HYDRA 325 - HYDRAULICS

MODULE 01: INTRODUCTON TO FLUID MECHANICS

1. FLUID MECHANICS & PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

Fluid Mechanics is the study of fluid either in motion (Fluid Dynamics) or at rest (Fluid Statics) and
the subsequent effects of the fluid upon boundaries, which may be solid surfaces or interfaces
with other fluids. Both liquids and gases are classified as fluids.
1.1. Introduction to Fluids
1.1.1. Definition of Fluids
Fluids are substances that are capable of flowing and conform to the shape of containing
vessels. When in equilibrium, fluid cannot sustain tangential or shear forces. All fluids have the
same degree of compressibility and offer little resistance to chance of form.
1.1.2. Distinction between Liquids and Gasses
A liquid being composed of relatively closed-packed molecules with strong cohesive forces
tends to retain its volume and will form a free surface in a gravitational field it unconfined
from above. Since gas molecules are widely spaced with negligible cohesive forces a gas is
free to expand until it encounter confining walls.
A gas has no definite volume and when left to itself without confinement, a gas forms on
atmosphere which is essentially hydrostatic gas cannot form a free surface and therefore
occupies all portion of any container regardless of its shape and size liquids are practically
incompressible and may so be considered without introducing appreciable error. On the
other hand, gases are compressible and usually must so be treated.
1.2. Dimensions and Units
A dimension is the measure by which a physical variable is expressed quantitative. A unit is a
particular way of attaching a number to a quantitative dimension. Thus, length is a dimension
associated with such variables as distance, and height, while centimeters are both numerical units
for expressing length.
In fluid mechanics, there are only four primary dimension from which all other dimensions can be
desired, mass, length, time, and temperature. Take note that Kelvin unit uses no degree symbol.

Primary Dimension English Units SI Units

Mass Slug Kilogram (kg)
Length Foot (ft) Meter (m)
Time Seconds (sec) Seconds (sec)
Temperature (ordinary) Fahrenheit (°F) Celsius (°C)
Temperature (absolutely) Rankine (°R) Kelvin (K)
Some Conversion Factors:
1 Newton of a force = 𝟏𝑵 = 1 𝑘𝑔 − 𝑚/𝑠 2
1 Pound of a force = 𝟏 𝒍𝒃 = 1 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 − 𝑓𝑡/𝑠 2
𝟏 𝒔𝒍𝒖𝒈 = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟓𝟗 𝒌𝒈
When dealing with usually large or very small numbers a series of prefixes have been adopted for
use with SI units the most commonly used prefixed are:

Multiple Prefix Symbol

𝟏𝟎𝟗 Giga 𝑮
𝟏𝟎𝟔 Mega 𝑴
𝟏𝟎𝟑 kilo 𝒌
𝟏𝟎−𝟐 centi 𝒄
𝟏𝟎−𝟑 milli 𝒎
𝟏𝟎−𝟔 micro 𝝁

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MODULE 01: INTRODUCTON TO FLUID MECHANICS
1.3. Properties of Fluids
In addition to the properties like mass, velocity, and pressure usually considered in physical
problems, the following are the basic properties of a fluid:
1.3.1. Pressure (𝑷)
Pressure is the stress at a point in a statics fluid.

English Unit SI Unit

𝒍𝒃
Pascal = 𝑷𝒂
𝒊𝒏𝟐
𝒍𝒃
KiloPascal = 𝒌𝑷𝒂
𝒇𝒕𝟐

1.3.2. Temperature (𝑻)

Temperature is a measure of internal energy level of a fluid.

English Unit SI Unit

𝟓 𝟗
°F °C °𝑪 = (°𝑭 − 𝟑𝟐) °𝐅 = (°𝐂 + 𝟑𝟐)
𝟗 𝟓

°R K

°𝑹 = °𝑭 + 𝟒𝟔𝟎° 𝑲 = °𝑪 + 𝟐𝟕𝟑°
Conversion Equations

1.3.3. Density (𝝆)

The density of a fluid, is generally designated by the Greek symbol 𝝆 (rho). The density of a
fluid is it’s mass per unit volume density is highly variable in gases and increases nearly
proportional to the pressure unit density in liquid is nearly constant the density of water at 4°C
is 1000kg/m3it increases only by 1 percent (1%) if the pressure is increased by a factor of 220
In general, liquids are denser than gases at atmospheric pressure. The heaviest common
liquid is mercury and the lightest gas is hydrogen. Compare the densities at 20°C and 1 atm.

MERCURY HYDROGEN
𝒌𝒈 𝒌𝒈
𝝆 = 𝟏𝟑, 𝟓𝟖𝟎 𝟑 𝝆 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟑𝟖 𝟑
𝒎 𝒎

They differ by a factor of 162,000

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝒎
𝝆= 𝝆=
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑽
English Units SI Units
𝒔𝒍𝒖𝒈 𝒌𝒈
𝒇𝒕𝟑 𝒎𝟑

For an ideal gas, its density can be found from the specific gas constant and ideal gas law:
𝑷
𝝆=
𝑹𝑻
where: 𝑷 = absolute pressure of gas in 𝑷𝒂
𝑱𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆
𝑹 = gas constant 𝑱𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆/(𝒌𝒈 − 𝑲) or 𝒌𝒈−𝑲
𝐽 𝑙𝑏−𝑓𝑡
For air: 𝑅 = 287 = 1716
𝑘𝑔−𝐾 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔−°𝑅
𝑻 = absolute temperature in Kelvin 𝑲

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MODULE 01: INTRODUCTON TO FLUID MECHANICS
Variation in Liquid Density
 In practice, engineers need to decide whether or not to model a fluid as constant
density or variable density.
 Usually, a liquid such as water requires a large change in pressure in order to change
the density. Thus, for most applications, liquids can be considered incompressible and
can be assumed to have constant density.
 An exception to this occurs when different solutions, like salt and fresh water, are mixed.
A mixture of salt in water changes the density of the water without changing its volume.
 Therefore in some flows, such as in estuaries, density variations may occur within the
flow field even though the fluid is essentially incompressible. A fluid wherein density
varies spatially is described as nonhomogeneous.
 This text emphasizes the flow of homogeneous fluids, so the term incompressible, used
throughout the text, implies constant density.
Approximate Room-Temperature Densities of Common Fluids

