ORDERS OF ADJECTIVES

Determiner: determiners are words placed at the beginning of a noun phrase to specify quantity,
possession, definiteness, or other aspects. They always come before adjectives and the nouns
they modify. Here are some common types of determiners:

1. Articles: a, an, the

2. Possessives: my, your, his, her, its, our, their.
3. Demonstratives: this, that, these, those
4. Quantifiers: some, many, few, several

For example, in the phrase “the beautiful old house,” “the” is the determiner, and it comes before
the adjectives “beautiful” and “old” which describe the noun “house.”

Opinion: When using multiple adjectives to describe a noun, opinion adjectives typically come
first in the sequence. These adjectives express what the speaker thinks or feels about the noun,
such as “beautiful,” “horrible,” “amazing,” or "nice"

For example, in the phrase “a beautiful old house,” “beautiful” is an opinion adjective describing
the speaker’s view of the house, while “old” is a factual adjective describing its age.

Size: In the sequence of adjectives, size adjectives come after quantity and opinion adjectives.
These adjectives describe how big or small something is. Common size adjectives include
“small,” “large,” “tiny,” “huge,” “gigantic,” and "minuscule"

For example, in the phrase “a beautiful large house,” “beautiful” is an opinion adjective, and
“large” is a size adjective describing the house.

Age: age adjectives come after size adjectives and before shape adjectives. These adjectives
describe how old or young something is. Common age adjectives include “old,” “young,” “new,”
“ancient,” and "modern"

For example, in the phrase “a beautiful old house,” “beautiful” is an opinion adjective, and “old”
is an age adjective describing the house.
Shape: shape adjectives come after age adjectives and before colour adjectives. These adjectives
describe the form or outline of something. Common shape adjectives include “round,” “square,”
“long,” “short,” “oval,” and "rectangular"

For example, in the phrase “a beautiful old round table,” “beautiful” is an opinion adjective,
“old” is an age adjective, and “round” is a shape adjective describing the table.

Colour: colour adjectives come after shape adjectives and before origin adjectives. These
adjectives describe the colour of the noun. Common colour adjectives include “red,” “blue,”
“green,” “yellow,” “black,” and "white"

For example, in the phrase “a beautiful old round red table,” “beautiful” is an opinion adjective,
“old” is an age adjective, “round” is a shape adjective, and “red” is a color adjective describing
the table.

Origin: origin adjectives come after colour adjectives and before material adjectives. These
adjectives describe the geographical or cultural source of the noun. Common origin adjectives
include “French,” “Japanese,” “American,” and "Italian"

For example, in the phrase “a beautiful old round red French table,” “beautiful” is an opinion
adjective, “old” is an age adjective, “round” is a shape adjective, “red” is a color adjective, and
“French” is an origin adjective describing the table.

Material: material adjectives come after origin adjectives and before purpose adjectives. These
adjectives describe what something is made of. Common material adjectives include “wooden,”
“plastic,” “metallic,” “silk,” “cotton,” and "leather"

For example, in the phrase “a beautiful old round red French wooden table,” “beautiful” is an
opinion adjective, “old” is an age adjective, “round” is a shape adjective, “red” is a color
adjective, “French” is an origin adjective, and “wooden” is a material adjective describing the
table.

Purpose: purpose adjectives come last. These adjectives describe what something is used for.
They often end in “-ing” or are compound nouns. Common purpose adjectives include
“cleaning,” “cooking,” “writing,” and "sleeping"
For example, in the phrase “a beautiful old round red French wooden writing desk,” “beautiful”
is an opinion adjective, “old” is an age adjective, “round” is a shape adjective, “red” is a color
adjective, “French” is an origin adjective, “wooden” is a material adjective, and “writing” is a
purpose adjective describing the desk.

Noun: the noun is the final element. After all the adjectives have been used to describe various
aspects of the noun (such as quantity, opinion, size, age, shape, color, origin, material, and
purpose), the noun itself comes last. This structure helps to clearly convey the complete
description of the noun.

For example, in the phrase “a beautiful old round red French wooden writing desk,” “desk” is the
noun that all the preceding adjectives describe.

