SYAMSUNARDI, S.Pd., M.

Pd

Educational
Geography
Research Methods

GEOGRAPHY DEPARTMENT
FACULTY OF MATHEMATICS AND NATURAL SCIENCES
STATE UNIVERSITY OF MAKASSAR
2024
 PREFACE

Praise be to Allah SWT for His blessings and grace, allowing this module to be
completed. We would also like to extend our gratitude to all parties who have contributed
their thoughts and resources in supporting this work.

We hope this module will enrich the knowledge and experience of its readers. We
acknowledge that there are still many shortcomings in the preparation of this module due to
our limited knowledge and experience. Therefore, we sincerely welcome constructive
criticism and suggestions from readers to improve this module.

Makassar, August 2024

The Authors

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 TABEL OF CONTENTS

COVER .......................................................................................................................................... i
PREFACE ...................................................................................................................................... ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................. iii
CHAPTER I. EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ........................................................................... 1
CHAPTER II. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH ......................................................................................................... 9
CHAPTER III. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH IN EDUCATION ........................................ 11
CHAPTER IV. QUALITATIVE EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ........................................... 18
CHAPTER V. CLASSROOM ACTION RESEARCH ............................................................. 34

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 CHAPTER I
EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

A. Introduction
In general, research is the study of an object using systematic and objective methods
to gain an understanding of the object being studied and to develop theories about it.
Specifically, research is a systematic effort to answer research questions by collecting
data and formulating findings based on that data (Borg and Gall, 1989). A researcher is
likened to a bricklayer constructing a brick wall, where each brick represents theories and
previous studies that support the novelty of our research findings (Cresswell, 2012).
These findings can be beneficial for problem-solving and the development of organized
knowledge through scientific methods.
Research problems can be categorized into various fields, including education, health,
social issues, economics, and others. Among these, educational research requires special
attention. It plays a crucial role in addressing challenges and problems in classrooms,
educational environments, and policies. Educational research is the process of collecting
and analyzing data to improve the quality of education. It employs several problem-
solving methods, including quantitative, qualitative, classroom action research (CAR),
and mixed methods. This book focuses on three approaches: quantitative, qualitative, and
classroom action research.
• Quantitative methods collect data through instruments involving populations
and samples.
• Qualitative methods collect data through direct interaction with the research
subjects, with results not processed through statistical procedures.
• Classroom Action Research (CAR) can involve either quantitative or qualitative
data or a combination of both.
Educational research, based on the above definition, is a systematic process of
discovering knowledge useful for solving educational problems through scientific
methods. This includes data collection, data analysis, and formulating generalizations
based on data interpretation (Kerlinger, 1973). Scientific methods follow principles of
systematic, empirical, and objective inquiry.
There are three general steps in conducting research:
1. Formulating research questions.
2. Collecting data to answer these questions.
3. Presenting answers to the questions.
In addition to scientific approaches, there are non-scientific approaches to problem-
solving, including:
• Dogmatic: Based on certain beliefs or convictions.
• Intuitive: Based on knowledge acquired unconsciously or without prior thought.
• Speculative: Trial and error, guesswork, or chance discoveries.
• Scientific Authority: Based on logical opinions or thoughts of experts in specific
fields.

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Practical educational issues requiring solutions vary widely, including teaching strategies,
student achievement, and educational techniques that need improvement. Research helps
identify new strategies or instructional media, such as teaching materials tailored to
students' needs.

B. Educational Research Problems

Research is deemed essential and feasible when there are identifiable research
problems. A problem is a situation where actual occurrences deviate from expected norms
or tolerances. Research problems often arise from gaps between theoretical expectations
or previous findings and current realities. Not all gaps can be developed into research
problems. Certain conditions must be met:
1. A discernible gap between theoretical or empirical findings and current
conditions.
2. The gap can be explored with questions about why it exists.
3. The questions must allow for multiple possible answers.
The term "educational research problem" specifically refers to questions answered
through systematic research in the field of education. Research questions differ from
journalistic inquiries, reading comprehension questions, or classroom tests. Answering
research questions requires data collection and analysis, with conclusions based on valid
and reliable findings.

C. Objectives of Educational Research

The primary goal of educational research is to understand and determine how an
object functions. Understanding implies the ability to act based on acquired knowledge.
Objects operate through systems, patterns, or methods, which researchers analyze to
comprehend. While systems are created by divine order, researchers discover and refine
them to develop further systems.
Education-related problems are highly complex, encompassing aspects such as teaching
quality, student achievement, curricula, and education policies. Research serves as a
scientific means to address these challenges. The objectives of educational research align
with research problems but are stated in declarative form, rather than as questions. While
problems are framed as questions, objectives are expressed as statements.
Since the information in the research problem statement and research objectives is
often the same, a proposal or research report may include either the problem statement or
the objectives, but not necessarily both. Generally, the objective of educational research
is to acquire knowledge that serves as the foundation for building the capacity to solve
educational problems through scientific methods. These methods involve stages of data
collection, data analysis, and drawing conclusions based on data interpretation.
Educational research aims to obtain scientifically valid and accountable information (Ary,
1990). Its goal is to develop scientific knowledge to explain educational phenomena that
capture attention (Rachman, 1993:13). The general purpose of educational research is to

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discover principles or behavioral interpretations that can explain, predict, and control
events in educational settings (Rachman, 1993:13).When linked to expected outcomes,
Syamsuddin & Damayanti (2007) identify the following objectives of educational
research:
1. Discovering (and developing) theories, models, approaches, techniques,
strategies, and innovative and inspiring learning media in education.
2. Testing and evaluating the effectiveness of theories, models, approaches,
techniques, strategies, and learning media to solve educational problems.
3. Explaining the relationship between phenomena related to educational activities.
4. Solving educational problems.
5. Identifying factors influencing or contributing to educational phenomena.
In summary, educational research is a scientific process involving systematic data
collection and logical analysis to obtain new scientific information. This information can
be used to address educational problems, discover innovative teaching techniques, and
inspire decisions and policies in education.

D. Characteristics of Educational Research

Educational research shares similarities with social research in general but differs
in its focus areas, variables, objectives, and benefits. The functions of educational
research can be categorized as follows:
1. Development of Educational Knowledge
Research aimed at advancing the field of education itself.
2. Problem Solving in Education
Research designed to address challenges within educational environments.
3. Educational Policy Research
Research outcomes can provide input for decision-makers in education at
national, regional, or local levels.
4. Education-Supported Development
Research results contribute to development sectors, particularly regarding
education's role, position, tasks, and responsibilities in national development.
Educational research is a process directed at developing scientific knowledge about
educational phenomena (Rachman, 1993:13). It is classified as applied research because
it often focuses on the practical application of concepts and theories.
Additionally, educational research provides explanations for the success or failure of
educational policies, as well as the appropriateness or inappropriateness of using
particular approaches, models, methods, strategies, techniques, or learning media. These
explanations are objective and logical, based on empirical data and theories underlying
the research.
McMillan and Schumacher (2001:11-13) outline seven characteristics of educational
research:
1. Objectivity
Research must be free from bias and subjectivity. Data collection and analysis
techniques should ensure interpretations are accountable, with minimal bias.
2. Validity and Precision

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 Data collected must be valid and reliable, with precise measurement tools. The
design, sampling, and analysis techniques should support the validity and
reliability of the results.
3. Verification
Research often verifies previous findings, contributing to the development of
knowledge. This iterative process strengthens, revises, or replaces previous
theories.
4. Explanation of Patterns
Research explains relationships between phenomena, identifying regularities,
patterns, or mechanisms that contribute to occurrences.
5. Empiricism
Findings must be based on analyzed data, not solely on researchers’ logical ideas
or personal opinions.
6. Logical Reasoning
Research requires logical reasoning, employing deductive principles for
quantitative data and inductive reasoning for qualitative data.
These characteristics ensure educational research is rigorous, reliable, and contributes to
the advancement of knowledge and practical solutions in education.