Fluid ρ in kg/m3
Air (STP) 1.29
Air (21°F, 1 atm) 1.20
Alcohol 790
Ammonia 602
Gasoline 720
Glycerin 1,260
Mercury 13,600
Water 1,000

1.3.4. Specific Weight (𝜸 or 𝝎)

The specific weight of a fluid is designated by the Greek symbol γ (gamma), and is generally
defined as the weight per unit volume. Just as a mass has a weight, w = mg, density and
specific weight are simply related by gravity.
𝜸 = 𝝆𝒈
where: 𝒈 = local acceleration of gravity 𝝆 = density
English Unit SI Unit
𝒍𝒃 𝑵
𝒇𝒕𝟑 𝑚𝟑

Note: It is customary to use:

𝒇𝒕 𝒇𝒕 𝒎 𝒌𝒈 𝒔𝒍𝒖𝒈𝒔
𝒈 = 𝟑𝟐. 𝟏𝟕𝟒 𝟐 or 𝟑𝟐. 𝟐 𝟐 = 𝟗. 𝟖𝟏 𝟐 𝝆 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟑 = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟒
𝒔 𝒔 𝒔 𝒎 𝒇𝒕𝟑
Unit weight for water:
𝒍𝒃 𝑵 𝒌𝑵
𝜸𝑯𝟐𝑶 = 𝟔𝟐. 𝟒 𝟑 = 𝟗𝟖𝟏𝟎 𝟑 = 𝟗. 𝟖𝟏 𝟑
𝒇𝒕 𝒎 𝒎
1.3.5. Specific Gravity (𝑺. 𝑮. or 𝒔)
Specific Gravity, also called as relative density, and it is defined as the ratio of a fluid density to
a standard reference fluid. Water is for liquids and air is for gases as standard reference liquid.
For liquids we take water as a standard fluid with density 𝝆 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑 .
For gases we take air or O2 as a standard fluid with density, 𝝆 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟗𝟑 𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑
𝝆𝒍 𝜸𝒍 𝝆𝒈 𝜸𝒈
𝑺. 𝑮.𝒍 = = 𝑺. 𝑮.𝒈 = =
𝝆𝑯𝟐𝑶 𝜸 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 𝝆𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝜸𝒂𝒊𝒓
Note: Specific Gravity is dimensionless unit weight of air 𝜸𝒂𝒊𝒓 = 𝟏𝟐 𝐍/𝐦𝟑

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MODULE 01: INTRODUCTON TO FLUID MECHANICS
Specific weight of common liquids at 20°C (1013m bar, abs) with g = 9.81 m/s2
Liquid Specific Weight
Carbon Tetrachloride 15.6 kN/m3
Ethyl Alcohol 7.76 kN/m3
Gasoline 6.6 kN/m3
Glycerine 12.3 kN/m3
Motor Oil 8.5 kN/m3
Water 9.81 kN/m3

1.3.6. Vapor Pressure

The pressure at which a liquid will vaporize, or boil, at a given temperature, is called its vapor
pressure. This means that boiling occurs whenever the local pressure equals the vapor
pressure. Vapor pressure increases with temperature. Note that there are two ways to boil a
liquid. One way is to raise the temperature, assuming that the pressure is fixed. For water at
14.7 psi, this can be accomplished by increasing the temperature of water at sea level to
212°F, thus reaching the temperature where the vapor pressure is equal to the same value.
However, boiling can also occur in water at temperatures much below 212°F if the pressure in
the water is reduced to the vapor pressure of water corresponding to that lower temperature.
For example, the vapor pressure of water at 50°F (10°C) is 0.178 psi. Therefore, if the pressure
in water at 50°F is reduced to 0.178 psi, the water boils.
1.3.7. Specific Volume (𝑽𝒔 )
Specific Volume is the volume occupied by a unit mass of fluid commonly applied to gases
and is usually expressed in m3/kg specific volume is true reciprocal of density.
𝟏
𝑽𝒔 =
𝝆
English Units SI Units
𝒇𝒕𝟑 𝒎𝟑
𝒔𝒍𝒖𝒈 𝒌𝒈

1.3.8. Viscosity (𝝁)

Viscosity is the property of a fluid which by virtue of conclusion and interaction between fluid
molecules offers resistance to shear deformation. Fluids with high viscosities such as syrup
deforms relatively more slowly than low viscosity of fluids such as water.
English Units SI Units
𝒍𝒃 − 𝒔 𝒌𝒈 𝑵−𝒔
= = 𝟏𝟎 𝒑
𝒇𝒕𝟐 𝒎−𝒔 𝒎𝟐

A smaller unit of viscosity called 𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒔𝒆 (𝒑) after parseville, who was one of the first
investigations of viscosity the poise is 𝟏 𝒈/𝒄𝒎 − 𝒔
𝒌𝒈
𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒔𝒆𝒔
𝒎−𝒔
The relationship between the shear stress and the velocity field was studied by Isaac Newton
and he proposed that the shear stresses are directly proportional to the velocity gradient.
𝝉
𝝁 =
𝒅𝒖
𝒅𝒚
is also called the coefficient of viscosity the absolute viscosity, the dynamic viscosity or simply
the viscosity of the fluid.

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MODULE 01: INTRODUCTON TO FLUID MECHANICS
1.3.9. Kinematic Viscosity (𝝂)
Kinematic Viscosity is the ratio of dynamic viscosity to mass density.
𝝁
𝝂=
𝝆
The kinematic viscosity is usually measured in 𝒄𝒎𝟐 /𝒔, also called the Stokes (𝒔𝒕) after G. G.
Stokes. The centisoke 𝟏 𝒄𝒔𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏 𝒔𝒕 is often a more convenient unit.

