Cell structure and function

Cell theory
The cell theory developed in 1839 by microbiologists Schleiden and Schwann
describes the properties of cells. It is an explanation of the relationship between
cells and living things.
The theory states that:
all living things are made of cells and their products.
new cells are created by old cells dividing into two.
cells are the basic building blocks of life.
The cell theory applies to all living things, however big or small. The modern
understanding of cell theory extends the concepts of the original cell theory to
include the following:
The activity of an organism depends on the total activity of independent cells.
Energy flow occurs in cells through the breakdown of carbohydrates by
respiration.
Cells contain the information necessary for the creation of new cells. This
information is known as 'hereditary information' and is contained within DNA.
Cells are the smallest form of life; the functional and structural units
of all living things.
Your body contains several billion cells, organised into over 200
major types, with hundreds of cell-specific functions.
Some functions performed by cells are so vital to the existence of life
that all cells perform them (e.g. cellular respiration).
Others are highly specialised (e.g. photosynthesis).
Cell wall
The cell wall is a rigid non-living layer that is found outside the cell membrane and
surrounds the cell. Plants, bacteria and fungi all have cell walls.
In plants, the wall is comprised of cellulose.
It consists of three layers that help support the plant. These layers include the
middle lamella, the primary cell wall and the secondary cell wall.
Middle lamella: Separates one cell from another. It is a thin membranous layer on
the outside of the cell and is made of a sticky substance called pectin.
Primary cell wall: Is on the inside of the middle lamella and is mainly composed of
cellulose.
Secondary cell wall: Lies alongside the cell membrane. It is is made up of a thick and
tough layer of cellulose which is held together by a hard, waterproof substance
called lignin. It is only found in cells which provide mechanical support in plants.
Functions of the cell wall
The main function of the wall is to protect the inner parts of the plant cell, it gives
plant cells a more uniform and regular shape and provides support for the plant
body.
The cell wall is completely permeable to water and mineral salts which allows
distribution of nutrients throughout the plant.
The openings in the cell wall are called plasmodesmata which contain strands of
cytoplasm that connect adjacent cells. This allows cells to interact with one another,
allowing molecules to travel between plant cells.
• Cell membrane
• The cell membrane, also called the plasma membrane, physically separates
the intracellular space (inside the cell) from the extracellular environment
(outside the cell). All plant and animal cells have cell membranes. The cell
membrane surrounds and protects the cytoplasm. Cytoplasm is part of the
protoplasm and is the living component of the cell.
• The cell membrane is composed of a double layer (bilayer) of special lipids
(fats) called phospholipids. Phospholipids consist of a hydrophilic (water-
loving) head and a hydrophobic (water-fearing) tail. The hydrophobic head of
the phospholipid is polar (charged) and can therefore dissolve in water. The
hydrophobic tail is non-polar (uncharged), and cannot dissolve in water.
• The lipid bilayer forms spontaneously due to the properties of the
phospholipid molecules. In an aqueous environment, the polar heads try to
form hydrogen bonds with the water, while the non-polar tails try to escape
from the water. The problem is solved by the formation of a bilayer because
the hydrophilic heads can point outwards and from hydrogen bonds with
water, and the hydrophobic tails point towards one another and are
'protected' from the water molecules
Structure of the cell membrane: the fluid mosaic model
S.J. Singer and G.L. Nicolson proposed the Fluid Mosaic Model of the cell membrane
in 1972. This model describes the structure of the cell membrane as a fluid structure
with various protein and carbohydrate components diffusing freely across the
membrane. The structure and function of each component of the membrane is
provided in the table below.
• Movement across membranes
• Movement of substances across cell membranes is necessary as it
allows cells to acquire oxygen and nutrients, excrete waste products
and control the concentration of required substances in the cell (e.g
oxygen, water, hormones, ions, etc).
• The key processes through which such movement occurs include
diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion and active transport.
1. Diffusion
Diffusion is the movement of substances from a region of high concentration to low
concentration. It is therefore said to occur down a concentration gradient. The
diagram below shows the movement of dissolved particles within a liquid until
eventually becoming randomly distributed.
Diffusion is a passive process which means it does not require any energy input. It
can occur across a living or non-living membrane and can occur in a liquid or gas
medium. Due to the fact that diffusion occurs across a concentration gradient it can
result in the movement of substances into or out of the cell. Examples of substances
moved by diffusion include carbon dioxide, oxygen, water and other small molecules
that are able to dissolve within the lipid bilayer.
2. Osmosis
When the concentration of solutes in solution is low, the water concentration is
high, and we say there is a high water potential. Osmosis is the movement of water
from a region of higher water potential to a region of lower water potential across a
semi-permeable membrane that separates the two regions. Movement of water
always occurs down a concentration gradient, i.e from higher water potential (dilute
solution) to lower potential (concentrated solution). Osmosis is a passive process
and does not require any input of energy. Cell membranes allow molecules of water
to pass through, but they do not allow molecules of most dissolved substances, e.g.
salt and sugar, to pass through. As water enters the cell via osmosis, it creates a
pressure known as osmotic pressure.
• 3. Facilitated diffusion
• Facilitated diffusion is a special form of diffusion which allows rapid exchange
of specific substances. Particles are taken up by carrier proteins which change
their shape as a result. The change in shape causes the particles to be
released on the other side of the membrane. Facilitated diffusion can only
occur across living, biological membranes which contain the carrier proteins.
A substance is transported via a carrier protein from a region of high
concentration to a region of low concentration until it is randomly
distributed. Therefore movement is down a concentration gradient.
• 4. Active transport
Active transport is the movement of substances against a concentration gradient,
from a region of low concentration to high concentration using an input of energy. In
biological systems, the form in which this energy occurs is adenosine triphosphate
(ATP). The process transports substances through a membrane protein. The
movement of substances is selective via the carrier proteins and can occur into or
out of the cell.