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 STUDENT ASSIGNMENT PLAN FORMAT (SAP)

STATE UNIVERSITY OF MAKASSAR

FACULTY OF MATHEMATICS AND NATURAL SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY
GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM
STUDENT ASSIGNMENT PLAN
Course Educational Geography Research Methods
Code 20A51C503 SKS 2 Semester 5
Lecture Syamsunardi, S.Pd., M.Pd.
Assignment Format
Mini Research Report
Assignment Title
Assignment 1: Writing a Journal Article Based on Field Observations at School
Indicators of Learning Outcome
Students are able to analyze problems, titles, objectives, and benefits in geography
education research using the literature review method in a mini-research report of at least
7 pages.
Assigment Description
Create a mini research report of at least 7 pages containing an analysis of the effectiveness
of learning with digital technology, accompanied by recommendations for teachers to
maximize the use of digital technology in the classroom, and a digital learning module
that can be applied to the geography subject to understand the concept of regions.
The Method of Assigment Completion: Case Method
• Preparation and Deepening of Material
• Preparation for Case Method
o Study the manual or guidelines for the Case Method for a specific
assignment.
o Form a group and assign a leader and other roles to the members.
o Identify Case Focus: Determine the specific focus or phenomenon to
be studied within the case study context. For example, in geography
education, the case focus could be place-based learning methods.
o Formulate Research Questions: Develop questions to be answered
through the case study. These questions will guide the entire process
of data collection and analysis.
o Selection of Data Sources: Decide on the data sources to be used,
such as interviews, observations, or documentation, and other
relevant sources aligned with the case focus.
o Collect References and Supporting Literature: Conduct a literature
review to understand the concepts, theories, or research underlying
the case study topic, so the analysis can be supported by a strong
theoretical framework.
• Implementation of Case Method
o Data Collection: Collect data from the planned sources: a.
Interviews: In-depth interviews with relevant parties, such as

5
 teachers, students, or parents. b. Observation: Direct observation of
ongoing situations, such as classroom teaching processes. c.
Documentation: Collect relevant documents, such as lesson plans,
teaching materials, test results, and others.
o Data Coding and Categorization: Perform coding on the collected
data to identify specific themes or patterns.
o Data Analysis: Analyze the data based on identified themes or
categories, and link it to the research questions and supporting
theories.
• Evaluation
o Interpretation of Findings: Interpret the research findings by
analyzing how the obtained data answers the research questions.
Identify the main findings and how the case provides insight into the
studied phenomenon.
o Data Triangulation: Perform triangulation by validating the findings
through comparisons of data from various sources to ensure
accuracy and consistency.
o Discussion of Findings: Discuss the findings in the context of
relevant literature or theories to gain a deeper and more critical
understanding of the case.
• Conclusion
o Conclusion: Draw conclusions from the findings, highlighting the
answers to the research questions and the implications of the
findings for the studied field.
o Recommendations: Provide practical or theoretical
recommendations that may be useful for stakeholders or for future
research.
o Reflection on Research Limitations: Acknowledge the limitations of
the case study, such as time constraints, data sources, or the scope of
the case, and how these could be addressed in future studies.
o Final Report Preparation: Compile all findings, analysis, and
conclusions into a systematic final report. The report includes an
introduction, background, methodology, results, discussion,
conclusion, and recommendations.
The form and format of the output
1. Research Focus: The implementation of geography learning using digital learning
media in high school to understand the concept of region.
2. Output Form: A mini research report containing an analysis of the effectiveness of
learning with digital technology, along with recommendations for teachers to
maximize the use of digital technology in the classroom, and a digital learning module
that can be applied to geography subjects to understand the concept of region.
Indicators, Criteria, and Assessment Weights
1. Article Structure (20%) • (Complete article: Title, Introduction, Methods, Results
and Discussion, Conclusion, at least 15 references, plagiarism maximum 20%)
2. Introduction (15%) • Clarity in presenting the background of the problem, scope, and
research objectives • Differences from previous studies • Contributions to be made

6
3. Methods (10%) • Academic depth Relevance and appropriateness of the research
questions and methodology
4. Results and Discussion (20%) • Presentation of results and sharpness of analysis
(may include tables and figures to aid understanding) • Connection between the results
obtained and the basic concepts • Implications of the research findings, both theoretical
and practical
5. Conclusion (10%) • Essence of the findings from the research and their presentation
o Logical and honest reasoning based on the facts obtained
6. References (15%) • Clarity of literature review o Relevance of the provided
references
7. Timeliness of Submission (10%)
Time Schedule
1. Case Method Preparation: August 30, 2024
2. Case Method Implementation: August 31, 2024 to September 3, 2024
3. Evaluation: September 6, 2024
4. Conclusion: September 6, 2024
Others
The assessment weight for this task includes:

• 15% of the total 100% course grade for the final exam (Final report 5%,
presentation 5%, and participation 5%)
• 10% of the total 100% course grade for the project task (Product (Mini
Research Report) 10%, and Article product 5%)
References
Primary:
• Anshori, M., & Iswati, S. 2019. Metodologi Penelitian Kuantitatif: Edisi 1.
Airlangga University Press.
• Arikunto, Suharsimi, Penelitian Tindakan Kelas, Jakarta: Bumi Aksara, 2006.
• Buku pedoman penulisan Skripsi, 2019. Universitas Negeri Makassar.
• Creswell, Jhon W. 2016. Research Design Pendekatan Kualitatif, Kuantitatif, dan
Mixed. Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar.
• Hallaf Hanafie Prasad, A. 2013. Mengamati Fenomena Geografi. Yogyakarta:
Digna Pustaka.
• Haryanto, A.G., Hartono, Mulayanto, D., 2000. Metode Penulisan dan Penyajian
Karya Ilmiah: Buku Ajar untuk Mahasiswa. Jakarta : EGC.
• Krulik, S & J. A. Rudnick. 1995. The New Sourcebook for Teaching Reaso-ning
and Problem Solving in Elementary School. Needham Heigh-ts, Massachusetts:
Allyn & Bacon.
• Moleong, Lexy. 2004. Metode Penelitian Kualitatif. Bandung: PT.Remaja Rosda
Karya.
• Suharso. 2009. Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia (Edisi Lux) (p. 37). Semarang:
Widya Karya.
• Sugiyono. 2015. Metode Penelitian Kombinasi (Mixed Methods). Bandung:
Alfabeta.

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 • Sugiyono. 2013. Metode Penelitian Pendidikan Pendekatan Kuantitatif,
Kualitatif, dan R&D. Bandung: Alfabeta.
• Tanzeh, Ahmad dan Suyitno. 2006. Dasar-dasar Penelitian. Surabaya: Elkaf
Supporting:
• Syamsunardi, Astina, K., Syarif, E., Syam, N., Syamsuriadi. 2022. Budaya
Siri’ Na Pacce Masyarakat Sayye’ Cikoang (Perspeftif Etnografi). Takalar:
Yayasan Pendidikan Ahmar Cendikia
• Syarif, E., Syamsunardi, S., & Saputro, A. 2020. Implementation of discovery
learning to improve scientific and cognitive attitude of students. Journal of
Educational Science and Technology EST UNM, 6(1), 23-3131

8
 CHAPTER II
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH

A. Differences Between Quantitative and Qualitative Research

There are two research methods commonly used by researchers in the fields of
social sciences and education: quantitative methods and qualitative methods. Among
these, quantitative methods were used earlier but eventually became seen as limited in
addressing certain research problems. This led to the emergence of qualitative methods
as an alternative. Quantitative methods are more popular compared to qualitative
methods. Qualitative methods aim to answer questions that cannot be addressed by
quantitative research, making the two methods complementary. These two research
approaches differ fundamentally in their definitions and implementations, as outlined
below:
1. Quantitative Approach
This approach involves processes such as hypothesis formulation, empirical data
collection, data analysis, and conclusions drawn through numerical
measurements, calculations, formulas, and statistical computations.
2. Qualitative Approach
This involves data collection, data analysis, and conclusion drawing in a
descriptive and non-numerical manner through observations, in-depth interviews,
content analysis, narratives, journals, and open-ended questionnaires.
The general difference between qualitative and quantitative research is often
explained by the types of data they use: words, images, and objects (qualitative) versus
numbers (quantitative). Additionally, quantitative research tends to focus on closed
questions (hypothesis-driven), while qualitative research explores open-ended questions.
Philosophical assumptions and data collection instruments also distinguish the two
approaches.
According to McCusker and Gunaydin (2015), qualitative methods answer "what,"
"how," or "why" questions about phenomena, while quantitative methods address "how
many" or "how much" questions. However, quantitative research can also use "how"
questions, depending on the design.
Examples:
1. Quantitative: "How effective is the use of a combination of students' content
schemata based on the Brain-Targeted Teaching (BTT) framework and the
suggestopedia method in teaching critical reading to high-motivation learners?"
2. Qualitative: "How does the lecturer implement the BTT model combined with
students' content schemata and suggestopedia in teaching critical reading?"

B. Quantitative Research
Quantitative research tests specific theories by examining relationships between
variables, which are measured using instruments such as tests, questionnaires, or
structured interviews. Data is analyzed statistically, and reports follow a structured format
from introduction to results and discussion (Creswell, 2008).

9
 Quantitative research emphasizes objective measurement of social phenomena by
breaking down complex issues into variables and indicators. These are numerically
symbolized to enable analysis and generalization of findings to larger populations. The
main goal is to generate generalizable conclusions.
The sampling method is used to analyze smaller groups representing a larger population,
enabling accurate estimations. Quantitative research is also called traditional or
positivistic research because it adheres to scientific principles like objectivity,
measurement, rationality, and systematic processes.