FORMATION OF NOUNS

Nouns are naming words (Names)

Nouns can be formed from different parts of speech, I.e -Adjective, -verbs, -Nouns

Adding suffixes to base words is a common way to form nouns. Some common noun suffixes
include:

 -tion: e.g., exploration, education

 -ment: e.g., movement, development

 -ness: e.g., happiness, kindness

 -ity: e.g., sincerity, creativity

 -ism: e.g., capitalism, socialism

Formulation of Nouns from nouns

Nouns can be formed from other nouns by adding the suffixes. E.g. cash/ cashier, labour/
labourer

1. Compounding

Combining two nouns to create a new noun is a common method.

  Tooth + brush = toothbrush

 Sun + flower = sunflower

2. Possessive Forms

Using the possessive form of a noun can create a new noun phrase.

 Teacher’s + desk = teacher’s desk

 Children’s + playground = children’s playground

3. Conversion

Sometimes, a noun can be used as another noun without any change in form.

 Chicken (the bird) → Chicken (the meat)

 Paper (material) → Paper (a written document)

4. Affixation

Adding prefixes or suffixes to nouns can create new nouns.

 King + -dom = kingdom

 Friend + -ship = friendship

5. Borrowing

Borrowing nouns from other languages and using them in new contexts.

 Pizza (Italian) → Pizza (a type of food)

 Yoga (Sanskrit) → Yoga (a form of exercise)

Formulation of nouns from verbs

To form nouns from verbs, the suffixes -er, -ivity, are added. E.g. create/ creativity, play/ player,
dream/ dreamer.

Forming nouns from verbs is a common process in English, often achieved by adding specific
suffixes to the base verb. Here are some common methods:
 1. Adding Suffixes:

o -tion / -sion: For example, “inform” becomes “information” and “decide”

becomes “decision”.

o -ment: For example, “develop” becomes “development”.

o -ance / -ence: For example, “resist” becomes “resistance” and “exist” becomes
"existence"

2. Conversion:

o Some verbs can be used as nouns without any changes. For example, “run” (as in
“She went for a run”) and “drive” (as in “He has a long drive ahead”).

Formulation of nouns from adjectives

Nouns can be formed from adjectives by adding the suffixes, -ness, -ment. Great/ Greatness,
happy/ happiness.

Forming nouns from adjectives is a common process in English, often achieved by adding
specific suffixes. Here are some common methods:

1. Adding Suffixes:

o -ness: This suffix is added to many adjectives to form nouns. For example,
“happy” becomes “happiness” and “kind” becomes "kindness"1.

o -ity: This suffix is often used with adjectives ending in -ble or with soft
sounds. For example, “responsible” becomes “responsibility” and “curious”
becomes "curiosity

Comprehension

When it is a phase, start with a small letter and end without a punctuation mark

If is a sentence, start with a capital letter and end with the correct punctuation mark

Key Skills in Comprehension Writing

 1. Understanding Sentence Structure: Recognizing how sentences are constructed, including
the use of clauses, conjunctions, and punctuation, helps in understanding the meaning of
the text.

2. Vocabulary Knowledge: A strong vocabulary allows readers to understand the words and
phrases used in the text, which is crucial for accurate comprehension.

3. Cohesion and Coherence: Identifying cohesive devices like pronouns, conjunctions, and
transitional phrases helps in linking ideas within the text, making it easier to follow the
narrative or argument.

4. Inference Making: Drawing conclusions based on the information provided and

understanding implied meanings are essential for deeper comprehension.

5. Critical Thinking: Analyzing and evaluating the text, questioning the author’s intent, and
understanding different perspectives enhance comprehension skills.

Importance of Grammar in Comprehension

Grammar plays a vital role in comprehension as it helps readers understand the relationships
between words and sentences. Proper use of grammar ensures clarity and precision in
communication, making it easier to grasp the intended meaning of the text

Note making (Outline)

Steps to Create an Outline

1. Main Topics: Start by writing the main topics at the top of your page. These are the
primary points you want to cover.

2. Subtopics: Under each main topic, list the subtopics. Indent these slightly to the right to
show their relationship to the main topic.

