Hawassa University

Department of Adult Education & Community

Development

Course Title: Research Methods in Education

Course Code: Edlm 631

Credit Hours: 3Cr.Hrs

 CHAPTER ONE
THE CONCEPT AND NATURE OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

INTRODUCTION
Approaches to knowledge
How do people acquired knowledge?
There were many ways through which human beings solve their
own problems. The following are some of them:
1. Experience:
 it is one of the ancient way through which people solve many
problems.
 It is one major factor that distinguishes human species from
other animals
 It is only human specious that can learn from its experiences.
 In spite of its being ancient practice, experience is very
fundamental source of knowledge.
 Approaches to knowledge
2. Traditional wisdom:
 Wisdom is another source of acquiring knowledge.
 It is a critical thinking that develop from experience, tradition
& custom
3. Authority:
 An authority is someone who had the experience & expertise.
 it is also another source of acquiring knowledge and solving
problem
 Traditionally, people frequently turn to authority for those
inquiries that are difficult to solve by experience and
traditional wisdom.
 The authorities may be the persons who have had long years
of experience with that problem
Examples: elders, leaders, professionals and prophet
 Approaches to knowledge
4. Observation:
 This is also another approach to the acquisition of
knowledge.
 Intelligent people who are capable of gathering information
from their day-to-day experiences draw important
generalizations from their observation
 Observation was and is the initial step to research

 It is considered as the mother the present day research

The Concepts of
Research WHAT IS RESEARCH?

Research is defined as scientific and systematic

search for pertinent information on a specific
topic.

It is also defined as an art of scientific

investigation,

It is also described as a careful investigation for

5
new facts in any branch of knowledge.
The Concepts of Research . . .
According to Creswell (2012), research is defined as: a
process of steps used to collect and analyze information to
increase our understanding of an issue
According to UNESCO (2005), research is the orderly
investigation of a subject matter for the purpose of adding
to knowledge or to gain new knowledge.
 In short, from the definitions it is possible to conclude
that research is a movement from the unknown to the
known,
 Objectives of research
1. Exploration
• Generate ideas about something
2. Description
• Describe the characteristics of something
3. Explanation
• Show how and why a phenomenon operates as it does
• causality and explanation usually go hand in hand
4. Prediction
• Making accurate predications
5. Influence
• Application of research results to impact the world
 The Concepts of Research . . .

 Educational research is defined as the application

of systematic methods and techniques that help
researchers and practitioners to understand and
enhance the teaching and learning process.
 In short, it is the application of the scientific
approach to the study of educational problems.
 It is the way in which people acquire dependable
and useful information about the educative process.
Reasoning is a way of approaching and understanding a
given phenomenon.
To formulate scientific theory, research in education uses
two basic types of reasoning: inductive reasoning and
deductive reasoning.

A)Inductive reasoning :
it refers to a “bottom-up” approach to understand an issue

In inductive reasoning, a researcher uses particular

observations to build an abstraction
Inductive reasoning usually leads to inductive methods of data
collection where the researcher:

(1) systematically observes the phenomena under investigation,

(2) searches for patterns or themes in the observations, and

(3) develops a generalization from the analysis of those themes.

 In short, in the inductive reasoning, the researcher proceeds
from specific observations to general statements
inductive reasoning is most closely associated with qualitative
approaches to research
B) Deductive reasoning
 This approach uses a top-down approach to knowing and it is the
way of first making a general statement and then seeking specific
evidence
 Deductive method is most closely associated with quantitative
approaches.
 It begins by forming a hypothesis: a tentative explanation that
can be tested by collecting data,
 In general, both inductive and adductive reseedings are a major sources of
acquiring knowledge.
What is Theory?
 Theory is a well-developed explanation of how some aspect
of the world works.
 A theory is a set of propositions that explain the
relationships among phenomena
 A theory is a means of simplifying and understanding
complex realities
 It is a knowledge base composed of the results of previous
research studies.
A theory has ‘a set of interrelated constructs, definitions, and propositions that
presents a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables,
A major purpose of theory is explaining and predicting the phenomena

An effective empirical theory has the following characteristics:

Must permit deductions

Should generates laws that can be tested empiricallyMust provide the means for

its confirmation or rejection.

Must be compatible with both observation and previously validated theories.

should demonstrate precision and universality,

Research in education is important for the following three reasons:

A)To add to our knowledge:

b) To improve practice:

c) To inform policy debates and policy decisions

Functions of educational research

Educational research based on its purpose could be classified as

follows:

a. Fundamental (Basic) Research: to develop new knowledge and

theories.
The scientific research is widely regarded as the single most
reliable source of new knowledge. The scientific approach rests on
two basic assumptions:
(1) People can derive truth from observation, and

(2) phenomena conform to lawful relationships.

 Principles for Scientific research
 When researchers conduct a study, they proceed through a distinct
set of steps identified as the “scientific method” of inquiry
 Generally, scientific inquiry are identified by the following common
principles
• 1. Identifying and posing a research problemthat can be
investigated empirically
• 2. Reviewing the literature to link research to relevant theory
• 3. Specifying a purpose for research

4. Collecting data using direct data collection tools

5. Analyzing and interpreting the data

6. Reporting and evaluating research

By its nature science has four common aims:
 Universalism-the quest for general laws;

Organization-the quest to organize and conceptualize a set of

related facts or observations;
Skepticism-the norm of questioning and looking for counter
explanations; and
Communalism-the quest to develop a community that shares a set
of norms or principles for doing science.
 Scientific research steps

1: Ask 6: Share
Question Findings

2: Design 5: Reach
Study Conclusions

3: Collect 4: Analyze
Data Results
 CHAPTER TWO
RESEARCH PROPOSAL
 Proposal is a road map for how to conduct actual research
work
 It is a blue print for most of elements to be included in a
study
 Proposal always stated in future tens

 Example, the purpose of the study will be…

 Proposal should be short and include the outlines presented

below
Elements of research proposal
UNIT ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

1.2 Statement of the Study

1.3 The Research Questions

1.4 Objectives of the Study

1.4.1General Objective

1.4.2 Specific Objectives

1.5 Significant of the Study

1.6 Delimitation of the Study

1.7 Operational Definitions of Key Terms

1.8 Organization of the Study

Elements of research
CHAPTER 3
THE RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
3.1 The Research Design
3. 2 The Research Method
3.3 Data Sources
3. 4 Population Size, Sample and Sampling Techniques
3.5 Data Collection Instruments
3.5.1 Questionnaires
3.5.2 Interview
3.5.3 Document Analysis
3.5.4 Observation
3.6 Validity of the Study
3.7 Reliability of the Instruments
3.8 Ethical consideration
3.9 Procedures for Data Collection
3.10 Method of Data analysis
References
 Research design is governed by the notion of ‘fitness for
purpose’.
 it is the purposes of the research that determine the
methodology and design of the research.
 Design: Refers to the overall strategy that a researcher choose to
integrate the different components of the study in logical way
 It ensure whether the researcher effectively address the research
problem;
 It constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement, and
analysis of data
 RESEARCH DESIGN . . .