C. Qualitative Research
Qualitative research, known as post-positivistic, artistic, or interpretive research,
emphasizes understanding meanings derived by individuals or groups from social or
human problems. It often involves inductive reasoning, exploring themes, and
interpreting complex issues (Creswell, 2007).
This method prioritizes deep understanding of phenomena through case-by-case analysis,
acknowledging that each phenomenon is unique. Its goal is not generalization but a
comprehensive understanding of specific issues. Qualitative research is conducted in
natural settings, often focusing on participant perspectives and the complexity of social
phenomena.

D. Determining Research Approaches

Researchers should consider their experience and knowledge of the chosen
approach to ensure valid results. The research approach depends on the problem
formulation and data requirements:
• Quantitative Approach
Suitable for measuring variables, examining impacts, testing theories, and
generalizing findings to larger populations.
• Qualitative Approach
Suitable for exploring participant perspectives, developing theories, and gathering
detailed information about specific individuals or locations.

ASSIGNMENT
1. Explain the differences between quantitative and qualitative approaches regarding
design, purpose, methods, instruments, data, sample/data sources, analysis,
respondent relationships, and proposed research!
2. Describe the educational research designs you are familiar with!
3. Outline the procedures for quantitative research in education!
4. Outline the procedures for qualitative research in education!

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 CHAPTER III
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH IN EDUCATION

A. Introduction Quantitative Research in Education

Quantitative research in education is a research design in the education field
characterized by objectivity, encompassing the collection and analysis of quantitative
data and employing statistical testing methods. The purpose of quantitative research in
education is to test hypotheses related to learning models and theories that contribute to
the development of education. Data collection methods include structured or periodic
interviews, tests, and questionnaires.
The quantitative research paradigm emphasizes theory testing through the measurement
of research variables and the analysis of numerical data using statistical calculations. This
approach is deductive and aims to verify hypotheses. It starts from theoretical
frameworks, expert opinions, or researchers' understandings based on their experiences,
which are then developed into specific problems and solutions to be empirically validated.
Quantitative research in education is suitable when:
1. The goal is to derive general conclusions, with results based on empirical testing
in the educational context.
2. The research seeks to answer questions with broad applicability and involves
extensive objects of study in education.
Quantitative research methods are broadly categorized into experimental and non-
experimental. Experimental research includes True Experimental, Quasi-Experimental,
and Pre-Experimental designs. Non-experimental research encompasses Ex Post Facto
studies, surveys, and correlational studies (Ary, 1985).

B. Characteristics of Quantitative Research in Education

Quantitative research has been widely recognized and utilized in various fields,
including education, for many years, earning it the label of a traditional method. This
approach is rooted in positivist logic, which perceives facts or phenomena as measurable,
observable, and causally related, with generalizable results.
The typical steps in quantitative research are:
1. Identifying problems and breaking them into variables.
2. Formulating the problem and reviewing related theories.
3. Hypothesis formulation.
4. Data collection (determining the population/sample, developing/testing
instruments).
5. Data analysis, discussion, conclusions, and recommendations.
Key characteristics of quantitative research include:
1. Sampling techniques based on randomization for true experiments and non-
random for quasi-experiments.
2. Pre-prepared instruments ready for use in the field.
3. Data primarily in numerical form.
4. Collection of large amounts of data in a short time.
5. Predominantly statistical data analysis (descriptive or inferential).

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 6. Deductive analysis leading to generalizations.

C. Validity in Quantitative Research

Validity is often interpreted as correctness. According to Latif (2010: 131), valid
means correct. Validity is not a characteristic of a data collection instrument; therefore,
there are no data collection instruments that are valid, nor is it correct to say a test is valid.
What is considered valid is the result of the data collection. An instrument that is well-
developed to measure the language skills possessed by students will yield valid results.
Frisbie (1986:90) in Latif (2010: 132) explains: "Validity traditionally has been
regarded as a test characteristic, generally the most important quality of a test. But the
current thinking of measurement experts is that validity should be associated with the use
to be made of the scores from the test. In particular, validity refers to the appropriateness
of making specific inferences or of making certain decisions on the basis of scores from
a test. The question then, is not 'Is this test valid?' but 'Is it valid to use the scores from
this test to make these kinds of interpretation about the examinees.
According to Grondlund (1985: 61), validity refers to the accuracy of interpreting
the results of an evaluation procedure in accordance with its intended purpose. Validity
is a condition where an evaluation instrument accurately measures what it is supposed to
measure. A measurement tool for assessing writing skills is said to be valid if it truly
measures the learning outcomes in writing. Validity of a measurement tool is not only
related to its role as a tool, but mainly to the alignment of its results with the purpose of
the measurement tool (Surapranata, 2004). The validity of a test needs to be determined
to understand its quality in relation to measuring what it is supposed to measure. Prasetyo
(2008) states that the concept of validity is always linked to empirical research, and its
proof depends on the type of validity being used. Surapranata (2009) argues that validity
is a level that indicates whether a measuring instrument is consistent with what it is
measuring. Test developers are responsible for creating tests that are truly valid and
reliable. Therefore, validity can be used to directly assess how well an instrument is
functioning.
1. Types of Quantitative Research in Education
Quantitative research in the field of education is conducted with the aim of obtaining
empirical data that can be used to formulate, expand, and verify theories or solve
problems related to the field of education. With this purpose in mind, research can be
classified in various ways based on several perspectives, including: field of study,
approach, location of implementation, usage, general objectives, methods, and
whether or not there is an intervention on the variables. Research conducted by
examining the presence or absence of treatment is called experimental and non-
experimental research. Experimental research is conducted by manipulating the
treatment on the research object, which is called the experimental group. On the other
hand, if no treatment is applied to the variables, it is classified as non-experimental
research. Types of experimental research include: (1) True Experimental, (2) Quasi

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 Experimental, and (3) Pre-Experimental, while types of non-experimental research
include: (1) Ex-Post Facto, (2) Survey, and (3) Correlation.
Experimental and non-experimental research are appropriately used to: a) Test
hypotheses. b) Measure variables. c) Correlate two or more variables. d) Compare two
or more variables. e) Study one or more variables in a less in-depth manner.

2. Experimental Research
Experimental research is a type of quantitative research in which the researcher
manipulates one or more independent variables, controls other relevant variables, and
observes the effects of the manipulation on the dependent variable. An experiment
intentionally and systematically introduces changes and then observes the consequences
of those changes. Only research problems that allow the researcher to manipulate the
conditions precisely can be used for experimental research. The purpose of experimental
research is to determine whether a causal relationship exists between two or more
variables. Since experimental research involves manipulation, essential requirements
include control, manipulation of independent variables, and careful observation and
measurement. This research method provides evidence of how the independent variable
affects the dependent variable. In an experiment, there are two main variables: the
independent variable and the dependent variable. The independent variable is deliberately
manipulated by the researcher, while the dependent variable is observed as the result of
the manipulation of the independent variable.
To test this, two target groups with relatively similar conditions are selected. Both
groups are taught the same material; in the control group, a conventional teaching method
(lecture or non-virtual learning) is used. Then, both the experimental and control groups
take pre-tests (to check if their abilities are homogeneous) and post-tests (to assess their
mastery after the learning process on the material applied). If teaching writing through
virtual learning is more effective than the conventional (lecture) or non-virtual learning
method, the average score of the experimental group will be significantly higher than that
of the control group. However, if the average scores (material mastery) do not differ
significantly between the control and experimental groups, there is no difference in
effectiveness between teaching writing through virtual learning and conventional or non-
virtual learning methods.
The experimental research design is also an approach intended to make
generalizations and to build and develop theories. Therefore, the sampling techniques for
both the control and experimental groups must be considered carefully so that the
generalizability can be relied upon. In addition, experiments in the "social world" face
issues of internal and external validity. According to Gall and Borg (2003: 631), "the
experiment is the most powerful quantitative research method for establishing cause and
effect relationships between two or more variables." Experimental research is the most
powerful quantitative method to understand the cause-and-effect relationship between
two or more variables. According to Creswell (2012: 295), experimental research is
conducted to test an idea, practice, or procedure to determine whether it affects the
outcome or dependent variable. Creswell explains that experiments are used when trying