3. Supporting Details: Add supporting details, facts, and examples under each subtopic.
Indent these further to the right to maintain a clear hierarchy.

4. Further Details: Include any additional information or examples that elaborate on the
supporting details.
 5. Review and Recite: After completing your notes, review them to ensure they are clear
and comprehensive. Recite the main points to reinforce your understanding

Example

A. Main Topic

a. Subtopic 1

b. Supporting Detail

c. Supporting Detail

B. Subtopic 2

a. Supporting Detail

b. Supporting Detail

Example 2

Subject-Verb Agreement

Definition:

 The rule that the subject and verb in a sentence must agree in number (singular or plural).

Basic Rules:

1. Singular subjects take singular verbs.

 Example: The cat runs fast.

2. Plural subjects take plural verbs.

 Example: The cats run fast.

Special Cases:

 Compound Subjects: When subjects are joined by "and", they take a plural verb.

o Example: The cat and dog are friends.

 Indefinite Pronouns: Words like "everyone", "each", "nobody" are singular.

 o Example: Everyone wants to succeed.

 Collective Nouns: Words like "team" or "group" can be singular or plural based on conte
xt.

o Example: The team is winning. / The team are arguing among themselves.

Tricky Subjects:

 "Neither" and "Either": These take singular verbs.

o Example: Neither of the answers is correct.

 Phrases Between Subject and Verb: Ignore the phrase when determining the verb.

o Example: The basket of apples is on the table.

Tips:

 Identify the subject and verb first.

 Ignore words and phrases between the subject and verb.

 Pay attention to words that can change the verb's number.

General Abbreviations

 w/: With

 w/o: Without

 b/c: Because

 e.g.: For example

 i.e.: That is

 etc.: And so on

 vs.: Versus

 NB: Note well (important)

 cf.: Compare
  esp.: Especially

 gov.: Government

 edu.: Education

 indv.: Individual

 max.: Maximum

 min.: Minimum

 prob.: Probably

 re:: Regarding

 sim.: Similar

 yr.: Year

Symbols

 &: And
 @: At
 #: Number
 →: Leads to, results in
 ↑: Increase, rise
 ↓: Decrease, fall
 =: Equals, is the same as
 ≠: Does not equal, is different from
 ≈: Approximately
 %: Percent
 $: Money, cost
 ?: Question, unclear
 !: Important, noteworthy

Letter writing
Letter writing in English grammar involves composing messages for various purposes, such as
personal, business, or formal communication. Here are the key elements and types of letters:
Key Elements of a Letter
1. Heading: Includes the sender’s address and the date. In formal letters, this is placed at the
top left or right corner.
2. Salutation: The greeting, such as “Dear Mr. Smith,” or “To Whom It May Concern,”
depending on the formality.
3. Introduction: A brief opening statement explaining the purpose of the letter.
4. Body: The main content of the letter, organized into paragraphs. Each paragraph should
cover a specific point or topic.
5. Closing: A polite ending, such as “Sincerely,” or “Best regards,” followed by the sender’s
signature.
6. Signature: The sender’s handwritten or typed name, depending on the formality of the
letter.
Types of Letters
1. Formal Letters: Used for professional or official communication, such as job
applications, business inquiries, and complaint letters. They follow a strict format and use
formal language.
2. Informal Letters: Used for personal communication with friends or family. They have a
more relaxed structure and use casual language.
3. Semi-Formal Letters: Used for situations that are neither strictly formal nor completely
informal, such as letters to acquaintances or colleagues
Example Structure of a Formal Letter
[Your Address]
[City, State, ZIP Code]
[Date]

[Recipient's Name]
[Recipient's Address]
[City, State, ZIP Code]

Dear [Recipient's Name],

[Introduction: State the purpose of the letter.]

[Body: Provide details, organized into paragraphs.]

[Closing: Summarize and provide any necessary follow-up information.]