 Therefore, it primarily include design, method(s), data sources,

population, sample and sampling techniques, tools, procedures,
and data analysis methods of a study
 A researcher’s research problem determines the type of design
he/she should use, not the other way around!
 Based on a research question the design can be, for example,
descriptive survey, correlational, case, historical, etc.
Surveys can be divided as (a)
A. Experimental Research design
B. descriptive research design
 Experimental Research

An experiment is a scientific investigation in which the researcher:

manipulates one or more independent variables,

controls any other relevant variables, and

observes the effect of the manipulations on the dependent

It involves a study of the effect of the systematic manipulation of

one variable(s) on another variable.
The manipulated variable is called the experimental treatment or
the independent variable (i.e the variable that refers to how
participants are treated).
The observed and measured variable is called the dependent
 Experimental Research Cont’d

Types of Experimental Research

Differentiating the three types of experimental designs
1. True experimental
Random assignment of subjects to groups
2. Quasi-experimental
Non-random assignment of subjects to groups
3. Single subject
Non-random selection of a single subject
 Experimental Research Cont’d

Steps in Planning and Conducting Experimental Research

•Select a topic

•Review the relevant literature and define a research question

•Develop a research hypothesis

•Select and assign participants to groups

•Select measurement instruments

•Define and administer experimental treatments

•Collect and analyze data

•Make a decision about the hypothesis and then

•Formulate conclusions
 Experimental Research Cont’d
An example of an experimental design
 Randomly assign students to one of two classrooms
 Teach the first class using the traditional lecture approach
 Teach the second class using co-operative learning groups.
 Examine the achievement differences between the two
groups to see if the type of “approach” to instruction had
an effect.
 This study is characterized by the investigation of cause
(instructional approach) and effect (achievement),
manipulation (choice of instructional approach), and
control (same unit being taught, random assignment, etc.)
 2. Non-experimental Designs
 Correlational
Establishes a relationship (i.e., non-causal) between or
among variables
 Ex-post-facto
Explores possible causes and effects among variables that
cannot be manipulated by the researcher.
 Descriptive
Makes careful descriptions of the current situation or status
of a variable(s) of interest
 a. Correlation Research design

It examines relationships between variables;

 is non experimental, consisting of only one group of individuals (e.g., fifth-
grade students) and two or more variables that are not manipulated or
controlled by the researcher (e.g., reading scores and IQ).
It produces indexes that show both the direction and the strength of
relationships among variables.
This index is called a correlation coefficient. The size of the correlation
coefficient indicates the strength of the relationship between the variables.
The coefficient can range in value from +1.00 (indicating a perfect positive
relationship) through 0 (indicating no relationship) to −1.00 (indicating a
perfect negative relationship).
 Correlation Research design cont’d

Consider the following interpretations given the following size of coefficients:

 .20 –.35: When correlations range from .20 to .35, there is only a slight
relationship; this relationship may be slightly statistically significant for 100 or
more participants.
This size of a coefficient may be valuable to explore the interconnection of
variables but of little value in prediction studies.

◆ .35 –.65: . It is good correlation. This is useful for limited prediction. They are
the typical values used to identify variable membership in the statistical

◆ .66 –.85: When correlations fall into this range, good prediction can result from
one variable to the other. Coefficients in this range would be considered very good.
.86 and above: strong correlation. Correlations in this range are typically
achieved for studies of construct validity or test–retest reliability.
 Correlation Research design cont’d

• In a positive correlation the points move in the same direction; that is, when
X increases, so does Y or, alternatively, if X decreases, so does Y.
• In a negative correlation the points move in the opposite direction; that is,
when X increases, Y decreases, and when X decreases, Y increases.
• If scores on one variable do not relate in any pattern on the other variable,
then no linear association exists.
• A positive linear relationship of scores, where low (or high) scores on one
variable relate to low (or high) scores on a second variable.
• A negative linear relationship result, where low scores on one variable relate
to high scores on the other variable. Low scores on depression, for example,
might be associated with high scores on use of the Internet, suggesting a
negative relationship.
 Correlation Research design cont’d
• Uncorrelated Relationships : the variables are independent of each other.
That is, a particular score on one variable does not predict or tell us any
information about the possible score on the other variable.
• A curvilinear distribution (or nonlinear relationship) s

• This distribution shows an increase to some point and then decline after
some point .
• For example, it is possible that as Internet use increases, so does depression,
up to a point at which the Internet actually becomes a coping mechanism for
stress, and depression begins to decrease
• It hows a U-shaped relationship.
 b. Causal-Comparative Research

4. Causal-comparative is also called ex–post facto research,

It seeks to explain differences between groups by examining
differences in their experiences.
Like experimental research, causal-comparative research
involves comparing groups to see if some independent variable
has caused a change in a dependent variable.
But the types of research questions addressed in causal-
comparative research involve: variables that are difficult or
impossible to manipulate experimentally
Example, how is the effect of rape on students achievement?
 Causal-Comparative Research Cont’d

Note that in these questions, we are attempting to see if one

variable (rape) causes a change in another variable (academic
achievement).
Thus, causal-comparative research designs permit the study of
the effects of variables that have already occurred or are
difficult to manipulate experimentally with human research
participants.
In causal-comparative research it might be possible to
manipulate the independent variables, but it would be
unethical to do so (eg. Child abuse)
 C. Descriptive Research

 Descriptive survey research: is defined as an approach in which

there is empirical research pertaining to a given point of time
 This design aims to incorporate as wide and inclusive data as
possible.
 Survey used a range of tools that include questionnaire, interview
and document
 In a descriptive survey the sample is taken from a defined
population with a view to describing prevalence.
 Descriptive survey further identified as

