Fluid Mechanics-Statics

Chapter 1
Basics

Topics Reviewed The menu above allows you to move directly to any of
the topics reviewed. For each topic, the materials are
1. Mass Density and Specific Weight organized into four different parts:
2. Ideal Gas Law
3. Viscosity Case Intro: To help introduce and understand the
4. Surface Tension basic principles, a case study is presented.
5. Vapor Pressure
Theory: This part will review the basic principles and
Reference: E-Books equations that you should know to answer the exam
questions. It does not give detailed derivations of the
theory.
Author(s):
Chean Chin Ngo
Kurt Gramoll Case Solution: The case study is solved in detail in
this section. Graphics, narrations, animations, and
Kurt Gramoll equations are used to help you understand how the
problem was solved.

Simulation: You can adjust several parameters of a

given problem and learn how they affect the results.
 1. Mass Density and Specific Weight
Introduction

High school students in a physics class are asked to

measure the mass and volume of two unknown
liquids. The raw data collected are summarized in the
following table:

Empty Container &

Volume of
Container Liquid Mass
Liquid (ml)
Mass (g) (g)
Liquid A 25.0 75.0 50
Liquid B 25.0 44.7 25
Density Measurement
Questions

Determine the densities of the two liquids, and identify

the liquids. Also, predict if an ice cube and a cork will
sink or float in the two liquids.

Approach

The density of the ice cube is 900 kg/m 3, and

the density of the cork is 250 kg/m 3.
Will it Float or Sink?

FLUID MECHANICS - THEORY

In this section, mass density will be introduced. The

concept of the specific weight will also be presented.

Mass Density

The mass density () of a fluid is defined as the ratio of

the mass of the fluid (m) to its volume (V). That is,
= m/V
The SI unit for the mass density is kg/m3 while the
English unit is slugs/ft3.
For liquids, mass density is not a strong function of
temperature and pressure. Hence, density is generally
assumed to be independent of the temperature and
pressure for liquids. On the other hand, for gases,
density varies with both temperature and pressure.
 Mass Density
The relation between , T and P for gases is given by
the ideal gas law, which will be presented in a later
section.

The density of different liquids has a wide range. For

example, the density of water at 16oC is 999 kg/m3
while the density of mercury at 20oC is 13,550 kg/m3. In
order for an object to float in a liquid, the density of the
object must be less than that of the liquid. For example,
a copper cube ( = 9,000 kg/m3) will sink in water but it
will float on mercury.

Copper Cube in Water and Mercury

Density, For gases, a similar phenomenon can be observed.

20C (68F)
Consider the balloons, as shown in the figure. The
1 atm (kg/m3) (slug/ft3) density of helium inside the balloons is less than the
Water, pure 998 1.936 surrounding air for a given temperature and pressure,
hence the balloons rise in air. For more information on
Water, sea 1,025 1.989
this subject, readers are referred to the discussion of
Ammonia 608 1.180 buoyancy.
Benzene 881 1.709
Specific Weight (or Weight Density)
Carbon
1,590 3.085
Tetrachloride
The specific weight, , of a fluid is defined as
Ethanol 789 1.531
Freon 12, liquid 1,327 2.575
= g
Gasoline 680 1.319
Glycerin 1,260 2.445 where g is the gravitational acceleration. Basically, the
Kerosene 804 1.560 specific weight represents weight per unit volume.
Mercury 13,550 26.29 Sometimes it is also referred to as the weight density.
The SI unit for the specific weight is N/m 3 while the
Methanol 791 1.535 English unit is lb/ft3.
SAE 10W Oil 870 1.688
SAE 30W Oil 891 1.729 Specific Gravity
SAE 50W Oil 902 1.750
Specific gravity is simply the ratio of the specific weight
of a given liquid to the specific weight of water at 4 C
(water = 9.81 kN/m3 or 62.4 lb/ft3).

SG = / water

This definition is helpful when comparing densities of

different liquids.
 FLUID MECHANICS - CASE STUDY SOLUTION

The raw data collected are given as follows:

Empty Container &

Volume of
Container Liquid Mass
Liquid (ml)
Mass (g) (g)
Liquid A 25.0 75.0 50
Liquid B 25.0 44.7 25

The mass of the liquid is determined by subtracting the

mass of the empty container from the mass of the
container with liquid. The density of the liquid is then
determined by dividing the mass by its volume.

