2.

3 Cell structure and function (ESG4S)

Cell theory (ESG4T)

The cell theory developed in 1839 by microbiologists Schleiden and Schwann describes the properties of cells. It is an explanation
of the relationship between cells and living things. The theory states that:

 all living things are made of cells and their products.

 new cells are created by old cells dividing into two.

 cells are the basic building blocks of life.

The cell theory applies to all living things, however big or small. The modern understanding of cell theory extends the concepts of
the original cell theory to include the following:

 The activity of an organism depends on the total activity of independent cells.

 Energy flow occurs in cells through the breakdown of carbohydrates by respiration.

 Cells contain the information necessary for the creation of new cells. This information is known as 'hereditary information' and is contained
within DNA.

 The contents of cells from similar species are basically the same.

DNA (the hereditary information of cells) is passed from 'parent' cells to 'daughter' cells during cell division. You will learn more
about this in the following chapter: Cell division.
Cells are the smallest form of life; the functional and structural units of all living things. Your body contains several billion cells,
organised into over 200 major types, with hundreds of cell-specific functions.
Some functions performed by cells are so vital to the existence of life that all cells perform them (e.g. cellular respiration). Others
are highly specialised (e.g. photosynthesis).

Figure 2.9 shows a two-dimensional drawing of an animal cell. The diagram shows the structures visible within a cell at high
magnification. The structures form the ultrastructure of the cell.

Figure 2.9: Diagram of the cell ultrastructure of an animal cell.

We will now look at some of the basic cell structures and organelles in animal and plant cells.

Cell wall (ESG4V)

The cell wall is a rigid non-living layer that is found outside the cell membrane and surrounds the cell. Plants, bacteria and fungi all
have cell walls. In plants, the wall is comprised of cellulose. It consists of three layers that help support the plant. These layers
include the middle lamella, the primary cell wall and the secondary cell wall.

Middle lamella: Separates one cell from another. It is a thin membranous layer on the outside of the cell and is made of a sticky
substance called pectin.

Primary cell wall: Is on the inside of the middle lamella and is mainly composed of cellulose.

Secondary cell wall: Lies alongside the cell membrane. It is is made up of a thick and tough layer of cellulose which is held
together by a hard, waterproof substance called lignin. It is only found in cells which provide mechanical support in plants.
 The human body cannot break down the cellulose in cell walls because we do not produce the enzyme cellulase.
Functions of the cell wall

 The main function of the wall is to protect the inner parts of the plant cell, it gives plant cells a more uniform and regular shape and provides
support for the plant body.

 The cell wall is completely permeable to water and mineral salts which allows distribution of nutrients throughout the plant.

 The openings in the cell wall are called plasmodesmata which contain strands of cytoplasm that connect adjacent cells. This allows cells to
interact with one another, allowing molecules to travel between plant cells.

Cell membrane (ESG4W)

The cell membrane, also called the plasma membrane, physically separates the intracellular space (inside the cell) from the
extracellular environment (outside the cell). All plant and animal cells have cell membranes. The cell membrane surrounds and
protects the cytoplasm. Cytoplasm is part of the protoplasm and is the living component of the cell.

The cell membrane is composed of a double layer (bilayer) of special lipids (fats) called phospholipids. Phospholipids consist of
a hydrophilic (water-loving) head and a hydrophobic (water-fearing) tail. The hydrophobic head of the phospholipid
is polar (charged) and can therefore dissolve in water. The hydrophobic tail is non-polar (uncharged), and cannot dissolve in
water.

The lipid bilayer forms spontaneously due to the properties of the phospholipid molecules. In an aqueous environment, the polar
heads try to form hydrogen bonds with the water, while the non-polar tails try to escape from the water. The problem is solved by
the formation of a bilayer because the hydrophilic heads can point outwards and from hydrogen bonds with water, and the
hydrophobic tails point towards one another and are 'protected' from the water molecules (Figure 2.11.
Figure 2.11: The lipid bilayer showing the arrangement of phospholipids, containing hydrophilic, polar heads and hydrophobic, non-
polar tails.