 (a) cross sectional descriptive design and

 Descriptive Research cont’d
A. Cross-sectional descriptive survey design:
• In a cross-sectional study the sample would consist of different
subjects representing all relevant subgroups in a population
measured at one moment in time.
• it has no time dimension and deals with existing differences
• This design can only measure differences between or from among a
variety of people, subjects, or phenomena rather than a process of
change.
• Cross-section studies are capable of using data from a large number
of subjects and is not geographically bound.
• Because cross-sectional designs generally use survey techniques to
gather data, they are relatively inexpensive and take up little time to
conduct.
• Cross-sectional descriptive survey design is recommended when
gathering data about respondents’ perceptions, beliefs, and opinion
 Descriptive Research cont’d
B. Longitudinal: The second type of survey is longitudinal.
In a longitudinal study the sample may consist of one group of
subjects who are studied over time and each subject may be
measured more than once.
It is subdivided into two:
Retrospective : which look backward in time. That is it
determine the effect of exposure, retrospectively, on an outcome
of interest. This design is determine the causes or reasons for
existing differences between groups of individuals.
b) Prospective : which look forward in time.
In prospective studies, subjects would be grouped according to
exposure or some other factor and individuals would be followed
up and outcomes of interest observed.
 3. Historical Research
 Historical research analyzes documents and artifacts and/or
uses interviews with eyewitnesses to gain insight into past
events.
 The focus of interest for the historical researcher is the past.
 Historical research is the systematic collection and evaluation
of data to describe, explain and understand actions and events
that occurred in the past.
 The purposes and values of historical research could be
summarized as follows:
 to make people aware of what happened in the past
 to assist in predicting the future;
 4. Mixed research design
• A mixed methods research design is a procedure for collecting,
analyzing, and “mixing” both quantitative and qualitative
methods in a single study to understand a research problem
• The basic assumption is that the uses of both quantitative and
qualitative methods provide a better understanding of the
research problem and question than either method by itself.
• There are several reasons for using a mixed methods design to
conduct a study.
• We conduct a mixed methods study when you have both
quantitative and qualitative data and both types of data,
together, provide a better understanding of our research
problem than either type by itself.
• Mixed methods research is a good design to use if you seek to
build on the strengths of both quantitative and qualitative data.
 Mixed research design cont ‘d
• We also conduct a mixed methods study when one type of
research (qualitative or quantitative) is not enough to answer the
research questions.
• That is when , when more data is needed to extend, elaborate on,
or explain the first database.
• We also, use mixed methods when you want to provide an
alternative perspective in a study.
Combining Quantitative and Qualitative Data
• Combining qualitative and quantitative data means triangulating
the data.
• Triangulation, is collecting and converging (or integrating)
different kinds of data bearing on the same phenomenon.
 Mixed research design cont ‘d
• When triangulating qualitative and quantitative data, there are two
different forms
a) QUAL + QUAN: this indicates simultaneous or concurrent collection
of quantitative and qualitative data.
b) QUAN+ qual: or QUAL + Quan = indicates the sequential collection
of quantitative and qualitative data.
• Uppercase letters indicate a priority or increased weight for either
the quantitative or qualitative data.
• Lowercase letters indicate a lower priority or weight for either the
quantitative or qualitative data.
 Mixed research design cont ‘d
Types of Mixed Design
• When collecting qualitative and quantitative data, we might ask the
following questions:
1. hat priority or weight does the researcher give to the quantitative and
qualitative data collection?
Priority or weight means that one form of data is given more attention in the
study; however, quantitative and qualitative data are sometimes treated
equally.
2. What is the sequence of collecting the quantitative and qualitative data?
Determine whether the qualitative data or quantitative data comes first and
second in the data collection or whether they are collected concurrently.
3. How does the researcher actually analyze the data? Determine if the
researchers combine the data in one analysis or keep the analyses separate.
• Using these questions, we can locate and identify most mixed methods
designs commonly used in educational research.
• There are four mixed methods designs
 Mixed research design cont ‘d
The designs are:
1) The convergent parallel design
2) The explanatory sequential design
3) The exploratory sequential design
4) The embedded design
5) The Convergent Parallel Design:
 The purpose of a convergent (parallel or concurrent) mixed
methods design is to simultaneously collect both quantitative and
qualitative data, merge the data, and use the results to understand
a research problem.
In this design, a researcher gathers both data, analyzes both datasets
separately, compares the results from the analysis of both
datasets, and makes an interpretation as to whether the results
support or contradict each other.
 Mixed research design cont ‘d
• When mixed methods researcher often gives equal priority to
both quantitative and qualitative data it is identified as QUAN
and QUAL).
• This implies that the researcher values both quantitative and
qualitative data and sees them as approximately equal sources of
information.
• For example, interview data are as important as the scores
gathered
• on an instrument.
• The mixed methods researcher collects both the quantitative and
qualitative data concurrently or simultaneously during the study.
• The mixed methods researcher compares the results from
quantitative and qualitative analyses to determine if the two
databases yield similar or dissimilar results.
 Mixed research design cont ‘d
2) The Explanatory Sequential Design (QUAN + Qual)
• a researcher might collect quantitative and qualitative
information sequentially in two phases,.
• This design, is perhaps the most popular form of mixed methods
design in educational research. It is also called a two-phase model
a
• it consists of first collecting quantitative data and then collecting
qualitative data to help explain or elaborate on the quantitative
results.
• The mixed methods researcher places a priority on quantitative
data (QUAN) collection and analysis. This is done by introducing
it first in the study and having it represent a major aspect of data
collection.
• A small qualitative (qual) component typically follows in the
second phase of the research.
 Mixed research design cont ‘d
This design obtain quantitative results from a population in the first
phase, and then elaborate these findings through an in-depth
qualitative exploration in the second phase.
3. The Exploratory Sequential Design (QUAL+Quan)
• This design involves the procedure of first gathering qualitative
data to explore a phenomenon, and then collecting quantitative
data to explain relationships found in the qualitative data.
• Researchers use this design when existing instruments, variables,
and measures may not be known or available for the population
under study.
• The mixed methods researcher emphasizes the qualitative data
(QUAL) more than the quantitative data (quan).
 Mixed research design cont ‘d

• This emphasis may occur through presenting the overarching

question as an open-ended question or discussing the qualitative
results in more detail than the quantitative results.
• Typically in these designs, the researcher presents the study in
two phases, with the first phase involving qualitative data
collection (e.g., interviews, observations) with a small number of
individuals, followed by quantitative data collection (e.g., a survey)
with a large, randomly selected number of participants.
4. The Embedded Design
• The purpose of the embedded design is to collect quantitative and
qualitative data simultaneously or sequentially, but to have one
form of data play a supportive role to the other form of data.
• The reason for collecting the second form of data is that it
augments or supports the primary form of data.
 Mixed research design cont ‘d
• The supportive data may be either qualitative or quantitative, but most
examples in the literature support adding qualitative data into a
quantitative design.
• The researcher collects both quantitative and qualitative data during a
single, the two datasets are analyzed separately, and they address
different research questions.
• It gives priority to the major form of data collection (often QUAN) and
secondary status to the supportive form (often qual) of data collection.
• The secondary form is used in the mixed methods study to support and
provide additional information to the primary form.
• The mixed methods researcher collects both the quantitative and
qualitative data simultaneously or sequentially.
• The mixed methods researcher uses the secondary form of data to
augment or provide additional sources of information not provided by
the primary source of data.
 5. Action Research design

• Action research is a process in which participants examine their

own educational practice systematically and carefully, using the
techniques of research.
• Typically, action research is undertaken in a school setting.
• Although there are many types of research that may be
undertaken, action research specifically refers to a disciplined
inquiry done by a teacher with the intent that the research will
inform and change his or her practices in the future.
• This research is carried out within the context of the teacher’s
environment—
• That is, with the students and at the school in which the teacher
works—on questions that deal with educational matters at hand.
• This research brings together characteristics of systematic
inquiry and practice
 Action research cont’d
• Often, action research is a collaborative activity among
colleagues searching for solutions to everyday, real problems
experienced in schools, or looking for ways to improve
instruction and increase student achievement.
• Rather than dealing with the theoretical, action research allows
practitioners to address those concerns that are closest to them,
• The process of action research assists educators in assessing
needs, documenting the steps of inquiry, analyzing data, and
making informed decisions that can lead to desired outcomes.
• Implicit in the term action research is the idea that teachers will
begin a cycle of posing questions, gathering data, reflection, and
deciding on a course of action.
• Conducting action research in education can lead to new ideas
and strategies to promote student success.
 Action research cont’d
Steps in Action Research
• In conducting action research, we structure routines for
continuous confrontation with data on the health of a school
community.
• These routines are loosely guided by movement through five
phases of inquiry:
• Identify The Problem
• Gather Data
• Interpret Data
• Act On Evidence
• Evaluate Results
• Next Steps
 RESEARCH METHODS
1. Qualitative Research
Goals
Goals: develops grounded theory, develops understanding,
describes multiple realities, captures naturally occurring
behavior
what is most important in the social disciplines is understanding
the meaning that is constructed by the participants involved in
particular social settings
It is best suited to address a research problem in which you do not
know the variables and need to explore.
 Qualitative research
 Some of the key characteristics of qualitative research is summarized as
follows: 
 Researchers ask broad research questions
 Participants are selected through non-random methods based
 Data collection techniques involve interview, observation, document
analisis etc
 The researcher is likely to take an interactive role
 Hypotheses are formed after the researcher begins data collection and are
modified throughout the study as new data are collected and analyzed.
 The study reports data in narrative form.
• There are four major categories of qualitative designs
– Case study
– Phenomenology
– Ethnography
– Grounded theory
 Case study
• Case Study: it is an examination of a specific instance of a
phenomena in its natural context viewed from the perspective of
the participants
• It is an in-depth exploration of a bounded system (e.g., activity,
event, process, or individuals) based on extensive data collection
(Creswell, 2007).
• Bounded means that the case is separated out for research in
terms of time, place, or some physical boundaries.
• The “case” may be a single individual, several individuals
separately or in a group, a program, events, or activities (e.g., a
teacher, several teachers, or the implementation of a new
leadership training program).
• Providing in-depth understanding requires that only a few cases
be studied, because for each case examined, the researcher has
less time to devote to exploring the depths of any one case.
 Phenomenology

