capacitor is therefore

➢ We note that v(−∞) = 0, because the capacitor was uncharged at t =

−∞.
42
 ➢ Thus,

➢ which indicates that energy is proportional to the square of the

voltage. Since injecting or extracting energy can only be done over
some finite time, a voltage cannot change instantaneously across a
capacitor.
➢ we may rewrite

43
 ➢ when the voltage across a capacitor does not change with time (i.e.,
DC voltage), the current through the capacitor is zero.
➢ Thus, A capacitor is an open circuit to dc
➢ However, if a battery (dc voltage) is connected across a capacitor;
the capacitor charges.

44
 Example
Determine the voltage across a 2-μF capacitor if the current
through it is

Assume that the initial capacitor voltage is zero.

45
 Example 2

⚫ Obtain the energy stored in each capacitor in Fig. below

under dc conditions.

Fig. (a).

46
 ⚫ Under dc conditions, we replace each capacitor with an open
circuit, as shown in Fig. (b). The current through the series
combination of the 2-kΩ and 4-kΩ resistors is obtained by
current division as

47 Fig. (b).
48
 Series and Parallel Capacitors
➢ The equivalent capacitance of N parallel-connected
capacitors is the sum of the individual capacitances.

Fig. (a) Parallel-connected N capacitors,

(b) equivalent circuit for the parallel capacitors

49
 ➢ Note that from the fig. above, the capacitors have the same voltage
v across them. Applying KCL

50
 ➢ The equivalent capacitance of series-connected capacitors is the
reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of the individual
capacitances.

Fig. (a) Series-connected N capacitors, (b) equivalent circuit for the series
capacitor.

51
 Where,

52
 ➢ The initial voltage v(t0) across Ceq is required by KVL to be the sum
of the capacitor voltages at t0.

➢ The equivalent capacitance of series-connected capacitors is the

reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of the individual
capacitances.
➢ Note that capacitors in series combine in the same manner as
resistors in parallel. For N = 2 (i.e., two capacitors in series),

or
53
 ⚫ Find the equivalent capacitance seen between terminals a and b of
the circuit in Fig. below

⚫ The 20-μF and 5-μF capacitors are in series; their equivalent

capacitance is

⚫ This 4-μF capacitor is in parallel with the 6-μF and 20-μF

capacitors; their combined capacitance is

54
 Exercise
➢ Find the equivalent capacitance seen at the terminals of the
circuit Fig.

55
 Inductors
➢ An inductor is a passive element designed to store energy in
its magnetic field.
➢ Inductors find numerous applications in electronic and power
systems.
➢ They are used in power supplies, transformers, radios, TVs,
radars, and electric motors.

56 Fig. Typical form of an inductor.

 ➢ An inductor consists of a coil of conducting wire.
➢ If current is allowed to pass through an inductor, it is found that the
voltage across the inductor is directly proportional to the time rate
of change of the current. Using the passive sign convention,

where L is the constant of proportionality called the inductance of the inductor.

➢ Inductance is the property whereby an inductor exhibits opposition to

the change of current flowing through it, measured in henrys (H).

57
 Fig. Circuit symbols for inductors: (a) air-core,
(b) iron-core, (c) variable iron-core.

58
 ⚫ The current-voltage relationship is obtained

⚫ Integrating gives

where i(t0) is the total current for −∞ < t < t0 and i(−∞) = 0. The idea
of making i(−∞) = 0 is practical and reasonable, because there must be
a time in the past when there was no current in the inductor.
59
 ⚫ The power delivered to the inductor is

⚫ The energy stored is

⚫ Since i(−∞) = 0,

60
 ➢ An inductor acts like a short circuit to dc.
➢ The current through an inductor cannot change
instantaneously.

61
 Example

⚫ Consider the circuit in Fig. below (a). Under dc conditions, find:

(a) i, v , and i , (b) the energy stored in the capacitor and inductor.
C L

62
63
 Series and Parallel Inductors

Fig. (a) A series connection of N inductors,

(b) equivalent circuit for the series inductors.