13
to establish possible cause-and-effect relationships between independent and dependent
variables. Researchers control all variables influencing the outcome except for the
independent variable.
When the independent variable influences the dependent variable, we can say that
the independent variable "causes" or "may cause" the dependent variable. McMillan
(2012: 14) says, "In experimental research, the researchers can manipulate factors
(variables) that may influence subjects and then see what happens to the subjects’
responses as a result." Therefore, in experimental research, researchers manipulate the
factors (variables) that may influence subjects and then observe the subjects' responses as
a result. Furthermore, according to Gall and Borg (2003: 633), the manipulated variable
is called the experimental treatment, sometimes also referred to as the independent
variable (independent variable), experimental variable (experimental variable), treatment
variable (treatment variable), or intervention (intervention).
a. According to Gay (in Emzir, 2012: 64), experimental research is the only research
method that can correctly test hypotheses about causal relationships. Researchers
manipulate at least one variable, control other relevant variables, and observe its
effects on one or more dependent variables.
b. According to Sukardi (2013: 179-180), experimental research is the most productive
research method because, when done well, it can answer hypotheses, particularly
regarding cause-and-effect relationships. There are two reasons why experimental
research is suitable for the field of education. First, teaching methods are more
naturally set up and compared in unbiased conditions. Second, basic research aims to
derive general theoretical principles into applied science relevant to the problems faced
by school administrators. Experimental research is a method that can correctly test
hypotheses about causal relationships. In experimental studies, researchers manipulate
at least one variable, control other relevant variables, and observe its effects on one or
more dependent variables. Researchers determine "who gets what," which group of
subjects receives which treatment. Experimental research can be understood as
research involving the manipulation of subject conditions, with strict control over
external factors, and involving comparison subjects.
It can be concluded that there are three essential elements that must be fulfilled in
experimental research: control, manipulation, and observation. The controlled variable
serves as the standard to see whether changes or differences occur due to the different
treatments given, while manipulation refers to the deliberate treatment carried out in
experimental research. In this study, the independent variable is manipulated, involving
two experimental and control groups given different treatments. After the researcher
applies the experimental treatment, they must observe to determine whether the
hypothesized changes have occurred (observation).

3. Homogeneous Selection
Another method to make groups comparable on foreign variables is to select a
sample that is as homogeneous as possible on that variable, which is called homogeneity.
If an experiment suspects that age may affect the dependent variable, it will only select
children of a specific age. By selecting only 6-year-old children, the experiment will
control for age effects as a foreign independent variable. Similarly, if intelligence is likely

14
to be a variable that affects the dependent variable of the study, the subjects will be
selected from children whose IQ scores are within a specified range, such as 100 to 110.
This procedure thus controls for the effects of IQ. From this resulting homogeneous
population, the experiment randomly assigns individuals to groups and can assume that
they are comparable in terms of IQ. Starting with homogeneous groups on relevant
variables eliminates the difficulty of trying to match subjects on those variables.
Homogeneous group selection is an effective way to control foreign variables
(confounding variables).
Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) is a statistical technique used to control the
influence of known foreign variables that are correlated with the dependent variable. For
example, consider an experiment studying the effects of two teaching methods on reading
ability, which is the dependent variable. The subjects' reading ability before the
experiment would be a variable that is likely to be related to the independent variables of
this study. In this case, the researcher would expect that those who are good readers to
begin with would score well on the posttest, whereas those with lower reading abilities
would likely score lower. After randomly assigning half of the subjects to method A and
the other half to method B, the researcher would control for the pretest reading ability
results of both groups. At the end of the trial, ANCOVA statistics will adjust the average
posttest reading scores based on the initial differences in pretest results. The ANCOVA
technique eliminates the portion of the posttest score that corresponds to the subject’s
pretest score. The resulting F-value can then be checked for statistical significance. The
variable used in ANCOVA to adjust the scores (in this case, pretest reading ability) is
called the covariate.
At the end of the experiment, ANCOVA statistics will adjust the average pretest reading
scores, taking into account any initial differences between the experimental and control
groups. The variable used in ANCOVA to adjust the values (in this case, the pretest
reading ability score) is called a covariate and the correlation between the pretest and
posttest scores. Pretest scores are often used as covariates. A covariate must be correlated
with the dependent variable. How we select the initial sample can also threaten validity,
especially in quasi-experimental designs.
However, the pretest score can help researchers see whether the experimental group
and the control group are similar in terms of the dependent variable before the experiment
starts. If there is no significant difference in the pretest, researchers can avoid threats to
internal validity in sample selection and proceed with a T-test. If there is a difference in
pretest scores between the experimental and control groups, researchers can use
ANCOVA statistics to adjust posttest scores based on different pretest results. By using
this technique, researchers do not consider the posttest scores per se. Instead, they analyze
the difference between the posttest scores and what they expect the posttest scores to be,
given the pretest scores and the correlation between the pretest and posttest.

15
4. Manipulation
Manipulation of the independent variable is carried out by the researcher in the
experimental group. The manipulation is done by providing a treatment of the learning
strategy being tested for its effectiveness, or in other words, providing a treatment
according to the independent variable in the study. Manipulation is another term for the
experimental manipulation of the independent variable. (Ary, 1985) Different treatment
conditions are given to the subjects in the experiment. The level of the independent
variable is varied. The control group is also given a treatment, but the treatment is not
based on the learning strategy being tested for effectiveness. The independent variable is
manipulated by the researcher or experimenter by creating at least two different
conditions. Traditionally, one condition is applied to the participants in the experimental
group and the other condition to the participants in the control group. The independent
variable, such as different teaching methods (e.g., lecture vs. discussion), or different
instructions given to the subjects of the study (Ary, 1985). These two conditions are
referred to as treatment levels or conditions of the independent variable, commonly called
the experimental conditions.
The purpose of the observation activity in experimental research is to observe and
record any phenomena that arise which cause differences between the two groups. After
applying the treatment to the experimental group, the researcher observes to decide
whether the alternative hypothesis is accepted or rejected. Some changes due to the
treatment can be directly observed, while others are measured indirectly. For example, in
the case of the dependent variable, the researcher can only estimate learning through
scores on a test of learning outcomes or other measurements according to the operational
definition (Ary, 1985).

5. Experimental Research in Education

In experimental research in education, it is essential to understand the different
forms of experimental research itself. According to Sugiyono (2010), experimental
research can take the following forms:
a. Pre-experimental design refers to experimental research that is not conducted
rigorously because external variables still influence the dependent variable.
b. Quasi-experimental design refers to experimental research developed due to
difficulties in obtaining a control group that can fully function in controlling
external variables that may affect the experiment.
c. True experimental design refers to experimental research conducted rigorously
by controlling all external variables that may influence the experimental activities.
d. Factorial experimental design refers to experimental research developed by
considering the possibility of moderator variables that may affect the treatment
and outcomes.
Of these four forms of experimental research, not all can be applied in the field of
education. Most educational research focuses on humans, such as students and teachers.
Unlike scientific research, which can be easily controlled, educational research, as part of
the social sciences, cannot be fully controlled. The subjects are humans, who cannot be
entirely controlled due to their distinct tendencies and characteristics, which differ from

16
one another in responding to certain stimuli. Therefore, it is difficult to implement true
experimental design in education, but that does not mean it is impossible. It just requires
stricter conditioning to ensure that the control group functions properly. However, this is
also very challenging. For example, if we want to take a random sample from a population
of 55 students in class A and 50 students in class B to determine an experimental class
and a control class that share similar characteristics, students from class A may need to
be moved to class B or vice versa to achieve this similarity. In such cases, when children
become aware of being separated, psychological effects can arise, which could interfere
with the experiment. It is important to note that human subjects have varying
psychological tendencies toward treatments that might be seen as discriminatory.
Therefore, in true experimental design in education, skills are required to be alert
and precise in handling the situations and conditions that may arise. Pre-experimental
design is highly discouraged in scientific research, especially for final thesis projects,
because this form of experimental research is considered inadequate as it does not truly
address the essence of experimental research, which requires control over the
experimental activities. Factorial experimental design is also very rare in educational
research, as this design is meant for situations where moderator variables emerge. In most
educational research, quasi-experimental design is the preferred choice because this type
of experimental research best suits the case studies in education, where the subjects
(students or teachers) are difficult to control fully.
Quasi-experimental design is used to address challenges in controlling due to the
non-functioning control group in controlling external variables affecting the experiment.
In addition, quasi-experimental design is also designed for non-random sampling to
obtain two groups that are the same, nearly identical, or matched. Quasi-experimental
design can be implemented in forms such as time series design, nonequivalent control
group design, and in some research cases, modified pretest-posttest control group design.
A further discussion on quasi-experimental design will be provided in the next
opportunity. The types of experimental designs are as follows:
a. Weak Experimental (Pre-Experimental)
b. Quasi Experimental
c. True Experimental
d. Factorial Design

ASSIGNMENT
1. Formulate the research title!
2. Formulate the research problem!
3. Create a framework of thinking!
4. Explain the type of research!
5. Explain the research method!