• Phenomenology: it is a description of the meaning of an

experience
• Phenomenological qualitative research seeks to explain
experiences of human life in order to extract meaning that can be
applied to other settings and situations
• The purpose of the phenomenological approach is seeking to
understand what meaning certain events have on individuals in
particular situations.
• shortly, it is to understand the experience of an individual or
group of individuals from the perspective of those who have
participated in a study
• Phenomenology’s goal is to tell a story through the eyes of the
participants and describe the most essential elements of an
experience.
 Ethnography
 Ethnographic designs are qualitative procedures for describing,
analyzing, and interpreting a cultural group’s shared patterns of
behavior, beliefs, and language that develop over time.
 In ethnography, the researcher provides a detailed picture of the
culture-sharing group, drawing on various sources of information.
• The ethnographer also describes the group within its setting,
explores themes or issues that develop over time as the group
interacts, and details a portrait of the group.
• You conduct an ethnography when you have long-term access to a
culture-sharing group so that you can build a detailed record of
their behaviors and beliefs over time.
• You may be a participant in the group or simply an observer, but
you gather extensive field notes, interview many people, and
collect letters and documents to establish the record of the culture-
sharing group.
 Grounded theory
• Grounded theory designs are systematic, qualitative procedures that
researchers use to generate a general explanation (grounded in the views
of participants, called a grounded theory) that explains a process, action,
or interaction among people.
• The procedures for developing this theory include primarily collecting
interview data, developing and relating categories (or themes) of
information, and composing a figure or visual model that portrays the
general explanation.
• In this way, the explanation is “grounded” in the data from participants.
• From this explanation, you construct predictive statements about the
experiences of individuals.
• Grounded theory starts with a systematic, inductive approach to
collecting and analyzing data to develop theoretical analyses.
• The method also includes checking emergent categories that emerge
from successive levels of analysis through hypothetical and deductive
reasoning.
 2. Quantitative research
2. Quantitative research methods emphasize objective
measurements and the statistical, mathematical, or
numerical analysis of data collected through polls, questionnaires,
and surveys, or by manipulating pre-existing statistical data using
computational techniques
The goals is to test theory, establishes facts, shows relationships,
predicts, or statistically describes
All in all the key characteristics of quantitative research is
summarized as follows: 
Researchers ask narrow research questions designed to asses
existing status, opinion and attitudes.
Participants are selected through random methods based
Data collection techniques involve questionnaire
The researcher is likely to take an investigating no interactive role
Hypotheses are formed before the researcher begins data
 Quantitative research

There are four main types of quantitative research designs. They

are
A.Descriptive survey
B.Correlational,
C.Quasi-experimental and
D.Experimental. ...
 Qualitative and Quantitative Research Compared

qualitative quantitative Qualitative Quantitative

narrative numeric exploratory confirmatory
subjective objective empiricism rationalism
value laden value neutral
inductive deductive
Atheoretical theoretical
descriptive predictive
naturalism positivism
detailed / deep generalizable
relativism realism
open standardized micro macro
understanding explanation art science
 CHAPTER 4
VARIABLES AND HYPOTHESES
Variables
 A variable is anything that can take on different values (i.e any
attribute of a person or unit that can vary in its value)

For example, height, weight, age, race, attitude, and IQ are variables
because there are different

By contrast, if something cannot vary, or take on different values, then

it is referred to as a constant.

There are many categories of variables. The following are some of

them:

Independent Variables vs. Dependent Variables; Categorical (discrete)

Variables vs. Continuous Variables; Quantitative Variables vs.
 Variables and Hypotheses Cont’d
Types of Variables:

i)Independent Variables vs. Dependent Variables

The independent variable is the factor that is manipulated or
controlled by the researcher.
In research, the group in which the independent variable is present is
referred to as the experimental group, whereas the group in which the
independent variable is not present is referred to as the control group.
It is common for a research study to include multiple independent
variables.
 Variables and Hypotheses Cont’d
 The dependent variable is a measure of the effect (if any) of the independent
variable.
 Thus, in research the independent variable is treated as the “cause” and the
dependent variable as the “effect.”
 The dependent variable is called “dependent” because it is influenced by the
independent variable.
ii) Categorical Variables vs. Continuous Variables
 Categorical variables are variables that can take on specific values only within
a defined range of values.
For example, “gender” is a categorical variable because you can either be male or
female.
 There is no middle ground when it comes to gender; you can either be male or
female; you must be one, and you cannot be both.
 Race, marital status, and hair color are other common examples of categorical
variables
 Therefore, categorical variables consisting of discrete, mutually exclusive
categories, such as “male/female,” “White/Black,” “single/married/divorced,”
and “blonde/brunette/redhead.”
 Variables and Hypotheses Cont’d

iii. Continuous variables are variables that can theoretically take on

any value along a continuum.
For example, “age” is a continuous variable because, theoretically at
least, someone can be any age.
Other examples of continuous variables could include: “Income,”
“weight,” and “height”.
When compared with categorical variables, continuous variables
can be measured with a greater degree of precision.
The choice of which statistical tests will be used to analyze the data
is partially dependent on whether the researcher uses categorical or
continuous variables.
 Variables and Hypotheses Cont’d

iv) Quantitative Variables vs. Qualitative Variables

Qualitative variables are variables that vary in kind,
while quantitative variables are those that vary in amount.
Rating something as “attractive” or “not attractive,”
“helpful” or “not helpful,” or “consistent” or “not
consistent” are examples of qualitative variables.
Whereas, reporting the number of times that something
happened or the number of times that someone engaged in
a particular behavior are examples of quantitative
variables
 Variables and Hypotheses Cont’d
iv) Extraneous variables
Simultaneous to the consideration of the independent and
dependent variables, researchers must consider any potential
variables that could influence the groups’ performance on the
dependent variable.
To legitimately do this, the researcher has to be certain that no
other variables could cause the differences.
Technically, the researcher wants to control for extraneous
variables.
An extraneous variable is a variable that could influence the
participants in the study and ultimately influence the dependent
variable.
 Variables and Hypotheses Cont’d
B) Hypotheses
Hypothesis is simply a testable—guess about the answer to your
research question;
It is an attempt by the researcher to explain the phenomenon of
interest;
A key feature of all hypotheses is that each must make a
prediction;
These predictions are then tested by gathering and analyzing data,
After testing, the hypotheses can either be supported or refuted
In their simplest forms, hypotheses are typically phrased as “if-
then” statements.
The hypotheses articulated in a particular study should logically
stem from the research problem being investigated.
 Variables and Hypotheses Cont’d

Types of Hypotheses
There are two broad categories :
a.Null Hypotheses
b.Alternate Hypotheses
Null Hypotheses
The null hypothesis always predicts that there will be no
differences between the groups being studied; E.g the is no
statistically significant difference between male and female
leadership self-efficacy
Whereas, the alternate hypothesis predicts that there will be a
difference between the groups.
E,g males perceive better leadership self-efficacy than
 Variables and Hypotheses Cont’d