Recall the structure of lipid molecules from the previous chapter on the chemistry of life.
All the exchanges between the cell and its environment have to pass through the cell membrane. The cell membrane is selectively
permeable to ions (e.g. hydrogen, sodium), small molecules (oxygen, carbon dioxide) and larger molecules (glucose and amino
acids) and controls the movement of substances in and out of the cells. The cell membrane performs many important functions
within the cell such as osmosis, diffusion, transport of nutrients into the cell, processes of ingestion and secretion. The cell
membrane is strong enough to provide the cell with mechanical support and flexible enough to allow cells to grow and move.

Watch a video about the cell membrane.

Video: 2CPB

Component
Structure Function
(see Figure 2.12)

It is a semi-permeable structure that does not allow

Consists of two layers of phospholipids. Each phospholipid has a polar,
Phospholipid materials to pass through the membrane freely, thus
hydrophilic (water-soluble) head as well as a non-polar, hydrophobic (water-
bilayer protecting the intra and extracellular environments of the
insoluble) tail.
cell.

These are proteins found spanning the membrane from the inside of the cell
Membrane (in the cytoplasm) to the outside of the cell. Membrane proteins have Act as carrier proteins which control the movement of
proteins hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions that allow them to fit into the cell specific ions and molecules across the cell membrane.
membrane.

Consist of short carbohydrate chains attached to polypeptide chains and are

Glycoproteins These proteins are useful for cell-to-cell recognition.
found on the extracellular regions of the membrane.

Carbohydrate chains attached to phospholipids on the outside surface of Act as recognition sites for specific chemicals and are
Glycolipids
the membrane. important in cell-to-cell attachment to form tissues.

Table 2.2: Structure and function of components of the cell membrane.

A further description of the fluid mosaic model can be viewed at:

Video: 2CPC

Movement across membranes (ESG4X)

Movement of substances across cell membranes is necessary as it allows cells to acquire oxygen and nutrients, excrete waste
products and control the concentration of required substances in the cell (e.g oxygen, water, hormones, ions, etc). The key
processes through which such movement occurs include diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion and active transport.

Learn about the different ways that molecules can travel across cell membranes.

Video: 2CPD
1. Diffusion

Diffusion is the movement of substances from a region of high concentration to low concentration. It is therefore said to occur down
a concentration gradient. The diagram below shows the movement of dissolved particles within a liquid until eventually becoming
randomly distributed.
 Diffusion is the movement of molecules from a region of higher concentration to a lower
concentration. It is a passive process (i.e. does not require input of energy).

Diffusion is a passive process which means it does not require any energy input. It can occur across a living or non-living
membrane and can occur in a liquid or gas medium. Due to the fact that diffusion occurs across a concentration gradient it can
result in the movement of substances into or out of the cell. Examples of substances moved by diffusion include carbon dioxide,
oxygen, water and other small molecules that are able to dissolve within the lipid bilayer.

Watch diffusion taking place by clicking on the following link.

 Video: 2CPF

Observing diffusion
Aim

To observe diffusion.

Apparatus

 1 x 500500 mlml beaker

 large funnel

 plastic straw

 potassium permanganate crystals

Method

1. Fill a beaker with water and allow it to stand for a few minutes so that water movement stops.
2. Place a large funnel into the water so that it touches the bottom of the beaker. Drop a few small potassium permanganate crystals through the
straw. Remove the funnel carefully and slowly.

3. Observe the size of the area that is coloured by the potassium permanganate at the beginning of the experiment, after 5 minutes and then after
20 minutes.
Questions

1. What do you observe happening in the beaker?

2. What can you conclude based on your observations?
3. Explain how using hot water would affect the results of this experiment (remember that when you explain you need to give a reason for your
answer).