English Unit SI Unit

𝒇𝒕𝟐 𝒎𝟐
= 𝟏𝟎𝟒 𝒔𝒕
𝒔 𝒔

1.3.10. Surface Tension (𝝈) and Capillarity (𝒉)

Liquids possess the properties of cohesion and adhesion, both of which are forms of
molecular attraction. Cohesion enables a liquid to resist tensile stress, while adhesion enables it
to adhere to another body the capability of liquid to have an attraction between molecules
and forms an imaginary film capable of resisting tension at interface between two immiscible
liquids or at the interface between a liquid and gas is called surface tension.
Capillarity is due to both cohesion and adhesion if the liquid molecules have greater effect of
adhesion the liquid will wet a solid surface with which it is in contact and rise at the point of
contact. If cohesion predominates, the liquid surface will be depressed at the point of contact
for example capillarity makes water rise in glass tube, while mercury is depressed below the
true level.
𝟒𝛔 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝟒𝝈 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
𝒉= =
𝜸𝒅 𝝎𝒅
where: 𝛔 = surface tension in units of force per unit length
𝜽 = wetting angle
𝝎 or 𝜸 = specific weight of liquid
𝒅 = diameter of tube
𝒉 = capillarity rise
Note: if the tube is clean, 𝜽 = 0° for water (H2O) and 𝜽 = 140° for mercury (Hg).

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

Problem 01:
A reservoir contains glycerin with a mass of 1200 kg and a volume of 0.952m³. Determine its
weight, unit weight, mass density, and specific gravity.
Solution:
Given: 𝑚 = 1200 𝑘𝑔, 𝑉 = 0.952 𝑚3 Req’d: 𝑾, 𝜸, 𝝆, and 𝒔
The weight is just the product of the mass and the acceleration due to gravity.
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔
Substituting the given value, and using 𝑔 = 9.81 𝑚/𝑠 2
𝑾 = 𝑚𝑔 = (1200 𝑘𝑔)(9.81 𝑚/𝑠 2 ) = 𝟏𝟏, 𝟕𝟎𝟎 𝑵
Since the weight is already solved, the specific gravity can easily be calculated
𝑊
𝛾=
𝑉
Substituting the known values,
𝑊 11,700 𝑁 𝑵
𝜸= = 3
= 𝟏𝟐, 𝟑𝟔𝟓. 𝟓𝟓 𝟑
𝑉 0.952 𝑚 𝒎
Solving the density can be done through 2 ways:

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First, use the obtained value for the specific weight.
𝑁
𝛾 12,365.55 𝑚3 𝒌𝒈
𝝆= = 𝑚 = 𝟏𝟐𝟔𝟎. 𝟓𝟎 𝟑
𝑔 9.81 2 𝒎
𝑠
Second, use the relationship of the density, mass, and volume.
𝑚 1,200 𝑘𝑔 𝒌𝒈
𝝆= = = 𝟏𝟐𝟔𝟎. 𝟓𝟎
𝑉 0.952 𝑚3 𝒎𝟑
For the specific gravity, since glycerin is a liquid, its specific weight (or density) must be
compared to the specific weight (or density) of water.
𝑁 𝑘𝑔
𝛾𝑔𝑙𝑦𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛 12,365.55 3 1260.50 3 𝜌𝑔𝑙𝑦𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛
𝑺. 𝑮.𝒈𝒍𝒚𝒄𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏 = = 𝑚 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟔 = 𝑚 = = 𝑺. 𝑮.𝒈𝒍𝒚𝒄𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏
𝛾𝐻2 𝑂 𝑁 𝑘𝑔 𝜌𝐻2 𝑂
9,810 3 1000 3
𝑚 𝑚

Problem 02:
A certain liquid weights 20,000 N and its volume is 2.085 m³. Determine its unit weight, mass
density, specific gravity, and specific volume.
Solution:
Given: 𝑊 = 20,000 𝑁, 𝑉 = 2.085 𝑚3 Req’d: 𝜸, 𝝆, 𝒔, and 𝑽𝒔
The specific gravity can easily be calculated using the formula
𝑊
𝛾=
𝑉
Substituting the known values,
𝑊 20,000 𝑁 𝑵
𝜸= = 3
= 𝟗, 𝟓𝟗𝟐. 𝟑𝟑 𝟑
𝑉 2.085 𝑚 𝒎
In solving the density, use the obtained value for the specific weight.
𝑁
𝛾 9,592.33 𝑚3 𝒌𝒈
𝝆= = 𝑚 = 𝟗𝟕𝟕. 𝟖𝟏 𝟑
𝑔 9.81 2 𝒎
𝑠
For the specific gravity, the liquid’s specific weight (or density) must be compared to the
specific weight (or density) of the reference liquid which is water.
𝑁 𝑘𝑔
𝛾𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 9,592.33 3 𝜌𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 977.81 3
𝑺. 𝑮.𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 = = 𝑚 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟕𝟖 𝑺. 𝑮.𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 = = 𝑚
𝛾𝐻2 𝑂 𝑁 𝜌𝐻2 𝑂 𝑘𝑔
9,810 3 1000 3
𝑚 𝑚
= 𝟎. 𝟗𝟕𝟖
The specific volume is just the reciprocal of the mass density.
1 1 𝒎𝟑
𝑽𝒔 = = = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑
𝜌 977.81 𝑘𝑔 𝒌𝒈
𝑚3

Problem 03:
A certain gas is weighing 16 N/m³ at certain temperature and pressure. Determine its density,
specific volume and specific gravity.
Solution:
Given: 𝛾 = 16 𝑁/𝑚3 Req’d: 𝝆, 𝑽𝒔 , and 𝒔
In solving the density, use the obtained value for the specific weight.
𝑁
𝛾 16 3 𝒌𝒈
𝝆= = 𝑚 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟑 𝟑
𝑔 9.81 𝑚 𝒎
𝑠2
The specific volume is just the reciprocal of the mass density.