 In scientific research, keep in mind that it is the null hypothesis

that is tested, and then the null hypothesis is either confirmed or
refuted (sometimes phrased as rejected or not rejected).
 If the null hypothesis is rejected (and that decision is based on the
results of statistical analyses), the researcher can reasonably
conclude that there is a difference between the groups being
studied.
 CHAPTER 5
REVIEWING THE LITERATURE
What is a literature review?
Is a systematic, explicit, and reproducible method for identifying,
evaluating and synthesizing the existing body of completed and
recorded work produced by researchers.
Why is a review of the literature is important in any research activity?
To acquire an understanding of his topic,
To understand what has already been done in relation to his topic,
To know how it has been researched (the methodology employed),
and
To know what were the key issues identified in the previous
researches.
Types of Literature Sources:
Literature reviews often contain both primary and secondary source
materials.
i) Primary source literature consists of literature reported by the
 Reviewing the Literature Cont’d
Secondary sources are helpful as you begin your review, to explore
and determine the range of materials on a topic.
Sources for the literature review
Published books
Journal articles
Electronic Sources
Theses and conference papers
How to conduct a literature review?
Search for Up-to-date materials
Check details; spelling of names
Do not use jargon
Do not only produce a description and a compilation of information
 CHAPTER 6
MEASUREMENT AND SCALING TECHNIQUES
Measurement in research is the process of assigning numbers to
objects or observations,
It is easy to assign numbers in respect of properties of some objects,
but it is relatively difficult in respect of others.
Example:
measuring social conformity, intelligence, or marital adjustment is
much less obvious and requires much closer attention.
That means, if the concept is abstract and the measurement tools
are not standardized, we are less confident about the accuracy of the
results of measurement.
But measuring physical weight, biological age or a person’s
financial assets are easy to measure.
That means properties like weight, height etc., can be measured
directly with some standard unit of measurement,
Measurement and Scaling Techniques Cont’d
Technically speaking, measurement is a process of mapping aspects
of a domain onto other aspects of a range according to some rule of
correspondence.
MEASUREMENT SCALES
From what has been stated above, we can write that scales of
measurement can be considered in terms of their mathematical
properties.
The most widely used classification of measurement scales are:
a)nominal scale;
b)ordinal scale;
c)interval scale; and
d)ratio scale.
 Measurement and Scaling Techniques Cont’d
1) Nominal scale: Nominal scale is simply a system of assigning
number symbols to events in order to label them.
The usual example of this is the assignment of numbers of basketball
players in order to identify them.
Examples: numbering of football players; numbers assigned to
religions in alphabetical order, e.g. atheist=1, Buddhist=2,
Christian=3, etc.
2) Ordinal scale: The lowest level of the ordered scale that is
commonly used is the ordinal scale.
The ordinal scale places events in order,
Rank orders represent ordinal scales are frequently used in research
relating to qualitative phenomena.
Eg: A student’s rank in his graduation class involves the use of an
ordinal scale.
 Measurement and Scaling Techniques Cont’d
3) Interval scale: the intervals are adjusted in terms of some rule
that has been established as a basis for making the units equal.
Interval scales provide more powerful measurement than ordinal
scales.
As such more powerful statistical measures can be used with interval
scales:
Mean is the appropriate measure of central tendency,
standard deviation is the most widely used measure of dispersion.
Product moment correlation techniques are appropriate and
the generally used tests for statistical significance are the ‘t’ test
and ‘F’ test.
 Measurement and Scaling Techniques Cont’d
4) Ratio scale: Ratio scales have an absolute or true zero of
measurement.
Ratio scale represents the actual amounts of variables.

Measures of physical dimensions such as weight, height, distance,

etc. are examples.
Generally, all statistical techniques are usable with ratio scales

Multiplication and division can be used with this scale but not with
other scales mentioned above.
 Measurement and Scaling Techniques Cont’d
In general, researchers in physical sciences have the advantage to
describe variables in ratio scale form but the behavioural sciences
are generally limited to describe variables in interval scale form, a
less precise type of measurement.
Tests of Sound Measurement
Sound measurement must meet the tests of validity, reliability and
practicality.
Validity refers to the extent to which a test measures what we
actually wish to measure.
Reliability has to do with the accuracy and precision of a
measurement procedure ... (which is related to consistency of
measurement tools)
Practicality is concerned with a wide range of factors of economy,
convenience, and interpretability.
 Measurement and Scaling Techniques Cont’d
3. Test of Practicality
The practicality characteristic of a measuring instrument can be
judged in terms of economy, convenience and interpretability.
Economy consideration suggests that some trade-off is needed
between the ideal research project and that which the budget can
afford.
Convenience test suggests that the measuring instrument should be
easy to administer (a questionnaire with clear instructions more
effective and easier to complete).
Interpretability consideration is especially important when persons
other than the designers of the test are to interpret the results.
The measuring instrument, in order to be interpretable, must be
supplemented by:
(a) detailed instructions for administering the test;
(b) scoring keys;
(c) evidence about the reliability and
 Measurement and Scaling Techniques Cont’d
Scaling
Scaling is the process of assigning numbers to various degrees of
opinion, attitude etc.
This can be done in two ways:
(i)making a judgement about some characteristic of an individual
and then placing him directly on a scale that has been defined in
terms of that characteristic and
(ii)constructing questionnaires in such a way that the score of
individual’s responses assigns him a place on a scale.
A scale is a continuum, consisting of the highest point (in terms of
some characteristic e.g., preference, favourableness, etc.) and the
lowest point along with several intermediate points between these
two extreme points.
 Measurement and Scaling Techniques Cont’d
In the context of social, educational and business researches we can get
the following scaling techniques:
a)Rating scales:
The rating scale involves qualitative description of a limited number of
aspects of a thing or traits of a person.
When we use rating scales (or categorical scales), we judge an object
in absolute terms against some specified criteria.
The following are examples of rating scales:
Very high (5), high (4), moderate(3), low (2), very low (1)
“like very much—like somewhat—neutral—dislike somewhat—dislike very much”;
“excellent—good—average—below average—poor”,
“always—often—occasionally—rarely—never”,
“Strongly agree-agree-Neither agree nor disagree-disagree-strongly agree” and so on.
 Measurement and Scaling Techniques Cont’d

b) Ranking scales:
Under ranking scales (or comparative scales) we make relative
judgements against other similar objects.
The respondents under this method directly compare two or more
objects and make choices among them.
Under this method of comparative scaling, the respondents are
asked to rank their choices.
 CHAPTER 7
DATA COLLECTION AND DATA ANALYSIS