2. Osmosis

When the concentration of solutes in solution is low, the water concentration is high, and we say there is a high water potential.
Osmosis is the movement of water from a region of higher water potential to a region of lower water potential across a semi-
permeable membrane that separates the two regions. Movement of water always occurs down a concentration gradient, i.e from
higher water potential (dilute solution) to lower potential (concentrated solution). Osmosis is a passive process and does not require
any input of energy. Cell membranes allow molecules of water to pass through, but they do not allow molecules of most dissolved
substances, e.g. salt and sugar, to pass through. As water enters the cell via osmosis, it creates a pressure known as osmotic
pressure.
 Figure 2.14: Osmosis is the movement of water from an area of high water potential to an area of low
water potential across a semi-permeable membrane.

Watch osmosis taking place by clicking on the following link.

Video: 2CPG
In biological systems, osmosis is vital to plant and animal cell survival. Figure 2.15 demonstrates how osmosis affects red blood
cells when they are placed in three different solutions with different concentrations.
Figure 2.15: The effect of hypertonic, isotonic and
 Hypertonic (concentrated) Isotonic Hypotonic (dilute)

The water concentration inside and outside the cell is equal

The medium has a higher water potential
The medium is concentrated with a lower and there will be no nett water movement across the cell
(more dilute) than the cell and water will
water potential than inside the cell, therefore membrane. (Water will continue to move across the
move into the cell via osmosis, and could
the cell will lose water by osmosis. membrane, but water will enter and leave the cell at the
eventuality cause the cell to burst.
same rate.)

Plant cells use osmosis to absorb water from the soil and transport it to the leaves. Osmosis in the kidneys keeps the water and salt
levels in the body and blood at the correct levels.

Predicting the direction of osmosis

Aim

To predict the direction of osmosis.

Apparatus

 1 x 500500 mlml beaker

 1 x large potato

 potato peeler/scalpel

 2 x pins

 concentrated sucrose/sugar solution. To obtain this, add 100 g of sugar to 200 ml of water.
Method
1. Peel off the skin of a large sized potato with a scalpel/potato peeler.
2. Cut its one end to make the base flat.

3. Make a hollow cavity in the potato almost to the bottom of the potato.

4. Add the concentrated sugar solution into the cavity of the potato, filling it about half way. Mark the level by inserting a pin at the level of the
sugar solution (insert the pin at an angle into the cavity at the level) (Figure 2.16 A).

5. Carefully place the potato in the beaker containing water.

6. Observe what happens to the level of the sugar solution in the potato.

7. After 15 to 20 minutes, mark the level by inserting the second pin at the level of the sugar solution (insert as the first pin) (Figure 2.16 B).
Figure 2.16: Using a potato to investigate
 osmosis.
Questions

1. What do you observe happening to the level of the solution inside the potato?
2. What conclusion can you draw based on your observation?

3. What conditions were met in this experiment that makes this type of transport different to diffusion?

Watch an illustration of diffusion and osmosis.

Video: 2CPH
3. Facilitated diffusion

Facilitated diffusion is a special form of diffusion which allows rapid exchange of specific substances. Particles are taken up by
carrier proteins which change their shape as a result. The change in shape causes the particles to be released on the other side of
the membrane. Facilitated diffusion can only occur across living, biological membranes which contain the carrier proteins. A
substance is transported via a carrier protein from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration until it is randomly
distributed. Therefore movement is down a concentration gradient.
 Figure 2.17: Facilitated diffusion in cell membrane, showing ion
channels and carrier proteins.
Examples of substances moved via facilitated diffusion include all polar molecules such as glucose or amino acids.

4. Active transport

Active transport is the movement of substances against a concentration gradient, from a region of low concentration to high
concentration using an input of energy. In biological systems, the form in which this energy occurs is adenosine triphosphate
(ATP). The process transports substances through a membrane protein. The movement of substances is selective via the carrier
proteins and can occur into or out of the cell.

ATP and ADP are molecules involved with moving energy within cells. You do not need to know these names in full and will learn
more about them later.