For Liquid A:
Mass of the Liquid = 75 - 25 = 50 g
Density = A = m/V = 50g/50ml = 1 g/ml
= 1000 kg/m3

For Liquid B:
Mass of the Liquid = 44.7 - 25 = 19.7 g
Density = B = m/V = 19.7g/25ml = 0.788 g/ml
= 788 kg/m3

By comparing the computed densities with the density

values found in standard handbooks, it is possible that
liquid A is water while liquid B is ethyl alcohol (note
that other liquids or mixtures may have the same
densities).

The density of the ice cube (900 kg/m 3) is less than the
water's density, but it is greater than the ethyl alcohol's
density. Hence, the ice cube will float on water while it
will sink in ethyl alcohol.

Ice Cube and Cork in On the other hand, a cork of density 250 kg/m 3 is less
Water and Ethyl Alcohol dense than the water and the ethyl alcohol. Hence, it
will float on both the liquids.
 2. Ideal Gas Law

FLUID MECHANICS - THEORY

The ideal gas law will be introduced in this section. The

conditions in which the ideal gas law is valid will be
examined through the compressibility factor.

Ideal Gas Law

Table: Gas Constant for The relationship between pressure and temperature for
Common Gases* most gases can be approximated by the ideal gas law,
Gas Constant, R
(kJ/kg-K)
pV = mRT
Air 0.2870
Ammonia 0.4882
where p is the absolute pressure, V is the volume, m is
Carbon Dioxide 0.1889 the mass, T is the absolute temperature (units in Kelvin
Helium 2.0771 or Rankine) and R is the gas constant. Kelvin is related
to Celsius by TK = TC + 273.15 and Rankine is related
Hydrogen 4.1243 to Fahrenheit byTR = TF + 459.67.
Nitrogen 0.2968
Oxygen 0.2598 This equation is also referred to as the perfect gas law
or the equation of state for an ideal gas. The gas
R-12 0.06876 constant R for some common gases is given in the
R-134a 0.08149 table. Note that the density is given by m/V, hence
the ideal gas law can be written in terms of the density
as p = RT

The ideal gas law can also be written in per mole basis
as follows:

where n is the number of moles and is the universal

gas constant. The number of moles is given by n =
m/M where M is the molecular weight of the gas. The
universal gas constant is 8.314 kJ/kmol-K for all
Universal Gas Constant Versus gases, and it is related to the gas constant by:
Gas Constant
 Compressibility Factor

Having introduced the ideal gas law, the next important

question is: Under what conditions will the ideal gas
law be a good approximation for real gases? To
address this issue, the compressibility factor Z is
introduced, and it is defined as:

Z = pV/mRT

Obviously, when Z approaches unity, then the ideal

gas law holds.

The compressibility factor for various gases is plotted

Compressibility Chart for Various Gases** as a function of the reduced pressure (pR) and reduced
temperature (TR) in the compressibility chart as shown
Table: Critical Pressure and in the figure. The reduced pressure and temperature
Temperature for Various Gases* are defined as follows:
Critical Critical
Temp. Pressure pR = p/pc
Tc (K) pc (MPa) TR = T/Tc
Air 133.0 3.77
Ammonia 405.5 11.3 where pc and Tc are the critical pressure and critical
temperature, respectively. The critical temperature is
Carbon the maximum temperature that liquid and vapor phases
304.1 7.38
Dioxide can coexist in equilibrium. The corresponding pressure
Helium 5.19 0.227 is the critical pressure. Values of critical pressure and
temperature for some common gases are summarized
Hydrogen 33.2 1.30 in the table.
Nitrogen 126.2 3.39
Oxygen 154.6 5.04 From the compressibility chart, it is observed that Z
approaches unity when pR < 0.1 or TR > 2. Hence,
R-12 385.0 4.14
these are the conditions when the behavior of real
R-134a 374.2 4.06 gases can best be approximated using the ideal gas
law.* Source: Sonntag, R. E. and Borgnakke, C.,
"Introduction to Engineering Thermodynamics," John Wiley,
Inc., New York, 2001.
Validity of the Ideal Gas Law**

** Reference: Su, G. J., "Modified Law of Corresponding

States," Ind. Eng. Chem. (international ed.), Vol. 38, pp. 803,
1946.
 Ideal Gas Law CASE STUDY

A payload specialist at NASA needs to estimate the total weight

of the experimental equipment that will be on board the space
shuttle for an upcoming mission. Part of the experimental
equipment includes fifteen compressed tanks filled with different
gases (oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide).