Data sources:
a. primary: include data collected through questionnaire, interview,
observation, and FGD)
b. information collected from printed sources such as student
schooling data, censuses, MoE annual abstracts, policies, strategies,
manuals, directives.
• Such information always obtained from internet searches, office
visit, or documented in libraries.
Population: A population includes all of the elements/ phenomenon/ in
the study area
• A population in a statistical sense refers to a complete set of
subjects, values or events that have some common characteristic.
• A measurable characteristic of a population, (e.g. mean, SD)is
called a parameter
 DATA COLLECTION cont’d
• In many survey designs the population of interest—all
those to whom you
• would like to generalize your findings—may be
indeterminable in number or impossible to enumerate.
• Most surveys involve the selection of samples, unless they
are censuses or total population surveys.
• A sample is usually a collection of subjects, values or
events which is finite in size, therefore quantifiable, and
represents a subgroup of a population.
 DATA COLLECTION cont’d
 A sample consists of one or more observations from the
population.
 Sampling is done usually because it is impossible to test
every single individual in the population.
 It is also done to save time, money and effort while
conducting the research.
 Rarely is it feasible or necessary to include the total
population of interest in a study.
 a sample can have fewer observations than the population.
 More than one sample can be derived from the same
population.
 A measurable characteristic of a sample is called a statistic.
 DATA COLLECTION cont’d
Sampling: a procedure for selecting sample elements
from a population.
There are two types of sampling:
a.Probability sampling methods
•Example, include simple random sampling, stratified
sampling, cluster sampling, multistage sampling, and
systematic random sampling.
•The key benefit of probability sampling methods is
that they guarantee that the sample chosen is
representative of the population
 DATA COLLECTION cont’d
1. Simple random sampling: refers to a sampling method that
has the following properties.
• The population consists of N objects.
• The sample consists of n objects.
• All possible samples of n objects are equally likely to occur.
• Benefit: it allows researchers to use statistical methods to
analyze sample results. For example, given a simple random
sample, researchers can use statistical methods to define a
confidence interval around a sample mean.
• Statistical analysis is not appropriate when non-random
sampling methods are used.
 DATA COLLECTION cont’d
• There are many ways to obtain a simple random
sample.
• One way would be the lottery method. Each of the
N population members is assigned a unique
number.
• The numbers are placed in a bowl and thoroughly
mixed.
• Then, a blind-folded researcher selects n numbers.
 DATA COLLECTION cont’d
2. Stratified sampling: it is a sampling wherein the
researcher divides the entire population into
different subgroups or strata (e,g Male and
female), then randomly selects the final subjects
proportionally from the different strata.
• The strata are formed based on members' shared
attributes or characteristics.
• A random sample from each stratum is taken in a
number proportional to the stratum's size when
compared to the population.
 DATA COLLECTION cont’d
Cluster sampling: a sampling method that has the following
properties.
•The population is divided into N groups, called clusters.
•The researcher randomly selects n clusters to include in the
sample.
•Each element of the population can be assigned to one, and
only one cluster.
•It is divided into two as One-stage sampling. All of the
elements within selected clusters are included in the sample
and Two-stage sampling. A subset of elements within selected
clusters are randomly selected for inclusion in the sample.
 DATA COLLECTION cont’d

4. Multistage sampling: is a complex form of cluster

sampling...
 It involves randomly choosing clusters and then randomly
choosing subjects from each cluster.
 In multistage cluster sampling, the researcher chooses a
sample in two or more stages.
 This is because either the researchers cannot easily identify
the population or the population is extremely large.
 DATA COLLECTION, cont’d
5. Systematic sampling : involving the selection of elements from
an ordered sampling frame.
• After having a complete list of the population name the
sampling starts by selecting an element from the list at random
and then every kth element in the frame is selected,
• A formula is that k =N/n
• k=the sampling interval; n=the sample size, and N is the
population size.
• It is applied only if the given population is logically
homogeneous.
 DATA COLLECTION cont’d

B. Non-Probability Sampling
 In this case, members of the population do not have equal
chance of being selected.
 Examples of nonrandom samples are the followings:

1. Convenience: In convenience sampling the researcher selects

participants because they are willing and available to be studied.
2. Purposive sampling: researchers intentionally select individuals
and sites to learn or understand the central phenomenon
 he standard used in choosing participants and sites is whether
they are “information rich”
 DATA COLLECTION cont’d
3. Quota sampling: a population is first segmented into sub-
groups (e.g. Male and Female). Then the judgment is used to
select the subjects from each segment based on a specified
proportion.

4. Snow sampling: this is an alternative to convenience

 In snowball sampling, the researcher asks participants to
identify others to become members of the sample.
 For example, you might send surveys to a school
superintendent and ask that the superintendent forward copies
to the principals of schools in that school district.
 DATA COLLECTION cont’d
• Generally, in Non-probability sampling it is not safe to
assume that the sample fully represents the target population.
It is also possible that the researcher deliberately chose the
individuals that will participate in the study.
• It is useful for pilot studies, and qualitative research
• This sampling method is usually employed in studies that are
not interested in the parameters of the entire population.
• Some researchers prefer this sampling technique because it is
cheap, quick and easy.
 DATA COLLECTION cont’d
Data collection Tools: different tools are used to collect data for a
research.
Some major of them are survey questionnaire, interview, FGD,
observation and document analysis.
a. Survey questionnaire: can be standardized (purchased or downloaded
by author permission) or self-constructed (from different literature).
b. In both cases, the survey has to be pilot tested and also has to be
checked for validity.
c. The survey questionnaire can be close-ended( e.g likert scale and
multiple choice) or open-ended (e.g. mention possible factors that can
affect….)
• questionnaire is flexible, low cost, and covers a large number of study
participants
• preferred for securing a study participant’s anonymity and
confidentiality
 DATA COLLECTION cont’d
b. Interview: is used to collect the qualitative data.
• It is used to discover feelings and explore present or previous
behaviors in a deeper manner.
• it can be classified as follow:
1. structured interview, all questions are asked in a predetermined order
from a prepared schedule and all the interviewers involved strive to
ask each question in the same way and with the same emphasis.
2. exploratory interview, the question areas are pre-determined but the
respondents are allowed some latitude to answer in their own way and
the interviewer may probe for more information in promising areas.
3. A semi-structured interview is a one-sided conversation in which the
respondent is allowed free rein as long as the interviewer considers
that what is being said is, or might be, relevant.
 DATA COLLECTION cont’d
Procedures for Data Collection
• In this part of the research design, the researcher
has to describe that:
The tools were pilot tested,
All comments were include,
• Questioners were distributed by the
researcher/assistant researchers, if any,
• The collected data interpreted according to each
of the research questions.
 DATA COLLECTION cont’d
Data analysis Methods
A. Analyzing Qualitative Data
• Often data collected through the survey questionnaires are analyzed
quantitatively and processed using Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences (SPSS), and analyzed by employing different statistical tools
• The statistical tools can be descriptive (e.g. Frequency distribution
(percentage), mean, and SD) or inferential (t-test and ANOVA). A
collected data has to analyzed using either descriptive statistics or
inferential statistics.
 Descriptive statistics refer to the descriptive use of statistics to present
and summarize data.
 inferential statistics mean the process whereby statistical information
obtained from a sample is used to draw conclusions which have wider
applicability than solely to the sample of observations or measurements
obtained
 Frequency distribution always used to obtain an accurate description of
the respondents' personal and other demographic factors
 DATA COLLECTION cont’d
 Mean and the standard deviation scores used to answer
questions deals with description such those ask about status,
 Scholars (e.g., Cohen et al., 2007) suggested the use of
descriptive statistics to describe or assess how respondents
view certain issues within a given context.
 To analyze research questions that deal with two independent
variables, such as gender, the researcher has to use t-test,
 To analyze the research questions that deal with more than
two independent variables, the researcher has to used
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
 The researcher has to use correlation to investigate existing
relationship between two liner variables.
 DATA COLLECTION cont’d
Statistical Test Type of Data Number and Type Why and when to be Used and their
of Variables Interpretations
t -test Interval Used to test the difference between two group
means; a significant t value shows that a true
difference exists between the group means
Independent 2 independent 1 <<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<
dependant
ample t-test
t-test for paired Used for two related
sample measured at
sample
different time
interval
Analysis of Interval 3 or more Used to test the difference between the means
variance of more than two groups; a significant F ratio
independent; 1
(ANOVA) shows that a true difference exists between
dependent the group means
Chi-square Nominal 2 or more frequency Used to measures the difference
between a statistically generated expected
(Frequency counts or percentages
result
counts or and an actual result to see if there is a
percentages) statistically
significant difference between them,
 Data Source, Sampling, cont’d