2.4 Cell organelles

We will now look at the key organelles that make up the cell. It is important to bear in mind that structure and function are closely
related in all living systems. When studying each organelle, ensure that you observe the specific structures (from micrographs) that
allow the organelle to perform its specific function.

Cytoplasm
 The cytoplasm is the jelly-like substance that fills the cell. It consists of up to 90%90% water. It also contains dissolved nutrients
and waste products. Its main function is to hold together the organelles which make up the cytoplasm. It also nourishes the cell by
supplying it with salts and sugars and provides a medium for metabolic reactions to occur.
REVISION: You may have encountered the terms cytoplasm, nucleoplasm and protoplasm earlier in Grade 9. Cytoplasm is the
part of the cell that is within the cell membrane and excludes the nucleus. Nucleoplasm is the substance of the cell nucleus, i.e.
everything within the nucleus that is not part of the nucleolus. Protoplasm is the colourless material comprising the living part of a
cell, including the cytoplasm, nucleus and other organelles.
All the contents of prokaryotic cells are contained within the cytoplasm. In eukaryotic cells, all the organelles are contained within
the cytoplasm except the nucleolus which is contained within the nucleus.

Functions of the cytoplasm

 The cytoplasm provides mechanical support to the cell by exerting pressure against the cell's membrane which helps keep the shape of the
cell. This pressure is known as turgor pressure.

 It is the site of most cellular activities including metabolism, cell division and protein synthesis.

 The cytoplasm contains ribosomes which assist in the synthesis of protein.

 The cytoplasm acts a storage area for small carbohydrate, lipid and protein molecules.

 The cytoplasm suspends and can transport organelles around the cell.

Nucleus

The nucleus is the largest organelle in the cell and contains all the cell's genetic information in the form of DNA. The presence of a
nucleus is the primary factor that distinguishes eukaryotes from prokaryotes. The structure of the nucleus is described below:
 Nuclear envelope: two lipid membranes that are studded with special proteins that separates the nucleus and its contents from the
cytoplasm.

Nuclear pores: tiny holes called nuclear pores are found in the nuclear envelope and help to regulate the exchange of materials
(such as RNA and proteins) between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.

Chromatin: thin long strands of DNA and protein.

Nucleolus: the nucleolus makes RNA another type of nucleic acid.

During cell division, DNA contracts and folds to form distinct structures called chromosomes. The chromosomes are formed at the
start of cell division.
The genetic material of eukaryotic organisms is separated from the cytoplasm by a membrane whereas the genetic material of
prokaryotic organisms (like bacteria) is in direct contact with the cytoplasm.

Mitochondria also contain DNA, called mitochondrial DNA, (mtDNA) but it makes up just a small percentage of the cell's overall
DNA content. All mitochondrial DNA in humans is derived from the mother's side.

Functions of the nucleus

 The main function of the cell nucleus is to control gene expression and facilitate the replication of DNA during the cell cycle (which
you will learn about in the next chapter).
 The nucleus controls the metabolic functions of the cell by producing mRNA which encodes for enzymes e.g. insulin.
 The nucleus controls the structure of the cell by transcribing DNA which encodes for structural proteins such as actin and keratin.
 The nucleus is the site of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis, which is important for the construction of ribosomes. Ribosomes are
the site of protein translation (synthesis of proteins from amino acids).
 Characteristics are transmitted from parent to offspring through genetic material contained in the nucleus.

Mitochondria

A mitochondrion is a membrane bound organelle found in eukaryotic cells. This organelle generates the cell's supply of
chemical energy by releasing energy stored in molecules from food and using it to produce ATP (adenosine triphosphate). ATP is a
special type of "energy carrying" molecule.

Structure and function of the mitochondrion

Mitochondria contain two phospholipid bilayers: there is an outer membrane, and an inner membrane. The inner membrane
contains many folds called cristae which contain specialised membrane proteins that enable the mitochondria to synthesise
ATP. Inside the inner membrane is a jelly-like matrix.