Questions

The volume of the tank is 0.25 m 3 and the mass of an empty tank
is 5 kg. The conditions of the gases are summarized in the
following table:
Problem Description
Number Absolute
Temperature
of Pressure
(K)
Tanks (MPa)
Oxygen 5 290 1.00
Nitrogen 4 290 0.85
Carbon
6 290 1.25
Dioxide

Estimate the total weight of all of the compressed tanks.

Approach

Assume the ideal gas law is applicable.

FLUID MECHANICS - CASE STUDY SOLUTION

The conditions of the gases are given as follows:
Number Absolute
Temperature
of Pressure
(K)
Tanks (MPa)
Oxygen 5 290 1.00
Nitrogen 4 290 0.85
Carbon
6 290 1.25
Dioxide

Compressed Tanks
 The mass of each gas can be determined by the ideal gas law:

Table: Gas Constants for the Problem

m = pV/RT
Gas Constant, R
For oxygen, the gas constant R is 0.2598 kJ/kg-K. The mass of
(kJ/kg-K)
the oxygen in a single tank is
Air 0.2870
Ammonia 0.4882 m = (1000)(0.25)/(0.2598)(290) = 3.318 kg
Carbon
0.1889 For nitrogen, the gas constant R is 0.2968 kJ/kg-K. The mass of
Dioxide
the nitrogen in a single tank is
Helium 2.0771
Hydrogen 4.1243 m = (850)(0.25)/(0.2968)(290) = 2.469 kg
Nitrogen 0.2968
Oxygen 0.2598 For carbon dioxide, the gas constant R is 0.1889 kJ/kg-K. The
mass of the carbon dioxide in a single tank is
R-12 0.06876
R-134a 0.08149 m = (1,250)(0.25)/(0.1889)(290) = 5.705 kg

The total weight of the tanks is then given by

W total = weight of empty tanks + weight of gases

= (15)(5)(9.8) + (5)(3.318)(9.8) + (4)(2.469)(9.8) +
(6)(5.705)(9.8)
= 1,330 N
 3. Viscosity

FLUID MECHANICS - CASE STUDY

Introduction

Students are given a simple device called a rotational cylindrical

viscometer, as shown in the figure, and asked to determine the
viscosity of an unknown liquid. The outer cylinder is fixed while
the inner cylinder is rotating at a constant angular speed of by
applying a torque T.

Questions

Derive an equation for the viscosity in terms of angular velocity,

, torque, T, submerged inner cylinder height, L, inner cylinder
radius, Ri, and outer cylinder radius, Ro. Calculate the viscosity
Rotational Cylindrical Viscometer value when = 55 rev/min, T = 0.9 N-m, L = 0.3 m, Ri = 0.12 m
and Ro = 0.13 m.

Approach

Assume the velocity profile between the container and

the rotating cylinder is linear.
Neglect the end effects and bottom surface of the
cylinder.
Assume the liquid is a Newtonian fluid.
Assume the force (F) is perpendicular to its moment arm
(r), hence the torque is given by T = Fr.
 FLUID MECHANICS - THEORY

Another important fluid property will be introduced in this section.

Viscosity is a fluid property that measures the resistance of the
fluid due to an applied force.