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 CHAPTER IV
QUALITATIVE EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

A. Introduction
Qualitative research is a type of research aimed at understanding social reality,
which means viewing the world as it is, rather than as it should be. Therefore, a qualitative
researcher must be open-minded. Conducting qualitative research well and correctly
means having a window to understand psychology and social reality. Qualitative research
is also known as an investigative approach because, in general, researchers collect data
through face-to-face interactions or direct engagement with people at the research site
(McMillan & Schumacher, 2003). Qualitative research is conducted in natural settings
and is discovery-oriented. In qualitative research, the researcher is the primary
instrument, so the researcher must have a theoretical framework and broad insights to
analyze, critique, and construct the object of study more clearly.
Qualitative research is used when the problem is unclear, to uncover hidden
meanings, to understand social interactions, to develop theories, to verify data accuracy,
and to study the history of developments. Therefore, a qualitative researcher should
possess abilities such as brainpower, skills/abilities, courage, non-hedonism, maintaining
strong networking, and having a huge curiosity and open-minded thinking. A qualitative
researcher is one who seeks to understand phenomena with a focus on total description
rather than just focusing on variables. The goal of qualitative research is to provide a
holistic description of phenomena and a deeper understanding rather than analyzing
numerical data. For example, an educational researcher has observed that the difference
in students learning styles does not account for students with low abilities in a classroom
dominated by students with high and medium abilities. A researcher might raise the
question, “How do students with low abilities perceive their learning styles in an
environment dominated by students with high and medium abilities?” using qualitative
methods. Researchers will focus on the minority group of low-ability students among the
majority of high- and medium-ability students and study them through observation and
in-depth interviews. Types of qualitative research discussed in this text include
ethnography, case studies, content analysis, phenomenological research, grounded theory
studies, and narrative analysis. The three most commonly used instruments in qualitative
data collection are observation, interviews, and documents.
Qualitative research is descriptive in nature and tends to use inductive analysis
approaches. In qualitative research, process and meaning (subject perspectives) are
emphasized. The theoretical foundation is used as a guide to ensure the research focus
aligns with field facts. Furthermore, the theoretical foundation is useful for providing an
overview of the background of the research and for discussing the research findings. In
qualitative research, the researcher starts with data, uses existing theories as explanations,
and concludes with a "theory." Qualitative research involves using and gathering various
empirical materials, such as case studies, personal experiences, introspection,
biographies, interviews, observations, historical texts, interactions, and visual data. The

18
research is considered complete once new data is found, or when the researcher reaches
saturation. The definition of qualitative research can be seen through the following
theories:
a. Creswell (2008) states: “Qualitative research is an inquiry process of understanding
based on distinct methodological traditions of inquiry that explore a social or human
problem. The researcher builds a complex, holistic picture, analyzes words, reports
detailed views of information, and conducts the study in a natural setting”.
b. Meleong (2004) defines qualitative research as a scientific study aimed at
understanding a phenomenon in its natural social context by emphasizing in-depth
communication processes between the researcher and the phenomenon being studied.
c. Qualitative research is used to investigate, discover, describe, and explain the qualities
or distinctiveness of social influences that cannot be explained, measured, or described
using a quantitative approach (Saryono, 2010: 1).
d. Sugiyono (2011:15) concludes that qualitative research is based on postpositivist
philosophy, used to study natural conditions (as opposed to experiments), where the
researcher is the key instrument, sampling is done purposively and snowballing, data
collection uses triangulation (combination), data analysis is inductive/qualitative, and
the results emphasize meaning over generalization.
From the definitions above, it can be concluded that qualitative research is a method
based on postpositivist philosophy, used to study natural conditions. Qualitative research
aims to achieve deep and thorough understanding of the meaning of a subject. The
researcher creates a complex, holistic picture, analyzes words, reports detailed views
from informants, and conducts the study in a natural context. The goal is to understand a
phenomenon in a social context naturally by emphasizing in-depth communication
processes between the researcher and the phenomenon being studied.
The essence of qualitative research methods is that they are used to answer research
questions related to data in the form of narratives derived from interviews, observations,
and document analysis. This research method, grounded in postpositivist philosophy, is
used to study natural conditions (as opposed to experiments), where the researcher is the
key instrument, data collection is done through triangulation (combination), data analysis
is inductive, and the results focus on meaning rather than generalization.

B. Characteristics of Educational Qualitative Research

Qualitative research methods have at least five main characteristics, as follows:
a. Using the natural environment as the data source. In qualitative research, the data
comes from the natural environment. The main focus is on events that occur within a
social situation. The research is conducted by interacting directly at the site of the
event. The researcher observes, notes, investigates, and seeks sources related to the
events happening at that time. The results are immediately organized. What has been
observed is essentially inseparable from the context of the environment in which the
behavior takes place.
b. Descriptive-analytic in nature. Data collected from observations, interviews,
documentation, analysis, and field notes are organized on-site, not in numerical form.
The researcher analyzes data by gathering more information, finding relationships,

19
 making comparisons, and drawing conclusions based on actual data (not numerical).
The analysis results in a narrative description related to the situation under
investigation, typically answering the research questions set in the problem
formulation.
c. Focus on process, not results. The data and information needed in qualitative
research are related to questions that uncover the process, rather than the outcome, of
an activity. The questions aim to portray the real conditions of the activity, its stages,
procedures, reasons, and interactions that occur, and the context in which the process
takes place.
d. Inductive in nature. Qualitative research begins with the field, using empirical facts.
The researcher goes directly into the field to study a naturally occurring discovery
process by noting, analyzing, reporting, and drawing conclusions from the ongoing
research process. The findings are presented in the form of concepts, principles, and
theories, developed not from existing theories but from the data itself. Qualitative
research uses an inductive process, meaning it draws connections from seemingly
unrelated but closely related data.
e. Emphasizing meaning. The meaning expressed in qualitative research revolves
around people's perceptions of an event being studied. For example, a study on the role
of a school principal in teacher development might focus on the principal’s views on
teacher performance, the success and failure in mentoring teachers, the reasons for
those outcomes, and the challenges faced. The researcher also seeks information from
teachers to compare and obtain perspectives on the quality of the principal’s
mentoring. The accuracy of the information provided by participants is interpreted by
the researcher to ensure the research results are valid and accurate.
Qualitative research has characteristics that distinguish it from other types of research.
Based on a review of literature conducted by Moleong, synthesizing the opinions of
Bogdan and Biklen with Lincoln and Guba, there are eleven characteristics of qualitative
research:
a. Qualitative research uses the natural setting or context of a whole entity.
b. The instruments in qualitative research are humans, whether the researcher themselves
or with the assistance of others.
c. Qualitative research uses qualitative methods.
d. Qualitative research applies inductive data analysis.
e. Qualitative research focuses on the development of substantive theories based on data.
f. Qualitative research collects descriptive data (words, images), not numbers.
g. Qualitative research prioritizes the process over the result. h. Qualitative research has
specific boundaries based on the focus that arises as an issue in the research.
h. Qualitative research redefines validity, reliability, and objectivity in ways different
from classical research methods.
i. Qualitative research designs are continuously adapted to the realities in the field
(provisional). k. Qualitative research requires that the meaning and interpretation of
findings be negotiated and agreed upon with the data sources.
Based on these characteristics, it can be concluded that qualitative research starts
from the field based on the natural environment, not on theory. The data and information
obtained from the field are analyzed and interpreted descriptively and analytically,
without using numbers, as the focus is on the process. In education, qualitative research

20
aims to describe an educational process based on what occurs in the field, identifying
strengths and weaknesses, suggesting improvements, analyzing facts, phenomena, and
events in education, and formulating hypotheses related to educational principles and
concepts based on field data.
Qualitative research approaches are used when the research problem requires: a.
Investigating the perspectives of the subjects under study. b. Focusing on the process
(meaning) throughout the research. c. Generalizing theories based on the perspectives of
the subjects. d. Obtaining detailed information about certain individuals or places
involved in the study.

C. Types of Qualitative Research

1. Content Analysis
Content analysis is an in-depth study of the content of written or printed information
in mass media. Berelson (1952), followed by Kerlinger (1986), defined content analysis
as a method for studying and analyzing communication systematically, objectively, and
quantitatively based on visible messages. This method is commonly used in qualitative
research. Content analysis can be applied to all forms of communication, including
newspapers, radio news, television advertisements, and other documentation materials.
Nearly all social science disciplines can utilize content analysis as a research technique.
Richard Bud, in his book Content Analysis in Communication Research, stated that
content analysis is a systematic technique for analyzing message content, processing
messages, or a tool to observe and analyze documents or open communication behaviors
of selected communicators. Documents in qualitative content analysis are symbolic
representations that can be recorded, documented, or stored for analysis. Content analysis
in qualitative research has three approaches: conventional, directed, and summative.
These approaches are used to interpret text data in content analysis. The primary
differences among these approaches lie in coding schemes, the originality of the coding,
and threats to the trustworthiness of the content.
According to Berelson (1952), in conventional content analysis, the coding
categories originate directly from the textual data. In contrast, in the directed approach,
the analysis begins with a relevant theory or research findings as a guide for initial coding.
The summative approach involves counting and comparisons, followed by interpreting
textual or visual data, such as photos, graphics, films, videos, cartoons, microfilms, and
slides.
Various sources can be used in content analysis. Essentially, anything written can
be used as data for analysis. The primary source is mass media, but even wall graffiti can
serve as a source. Content analysis can also involve counting the frequency of words or
sentences.