Listed from the outermost layer to the innermost compartment, the compartments of the mitochondrion, are:

 Outer mitochondrial membrane

 Intermembrane space
 Inner mitochondrial membrane
 Cristae (folds of the inner membrane)
 matrix (jelly-like substance within the inner membrane)
The table below relates each structure to its function.

Structure Function Adaptation to function

Outer mitochondrial Transfer of nutrients (e.g lipids) to

Has large number of channels to facilitate transfer of molecules.
membrane mitochondrion.

Stores large proteins allowing for cellular Its position between two selectively permeable membranes allows it to have a unique
Intermembrane space
respiration. composition compared to the cytoplasm and the matrix.

Stores membrane proteins that allow for Contains folds known as cristae which provide increased surface area, thus enabling
Inner membrane
energy production. production of ATP (chemical potential energy).

Contains enzymes that allow for the The matrix is contains a high quantity of protein enzymes which allow for ATP
Matrix
production of ATP (energy). production.

In Life Sciences it is important to note that whenever a structure has an increased surface area, there is an increase in the
functioning of that structure.

Endoplasmic reticulum

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is an organelle found in eukaryotic cells only. The ER has a double membrane consisting of a
network of hollow tubes, flattened sheets, and round sacs. These flattened, hollow folds and sacs are called cisternae. The ER is
located in the cytoplasm and is connected to the nuclear envelope. There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum: smooth and
rough ER.
Smooth ER: does not have any ribosomes attached. It is involved in the synthesis of lipids, including oils, phospholipids and
steroids. It is also responsible for metabolism of carbohydrates, regulation of calcium concentration and detoxification of drugs.

Rough ER: is covered with ribosomes giving the endoplasmic reticulum its rough appearance. It is responsible for protein synthesis
and plays a role in membrane production. The folds present in the membrane increase the surface area allowing more ribosomes
to be present on the ER, thereby allowing greater protein production.

Ribosomes

Ribosomes are composed of RNA and protein. They occur in the cytoplasm and are the sites where protein synthesis occurs.
Ribosomes may occur singly in the cytoplasm or in groups or may be attached to the endoplasmic reticulum thus forming the rough
endoplasmic reticulum. Ribosomes are important for protein production. Together with a structure known as messenger RNA (a
type of nucleic acid) ribosomes form a structure known as a polyribosome which is important in protein synthesis.

Golgi body (ESG56)

The Golgi body is found near the nucleus and endoplasmic reticulum. The Golgi body consists of a stack of flat membrane-bound
sacs called cisternae. The cisternae within the Golgi body consist of enzymes which modify the packaged products of the Golgi
body (proteins).

The Golgi body was discovered by the Italian physician Camillo Golgi. It was one of the first organelles to be discovered and
described in detail because it's large size made it easier to observe.

Functions of the Golgi body

It is important for proteins to be transported from where they are synthesised to where they are required in the cell. The organelle
responsible for this is the Golgi Body. The Golgi body is the sorting organelle of the cell.

Proteins are transported from the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) to the Golgi. In the Golgi, proteins are modified and
packaged into vesicle. The Golgi body therefore receives proteins made in one location in the cell and transfers these to another
location within the cell where they are required. For this reason the Golgi body can be considered to be the 'post office' of the cell.

Vesicles and lysosomes (ESG57)

Vesicles are small, membrane-bound spherical sacs which facilitate the metabolism, transport and storage of molecules. Many
vesicles are made in the Golgi body and the endoplasmic reticulum, or are made from parts of the cell membrane. Vesicles can be
classified according to their contents and function. Transport vesicles transport molecules within the cell.

Lysosomes are formed by the Golgi body and contain powerful digestive enzymes that can potentially digest the cell. Lysosomes
are formed by the Golgi body or the endoplasmic reticulum. These powerful enzymes can digest cell structures and food molecules
such as carbohydrates and proteins. Lysosomes are abundant in animal cells that ingest food through food vacuoles. When a cell
dies, the lysosome releases its enzymes and digests the cell.