Viscosity

To illustrate the concept of viscosity, consider a fluid between two

parallel plates, as shown in the figure. If the top plate is moved at
a velocity U while the bottom plate is fixed, the fluid is subjected to
deformation. The fluid in contact with the top plate moves with the
Fluid between Two Parallel Plates
plate velocity U and no-slip condition is applied at the bottom plate
(i.e., the fluid is stuck to the bottom plate, u = 0). The velocity
profile of the fluid motion between the plates is assumed to be
Viscosity, linear and is given by
20 C (68 F) N-s/m2 lb-s/ft2
u = U y/h
Water, pure 1.01e-3 2.11e-5
Carbon Note that the velocity gradient (also known as the rate of shear
9.58e-4 2.00e-5
Tetrachloride strain) in this case is a constant (du/dy = U/h). Experiments have
Gasoline 3.1e-4 6.5e-6 shown that shear stress () is directly proportional to the rate of
Glycerin 1.50e0 3.13e-2 shear strain:

Mercury 1.57e-3 3.28e-5

SAE 30W Oil 3.8e-1 8.0e-3

Most common fluids, such as water, air and oil, are called
Newtonian fluids in which the shear stress is related to the rate of
shear strain in a linear fashion. That is,

The above equation is referred to as Newton's law of viscosity.

The proportionality constant () is called the absolute viscosity,
dynamic viscosity or simply the viscosity. It has units of N-s/m2 in
SI units (lb-s/ft2 in US units). Sometimes it is also expressed in the
Shearing Stress versus Rate of CGS system as dyne-s/cm2 and this unit is called a poise (P).
Shearing Strain for Various Fluids Note that the shear stress can also be determined by dividing the
shear force with the surface area.
 For non-Newtonian fluids, the shear stress is not a linear function
of the rate of shear strain. Some common types of non-
Newtonian fluids are shear thinning fluids, shear thickening fluids
and Bingham plastic. To describe these non-Newtonian fluids, an
apparent viscosity is introduced and it represents the slope (not
constant) of the shear stress versus the rate of shear strain. It is
obvious that for Newtonian fluids, the apparent viscosity is the
Shear Thinning Fluid: Latex Paint same as the viscosity and is not a function of the shear rate.

For shear thinning fluids, the apparent viscosity decreases with

shear rate, whereas for shear thickening fluids, the apparent
viscosity increases with shear rate. An example of a shear
thinning fluid is latex paint. When brushing paint on a wall, note
that the larger the applied shear rate, the less resistance that
(viscosity) is encountered.
Examples for shear thickening fluids are quicksand and a water-
corn starch mixture. The larger the applied shear rate trying to
mix water with corn starch, more resistance will be encountered.
Shear Thickening Fluid: Quicksand

Another non-Newtonian fluid is Bingham plastic, which is neither

a fluid nor a solid. Bingham plastic, such as toothpaste, can
withstand a finite shear stress without any motion, however it
moves like a fluid once this yield stress is exceeded. Note that
only Newtonian fluids will be considered in the future discussion;
non-Newtonian effects are beyond the scope of this eBook.
Viscosity is not a strong function of pressure, hence the effects of
pressure on viscosity can be neglected. However, viscosity
depends greatly on temperature. For liquids, the viscosity
Bingham Plastic: Toothpaste
decreases with temperature, whereas for gases, the viscosity
increases with temperature. For example, crude oil is often
heated to a higher temperature to reduce the viscosity for
transport.

Kinematic Viscosity

The kinematic viscosity is the ratio of absolute viscosity and

density. That is,
=/
The SI unit for the kinematic viscosity is m2/s.
The unit in the CGS system is cm2/s and this is referred as a
stoke(St).
 FLUID MECHANICS - CASE STUDY SOLUTION

The liquid viscosity between the cylinder and container will resist
motion. A high viscous liquid will require a high torque to keep it
rotating. Thus, as expected, the viscosity of the liquid will be
directly related to the torque needed to keep the cylinder
rotating.
Torque
First, define the toque in terms of the resisting force in the liquid.
The torque is given by multiplying the force with its moment arm,
T = Fr
The force can be expressed in terms of the shear stress and area
as follows:
F = (2rL) = T/r
Rearrange terms to yield
= T / 2r2L
According to Newton's law of viscosity for Newtonian fluids,
= - du/dr

Problem Diagram

The negative sign is inserted to indicate that u decreases as r

increases. Note that the velocity profile is assumed to be linear, as
shown in the figure. The end conditions are known and are given
as u = Ri at r = Ri and u = 0 at r = Ro.
Equating the above two equations and integrating from
r = Ri to Ro gives,

Velocity Profile of the Fluid between

the Container and Cylinder

For = 55 rev/min, T = 0.9 N-m, L = 0.3 m, Ri = 0.12m and Ro =

0.13 m, the viscosity of the liquid is calculated to be

If the gap between the wall and cylinder is small, then Ro - Ri => tgap, and
Ri2 Ro => r3 where r is the mean radius.
 4. Surface Tension

FLUID MECHANICS - CASE STUDY

Introduction

Peter has joined the Sandia National Laboratory as an

undergraduate research assistant through a summer
intership program. To let his interns better understand the
property of surface tension, the laboratory director decides
to demonstrate surface tension effects through capillary
action. However, before starting, he asks each intern what
the height will be for two different radii.