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MODULE 01: INTRODUCTON TO FLUID MECHANICS
1 1 𝒎𝟑
𝑽𝒔 = = = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟏𝟑
𝜌 1.63 𝑘𝑔 𝒌𝒈
𝑚3
The specific weight of the gas must be compared to the specific weight of air.
𝑁
𝛾𝑔𝑎𝑠 16 3
𝑺. 𝑮.𝒈𝒂𝒔 = = 𝑚 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟑
𝛾𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑁
12 3
𝑚

Problem 04:
The specific weight of water at ordinary pressure and temperature is 62.4 lb/ft³. Determine the
density of water and mercury (𝑠 = 13.6) in English Units.
Solution:
Given: 𝛾𝐻2 𝑂 = 62.4 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 3 , 𝑠𝐻𝑔 = 13.6 Req’d: 𝜌𝐻2 𝑂 and 𝜌𝐻𝑔
The density of water could easily be solved by dividing the specific weight by the acceleration
due to gravity, which has a value of 32.2 ft/s^2 in English Units.
𝛾𝐻2 𝑂 62.4 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 3 𝒔𝒍𝒖𝒈
𝝆𝑯𝟐𝑶 = = = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟒
𝑔 32.2 𝑓𝑡/𝑠 2 𝒇𝒕𝟑
The relation given by
𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝐻𝑔
𝑆. 𝐺.𝑙 = → 𝑆. 𝐺.𝐻𝑔 =
𝜌𝐻2 𝑂 𝜌𝐻2 𝑂
could be manipulated to solve for the mass density of mercury (Hg).
𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 𝒔𝒍𝒖𝒈
𝝆𝑯𝒈 = 𝑆. 𝐺.𝐻𝑔 × 𝜌𝐻2 𝑂 = (13.6) (1.94 3 ) = 𝟐𝟔. 𝟑𝟖
𝑓𝑡 𝒇𝒕𝟑

Problem 05:
The specific gravity of glycerin is 1.26 compute its density and its specific weight.
Solution:
SI Units: The relation given by
𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝑔𝑙𝑦𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛
𝑆. 𝐺.𝑙 = → 𝑆. 𝐺.𝑔𝑙𝑦𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛 =
𝜌𝐻2 𝑂 𝜌𝐻2 𝑂
could be manipulated to solve for the mass density of glycerin.
𝑘𝑔 𝒌𝒈
𝝆𝒈𝒍𝒚𝒄𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏 = 𝑆. 𝐺.𝑔𝑙𝑦𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛 × 𝜌𝐻2 𝑂 = (1.26) (1000 3
) = 𝟏𝟐𝟔𝟎 𝟑
𝑚 𝒎
Using the relationship between density, unit weight, and acceleration due to gravity,
𝑘𝑔 𝑚 𝑵
𝜸𝒈𝒍𝒚𝒄𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏 = 𝜌𝑔𝑙𝑦𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛 × 𝑔 = 1260 3 × 9.81 2 = 𝟏𝟐, 𝟑𝟔𝟎. 𝟔 𝟑
𝑚 𝑠 𝒎
English Units: The relation given by
𝛾𝑙 𝛾𝑔𝑙𝑦𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛
𝑆. 𝐺.𝑙 = → 𝑆. 𝐺.𝑔𝑙𝑦𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛 =
𝛾𝐻2 𝑂 𝛾𝐻2 𝑂
could be manipulated to solve for the specific weight of glycerin.
𝑙𝑏 𝒍𝒃
𝜸𝒈𝒍𝒚𝒄𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏 = 𝑆. 𝐺.𝑔𝑙𝑦𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛 × 𝛾𝐻2 𝑂 = (1.26) (62.4 3 ) = 𝟕𝟖. 𝟔𝟐𝟒 𝟑
𝑓𝑡 𝒇𝒕
Using the relationship between density, unit weight, and acceleration due to gravity,
𝛾𝑔𝑙𝑦𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛 78.624 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 3 𝒔𝒍𝒖𝒈
𝝆𝒈𝒍𝒚𝒄𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏 = = = 𝟐. 𝟒𝟒
𝑔 32.2 𝑓𝑡/𝑠 2 𝒇𝒕𝟑

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MODULE 01: INTRODUCTON TO FLUID MECHANICS
Problem 06:
A liquid has a specific gravity of 0.60 determine the density, specific weight, and specific
volume in English unit.
Solution:
The relation given by
𝜌𝑙
𝑆. 𝐺.𝑙 =
𝜌𝐻2 𝑂
could be manipulated to solve for the mass density of the liquid.
𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 𝒔𝒍𝒖𝒈
𝝆𝒍 = 𝑆. 𝐺.𝑙 × 𝜌𝐻2 𝑂 = (0.60) (1.94 3 ) = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟔𝟒
𝑓𝑡 𝒇𝒕𝟑
Using the relationship between density, unit weight, and acceleration due to gravity,
𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 𝑓𝑡 𝒍𝒃
𝜸𝒍 = 𝜌𝑙 × 𝑔 = 1.164 3 × 32.2 2 = 𝟑𝟕. 𝟒𝟖𝟏 𝟑
𝑓𝑡 𝑠 𝒇𝒕
The specific volume is just the reciprocal of the mass density.
1 1 𝒇𝒕𝟑
𝑽𝒔 = = = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟓𝟗
𝜌 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 𝒔𝒍𝒖𝒈
1.164 3
𝑓𝑡

Problem 07:
If a certain gasoline weights 7000 N/m3, what are the values of its density, specific volume, and
specific gravity relative to water at 15°C is equal to 999.1 kg/m3.
Solution:
Using the relationship between density, unit weight, and acceleration due to gravity,
𝑁
𝛾𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 7,000 𝑚3 𝒌𝒈
𝝆𝒈𝒂𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 = = 𝑚 = 𝟕𝟏𝟑. 𝟓𝟔 𝟑
𝑔 9.81 2 𝒎
𝑠
The specific volume is just the reciprocal of the mass density.
1 1 −𝟑
𝒎𝟑
𝑽𝒔 = = = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟎𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎
𝜌 713.56 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 𝒌𝒈
For the specific gravity, the density of gasoline must be compared to the density of water.
𝜌𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 713.56 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑺. 𝑮.𝒈𝒂𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 = = = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟏𝟒
𝜌𝐻2 𝑂 999.1 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