Applying KVL to the loop,

64
 where

➢ The equivalent inductance of series-connected inductors is the sum

of the individual inductances.

65
 Fig. (a) A parallel connection of N inductors,
(b) equivalent circuit for the parallel inductors.

Using KCL,

66
 where

67
 ⚫ The initial current i(t ) through L at t = t is expected by KCL to be
0 eq 0

the sum of the inductor currents at t .0

⚫ The equivalent inductance of parallel inductors is the reciprocal of

the sum of the reciprocals of the individual inductances.

68
69
 ➢ Find the equivalent inductance of the circuit shown in Fig.
below.

70
 Exercise
⚫ Calculate the equivalent inductance for the inductive ladder
network in Fig. below. Answer: 25 mH.

71
 Methods of Analysis
1) Nodal Analysis
➢ Nodal analysis provides a general procedure for analyzing circuits using
➢ node voltages as the circuit variables. Choosing node voltages instead
➢ of element voltages as circuit variables is convenient and reduces the
➢ number of equations one must solve simultaneously

72
 Steps to Determine Node Voltages:
1. Select a node as the reference node. Assign voltages V1 , V2 , . . .
,V𝑛−1 to the remaining 𝑛 − 1 nodes. The voltages are referenced
with respect to the reference node.
2. Apply KCL to each of the 𝑛 − 1 non reference nodes. Use Ohm’s
law to express the branch currents in terms of node voltages.
3. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to obtain the unknown
node voltages.

Fig.3.1 Common symbols for indicating a

reference node, (a) common ground,
73 (b) ground, (c) chassis ground.
 ⚫ The first step in nodal analysis is selecting a node as the reference
or datum node.
⚫ The reference node is commonly called the ground since it is
assumed to have zero potential. A reference node is indicated by
any of the three symbols in Fig. 3.1.
⚫ The type of ground in Fig. 3.1(c) is called a chassis ground and is
used in devices where the case, enclosure, or chassis acts as a
reference point for all circuits.
⚫ When the potential of the earth is used as reference, we use the
earth ground in Fig. 3.1(a) or (b). We shall always use the symbol
in Fig. 3.1(b).
74
 At Node 1 applying KCL gives,
I1 = I2 + i1 + i 2
At node 2,
I2 + i2 = i3
➢ We now apply Ohm’s law to express the unknown currents i1, i2, and i3 in
75 terms of node voltages.
 ➢ Current flows from a higher potential to a lower potential in a
resistor

76
77
 Example
Calculate the node voltages in the circuit shown in Fig. below.

78
 At node 1, applying KCL and Ohm’s law gives

79
 ⚫ Using the elimination technique,

80
 Example
⚫ Determine the voltages at the nodes in Fig. below

81
82
 ➢ We have three simultaneous equations to solve to get the node
voltages v , v , and v . We shall solve the equations in three ways.
1 2 3

⚫ Using the elimination technique,

83
 Exercise
⚫ Find the voltages at the three nonreference nodes in the circuit
shown below

Answer: v1 = 32 V, v2 = −25.6 V, v3 = 62.4 V.

84
 Nodal Analysis with Voltage Sources

CASE 1:
➢ If a voltage source is connected between the reference node and a
nonreference node, we simply set the voltage at the nonreference
node equal to the voltage of the voltage source.
CASE 2
➢ If the voltage source (dependent or independent) is connected
between two nonreference nodes, the two nonreference nodes form
a generalized node or supernode; we apply both KCL and KVL to
determine the node voltages.
➢ A supernode may be regarded as a closed surface enclosing the
voltage source and its two nodes.
85
 ➢ A supernode is formed by enclosing a (dependent or independent)
voltage source connected between two nonreference nodes and any
elements connected in parallel with it.
v1 = 10 V
at the super node

86 Fig. 3.7 A circuit with a supernode.

 ⚫ To apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the supernode,

Note the following properties of a supernode:

1. The voltage source inside the supernode
provides a constraint equation needed to solve
Figure 3.8
Applying KVL to a supernode.
for the node voltages.
2. A supernode has no voltage of its own.
3. A supernode requires the application of both
KCL and KVL.