Sincerely,
[Your Name]
Structure and use of language
Pronouns
Pronouns are words that replace nouns in a sentence, helping to avoid repetition and making
sentences clearer. Here are the main types of pronouns in English grammar:
1. Personal Pronouns: Refer to specific people or things. Examples include I, you, he, she,
it, we, they.
2. Possessive Pronouns: Show ownership. Examples are mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours,
theirs.
3. Reflexive Pronouns: Refer back to the subject of the sentence. Examples include myself,
yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves.
4. Demonstrative Pronouns: Point to specific things. Examples are this, that, these, those.
5. Interrogative Pronouns: Used to ask questions. Examples include who, whom, whose,
which, what.
6. Relative Pronouns: Introduce relative clauses. Examples are who, whom, whose, which,
that.
7. Indefinite Pronouns: Refer to non-specific things or people. Examples include someone,
anyone, everyone, no one, something, anything, everything, nothing.
For example, instead of saying “Sarah likes Sarah’s car,” you can say “Sarah likes her car,”
where “her” is a pronoun replacing "Sarah’s"
Types of pronouns
 Personal pronouns
 Indefinite pronouns
 Reflexive pronouns
Personal pronouns
Personal pronouns are used to replace specific nouns, usually to avoid repetition and make
sentences clearer. They reflect person (first, second, third), number (singular, plural), and gender
(masculine, feminine, neutral).
Person Person subject Object

1st, person, singular, plural I, we Me, us

2nd, person, singular, plural You, you You, you

3rd, person, singular, plural He, she, it, they Him, her, it, them

1. First Person:
o Singular: I, me
o Plural: we, us
2. Second Person:
o Singular and Plural: you
3. Third Person:
o Singular: he, him, she, her, it
o Plural: they, them
Examples:
 I am going to the store. (First person singular)
 She loves reading books. (Third person singular, feminine)
 They are playing football. (Third person plural)
Personal pronouns can act as the subject of a sentence (e.g., I, he, they) or as the object
(e.g., me, him, them)
Indefinite pronouns
Indefinite pronouns refer to non-specific people or things. They are used when the exact identity
of the noun is unknown or not important. Here are some common indefinite pronouns:
1. For People:
o anybody, everybody, nobody, somebody
o anyone, everyone, no one, someone
 2. For Things:
o anything, everything, nothing, something
Examples:
 Everybody enjoyed the concert.
 Someone left their umbrella.
 Is there anything I can help you with?
Indefinite pronouns can be singular or plural, and they often require singular verbs
(e.g., Everybody loves ice cream). However, when referring back to an indefinite pronoun, we
typically use a plural pronoun (e.g., Everybody enjoyed the concert. They stood up and clapped)
Reflexive pronouns
Reflexive pronouns are used when the subject and the object of a sentence are the same. They
end in “-self” (singular) or “-selves” (plural). Here are the reflexive pronouns in English:
 Singular: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself
 Plural: ourselves, yourselves, themselves
Examples:
 I taught myself to play the guitar.
 She made herself a cup of tea.
 They prepared themselves for the exam.
Reflexive pronouns can also be used for emphasis, to highlight that someone did something
alone or without help:
 He fixed the car himself.
 We cooked the entire meal ourselves
Parts of speech
Word-preposition combination
Comparatives and superlatives (Formation of comparatives and superlatives, sentence pattern
for comparatives, sentence pattern with superlatives)
Phrasal verbs
Question tags, additional remarks and short responses
Phrases (Types of phrases, other forms of phrases)
Clauses (noun clause, adjective clause, adverb clause, difference between phrase and clause)
Punctuation
Subject-verb agreement
Verb tenses
Conditional sentences (The first rule, the second rule, the third rule)
Reported speech (Reporting statements in the past, reporting in the present, Reporting
questions, Reporting requests and commands, change of words in indirect speeches)
Writing complete sentences (The structure of a sentence, Types of sentences, sentence
beginnings, avoiding fragments)
Confusing words and expressions
Writing paragraphs (Structure of a paragraph, supporting sentences, characteristics of a
paragraph,
Composition and letter writing
Report writing
Speech writing
Writing short stories
Comprehension and summary writing
Note making (Short forms)
How to write a summary
Sample summary
Types of adjectives
Formulation of adjectives from nouns

How to write an essay (types of essays)

Clauses
 The sentence which contains the subject and predicate