Questions

Determine the height of the water column (h) for two

Capillary Action different tube radii: R = 1 mm and 10 mm.

Approach

Assume the contact angle of water with clean glass

is zero.
Assume the water temperature is 30oC.

FLUID MECHANICS - THEORY

In this section, the concepts of cohesion and adhesion will

be introduced, followed by a discussion of surface tension.

Surface Tension

From physics, it is known that molecules are attracted to

each other through molecular forces. The force attraction
between like molecules (e.g., molecules within a liquid) is
called cohesion. The attraction between unlike molecules
(e.g., molecules between liquid and solid) is called
adhesion. As noted in the figure at the left, the net cohesive
Cohesive Forces Exerted on a force exerted on a molecule inside a liquid is zero; whereas
Molecule in Liquid there is a net inward cohesive force exerted on a molecule
at the surface. As a result, this inward force holds the liquid
together and forms a definite volume. In addition, the liquid
surface acts like a thin stretched membrane.
 For example, a rubber band, which is denser than water will
float on water. The weight of the rubber band is balanced by
the force created by the surface tension of the water and the
buoyancy force.

The force exerted on the liquid surface per unit length is

referred to as the surface tension and is denoted by the
Greek symbol . In other words, surface tension is the force
(per unit length) required to change the surface shape of the
liquid. The SI unit for the surface tension is N/m and the
English unit is lb/ft. Surface tension is a fluid property and is
Rubber Band Floats on Water generally a function of temperature and the medium in
contact with the fluid. The surface tension of water in
contact with air is summarized in the table to the left as a
Table: Surface Tension of Water in
Contact with Air as a function of temperature.
Function of the Temperature
The table below gives the surface tension for various liquids
with air.
Temperature Surface Tension,
(oC) (N/m)
0 0.0756 Temp Surface Tension,
Material
10 0.0742 C/F (N/m) (lb/ft)
20 0.0728 Water, pure 15.6 / 60 0.0734 0.00503
30 0.0712 Water, sea 15.6 / 60 0.0734 0.00503
40 0.0696 Gasoline 15.6 / 60 0.022 0.0015
50 0.0679 SAE 30W Oil 15.6 / 60 0.036 0.0025
60 0.0662
Carbon
70 0.0644 20 / 68 0.0269 0.00184
Tetrachloride
80 0.0626 Mercury 20 / 68 0.466 0.0319
90 0.0608
Glycerin 20 / 68 0.0633 0.00434
100 0.0589
Ethyl Alcohol 20 / 68 0.0228 0.00156
(Source: Munson, B. R., Young, D. F. and
Okiishi, T. H., "Fundamentals of Fluid
Mechanics," John Wiley, Inc.,
2nd ed., New York, 1994.)
 Surface Tension - Capillary Action

Surface tension can also be observed through the rise and

fall of liquid in a capillary glass tube. Consider a liquid in
contact with glass. If the adhesion between the liquid and
glass is greater than the cohesion of the liquid molecules,
then the liquid rises up the tube. The liquid is said to wet the
glass surface. On the other hand, if cohesion is greater than
adhesion, then the liquid falls in the tube, and it does not
wet the surface. The rise and fall of liquid in small diameter
tube is referred to as capillary action. For example, water
wets a clean surface but tends to form droplets while in
contact with a waxed or greasy surface. On the other hand,
Force Balance on a Liquid Column mercury does not even wet a clean glass surface because
in a Capillary Tube of its high surface tension.