87
 Example

⚫ For the circuit shown in Fig. 3.9, find the node voltages.

Fig. 3.9

88
89
90
91
 Exercise
➢ Find v and i in the circuit
Answer: −400 mV, 2.8 A.

92
 Exercise
⚫ Find v , v , and v in the circuit of Fig. 3.14 using nodal analysis.
1 2 3

Answer: v1 = 7.608 V, v2 = −17.39 V, v3 = 1.6305 V.

93
 Mesh Analysis
➢ Mesh analysis provides another general procedure for analyzing
circuits, using mesh currents as the circuit variables.
➢ Using mesh currents instead of element currents as circuit variables
is convenient and reduces the number of equations that must be
solved simultaneously.
➢ A mesh is a loop that does not contain any other loops within it.

Figure 3.17
94 A circuit with two meshes.
 ⚫ In Fig. 3.17, for example, paths abefa and bcdeb are meshes, but
path abcdefa is not a mesh. The current through a mesh is known as
mesh current.
Steps to Determine Mesh Currents:
1. Assign mesh currents i , i , . . . , i to the n meshes.
1 2 n

2. Apply KVL to each of the n meshes. Use Ohm’s law to express the
voltages in terms of the mesh currents.
3. Solve the resulting n simultaneous equations to get the mesh
currents.

95
 ⚫ As the second step, we apply KVL to each mesh. Applying KVL to
mesh 1, we obtain

or

For mesh 2, applying KVL gives

or

➢ Note in Eq. (3.13) that the coefficient of i1 is the sum of the resistances in the
first mesh, while the coefficient of i2 is the negative of the resistance common
96 to meshes 1 and 2. Now observe that the same is true in Eq. (3.14).
 ⚫ For the circuit in Fig. 3.18, find the branch currents I , I , and I using
1 2 3

mesh analysis.

Figure 3.18
For Example 3.5.

97
 Using the substitution method, we substitute Eq. (3.5.2) into Eq. (3.5.1), and write

98
 Exercise
⚫ Calculate the mesh currents i and i of the circuit of Fig. 3.19.
1 2

Answer: i1 = 4.6 A, i2 = 200 mA.

Figure 3.19

99
 Exercise
➢ Using mesh analysis, find I in the circuit of Fig. 3.21.
o

Answer: −4 A.

Figure 3.21

100
 Mesh Analysis with Current Sources

⚫ CASE 1: When a current source exists only in one mesh:

Consider the circuit in Fig. 3.22, for example. We set i = −5 A and
2

write a mesh equation for the other mesh in the usual way; that is,

Figure 3.22: A circuit with a current source

101
 ⚫ CASE 2: When a current source exists between two meshes:
Consider the circuit in Fig. 3.23(a), for example. We create a
supermesh by excluding the current source and any elements
connected in series with it, as shown in Fig. 3.23(b). Thus,
⚫ A supermesh results when two meshes have a (dependent or
independent) current source in common.

Figure 3.23
102 (a) Two meshes having a current source in common, (b) a supermesh, created by excluding the current source.
 ⚫ Therefore, applying KVL to the supermesh

or

We apply KCL to a node in the branch where the two meshes intersect.
Applying KCL to node 0 in Fig. 3.23(a) gives

Solving Eqs. (3.18) and (3.19), we get

103
 Example
⚫ For the circuit in Fig. 3.24, find i to i using mesh analysis.
1 4

104 Figure 3.24

 ⚫ Note that meshes 1 and 2 form a super mesh because they have an
independent current source in common. Also, meshes 2 and 3 form
another supermesh because they have a dependent current source in
common. The two supermeshes intersect and form a larger
supermesh as shown.
⚫ Applying KVL to the larger supermesh,

Or

➢ For the independent current source, we apply KCL to node P:

➢ For the dependent current source, we apply KCL to node Q:

105
 Applying KVL in mesh 4,

Or

From Eqs. (3.7.1) to (3.7.4)

106
 Exercise
⚫ Use mesh analysis to determine i , i , and i in Fig. 3.25.
1 2 3

Answer: i1 = 12.379 A, i2 = 378.9 mA, i3 = 3.284 A.