Pearson Product- Interval, 2 variables that are both Used to test whether the relationship
continuous or between two variables is greater
Moment Correlation measured
than would be expected due to
ratio scale chance; a significant r correlation
shows that a true relationship exists
Spearman’s rho Ordinal Two To show linear relationship

Multiple regression Interval 2 or more independent; 2 Used to see if the independent variable
predicts changes in the
analysis or more dependent
dependent variable when other
variables are held constant;
a significant R value means that the
independent variable can predict
differences in the dependent variable
 DATA COLLECTION cont’d

In short, in the process of using statistical tools, consider the following points
1. Are the differences between conditions significant:
• T-tests, ANOVA, Chi Square
2. Is there a relationship between variables?
• Correlations (note: you can’t tell causation from this)
• Pay attention to r values (between 1 and -1).
3. Which of the independent variables cause the dependent variables?
• Regression Analysis (note: need very large sample size;
controversial technique)
 DATA COLLECTION cont’d
B) Qualitative Data Analysis
Although the steps involved in qualitative data analysis may vary
according to the research questions asked and the type of approach
taken, the steps listed below are common to most qualitative studies:
1. Coding data into categories
4. Building themes
6. Interpreting and Reporting data
 Chapter -8
DATA ANALYSIS AND REPORTING

A analysis and interpretation of the data

• In a research process, there are raw data that need to be analyzed in
order to give meaning.
Start analysis by reporting the response rate in percentage
• In the process of analysis, give number to each and every
questionnaire(1,2,3,-----)
 Use standardized format of tables to be generated by the SPSS (look
the following table for 172 respondents)
Table 4.1 Personal Background of the Respondents

No. Variables N %
1. Gender: Male 146 84.9
Female 26 15.1
Total 172 100
 Data Analysis …

Sample analysis of a table:

Table 4.1 illustrates the respondents’ demographic
characteristics. As displayed in Table 4.1, item number one,
the total number of principals correctly filled the survey
questionnaires was 172, of which the majority, 84.9 %
(n=146), were males while females were minority, 15.1%
(n=26).
NB: the first letter of the word “Table” should be in block letter
in all the analysis of a data.
 Analysis…
 In the presentation & analysis, you can put similar
responses in one table & give unique (special) name to the
table.
Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations
1. Summary
Summary is the short form of the original text and it is based
on the presentation, analysis and interpretation part of the
findings.
You can put the major findings/highlights in a form of
summary.
• Example: the finding of the study revealed that the
majority (84.9 %) of the respondents were male.
Regarding their age, the study indicated that, the majority
(25.2%) of them were in the young age group.
 Analysis …
Conclusion: it is not a summary & vise-versa.
 It is simply generalization.
 It is one-step further of the summary.
e.g. the study indicated that there is more male than female in
school leadership position
Recommendation: it is making suggestion as to how the
problem under study is to be solved.
 Recommend based on major problems identified in the
study along with the researcher's experience
 Forward recommend only as per the available resource
and existing conditions of your study area (county).
 Analysis…