Problem 08:
Determine the density, specific weight, and specific gravity of a gas its specific volume is
0.795m3/kg.
Solution:
The mass density is just the reciprocal of the specific volume.
1 1 𝒌𝒈
𝝆= = 3
= 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓𝟖 𝟑
𝑉𝑠 0.795 𝑚 /𝑘𝑔 𝒎
Using the relationship between density, unit weight, and acceleration due to gravity,
𝑘𝑔 𝑚 𝑵
𝜸𝒈 = 𝜌𝑔 × 𝑔 = 1.258 3 × 9.81 2 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟑𝟒 𝟑
𝑚 𝑠 𝒎
The specific weight of the gas must be compared to the specific weight of air.
𝛾𝑔 12.34 𝑁/𝑚3
𝑺. 𝑮.𝒈 = = = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟑
𝛾𝑎𝑖𝑟 12 𝑁/𝑚3

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MODULE 01: INTRODUCTON TO FLUID MECHANICS
Problem 09:
What is the specific weight in N/m3 of a gas if its specific volume is 0.72 m3/kg?
Solution:
The mass density is just the reciprocal of the specific volume.
1 1 𝒌𝒈
𝝆= = = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟗
𝑉𝑠 0.72 𝑚3 /𝑘𝑔 𝒎𝟑
Using the relationship between density, unit weight, and acceleration due to gravity,
𝑘𝑔 𝑚 𝑵
𝜸𝒈 = 𝜌𝑔 × 𝑔 = 1.39 3 × 9.81 2 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟔𝟐𝟓 𝟑
𝑚 𝑠 𝒎

Problem 10:
The density of the oil at 20ºC is 850 kg/m³. Find its specific gravity (relative density) and kinematic
viscosity if the dynamic viscosity is 5 x 10-3 kg/m-s.
Solution:
Given : 𝜌𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 850 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3, 𝜇 = 5 × 10−3 𝑘𝑔/𝑚 − 𝑠 Req’d: 𝒔 and 𝝂
For the specific gravity, the density of oil must be compared to the given density of water.
𝜌𝑜𝑖𝑙 850 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑺. 𝑮.𝒐𝒊𝒍 = = = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟓
𝜌𝐻2 𝑂 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
The kinematic viscosity is solved by
−3 𝑘𝑔
𝜇 5 × 10 𝑚 − 𝑠 = 𝟓. 𝟖𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝒎
𝟐
𝝂= =
𝜌 850 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 𝒔

Problem 11:
The velocity distribution of a viscous liquid (μ=0.9 N-s/m²) over a fixed boundary is given by 𝑢 =
0.68𝑦 − 𝑦 2 in which 𝒖 is the velocity in m/s at a distance y meter above the surface. Determine
the shear stress at the surface.
Solution:
Given: 𝜇 = 0.9 𝑁 − 𝑠/𝑚², and 𝑢 = 0.68𝑦 − 𝑦 2 Req’d: 𝜏 (at surface) and 𝜏 (at 𝑦 = 0.34 𝑚)
The shear stress could be expressed in the relation given below
𝝉 𝒅𝒖
𝝁= → 𝝉=𝝁
𝒅𝒖/𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒚
The viscosity is already given. Solve for 𝑑𝑢/𝑑𝑦 first.
𝒅𝒖 𝑑
= (0.68𝑦 − 𝑦 2 ) = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟖 − 𝟐𝒚
𝒅𝒚 𝑑𝑦
Substituting, the known quantities,
𝑑𝑢
𝝉(𝒚) = 𝜇 = 𝟎. 𝟗(𝟎. 𝟔𝟖 − 𝟐𝒚)
𝑑𝑦
The shear stress at the surface 𝑦 = 0,
𝝉(𝑦 = 0) = 0.9(0.68 − 2(0)) = 0.612 𝑁/𝑚2 or 𝟎. 𝟔𝟏𝟐 𝑷𝒂

The shear stress at 𝑦 = 0.34 𝑚,

𝝉(𝑦 = 0.34) = 0.9(0.68 − 2(0.34)) = 0 𝑁/𝑚2 or 𝟎 𝑷𝒂

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MODULE 01: INTRODUCTON TO FLUID MECHANICS
Problem 12:
Estimate the height to which water will rise in a capillary tube of diameter 3mm, if the surface
tension is 0.728 N/m and 𝛾 = 9810 N/ m³.
Solution:
Given: 𝒅 = 𝟑 𝒎𝒎, σ = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟐𝟖 𝑵/𝒎, and 𝛾𝐻2 𝑂 = 9810 𝑁/𝑚3

The formula for the capillary rise is

𝟒𝛔 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
𝒉=
𝜸𝒅
For clean water, the wetting angle is 𝜽 = 𝟎°. Substituting all the known values,
𝑁
4σ cos 𝜃 4 (0.728 𝑚) cos 0°
𝒉= = = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟖𝟗𝟓 𝒎 or 𝟗𝟖. 𝟗𝟓 𝒎𝒎
𝛾𝑑 𝑁
9810 3 (0.003 𝑚)
𝑚

Problem 13:
Estimate the capillary depression for mercury (𝑠 = 13.6) a glass tube 2mm in diameter, the
surface tension is 0.5414 N/m.
Solution:
Given : 𝑑 = 2 𝑚𝑚, σ = 0.5414𝑁/𝑚, 𝑠𝐻𝑔 = 13.6