2. Case Study
A case study is conducted to gain a deep understanding of the situation and meaning
of the subject being studied. This research emphasizes processes over outcomes, focuses
on context rather than specific variables, and aims to discover rather than confirm

21
hypotheses. Case studies analyze individual learners' conditions, including their social
issues and life patterns, such as their interactions and attitudes within society.
This type of research involves carefully examining a program, event, activity,
process, or group of individuals. Cases are bounded by time and activity, and researchers
collect comprehensive information using various data collection procedures within a
predetermined timeframe. According to Bogdan and Biklen (1982), a case study involves
a detailed examination of one setting, one individual subject, one document storage place,
or one particular event. Surachrnad (1982) described the case study approach as focusing
attention intensively and in detail on a single case. Ary and Jacobs suggested that
researchers should deeply examine the unit or individual, identifying all important
variables.
Yin (2014) stated that a case study design is most suitable when research questions
begin with “how” or “why”. This indicates that case studies have a qualitative research
characteristic involving natural settings. Case studies require multiple data sources (Yin,
2008). Yin (2009) emphasized that although case studies are considered qualitative
designs by some experts, such as Cresswell (2012), they can use mixed methods—both
quantitative and qualitative data—to answer research questions.
According to Yin (2009), “some case studies go beyond a type of qualitative data
by using a mix of quantitative and qualitative data”. Based on these definitions, case
studies encompass the following:
a. Research targets can include people, events, settings, and documents.
b. These targets are examined in-depth as a totality within their context to understand
various relationships among variables.
Case studies do not represent populations and are not intended to draw conclusions
for broader populations. Conclusions are applicable only to the specific case studied. The
strength of case studies lies in the researcher’s ability to study subjects comprehensively
and in-depth. However, its weakness is that the information obtained is subjective,
meaning it applies only to the specific individual and may not be applicable to other
similar cases. In other words, generalization is very limited. Case studies are not used to
test hypotheses but instead may generate hypotheses for further research. Many theories,
concepts, and principles can result from case study findings.
3. Ethnography
Ethnography is a type of research method used to uncover sociocultural meanings
by studying the daily life patterns and interactions of a specific socio-cultural group
(culture-sharing group) within a specific space or context. An ethnographer not only
observes but also strives to integrate into the cultural life of the group being studied.
Ethnographers tend to identify patterns within the socio-cultural group they are studying,
including patterns of behavior, belief systems, language, and cultural values prevalent in
their daily lives or environment.
Cresswell defines ethnography as a qualitative design where a researcher describes
and interprets the patterns of values, behaviors, beliefs, and language shared by a cultural
group. According to Suwartono (2014:121-122), ethnographic studies typically focus on
a group of people with an emphasis on their existing culture. The research often involves

22
aspects of anthropology, culture, ethnicity, race, language, and similar fields. Daily
activities in settings like classrooms, schools, or Islamic boarding schools can also serve
as objects of ethnographic study.
Ethnography aims to uncover human thought processes and behavioral patterns, some of
which can be observed through their daily activities. According to Cresswell,
ethnography focuses on a group as a whole. For instance, an ethnographer may study
patterns within a group of more than 20 people, which is larger than the usual scope of
grounded theory studies, or it may involve smaller groups, such as teachers in a school,
but still within the context of the larger institution (in this case, the school).
In the field of education, ethnographic research can explore patterns of interaction
among teachers, instructional processes using specific methods or media (e.g., teaching
vocabulary using the Total Physical Response method), or the implementation of
particular programs. Ethnographic research design involves qualitative procedures to
describe, analyze, and interpret behavioral patterns, beliefs, and shared language within
an evolving cultural group. For example, in an educational setting, this design can be
applied to investigate how a curriculum is implemented and what teaching methods are
used.
The goal of ethnographic research is to provide a detailed and in-depth description
of the research subject. Data collection in ethnographic research is developed through
exploration of various sources, such as participant observations, in-depth interviews,
documents, newspapers, magazine articles, or artifacts.
The outcomes of ethnographic studies often summarize observed activities or
identify patterns in the subject being studied. An ethnographer must build close
relationships with participants from the community under study. For example,
ethnographer Jonathan Kozol lived in a Black community in the Bronx for several months
to deeply understand their lives, earning their trust and learning about their views on
poverty and racial differences.
Ethnographic research investigates processes and outcomes of the studied subject. It
culminates in a rich and detailed narrative (thick description) of the research object. As a
participant observer, the ethnographer explores the group's daily activities by observing,
interviewing group members, and engaging in their activities. Participant observation also
implies that the researcher becomes involved and plays a role in the observations. For this
purpose, the ethnographer often requires a key informant or gatekeeper to assist in
understanding and gaining access to the group.
Moreover, an ethnographer must exhibit high sensitivity toward the participants, as they
may not initially be familiar with the group's characteristics. Ethnographic studies cannot
be conducted instantaneously, as cultural immersion takes time. There is no fixed duration
for ethnographic research; the crucial aspect is the researcher’s ability to fully immerse
themselves in the community's daily culture.
In addition to participatory observation, in-depth interviews often form part of
ethnographic data collection techniques. These interviews are typically conducted with
key informants who play significant sociocultural roles within their groups. For example,
when studying an organization, its leader or senior members may serve as key informants.

23
 In conclusion, ethnography is a type of qualitative research that describes the
characteristics of individuals or communities regarding their social culture, language,
habits, human relations, and more. This research is conducted in-depth, requiring direct
engagement with the issues being studied. Ethnography serves as a method to uncover
meanings about a reality. For successful results, ethnographic research must follow its
procedures meticulously. In the field of language education, ethnography can describe or
illustrate phenomena and characteristics of a group learning a foreign language.

4. Grounded Theory
Grounded theory is a systematic qualitative research design in which the researcher
generates a theory to explain concepts, processes, actions, or interactions related to a topic
at a broad conceptual level. The source of the theory is the data itself. Hence, it is called
"grounded" because it is based on data. Grounded research is a method used to develop
theory, resulting in what is called grounded theory. This approach develops theory based
on empirical data rather than constructing it deductively (Muhadjir, 2000:121).
The primary goal of grounded theory is to identify conditions that trigger specific
actions or interactions related to a phenomenon and their consequences. This inductive
approach ensures the resulting theory is relevant to the study if it aligns with the observed
reality. Grounded theory, introduced by Glaser and Strauss (1967), differs from
traditional methods, as it evolves from data rather than pre-established theory. It combines
data collection and analysis, with initial data analysis guiding subsequent data gathering.
Strauss, diverging from Glaser, developed a more pragmatic and systematic analytical
approach, including four phases of coding: open, axial, selective, and theoretical coding.
Grounded theory has significantly influenced sociological research and employs widely
accepted coding methods based on constant comparison and theoretical sampling
strategies.
In education, grounded theory can explore teaching processes, guidance methods,
classroom management, and teacher-student interactions. This method systematically
describes, analyzes, and interprets shared behavioral, belief, and language patterns within
a culturally developed group over time. Unlike other qualitative methods, grounded
theory does not start with an existing theory but aims to discover new theories based on
empirical data. The systematic and systemic effort results in grounded theory, with the
methodology referred to as grounded research (GR). According to Glaser, grounded
theory is inductively derived from the phenomena it describes. Therefore, the theory is
discovered, constructed, and provisionally validated through systematic data collection
and analysis related to the phenomena (Strauss & Corbin, 2003, in Khair, 2010). The
emphasis is on a systematic approach to data collection, handling, and analysis.
Sudira (2009:2) summarizes GR as a qualitative methodology emphasizing the
discovery of theory from empirical field observations using an inductive method
(developing theory from data), generative (constructing theory using data as evidence),
constructive (finding theoretical constructs or categories through analysis and
abstraction), and subjective (reconstructing interpretations based on the study subjects'
conceptualizations). In conclusion, grounded research is a qualitative method that seeks

24
to construct or reconstruct theory based on real-world observations through inductive data
analysis. Grounded theory involves more complex data analysis procedures than other
qualitative approaches, emphasizing systematic processes and standard formats.
According to Emzir (2010:210), grounded theory requires coding before analyzing data.
The researcher collects data through interviews and field observations to gather various
perspectives and phenomena. Subsequently, categories are compared based on all
collected information.