Consider the rise of a water column in a small-diameter

tube. The height of the rise (h) can be obtained by a force
balance (i.e., the vertical component of the force created by
surface tension must be balanced by the weight of the liquid
column),

2R cos = g R2h

which can be simplified to yield

Fall of Mercury Column in a Capillary Tube
h = 2 cos / (gR)

where is the contact angle or wetting angle and is the

surface tension (N/m, lb/ft). For wetting liquids, is less than
90; for non-wetting liquids, is greater than 90. For
example, the contact angle is zero for water with a clean
glass whereas the contact angle is 130 for mercury with a
clean glass.

The surface tension of a liquid can be altered by a

Water on a Clean and Waxed Surface surfactant (surface active agent). Take detergent for an
example. Detergent is used to reduce the surface tension of
water so that water is more likely to wet the surfaces of
clothing for cleaning.

Detergent as a Surfactant
 FLUID MECHANICS - CASE STUDY SOLUTION

The height of the water column is given as a function of the

contact angle (), radius of the tube (R), density () and
surface tension () of the liquid as follows:

h = 2cos/gR

For water in contact with a clean glass, the contact angle is

zero, hence the equation reduces to

h = 2/gR
Capillary Action
For water at 30oC, the surface tension and density are
0.0712 N/m and 995.7 kg/m3 respectively, as noted in the
theory page.

For a tube with a radius of 1 mm:

h = 2(0.0712)(106)/(995.7)(9.8)(1) = 14.6 mm

For a tube with a radius of 10 mm:

h = 2(0.0712)(106)/(995.7)(9.8)(10) = 1.46 mm

Note that the water rise in the capillary tube decreases with
an increase of the radius of the tube
 5. Vapor Pressure

FLUID MECHANICS - THEORY

The vaporization and condensation processes will be

introduced in this section. The concept of vapor pressure is
then presented. The conditions when boiling and cavitation
occur will be discussed as well.

Vaporization (Evaporation) Vaporization and Condensation

When the molecules at the surface of a liquid or solid gain
enough energy to overcome the cohesive force, the
molecules will escape into the air. The substance undergoes
a phase change and turns into vapor. This process is
referred to as vaporization (e.g., evaporation and
sublimation, see below). In general, the rate of vaporization
increases with the temperature.
The process of phase change from liquid to vapor is called
evaporation. For example, water will evaporate into vapor
when the temperature reaches 100oC (for atmospheric
pressure at sea level). A phase change directly from solid to
vapor is called sublimation. An example of a sublimation
Condensation: Contrails process is dry ice at room temperature. The dry ice will
become vapor. Also, ever wonder why moth balls will
"disappear" over a period of time, but one can still smell the
odor? This is another example of sublimation.
The process of phase change from a vapor to liquid is called
condensation. The phenomenon of condensation can be
observed in our daily lives. The contrail (condensation trail)
left by an airplane is an example of the condensation
process. As the hot humid exhaust air from the nozzle mixes
with the surrounding air, a visible trail is formed due to
condensation.
 Vapor Pressure

Now consider a closed container partially filled with a liquid,

as shown in the figure. As the liquid molecules at the surface
gain sufficient energy to escape into the air (evaporation),
some of the liquid molecules will collide with the wall or air
molecules, bounce back and re-enter the liquid
(condensation). Over a period of time, the system will reach
a steady-state where the rate of evaporation is the same as
the rate of condensation. At this instance, the pressure
exerted on the liquid surface by the liquid vapor is called
vapor pressure. Vapor pressure is a fluid property, and it is a
function of the temperature. Generally, the vapor pressure
Vapor Pressure increases with temperature. The value of vapor pressure for
water and is summarized in the table below as a function of
temperature.

pv pv Temp pv Temp pv
20 C (68 F)
(kPa) (psi) (oC) (kPa) (oF) (psi)
Carbon 0 0.611 32 0.0885
1.3e4 1.9e0
Tetrachloride 5 0.872 40 0.1217
Ethyl alcohol 5.9e3 8.5e-1 10 1.228 50 0.1781
Gasoline 5.5e4 8.0e0 15 1.666 60 0.2563
Glycerin 1.4e-2 2.0e-6 20 2.338 70 0.3631
30 4.243 80 0.5069
Kerosene 3.1e3 4.5e-1
40 7.376 90 0.6980
Mercury 1.6e-1 2.3e-5
50 12.33 100 0.9493
Various Liquids Vapor Pressure
(absolute) 60 19.92 120 1.692
70 31.16 140 2.888
80 47.34 160 4.740
90 70.10 180 7.507
100 101.3 212 14.69
Water Vapor Pressure (absolute)
 Boiling and Cavitation