Vacuoles

Vacuoles are membrane-bound, fluid-filled organelles that occur in the cytoplasm of most plant cells, but are very small or
completely absent from animal cells. Plant cells generally have one large vacuole that takes up most of the cell's volume. A
selectively permeable membrane called the tonoplast, surround the vacuole. The vacuole contains cell sap which is a liquid
consisting of water, mineral salts, sugars and amino acids.
 Functions of the vacuole

 The vacuole plays an important role in digestion and excretion of cellular waste and storage of water and organic and inorganic
substances.

 The vacuole takes in and releases water by osmosis in response to changes in the cytoplasm, as well as in the environment around
the cell.

 The vacuole is also responsible for maintaining the shape of plant cells. When the cell is full of water, the vacuole exerts pressure
outwards, pushing the cell membrane against the cell wall. This pressure is called turgor pressure.

 If there is not sufficient water, pressure exerted by the vacuole is reduced and the cells become flaccid causing the plant to wilt.

Centrioles

Animal cells contain a special organelle called a centriole. The centriole is a cylindrical tube-like structure that is composed of 9
microtubules arranged in a very particular pattern. Two centrioles arranged perpendicular to each other are referred to as
a centrosome. The centrosome plays a very important role in cell division. The centrioles are responsible for organising the
microtubules that position the chromosomes in the correct location during cell division. You will learn more about their function in
the following chapter on Cell Division.

Figure 2.28: A TEM micrograph of a cross-section of a centriole in an animal (rat) cell.

Plastids

Plastids are organelles found only in plants. There are three different types:
1. Leucoplasts: White plastids found in roots.
2. Chloroplasts: Green-coloured plastids found in plants and algae.
3. Chromoplasts: Contain red, orange or yellow pigments and are common in ripening fruit, flowers or autumn leaves.
Figure 2.29: Plastids perform a variety of functions in plants, including storage and energy production.
The colour of plant flowers such as an orchid is controlled by a specialised organelle in a cell known as the chromoplast.

Chloroplast

The chloroplast is a double-membraned organelle. Within the double membrane is a gel-like substance called stroma. Stroma
contains enzymes for photosynthesis. Suspended in the stroma are stack-like structures called grana (singular = granum). Each
granum is a stack of thylakoid discs. The chlorophyll molecules (green pigments) are found on the surface of the thylakoid discs.
Chlorophyll absorbs energy from the sun in order for photosynthesis to take place in the chloroplasts. The grana are connected by
lamellae (intergrana). The lamellae keep the stacks apart from each other.

The structure of the chloroplast is neatly adapted to its function of trapping and storing energy in plants. For example, chloroplasts
contain a high density of thylakoid discs and numerous grana to allow for increased surface area for the absorption of sunlight, thus
producing a high quantity of food for the plant. Additionally, the lamellae keeping the thylakoids apart maximise chloroplast
efficiency, thus allowing as much light as possible to be absorbed in the smallest surface area.

The differences between plant and animal cells (ESG5C)

Now that we have looked at the basic structures and functions of the organelles in a cell, you would have noticed that there are key
differences between plant and animal cells. The table below summarises these differences.
Animal Cells Plant Cells
Almost all plants cells contain plastids such chloroplasts, chromoplasts and
Do not contain plastids.
leucoplasts.
No cell wall. Have a rigid cellulose cell wall in addition to the cell membrane.
Contain centrioles. Do not contain centrioles.
Animals do not have plasmodesmata or pits. Contain plasmodesmata and pits.
Few vacuoles (if any). Large central vacuole filled with cell sap in mature cells.
Nucleus is generally found at the centre of the
Nucleus is found near the edge of the cell.
cytoplasm.
No intercellular spaces found between the cells. Large intercellular air spaces found between some cells.