5. Narrative Research
In this design, a researcher describes individual lives, gathers and recounts
information about individuals’ lives, and reports their experiences narratively. For
instance, in education, researchers might study the psychosocial development of students
and their activities both within and outside school. This type of research involves
investigating the lives of individuals, asking one or more individuals to narrate their life
stories. The information is then retold by the researcher in a narrative chronology. At the
conclusion of the research, the researcher must combine their own views of the
participants' lives with their personal perspective in a narrative style.
As stated by Clandinin & Connelly (2000) in Creswell (2003: 14-15), in this type
of research, the researcher studies individuals’ lives and asks one or more participants to
provide life stories. The information is then retold by the researcher in narrative
chronology. In the end, the narrative integrates the researcher’s views with the
participants’ perspectives into a collaborative narrative (Emzir, 2010). Narrative research
involves the researcher narrating the life of the subject in detail over a prolonged period
to achieve maximum detail. This research is conducted over an extended scale, relying
on various participants while still focusing on one or a few subjects (Sharlane and Lina,
2003: 81). Narrative research examines stories of life experiences. Participants are asked
in long interviews to provide detailed reports of their lives and stories rather than
answering predetermined questions. Other forms of data include life histories, journals,
diaries, memoirs, autobiographies, and biographies.
The purpose of this analysis is to gain insights into the meaning of events in
participants’ lives. After transcription, narratives can be coded into categories deemed
theoretically significant by the researcher (Riessman, 1993). Another approach is formal
sequential analysis aimed at identifying recurring and organized patterns linked to
specific modes of biographical experience. For example, a researcher might investigate
how women reflect on events during pregnancy by collecting stories from pregnant
women.

6. Phenomenological Research
Phenomenological research is a type of study in which the researcher identifies the
essence of human experiences about a particular phenomenon. Understanding human life
experiences forms the basis of phenomenological philosophy as a research method,
requiring researchers to examine a group of subjects directly and over a relatively long
period to develop patterns and relationships of meaning. During this process, researchers

25
must set aside their personal experiences to understand the experiences of the participants
under study. The researcher gathers data related to concepts, opinions, attitudes,
assessments, and meanings assigned to situations or experiences in life. The goal of
phenomenological research is to discover or uncover the essential or fundamental
meanings of these life experiences.
The research design in phenomenology is similar to ethnography but differs in the
underlying problem focus. Ethnography is based on cultural environments, while
phenomenology focuses on phenomena or life experiences. For example, a researcher
studying learning styles of students with parents of low educational backgrounds might
explore their learning motivations, study habits, and enthusiasm for learning at home.
Phenomenology involves detailed and careful examination of the consciousness of human
experiences. The core concept of phenomenology is meaning, which emerges from
human conscious experiences. Essential qualities of consciousness are identified through
in-depth and meticulous analysis (Smith, et al., 2009: 11).
Key concepts of phenomenology include Intentionality and Intersubjectivity,
alongside the phenomenological hermeneutics introduced by Heidegger. The
fundamental goal of all phenomenological approaches is the same: to understand the
subject from their perspective (Bogdan & Biklen, 1982: 24).
Phenomenology is a tradition used to explore human experiences. It assumes that
humans actively interpret their life experiences and assign meanings to them. This means
understanding is a creative and subjective act. Daily human activities are filled with
experiences, and these experiences form the essence of human consciousness, built on
two assumptions (Smith, et al., 2009: 12):
1. Every human experience is an expression of consciousness. An individual is aware of
their experiences, which are inherently subjective.
2. Every form of consciousness is always consciousness of something. For instance,
seeing is seeing something; remembering is remembering something; judging is
judging something.
In phenomenological terms, experiences or consciousness always have an object, whether
stimulated by the perception of a real object or through memory or imagination (Smith,
et al., 2009: 12). To achieve a phenomenological attitude, Husserl developed methods to
identify the core structures and features of human experience, focusing perception on the
object while suspending taken-for-granted assumptions about the everyday world (Smith,
et al., 2009: 13).

ASSIGMENT
1. Provide an explanation of when you should solve educational problems using a
qualitative method. Include its characteristics, features, and examples of problem
focuses along with a research title!
2. Based on the explanation above, there are several qualitative research designs. Which
qualitative design is suitable and appropriate for use in educational research? Provide
rational reasons and arguments!
3. Based on this classification, which design do you choose? Explain why you chose it!
Outline and describe the planning of the design you selected!

26
 CHAPTER V
CLASSROOM ACTION RESEARCH

A. Introduction
Classroom Action Research (CAR) is a new perspective in educational research
that bridges the gap between practice and theory in the field of education. In this research
model, the researcher can act as both an observer and a teacher (participant) or as either
an observer or a teacher. Unlike other types of research that primarily aim to produce
scientific conclusions, CAR must result in an innovative strategy to address classroom
issues and enhance students' motivation and abilities. Classroom action research is
conducted to solve classroom problems. Therefore, before conducting CAR, it is essential
to carry out a preliminary study (needs analysis) to identify issues present in the
classroom. Common classroom issues include classroom management, teaching and
learning processes, use of learning resources, and teacher professionalism.
Kemmis clarifies this definition by stating that action research is a systematic study
of efforts to improve educational practices by a group of researchers through their own
practices, reflecting on their actions to understand the effects. Frequently, the focus of
CAR revolves around low learning outcomes and low learning motivation. This might be
caused by:
1. Teaching methods that lack variety, failing to accommodate different student
learning styles,
2. Learning media that do not effectively motivate students,
3. Classroom atmospheres that do not support learning activities, affecting students'
concentration, and
4. Teacher-centered instruction.
According to Suyanto and Sukarnyana (2001), classroom action research is a strategy for
improving the quality of education through more effective classroom activities.
For this reason, teachers or lecturers conduct classroom action research to address
problems found in the classroom. CAR involves teachers researching within their own
classrooms through self-reflection with the aim of improving their teaching performance
and, consequently, improving student learning outcomes. Collaboration is strongly
recommended in CAR. Researchers can act as practitioners or observers. If acting as a
practitioner or teacher, it is advisable to request someone to act as an observer using
observation instruments or field notes. Successful CAR is often collaborative, as
emphasized by Fang (2007), who stated that successful classroom action research
involves collaboration. This implies the need for cooperation with other teachers in
conducting CAR.
After implementing the teaching and learning process, the researcher uses the
prepared research instruments to evaluate student progress in achieving the
predetermined success criteria. If the results fall short of the criteria, the researcher must
evaluate why the students did not succeed and decide to make necessary adjustments to
the teaching strategy. These adjustments might include changes in teaching procedures,

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the use of media, classroom management, or ensuring a comfortable classroom
atmosphere.
The researcher then implements the revised methods in the next cycle and assesses
whether the students achieve success in the second cycle. If not, the researcher re-
evaluates the strategy, asking what further changes need to be made and how to revise
the approach. This iterative process continues until students meet the success criteria.
Remember, the focus of CAR is on improving students' abilities based on the established
success criteria, not on testing a particular technique, strategy, or use of media. The goal
is to understand how a chosen teaching technique or strategy helps students, not simply
to test whether it works.
Key classroom issues that form the basis of success criteria often include:
1. Low academic achievement, and
2. An unpleasant or non-conducive classroom atmosphere.

B. Characteristics of Classroom Action Research (CAR)

Based on the explanation above, the characteristics of Classroom Action Research
(CAR) can be identified as follows: There is a problem in the learning process, triggered
by the teacher's awareness that their classroom practices contain issues needing
resolution. In other words, the teacher recognizes the need to improve their teaching
practices, and this improvement must originate from within the teacher themselves (an
inquiry of practice from within), not from external parties, nor should it address pseudo-
problems. Self-reflective inquiry, or research through self-reflection, is the most essential
feature of CAR. Unlike traditional research, which gathers data from external fields,
specific objects, or other respondents, CAR requires teachers to collect data from their
own practices through self-reflection. This means the teacher revisits what they have done
in the classroom, evaluates the impact of their actions on students, and most importantly,
reflects on why those impacts occurred.
From this reflection, the teacher identifies the strengths and weaknesses of their
actions, then attempts to address the weaknesses while refining and improving the
successful actions. Therefore, the data is collected from the teacher’s own practices, not
from other sources. The data collector is the teacher directly involved in the practice,
making the teacher hold a dual role as both an educator and a researcher. This idea is
supported by Mills (2003:5), who states, “Action research is conducted by teacher-
researchers, principals, school counselors, or other stakeholders in the teaching and
learning environment to gather information in order to achieve effective positive changes
in educational practices”. For example, a teacher facing a problem with students’ low
mastery in applying sentence patterns in writing skills reflects on their teaching approach.
Improvements are made gradually and continuously throughout the research process.
Thus, CAR involves a cyclical implementation pattern: planning-implementation-
observation-reflection-revision (replanning). This approach differs from traditional
research, which typically does not include cyclical interventions. This cyclic feature is a
distinctive characteristic of action research, where repeated actions are carried out until
optimal results are achieved.