Boiling will occur when the absolute pressure of a liquid is

less than or equal to its vapor pressure. One characteristic of
the boiling process is the formation of vapor bubbles in the
liquid. The formation and collapse of bubbles, primarily due
to a reduction in pressure, in fluid flow is called cavitation
(flow induced boiling). In engineering applications (e.g.,
pumps, turbines and hydraulic systems), it is a good practice
to avoid cavitation because it can cause structural damage,
produce noise, and reduce the overall efficiency of the
system.

Boiling

Elev Pressure Elev Pressure It is well known to backpackers that boiling of water is
(km) (kPa) (ft) (psia) dependent on the current elevation above sea level. An
increase in elevation reduces the atmospheric pressure.
0 101.33 0 14.70 With a lower pressure, water (or any liquid) will boil at a
2 79.50 5,000 12.24 lower temperature that matches the vapor pressure. For
example, at an elevation of 4 km, the atmospheric pressure
4 60.12 10,000 10.11
is about 60 kPa (see table at left). At that pressure, water will
6 47.22 15,000 8.30 boil at about 86 C (see table above). This does not mean
8 35.65 20,000 6.76 food will cook faster or slower, but boiling will just occur at a
lower temperature.
10 26.5 25,000 5.46
Standard Atmosphere Pressure
at Various Elevations
 FLUID MECHANICS - CASE STUDY

Introduction

A university physical plant recently added a pump to transfer

water between tanks. Technician Mike hears some noise as
the water flows through the pump inlet and wonders if
cavitation is occuring inside the pump. The operating
pressure of the pump at the inlet is 6 kPa. The water
temperature is 50 oC.

Questions

Determine if cavitation occurs in the pump (cavitation occurs

at the pump impellers on the inlet side) for a water
Problem Description temperature of 50 oC. Will cavitation occur if the water
temperature is 20 oC?

Approach

Find the vapor pressure of water associated with

each temperature and compare to the pressure in
the pump.

FLUID MECHANICS - CASE STUDY SOLUTION

Cavitation occurs when the absolute pressure is less than or

equal to the vapor pressure (pv), so that the water is allowed
to "boil".

For water temperature of 50 oC, the vapor pressure is 12.33

kPa. Since the operating pressure of the pump on the inlet
side is 6 kPa, which is less than the pv, cavitation will occur.

On the other hand, for water temperature of 20 oC, the vapor

pressure is 2.338 kPa. The operating pressure of the pump
on the inlet side is now greater than the pv, hence cavitation
Problem Solution will not occur.
 Chapter 2
Fluid Statics

Topics Reviewed The menu above allows you to move directly to any
of the topics reviewed. For each topic, the materials
1. Pressure Variation in a Static are organized into four different parts:
Fluid
2. Pressure Measurement Case Intro: To help introduce and understand the
3. Hydrostatic Force on a Plane basic principles, a case study is presented.
Surface
4. Hydrostatic Force on a Curved Theory: This part will review the basic principles and
Surface equations that you should know to answer the exam
5. Buoyancy questions. It does not give detailed derivations of the
theory.

Case Solution: The case study is solved in detail in

this section. Graphics, narrations, animations, and
equations are used to help you understand how the
problem was solved.

Simulation: You can adjust several parameters of a

given problem and learn how they affect the results.
 1. Pressure Variation in a Static Fluid
FLUID MECHANICS - CASE STUDY

Introduction

A group of engineering students at OU is planning to

participate in the International Autonomous
Underwater Vehicle Competition. Students are asked
to design a miniature robotic submarine capable of
performing realistic missions in the remote
underwater environment.

One of the given constraints is that the

underwater vehicle needs to reach a
maximum depth of 12 meters.
There are two test sites: one is filled with
Problem Description fresh water and the other filled with seawater.

Questions

To assist those students in determining the design

criteria, the pressure at a depth of 12 meters is
needed. Also, how will the density of the fluid affect
the calculated pressure?

Approach

Assume the fluid is at rest.