Figure 3.25

107
 Circuit Theorems
a) Linearity Property
➢ Linearity is the property of an element describing a linear
relationship between cause and effect.
⚫ The property is a combination of both the homogeneity (scaling)
property and the additivity property.
⚫ The homogeneity property requires that if the input (also called the
excitation) is multiplied by a constant, then the output (also called
the response) is multiplied by the same constant.
⚫ For a resistor, for example, Ohm’s law relates the input i to the
output v,

108
 Figure 4.1 A linear circuit with input vs and output i.

109
 ⚫ If the current is increased by a constant k, then the voltage
increases correspondingly by k; that is,

⚫ The additivity property requires that the response to a sum of inputs

is the sum of the responses to each input applied separate.
⚫ Using the voltage-current relationship of a resistor, if

and

➢ A linear circuit is one whose output is linearly related (or directly proportional)
110 to its input.
 Example
Is the power dissipated by a resistor a linear function of current?
Sollution: 𝑝 = 𝑓 𝑖 = 𝑖 2 𝑅
𝑝1 = 𝑖12 𝑅
𝑝2 = 𝑖22 𝑅
𝑓 𝑎1 𝑖1 + 𝑎2 𝑖2 = (𝑎1 𝑖1 + 𝑎2 𝑖2 )2 R
= 𝑎12 𝑖12 𝑅 + 2𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑖1 𝑖2 𝑅 + 𝑎22 𝑖22 𝑅
≠ 𝑎1 𝑝1 + 𝑎2 𝑝2
Therefore, the power dissipated in a resistor is not linear function of current. It can
also be shown in the same way that power dissipated in a resistor is not linear
function of voltage.
111
 Exercise

⚫ For the circuit in Fig. 4.3, find vo when is = 30 and is = 45 A.

Answer: 40 V, 60 V.

112
 Superposition

➢ The superposition principle states that the voltage across (or current
through) an element in a linear circuit is the algebraic sum of the
voltages across (or currents through) that element due to each
independent source acting alone.
1) We consider one independent source at a time while all other
independent sources are turned off. This implies that we replace
every voltage source by 0 V (or a short circuit), and every current
source by 0 A (or an open circuit). This way we obtain a simpler
and more manageable circuit.
2) Dependent sources are left intact because they are controlled by
circuit variables. With these in mind, we apply the superposition
113
principle in three steps:
 ⚫ Steps to Apply Superposition Principle:
1. Turn off all independent sources except one source. Find the
output (voltage or current) due to that active source using the
techniques covered in the previous class.
2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.
3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the
contributions due to the independent sources.

114
 Example
➢ the superposition theorem to find v in the circuit of Fig. 4.6.

Figure 4.6 For Example 4.3

115
 Solution:
Since there are two sources, let

⚫ where v and v are the contributions due to the 6-V voltage source
1 2

and the 3-A current source, respectively.

(a) (b)

116
 ⚫ where v1 and v2 are the contributions due to the 6-V voltage source and the 3-A
current source, respectively. To obtain v1, we set the current source to zero, as
shown in Fig. 4.7(a). Applying KVL to the loop in Fig. 4.7(a) gives

Thus,

➢ We may also use voltage division to get v1 by writing

To get v2, we set the voltage source to zero, as in Fig. 4.7(b). Using current
division,

Hence,

And we find

117
 Exercise
➢ Find io in the circuit of Fig. 4.9 using superposition.

Figure 4.9

➢ The circuit in Fig. 4.9 involves a dependent source, which must be left intact.
We let

118
 ⚫ where i′o and i o″ are due to the 4-A current source and 20-V voltage
source respectively. To obtain io′ , we turn off the 20-V source so
that we have the circuit in Fig. 4.10(a). We apply mesh analysis in
order to obtain io′ .
For loop 1,

For loop 2,

119
 (a) (b)
Figure 4.10

For Example 4.4: Applying superposition to (a) obtain io′, (b) obtain 𝑖0′′ .