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C. Classroom Action Research Process
The focus of Classroom Action Research (CAR) includes teaching methods,
teaching strategies, learning models, the use of learning media, a conducive learning
atmosphere, the use of learning materials, and the adaptation of curricula to students'
characteristics. The CAR process involves the following steps:
1. Identifying the problem,
2. Selecting alternative strategies,
3. Designing a lesson plan based on the chosen strategy,
4. Practicing the lesson plan,
5. Determining success criteria,
6. Implementing the prepared lesson plan,
7. Observing,
8. Reflecting.
The CAR process begins with a preliminary study to gather information related to
classroom learning issues. Next, the following questions are analyzed:
1. Why does the problem occur?
2. Which subject matter or skill is the issue?
3. How can we solve the problem by analyzing it?
We need to find innovative strategies, techniques, or teaching media suitable for
the classroom problem and student characteristics. The chosen teaching technique must
align with the identified problem and possess the strength to address it. Once confident
in the selected teaching technique and its application, we document the strategy as a plan
to improve students’ abilities.In the planning stage, we determine success criteria to help
decide whether the research has succeeded or not. Instruments are developed to measure
whether students’ performance meets the success criteria. The implementation stage
involves applying the designed lesson plan. The researcher must master the lesson plan
during the application of the teaching strategy; failure to do so may result in unobservable
learning outcomes.
The third stage is observation, where data is collected to measure the extent to
which the applied strategy meets the predetermined success criteria. The fourth stage is
reflection, where collected data is analyzed and compared with the success criteria. If the
target criteria are met, the strategy has proven effective in solving classroom problems.
If not, the researcher must study and revise the strategy.Classroom action research arises
from real learning problems faced by educators and students daily. Its objective is to
address classroom management, teaching-learning processes, and resource utilization
issues. CAR is conducted to make teaching practices more effective.
Professional teachers consistently reflect on their teaching practices. Competence
enhancement through professional development is achieved by conducting CAR to
improve teaching quality. CAR is a form of reflective research involving specific actions
to improve classroom teaching practices more professionally. In conclusion, classroom
action research is beneficial for learning innovation, curriculum development, and
enhancing teacher professionalism.

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 STUDENT ASSIGNMENT PLAN FORMAT (SAP)

STATE UNIVERSITY OF MAKASSAR

FACULTY OF MATHEMATICS AND NATURAL
SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY
GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM
STUDENT ASSIGNMENT PLAN
Course Educational Geography Research Methods
Code 0A51C503 SKS 2 Semester 5
Lecture Syamsunardi, S.Pd., M.Pd.
GROUP ASSIGNMENT
Identifying abnormal conditions in society, particularly in schools, related to the
difficulties faced by teachers in teaching during the new normal era. The course
applies case study and Project Based Learning methods.
Operations in the Course of Educational Research Methods in Geography:
Meeting 9:
The lecturer explains the project to be undertaken related to the issues faced by
teachers during the COVID-19 pandemic and the start of the new normal era. The
learning presentation will be conducted via Zoom. The lecturer may decide which
aspect of the learning presentation the students should work on, such as the lack of
teacher readiness (understanding of online learning applications) in achieving
learning objectives, teachers' limited skills in using learning support applications,
and so on. The expected outcome of this project is a scientific article with various
research methods. The lecturer presents a template for the article to ensure
uniformity and facilitate assessment. The lecturer divides the students into several
heterogeneous groups.

Meetings 10-15:
The lecturer monitors the students' activities in groups, reviews the progress of the
project, and provides support to ensure that the article from the project meets the
standards. If the lecturer does not have enough time to monitor/review/provide
direct support to all groups, the lecturer may ask the students to document their work
in video form.

Meeting 16:
Students present/publish the results of their projects, and other students, along with
the lecturer, provide feedback. Students revise their article project if necessary. If

30
the monitoring and review process is effective, the need for revisions will be
minimal, and vice versa.
These are the guidelines for completing the assignment using the case study method.
It is expected that students will collaborate with their peers and learn in a contextual
way by engaging directly in the field to better understand the issues teachers face in
teaching during the new normal era, and ultimately find solutions to these problems.
The assessment weight for group assignments with a case study approach and
Project-Based Learning.
1. Mastery of the Material (30%)
• Relevance to the Topic (10%): The article is aligned with the issue
raised (challenges faced by teachers during the new normal period).
• Depth of Analysis (10%): The ability to analyze the issue deeply,
including data, supporting theories, and discussions.
• Relevance of Solutions (10%): The proposed solutions are
applicable and suitable for the research context.
2. Quality of Research (25%)
• Research Methodology (10%):
§ Appropriateness of the chosen method
(qualitative/quantitative/mixed) based on the issue.
§ Suitability of data collection and analysis techniques.
• Data Validity (10%): The collected data is relevant, complete, and
supports the discussion.
• Innovation in Research (5%): Creativity or new approaches in data
collection and analysis.
3. Structure and Quality of the Article (20%)
• Adherence to Template (5%): The article follows the
format/template provided by the instructor.
• Article Structure (5%): The article has complete sections
(Introduction, Literature Review, Methodology, Results,
Conclusion).
• Language and Writing Style (5%): The writing uses formal language
and follows academic conventions.
• References and Citations (5%): Uses credible sources with correct
citation format.
4. Presentation (15%)
• Clarity of Delivery (5%): The presentation is systematic and uses
effective media.
• Visual Creativity (5%): Use of engaging slides or tools that support
the presentation.

31
 • Discussion and Responses (5%): Ability to answer questions or
criticisms from the audience and the instructor.
5. Collaboration and Documentation (10%)
• Group Cooperation (5%): Each member contributes according to
their role.
• Activity Documentation (5%): Completeness and quality of
documentation (videos, group notes, etc.).
6. Revisions and Improvements (10%)
• Application of Feedback (5%): The article addresses the points
reviewed by the instructor effectively.
• Quality of Revisions (5%): The revisions show significant
improvements in line with the feedback.
References
Primary:
• Anshori, M., & Iswati, S. 2019. Metodologi Penelitian Kuantitatif: Edisi 1.
Airlangga University Press.
• Arikunto, Suharsimi, Penelitian Tindakan Kelas, Jakarta: Bumi Aksara,
2006.
• Buku pedoman penulisan Skripsi, 2019. Universitas Negeri Makassar.
• Creswell, Jhon W. 2016. Research Design Pendekatan Kualitatif, Kuantitatif,
dan Mixed. Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar.
• Hallaf Hanafie Prasad, A. 2013. Mengamati Fenomena Geografi.
Yogyakarta: Digna Pustaka.
• Haryanto, A.G., Hartono, Mulayanto, D., 2000. Metode Penulisan dan
Penyajian Karya Ilmiah: Buku Ajar untuk Mahasiswa. Jakarta : EGC.
• Krulik, S & J. A. Rudnick. 1995. The New Sourcebook for Teaching Reaso-
ning and Problem Solving in Elementary School. Needham Heigh-ts,
Massachusetts: Allyn & Bacon.
• Moleong, Lexy. 2004. Metode Penelitian Kualitatif. Bandung: PT.Remaja
Rosda Karya.
• Suharso. 2009. Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia (Edisi Lux) (p. 37).
Semarang: Widya Karya.
• Sugiyono. 2015. Metode Penelitian Kombinasi (Mixed Methods). Bandung:
Alfabeta.
• Sugiyono. 2013. Metode Penelitian Pendidikan Pendekatan Kuantitatif,
Kualitatif, dan R&D. Bandung: Alfabeta.
• Tanzeh, Ahmad dan Suyitno. 2006. Dasar-dasar Penelitian. Surabaya: Elkaf
Supporting:

32
• Syamsunardi, Astina, K., Syarif, E., Syam, N., Syamsuriadi. 2022. Budaya
Siri’ Na Pacce Masyarakat Sayye’ Cikoang (Perspeftif Etnografi). Takalar:
Yayasan Pendidikan Ahmar Cendikia.
• Syarif, E., Syamsunardi, S., & Saputro, A. 2020. Implementation of
discovery learning to improve scientific and cognitive attitude of students.
Journal of Educational Science and Technology EST UNM, 6(1), 23-3131

33
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