Considerations taken during recommendation

1.Feasibility – Is what I recommend practical
/implemented?
E.g. Wereda Education Office should buy two
services (cars) to run the inter-visitation program.
This is not feasible if there is no adequate finance.
Do we have adequate resources (see this first)
2.Be specific: - Ex: don’t recommend as
“appropriate measures” should be taken” what
does this mean? Be specific.
 Analysis…
3.In most cases, do not recommend to the
government: -
4.Try to solve it at school/wereda level and in
cooperation with the community
5.Recommending Terms need to be polite:
Should, need to, it is good if ---/ought to be, it
would be wise if ----
 Analysis…
 When reporting the research findings, it should be as
concise and as logically organized as possible.
 keep the tone impersonal, that is first-person pronouns
are never used in quantitative reports, although they are
acceptable in qualitative reports.
 Thus, you would not write, “I randomly assigned
participants to the two treatment groups” but, rather,
“Participants were randomly assigned to the two
treatment groups.”
 Analysis…
A Research Reporting Style in the Thesis or Dissertation
Most universities have a preferred style manual that describes in detail the form
the university requires.
The following outline lists the sequence and general components of a thesis or
dissertation as described in most style manuals.
1. Preliminary pages
cover page which include title page
Inner (second) page: re-write the title, and degree nomenclature (BA or
MA)
Approval Page – Unless your paper is signed, it is worthless.
Acknowledgement –Here you cite individuals who made remarkable
contribution to your study.
Declaration page
Table of contents – It appears in titles, subtitles, & with pages.
List of Tables
List of Figures
Abbreviations and Acronyms
 Analysis & Reporting…
2. Text (Main Body of the Study)
Chapter one: Introduction
1.1 Background of the Study
1.2 Statements of the Problem
1.3 Objectives of the Study
1.3.1 General Objective
1.3.2 Specific Objectives
1.4 Significance of the study
1.5 Delimitation of the Study
1.6 Limitation of the Study
1.7 Operational Definition of Key Terms
1.8 Organization of the Study
 Analysis & Reporting…
Chapter Two: Review of the related literature
Chapter Three: The Research Design and Methodology
3.1 The research design
3.2 The research Method
3.3 Data Sources
3.4 Participants of the Study
3.5 Sample and Sampling Techniques
3.6 Data gathering Instruments
3.6.1 Questionnaires
3.6.2 interview
3.7 Reliability and Validity Data gathering Instruments
3.8 Method of Data analysis
Chapter Four: Analysis and Interpretation of the Data
4.1 Response Rate of the Respondents
4.2 Characteristic of the Respondents
...................................(Title of analysis for basic question one)
....................................(Title of analysis for basic question two)
Chapter Five: Summary Conclusion and Recommendations
5.1 Summaries
5.2 Conclusions
5.3 Recommendations
3. Supplementary pages
a. References
b. Appendixes-copy of questionnaire/ interview format,
observation checklists, etc
 References/Bibliography
 Bibliography is the term used for a list of all the sources (e.g.
books, articles)consulted even if they not directly cited
(referred to) in the research work.
 References – this term is used for a list of sources that only
includes those items you cite in your writing.
 References are divided into two: In-text reference and
bibliographic references
In-text reference: it appear in two format:
a. when a name of author comes at the begging of a
statement, author’s last name is out of bracket and year of
publication and page number(s)) are in a bracket.
e.g. Austen (2016, p. 64) defines leadership as a process of …
 References/Bibliography
b. when a name of author comes at the end of a
statement, author’s last name, year of
publication, and page number(s)) are in the
bracket.
e.g. Leadership is defined as a process of … (Austen,
2016, p. 64).
• Note: For multiple pages, use the abbreviation ‘pp.’
Include the full page range, i.e. ’64-67’ as opposed to
’64-7’
 Reference…
 When a work has 2 authors, cite both names every time you
reference the work in the text.
 When a work has three to five authors, cite all the author
names the first time the reference occurs and then
subsequently include only the first author followed by et al.
e.g. First citation: Masserton, Slonowski, and Slowinski (1989) state
that...
Subsequent citations: Masserton et al. (1989) state that...
 For 6 or more authors, cite only the name of the first author
followed by et al. and the year.
 Citations of two or more works in the same parentheses
should be listed in the order they appear in the reference list
(i.e., alphabetically, then chronologically).
 E.g. Several studies (Jones & Powell, 1993; Peterson, 1995, 1998; Smith,
1990) suggest that...
 References ….
◊ When directly quoting from a source, you must include page
number(s) and enclose the quote in double quotation marks.
◊ Example: “A woman must have money and a room of her own if
she is to write fiction” (Woolf, 2016, p. 6).
◊ When citing a source you have not read yourself, but which is
referred to in a source you have read, use the following
method:
– Moore (as cited in Maxwell, 2016, p. 25) stated that…
– Important: You would cite both Maxwell and Moore, in the Reference
List as it is preferable to cite the original source.
 Reference
• Only include references you have cited in your
work.
• References should be listed alphabetically by the
last name of the first author of each work.
• All references should have a hanging indent. That
is, all lines of a reference subsequent to the first
line should be indented (see examples below).
 Reference
 In the case of multiple works by the same author in different
years, list references chronologically (earliest to latest).
 In the case of multiple works by the same author in the same
year, list references alphabetically by title in the Reference
List.
 When referring to books, book chapters, article titles or web
pages, capitalize only the first letter of the first word of a title
and subtitle, and proper nouns.
 Example: Aboriginals and the mining industry: Case studies of
the Australian experience
 When referring to journal titles, capitalize all the initial word
of the major words (do not capitalize words such as ‘of’,
‘and’, & ‘the’ unless they are the first word in the title).
 Example: Journal of Exercise Science and Fitness
 Reference
Reference with One author:
Name of the author=Alex Cochrane
Year=2007
Title= Understanding urban policy: A critical approach.
Town= Malden
Publisher: Blackwell Publishing
Bibliography format, look the following
Cochrane, A. (2007). Understanding urban policy: A critical
approach. Malden: Blackwell Publishing
 Reference
Books of two authors, if it has no edition years
Strunk, W., Jr., & White, E. B. (1979). The guide to everything and then some
more stuff. New York, NY: Macmillan.
And if it has edition year:
Gregory, G., & Parry, T. (2006). Designing brain-compatible learning (3rd
ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
Chapter of a Book:
Bergquist, J. M. (1992). German Americans. In J. D. Buenker &
L. A. Ratner (Eds.), Multiculturalism in the United States: A
comparative guide to acculturation and ethnicity (pp. 53-
76). New York, NY: Greenwood.
Books with up to seven authors:
Bulliet, R. W., Crossley, P. K., Headrick, D. R., Hirsch, S. W.,
Johnson, L. L., & Northrup, D. (2011). The earth and its
peoples: A global history (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Wadsworth.
 Reference
Several works by the same author in different years: (state the
earlier year and later).
Greenspan, A. (2000). Orthopedic radiology: A practical
approach (3rd ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams &
Wilkins.
……(2011). Orthopedic imaging: A practical approach (5th ed.).
Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Several works by the same author in the same year:
Fullan, M. (1996a). Leadership for change. In International
handbook for educational leadership and administration. New
York, NY: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
……… (1996b). The new meaning of educational change.
London, England: Cassell.
 Reference
E-Book – online book:
Niemann, S., Greenstein, D., & David, D. (2004). Helping
children who are deaf: Family and community support for
children who do not hear well. Retrieved from:
http://www.hesperian.org/publications_download_deaf.php
NB: - If the URL leads to information about how to obtain the
book, use “Available from” instead of “Retrieved from”.
Corporate author – when the author is also the publisher:
Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. (2009). Indigenous housing needs
2009: A multi-measure needs model (AIHW cat. no. HOU 214). Canberra,
Australia: Author.
No date of publication:
Browne, J. D. (n.d.). Forensic science as a career. London, England: Tower
Publishing.
 Reference
Journal article or book with eight or more authors: include
the first six authors’ names, then insert three ellipsis points
(...), and add the last author’s name.
e.g. For journal:
Steel, J., Youssef, M., Pfeifer, R., Ramirez, J. M., Probst, C., Sellei, R., ...
Pape, H. C. (2010). Health-related quality of life in patients with
multiple injuries. Journal of Trauma: Injury, Infection, and Critical
Care, 69(3), 523-531. doi: 10.1097/TA.0b013e3181e90c24
e.g. For book:
Steel, J., Youssef, M., Pfeifer, R., Ramirez, J. M., Probst, C.,
Sellei, R., ... Pape, H. C. (2010). Health-related
quality of life in patients with multiple injuries (5th ed.).
Boston, MA: Wadsworth.
 Reference
Journal article retrieved from a database – with a DOI
(Digital Object Identifier)
Johns, E., & Mewhort, D. (2009). Test sequence priming in
recognition memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology:
Learning, Memory and Cognition, 35, 1162-1174. doi:
10.1037/a0016372
Journal article retrieved from a database – without a DOI:
Ramalho, M., Da Silva, G., & Dias, L. (2009). Genetic plant improvement and
climate changes. Crop Breeding and Applied Biotechnology, 9(2), 189-
195. Retrieved from http://www.sbmp.org.br/cbab.
NB: DOI is a unique, permanent identifier assigned to articles in many
databases. Always include the DOI if one is provided.
 Reference
Government department as author:
Ministry of Finance & Economic Development(2006). Delivering Ethiopian
Government services: Managing multiple channels. Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia: Author.
For such title page, give the full name with the abbreviation for the first in-text
reference. Use the abbreviation (i.e. MOFED) for subsequent references.
Blog post:
Keim, B. (2009, November 18). ID error leaves fish at edge of extinction
[Web log post]. Retrieved from
http://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2009/11/extinction-error/
Website with no author or date of publication:
Census data revisited. (n.d.). Retrieved March 9, 2009, from Harvard,
Psychology of Population website, http://harvard.edu/data/index.php
NB: Do not include retrieval dates unless the source material may change over time.
If no DOI has been assigned to the content, provide the homepage URL.
 Reference
Conference or seminar papers in published proceedings –
print:
Edge, M. (1996). Lifetime prediction: Fact or fancy? In M. S.
Koch, T. Padfield, J. S. Johnsen, & U. B. Kejser (Eds.),
Proceedings of the Conference on Research Techniques in
Photographic Conservation (pp. 97-100). Copenhagen,
Denmark: Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts.
If the paper is from regularly published proceedings (e.g. annual),
use the Journal article citation format.
Conference or seminar papers in published proceedings – online:
Tester, J. W. (2008). The future of geothermal energy as a major global energy supplier.
In H. Gurgenci & A. R. Budd (Eds.), Proceedings of the Sir Mark Oliphant
International Frontiers of Science and Technology Australian Geothermal Energy
Conference, Canberra, Australia: Geoscience Australia. Retrieved from
http://www.ga.gov.au/image_cache/GA11825.pdf
 Reference …
Thesis or Dissertation – print:
Duddle, M. (2009). Intraprofessional relations in nursing: A case
study (Unpublished doctoral thesis), University of Sydney,
Australia.
Thesis or Dissertation – retrieved from the web:
Lacey, D. (2011). The role of humiliation in collective political
violence (Masters thesis, University of Sydney, Australia).
Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/2123/7128
 Reference
 When you come across the names of more than one city, take the
first one (eg. Boston, Los Angeles, Frank Fart, Atlanta). You take
Boston.
Important points: Proof-read your paper- read it before you
submit or proper utilization of tenses Use simple future when
writing the proposal, simple past tense when, analyzing the data,
and simple present tense when referring to tables.
 Avoid too many quotations
 Do not use Honorific titles (Doctors, Engineers, etc. Put their
names only
 Avoid plagiarism -this is taking some body’s idea and putting it
as if it was yours.
 Spell words less than 100—(ninety –nine seventy –one, twenty-
seven, etc).