120
 For loop 3,

But at node 0,

⚫ Substituting Eqs. (4.4.2) and (4.4.5) into Eqs. (4.4.3) and (4.4.4)
gives two simultaneous equations

which can be solved to get

121
 ⚫ To obtain 𝑖0′′ , we turn off the 4-A current source so that the circuit
becomes that shown in Fig. 4.10(b). For loop 4, KVL gives

and for loop 5,

But i5 = −i″o. Substituting this in Eqs. (4.4.9) and (4.4.10) gives

which we solve to get

Now substituting Eqs. (4.4.8) and (4.4.13) into Eq. (4.4.1) gives

122
 Exercise
➢ Using the superposition theorem, find vo in the circuit of Fig. 4.8.

Answer: 16 V.

123
 Exercise

Find the value of Vx using superposition theorem.

Answer: vx = 31.25 V.

Figure 4.11

124
 Source Transformation
➢ A source transformation is the process of replacing a voltage
source vs in series with a resistor R by a current source is in parallel
with a resistor R, or vice versa.

Figure 4.15 Transformation of independent sources.

125
 Figure 4.16 Transformation of dependent sources.

126
 Example
⚫ Determine the current through 8Ω resistor in the following network
using superposition theorem.

127
 Exercise
Use source transformation to find ix in the circuit shown in Fig. 4.22.

Answer: 7.059 mA.

Figure 4.22

128
 Thevenin’s Theorem
➢ Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source VTh
in series with a resistor RTh, where VTh is the open-circuit voltage at
the terminals and RTh is the input or equivalent resistance at the
terminals when the independent sources are turned off.

Figure 4.23 Replacing a linear two-terminal circuit by its Thevenin

equivalent: (a) original circuit, (b) the Thevenin equivalent circuit.

129
 ➢ To apply this idea in finding the Thevenin resistance RTh, we need to
consider two cases.
⚫ CASE 1 If the network has no dependent sources, we turn off all
independent sources. RTh is the input resistance of the network
looking between terminals a and b, as shown in Fig. 4.24(b).

130
 VTh = voc

Figure 4.24 Finding VTh and RTh.

RTh = Rin

131
 ⚫ CASE 2: If the network has dependent sources, we turn off all
independent sources.
➢ As with superposition, dependent sources are not to be turned off
because they are controlled by circuit variables.
➢ We apply a voltage source vo at terminals a and b and determine the
resulting current io. Then RTh = vo∕io, as shown in Fig. 4.25(a).
➢ Alternatively, we may insert a current source io at terminals a-b as
shown in Fig. 4.25(b), and find the terminal voltage vo.
➢ Again RTh = vo∕io. Either of the two approaches will give the same
result. In either approach we may assume any value of vo and io. For
example, we may use vo = 1 V or io = 1 A, or even use unspecified
132 values of vo or io.
 ➢ It often occurs that RTh takes a negative value. In this case, the
negative resistance (v = −iR) implies that the circuit is supplying
power.
➢ This is possible in a circuit with dependent sources;

(a) (b)

133 Figure 4.25 Finding RTh when circuit has dependent sources.
 ➢ Consider a linear circuit terminated by a load RL, as shown in Fig.
4.26(a).
➢ The current IL through the load and the voltage VL across the load are
easily determined once the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit at the
load’s terminals is obtained, as shown in Fig. 4.26(b). From Fig.
4.26(b), we obtain

Figure 4.26 A circuit with a load: (a) original circuit, (b) Thevenin equivalent.
134
135
 Example

⚫ Determine Thevenin’s equivalent circuit and determine the

current along terminals a-b.