The formula for the capillary rise is

𝟒𝛔 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
𝒉=
𝜸𝒅
The specific gravity of mercury is
𝑁 𝑁
𝛾𝐻𝑔 = 𝑠𝐻𝑔 × 𝛾𝐻2 𝑂 = 13.6 (9810 3
) = 133,416 3
𝑚 𝑚
For clean water, the wetting angle is 𝜽 = 𝟏𝟒𝟎°. Substituting all the known values,
𝑁
4σ cos 𝜃 4 (0.5414 𝑚) cos 140°
𝒉= = = −𝟔. 𝟐𝟏𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒎 or − 𝟔. 𝟐𝟏𝟕 𝒎𝒎
𝛾𝑑 𝑁
133,416 3 (0.002 𝑚)
𝑚
Problem 14:
Determine the surface tension in a tube with a radius of 0.2 m and wetting of 0º. The capillary rise
is 5mm in water.
Solution:
Given : 𝑟 = 0.2 𝑚, 𝑑 = 0.4 𝑚, 𝜃 = 0°, and ℎ = 5 𝑚𝑚 Req’d: σ
The formula for capillary rise and the manipulated form to solve for the surface tension are
𝟒𝛔 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝒉𝜸𝒅
𝒉= → 𝛔=
𝜸𝒅 𝟒 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
Substituting all known quantities,
𝑁
ℎ𝛾𝑑 (0.005 𝑚) (9810 3 ) (0.400 𝑚) 𝑵
𝛔= = 𝑚 = 𝟒. 𝟗𝟎𝟓
4 cos 𝜃 4 cos 0° 𝒎

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MODULE 01: INTRODUCTON TO FLUID MECHANICS
1.4. Principles of Hydrostatic Pressure
Fluid Statics is the study of pressure throughout a fluid at rest and the pressure forces on finite
surfaces. Since the fluid at rest, there are no stresses in it, hence the pressure, 𝑷, at a point in a plane
surface (including the fluid) or (on the boundaries of its container) always act normal to the surface
and is measured in N/m2 or Pa, kN/m2 or in bars (1 bar = 105 Pa).

1.4.1. Unit Pressure, (𝑷)

 It is the intensity of pressure at any point and in a fluid.
 It is the amount of Force per unit area.
𝑭
𝑷=
𝑨
where:
𝑷 = Pressure (N/m2 of Pa, kN/m2 or kPa, lb/in2 or psi)
𝑭 = Force applied (N, lb)
𝑨 = Unit per area where the force applied (m2, in2)
1.4.2. Pascal’s Law
At any point of fluid/liquid at rest the pressure is the same in all directions.

Let: width = L From the figure:

𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 =
𝐹 𝑧
𝑃= 𝐹 = 𝑃𝐴 𝑦
𝐴
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 =
𝑧
Using the idea of unit pressures, the following relationships can be set up.

𝐹𝑥 = 𝑃𝑥 (𝑦𝐿) 𝐹𝑦 = 𝑃𝑦 (𝑥𝐿) 𝐹𝑧 = 𝑃𝑧 (𝑧𝐿)

By summing forces along the vertical, ∑ 𝐹𝑣 = 0

𝐹𝑦 − 𝐹𝑧 sin 𝜃 = 0
Expressing the forces in terms of pressures,
𝑥
𝑃𝑦 (𝑥𝐿) − 𝑃𝑧 (𝑧𝐿) [ ] = 0 → 𝑃𝑦 = 𝑃𝑧
𝑧
By summing forces along the horizontal, ∑ 𝐹ℎ = 0
𝐹𝑥 − 𝐹𝑧 cos 𝜃 = 0
Expressing the forces in terms of pressures,
𝑦
𝑃𝑥 (𝑦𝐿) − 𝑃𝑧 (𝑧𝐿) [ ] = 0 → 𝑃𝑥 = 𝑃𝑧
𝑧
Effectively,
𝑃𝑥 = 𝑃𝑦 = 𝑃𝑧

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MODULE 01: INTRODUCTON TO FLUID MECHANICS
1.4.3. Pressure Variation
Consider a cylindrical volume of fluid of length.

In reference to the figure:

𝑊 = 𝜔𝑉 → 𝑊 = 𝜔(𝑎𝐿)
By summing forces along the horizontal direction, ∑ 𝐹ℎ = 0
𝐹2 − 𝐹1 = 𝑊 sin 𝜃
Expressing the forces in terms of the pressures,
𝑝2 𝑎 − 𝑝1 𝑎 = 𝜔(𝑎𝐿) sin 𝜃
Note that ℎ = 𝐿 sin 𝜃
𝑝2 𝑎 − 𝑝1 𝑎 = 𝜔𝑎ℎ
Dividing both sides by 𝑎,
𝑝2 − 𝑝1 = 𝜔ℎ
This can be generalized in the form. For pressure variations in water
𝒑𝟐 = 𝒑𝟏 ± 𝝎𝒉
For pressure variations in any other liquid
𝒑𝟐 = 𝒑𝟏 ± 𝜸𝒉
Note: gage pressure may be positive or negative (vacuum). If point 1 is at the liquid surface

𝒑𝟏 = 𝟎; 𝒑𝟐 = 𝝎𝒉 (gage pressure)
1.4.4. Atmospheric Pressure
All gases possess mass and consequently have weight. The atmospheric being a fluid composed
of a mixture of gases exerts a pressure on energy surface with which it comes in contact.
At the sea level (normal conditions), atmospheric pressure amounts to 𝟏𝟒. 𝟕 𝒑𝒔𝒊 or 𝟏𝟎𝟏. 𝟑 𝒌𝑷𝒂.
1.4.5. Absolute and Gage Pressure
 Usually pressure gage are designed to measure the intensities of pressure above or below the
atmospheric pressure as a base.
 Pressure so measured are called RELATIVE or GAGE PRESURE
 Absolute pressure is always equal to gage pressure plus atmospheric pressure.
𝒑𝒂𝒃𝒔 = 𝒑𝒈𝒂𝒈𝒆 + 𝒑𝒂𝒕𝒎
where
𝒑𝒂𝒕𝒎 = 𝟏𝒂𝒕𝒎 = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟕 𝒑𝒔𝒊 = 𝟏𝟎𝟏. 𝟑𝟐𝟓 𝒌𝑷𝒂 = 𝟕𝟔𝟎 𝒎𝒎 𝑯𝒈

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MODULE 01: INTRODUCTON TO FLUID MECHANICS
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
Problem 01:
What is the pressure in kPa at depth of 5 km below the ocean? The specific weight of ocean water
ordinary condition is 10.05 kN/m3.
Solution:
Consider the liquid surface as point 1 and the one at 5 km below as point 2. The pressure at
the liquid surface is atmospheric. Therefore, the absolute pressure at the surface is 𝒑𝒂𝒕𝒎 =
𝟏 𝒂𝒕𝒎 = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟕 𝒑𝒔𝒊 = 𝟏𝟎𝟏. 𝟑𝟐𝟓 𝒌𝑷𝒂 = 𝟕𝟔𝟎 𝒎𝒎 𝑯𝒈.
𝒑𝟐 = 𝒑𝟏 ± 𝜸𝒉
As one goes from a higher elevation to a lower elevation, the pressure increases, so use
“plus.” The absolute pressure can be solved as
𝑘𝑁
𝒑𝟐,𝒂𝒃𝒔 = 𝑝1 + 𝛾ℎ = 101.325 𝑘𝑃𝑎 + (10.05 3 ) (5000 𝑚) = 𝟓𝟎, 𝟑𝟓𝟏. 𝟑𝟐𝟓 𝒌𝑷𝒂
𝑚
As for the gage pressure, simply subtract the atmospheric pressure. This means that the gage
pressure at the liquid surface (at point 1) is 𝒑𝟏 = 𝟎.
𝑘𝑁
𝒑𝟐,𝒈𝒂𝒈𝒆 = 𝑝1 + 𝛾ℎ = 0 𝑘𝑃𝑎 + (10.05 3 ) (5000 𝑚) = 𝟓𝟎, 𝟐𝟓𝟎 𝒌𝑷𝒂
𝑚

Problem 02:
An open tank containers 5.0 m of oil (𝑆. 𝐺. = 0.80). Find the pressure of the interface and at the
bottom of the tank.
Solution:
The term “interface” indicates the elevation where two immiscible fluids meet. In this case,
since only one liquid (oil) is indicated in the problem, the interface pertains to the liquid
surface, since it is the elevation at which oil meets the air (another liquid).
The pressure at the liquid surface is atmospheric. Therefore, the absolute pressure (surface) is
𝒑𝒂𝒃𝒔 = 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 14.7 𝑝𝑠𝑖 = 760 𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝑔 = 𝟏𝟎𝟏. 𝟑𝟐𝟓 𝒌𝑷𝒂
The gage pressure at the surface is, of course,
𝒑𝒈𝒂𝒈𝒆 (𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒) = 𝟎 𝒌𝑷𝒂
As one goes from a higher elevation to a lower elevation, the pressure increases, so use
“plus.” The absolute pressure can be solved as
𝑘𝑁
𝒑𝒃𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒎, 𝒂𝒃𝒔 = 𝑝𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒, 𝑎𝑏𝑠 + 𝛾ℎ = 101.325 𝑘𝑃𝑎 + [(0.80) (9.81 3 )] (5.0 𝑚) = 𝟏𝟒𝟎. 𝟓𝟔𝟓 𝒌𝑷𝒂
𝑚
As for the gage pressure, simply subtract the atmospheric pressure. This means that the gage
pressure at the liquid surface (at point 1) is 𝒑𝟏 = 𝟎.
𝑘𝑁
𝒑𝒃𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒎, 𝒈𝒂𝒈𝒆 = 𝑝𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒, 𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 + 𝛾ℎ = 0 𝑘𝑃𝑎 + [(0.80) (9.81 3 )] (5.0 𝑚) = 𝟑𝟗. 𝟐𝟒 𝒌𝑷𝒂
𝑚

Problem 03:
An open tank contains 3m of water covered with 0.6 m of oil (𝑆. 𝐺. = 0.86). Find the pressure at
the interface between the liquids and the bottom of the tank.
Solution:
The term “interface” indicates the elevation where two immiscible fluids meet. Immiscible
fluids are fluids that cannot be mixed. Even if one forcibly mixes two immiscible fluids, an
interface between these two fluids will be formed; as one liquid with a higher specific gravity
will sink while the other floats above it. From here, the situation could be illustrated.

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MODULE 01: INTRODUCTON TO FLUID MECHANICS
There are three points of interest in this problem. Point 1 being
the surface of the oil exposed to the atmosphere, since the
Oil 0.6 m container is open, Point 2 being the interface between oil and
water. Lastly, Point 3 being the bottom of the tank.
The pressure at the surface is atmospheric. Thus,
Water 3.0 m 𝒑𝟏 = 𝟎
The pressure at the interface is,
𝑘𝑁
𝒑𝟐 = 𝑝1 + 𝛾𝑜𝑖𝑙 ℎ = 0 + [(0.86) (9.81 )] (0.6 𝑚) = 𝟓. 𝟎𝟔𝟐 𝒌𝑷𝒂
𝑚3
The pressure at the bottom of the tank is
𝑘𝑁
𝒑𝟑 = 𝑝2 + 𝛾𝐻2 𝑂 ℎ = 5.062 𝑘𝑃𝑎 + [(9.81 )] (3.0 𝑚) = 𝟑𝟒. 𝟒𝟗𝟐 𝒌𝑷𝒂
𝑚3