136
 Example
⚫ Find the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit in Fig. 4.31 at terminals
a-b.

Figure 4.31

137
 (a) (b)
Figure 4.32 Finding RTh and VTh

138
 Applying mesh analysis to loop 1 in the circuit of Fig. 4.32(a) results
in

For loops 2 and 3, applying KVL produces

Solving these equations gives

139
 To get VTh, we find voc in the circuit of Fig. 4.32(b). Applying mesh analysis, we get

or

Figure 4.33 The Thevenin

equivalent of the circuit in
Fig. 4.31.
140 The Thevenin equivalent is as shown in Fig. 4.33.
 Exercise
⚫ Using Thevenin’s theorem, find the equivalent circuit to the left of
the terminals in the circuit of Fig. 4.30. Then find I.
Answer: VTh = 90 V, RTh = 45 Ω, I = 1.5 A.

Figure 4.30

141
 Norton’s Theorem

⚫ Norton’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be

replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current source IN in
parallel with a resistor RN, where IN is the short-circuit current
through the terminals and RN is the input or equivalent resistance
at the terminals when the independent sources are turned off.

(a) (b)
Figure 4.37 (a) Original circuit, (b) Norton equivalent circuit.
142
 ➢ To find the Norton current IN, we determine the short-circuit current
flowing from terminal a to b in both circuits in Fig. 4.37. It is
evident that the short-circuit current in Fig. 4.37(b) is IN. This must
be the same short-circuit current from terminal a to b in Fig.
4.37(a), since the two circuits are equivalent. Thus,

143 Figure 4.38 Finding Norton’s current IN.

 ➢ Dependent and independent sources are treated the same way as in
Thevenin’s theorem. Observe the close relationship between
Norton’s and Thevenin’s theorems: RN = RTh as in Eq. (4.9), and

➢ The Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits are related by a source

transformation.

144
 Example
⚫ Using Norton’s theorem, find RN and IN of the circuit in Fig. 4.43 at
terminals a-b.

Figure 4.43

145
 To find RN, we set the independent voltage source equal to zero and
connect a voltage source of v = 1 V (or any unspecified voltage v ) to
o o

the terminals. We obtain the circuit in Fig. 4.44(a). We ignore the 4-Ω
resistor because it is short-circuited. Also due to the short circuit, the
5-Ω resistor, the voltage source, and the dependent current source are
all in parallel.
1𝑉
Hence, ix = 0. At node a, io = = 0.2 A, and
5Ω

At node a, KCL gives

Thus,
146
 Figure 4.44
For Example 4.12: (a) finding RN, (b) finding IN

147
 Exercise
⚫ Find the Norton equivalent circuit of the circuit in Fig. 4.45 at
terminals a-b.

Figure 4.45

148
 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

➢ Assume the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit shown below,

149
 ➢ To prove the maximum power transfer theorem, we differentiate p in Eq.
(4.21) with respect to RL and set the result equal to zero. We obtain

This implies that

which yields

The maximum power transferred is obtained by substituting Eq. (4.23) into Eq. (4.21), for

150
 ➢ Maximum power is transferred to the load when the load resistance
equals the Thevenin resistance as seen from the load (RL = RTh).

Figure 4.49 Power delivered to the load as a function of RL.

151
 Example
⚫ Find the value of R for maximum power transfer in the circuit Fig.
L

4.50. Find the maximum power

Figure 4.50

152
 ⚫ We need to find the Thevenin resistance RTh and the Thevenin
voltage VTh across the terminals a-b. To get RTh, we use the circuit in
Fig. 4.51(a) and obtain

Fig. 4.51(a)

153
 Fig. 4.51(b)

To get VTh, we consider the circuit in Fig. 4.51(b). Applying mesh analysis gives

Solving for i1, we get i1 = −2∕3. Applying KVL around the outer loop to
get VTh across terminals a-b, we obtain

154
 ⚫ For maximum power transfer,

and the maximum power is

155
 Exercise
⚫ Determine the value of RL that will draw the maximum power from
the rest of the circuit in Fig. 4.52. Calculate the maximum power.

Answer: 126.67 Ω, 96.71 mW.

Figure 4.52

156