Problem 04:
An open tank contains 0.8 m of mercury, 1.3 m of oil and 3.4 m of water determine the pressure
at the interface between the liquids and the pressure at the bottom if the specific gravity of the
liquids are 13.6, 0.80, and 1.0 respectively.
Solution:
The problem is illustrated on the left. The liquids must be
arranged such that the densest liquid is at the bottom of the tank.
Oil (S.G. = 0.80) 1.3 m As one goes upward, the liquids are arranged from densest to
most buoyant, their specific gravities are arranged from greatest
to least.
Water (S.G. = 1.0) 3.4 m Let’s denote the liquid surface, interface between oil and water,
interface between water and mercury, and the bottom of the tank
as points A, B, C, and D, respectively.
Hg (S.G. = 13.6) 0.8 m
The pressure at the surface is atmospheric. Thus, 𝒑𝑨 = 𝟎
The pressure at the interface between oil and water is,
𝑘𝑁
𝒑𝑩 = 𝑝𝐴 + 𝛾𝑜𝑖𝑙 ℎ = 0 𝑘𝑃𝑎 + [(0.80) (9.81 3 )] (1.3 𝑚) = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟐𝟎𝟐𝟒 𝒌𝑷𝒂
𝑚
The pressure at the interface between water and mercury is,
𝑘𝑁
𝒑𝑪 = 𝑝𝐵 + 𝛾𝐻2 𝑂 ℎ = 10.2024 𝑘𝑃𝑎 + [(1.0) (9.81 3 )] (3.4 𝑚) = 𝟒𝟑. 𝟓𝟓𝟔𝟒 𝒌𝑷𝒂
𝑚
The pressure at the bottom of the tank is
𝑘𝑁
𝒑𝑫 = 𝑝𝐶 + 𝛾𝐻𝑔 ℎ = 43.5564 𝑘𝑃𝑎 + [(13.6) (9.81 3 )] (0.8 𝑚) = 𝟏𝟓𝟎. 𝟐𝟖𝟗𝟐 𝒌𝑷𝒂
𝑚

Problem 05:
Determine the pressure at the bottom of the container.
Solution:
Let’s denote the liquid surface, interface
between oil and water, interface between water
and mercury, and the bottom of the tank as
points A, B, C, and D, respectively.
The pressure at the surface is atmospheric since
it is an open container. Thus,
𝒑𝑨 = 𝟎

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 HYDRA 325 - HYDRAULICS
MODULE 01: INTRODUCTON TO FLUID MECHANICS
The pressure at the interface between oil and water (at Elevation 25 m) is,
𝑘𝑁
𝒑𝑩 = 𝑝𝐴 + 𝛾𝑜𝑖𝑙 ℎ = 0 𝑘𝑃𝑎 + [(0.80) (9.81 3 )] (12 𝑚) = 𝟗𝟒. 𝟏𝟕𝟔 𝒌𝑷𝒂
𝑚
The pressure at the interface between water and mercury is,
𝑘𝑁
𝒑𝑪 = 𝑝𝐵 + 𝛾𝐻2 𝑂 ℎ = 94.176 𝑘𝑃𝑎 + [(1.0) (9.81 3 )] (6.0 𝑚) = 𝟏𝟓𝟑. 𝟎𝟑𝟔 𝒌𝑷𝒂
𝑚
The pressure at the bottom of the tank is
𝑘𝑁
𝒑𝑫 = 𝑝𝐶 + 𝛾𝐻𝑔 ℎ = 153.036 𝑘𝑃𝑎 + [(13.6) (9.81 3 )] (5.0 𝑚) = 𝟖𝟐𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟔 𝒌𝑷𝒂
𝑚

Problem 06:
Determine the pressure at the bottom of the containers and at the interface between the oil and
water.
Solution:
Let’s denote the liquid surface, interface
between oil and water, and the bottom of the
tank as points A, B, and C, respectively.
The pressure at the surface is not
atmospheric because the air layer above the
topmost liquid, oil, is pressurized.
𝑝𝐴 = 30 𝑘𝑃𝑎
The pressure at the bottom can be obtained
by
𝑝𝐷 = 𝑝𝐴 + ∑ 𝛾𝑖 ℎ𝑖

The pressure at the bottom of the tank could be obtained by summing all the pressure
differences on each liquid layer.
𝑘𝑁 𝑘𝑁
𝒑𝑫 = 𝑝𝐴 + ∑ 𝛾𝑖 ℎ𝑖 = 30 𝑘𝑃𝑎 + [(0.80) (9.81 3 )] (2.8 𝑚) + [(9.81 3 )] (1.5 𝑚)
𝑚 𝑚
= 𝟔𝟔. 𝟔𝟗 𝒌𝑷𝒂
The pressure at the interface between oil and water is
𝑘𝑁
𝒑𝑫 = 𝑝𝐴 + 𝛾𝑜𝑖𝑙 ℎ𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 30 𝑘𝑃𝑎 + [(0.80) (9.81 )] (2.8 𝑚) = 𝟓𝟏. 𝟗𝟕 𝒌𝑷𝒂
𝑚3

Problem 07:
In the figure shown, if the atmospheric is 101.3 kPa and the absolute pressure at the bottom of the
tank is 231.3 kPa, what is the specific gravity of olive oil?
Solution:

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 HYDRA 325 - HYDRAULICS
MODULE 01: INTRODUCTON TO FLUID MECHANICS
The pressure at the bottom of the tank is given as 231.3 kPa. This value could be obtained by
summing the pressure differences on each liquid layer.
𝑝𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 = 𝑝𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 + ∑ 𝛾𝑖 ℎ𝑖
𝑝𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 = 𝑝𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 + 𝛾𝑜𝑖𝑙 ℎ𝑜𝑖𝑙 + 𝛾𝐻2 𝑂 ℎ𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝛾𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒 + 𝛾𝐻𝑔 ℎ𝐻𝑔
Substituting known values, and using a variable to represent the specific gravity of olive oil,
𝐾𝑁 𝐾𝑁
231.3 𝑘𝑃𝑎 = 101.3 𝑘𝑃𝑎 + [(0.80) (9.81 3 )] (1.5 𝑚) + [(1.0) (9.81 3 )] (2.5 𝑚)
𝑚 𝑚
𝐾𝑁 𝐾𝑁
+ [(𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑖𝑙 ) (9.81 3 )] (2.9 𝑚) + [(13.6) (9.81 3 )] (0.4 𝑚)
𝑚 𝑚
Solving the unknown quantity in the equation
𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟐
Indeed, it is expected that the specific gravity of olive oil must be somewhere between the
specific gravity of water and mercury for the configuration of the system to be true.
𝑠𝐻2 𝑂 = 1.00 < 1.42 < 13.6 = 𝑠𝐻𝑔

*** END OF MODULE 01 ***

Prepared by: HYDRA 325 Cluster