Assume the fluid is incompressible.
 FLUID MECHANICS - THEORY

In this section, attention is focused on the discussion of

a fluid at rest or moving in a way such that there is no
presence of shearing stresses. The variations of
pressure with direction and depth in a fluid will be
examined.

Pressure at a Point

Consider a small triangular wedge of fluid taken from

an arbitrary location within a fluid mass to determine
the variation of pressure with direction. With the
absence of shear stresses, the only forces acting on
the fluid element are the normal and gravitational
forces. Note that the forces in the x direction are not
shown for clarity. According to Newtons second law,
the forces in the y and z directions can be summed as

y-direction:
py xz - ps xs sin = (xyz/2) ay
Force Balance on a Triangular Element
z-direction:
pz xy - ps xs cos - (xyz/2) g
= (xyz/2) az

Since z = s sin and y = s cos, the above

equations reduce to

py - ps = (y/2) ay

pz - ps = (z/2) (g + az)

By shrinking the fluid element to a point, i.e., x, y,

and z approach zero, it can be seen that

py = pz = ps

These results are known as Pascals law, which states

that the pressure at a point in a static fluid is
independent of direction. In other words, pressure is a
scalar for fluids.
 Pressure Field

Next, consider a small rectangular fluid element taken

from an arbitrary location within a fluid mass. Let the
pressure at the center of the element be p. Then, use
the first order Taylor series expansion to determine the
forces at the faces of the fluid element (forces in the x-
direction are not shown for clarity). For the force at the
x+ face:

Similarly, the forces at other faces can be written as:

Force Balance on a Rectangular Element

By assuming the only body force acting on the fluid

element is due to gravity (i.e., the weight of the fluid
element) and the absence of shearing forces (i.e.,
inviscid assumption), then applying Newtons second
law in the x-direction and yields
x-direction:

Similarly, according to Newton's second law, the force

balances in the y- and z- directions are given by
y-direction:

z-direction:

The above equations can be simplified to obtain

 x-direction:

y-direction:

z-direction:

These equations can be recast into vector notation:

where is the gradient operator and is the

acceleration vector of the fluid element.

Pressure Variation in a Static Fluid

For a fluid at rest (i.e., = 0), we have

or in scalar form

Hence, it can be concluded that p varies only in the z-

direction and is not a function of x and y, giving

dp/dz = -g

The above equation determines how pressure changes

with elevation for a fluid at rest. Integration can be
performed to obtain the changes in pressure once the
variation of gravity and fluid density with elevation is
known. For most practical engineering applications, the
variation of g is negligible over the change in height.
Derivation of Hydrostatic This gives,
Pressure Distribution

p1 - p2 = g (z2 - z1)
 Thus, pressure increases with depth in a linear fashion.
This type of pressure distribution is called hydrostatic.
We can also rearrange the above equation to yield an
expression for the pressure head as follows:

h = (p1 - p2) / g

Physically, the pressure head represents the height of

a homogeneous fluid column required to produce a
pressure difference of (p1 - p2). The term g is often
written as (specific weight) in civil engineering
Hydrostatic Pressure Distribution applications.
in a Static Fluid

FLUID MECHANICS - CASE STUDY SOLUTION

By assuming the fluid is incompressible and at rest, the

hydrostatic pressure distribution is expressed as:

p1 = gh + p0

From standard handbooks, it is noted that the

atmospheric pressure at the sea level is p0 = 101.3 kPa
and the acceleration of gravity is g = 9.8 m/s2. At fresh
water temperature of 16oC, the density of water = 999
kg/m3 and the density of seawater = 1030 kg/m3.

Problem Diagram I

The absolute pressure at a depth of 12 meters of water

is
p1 = (999 kg/m3)(9.8 m/s2)(12 m) + 101.3 kPa
= 219 kPa

whereas for seawater:

p1 = (1030 kg/m 3)(9.8 m/s2)(12 m) + 101.3 kPa
= 222 kPa

Therefore, it can be concluded that the density of the

fluid (fresh water vs. seawater) in this scenario plays a
Problem Diagram II very small role (1%) in the design criteria.
 FLUID MECHANICS - EXAMPLE

Questions

(a) Water towers in municipal distribution systems are

often 100-125 ft in height. What pressure (psig) does
this correspond to in the water pipes?

(b) How far can the water level in the tank drop before
the pressure in the water main drops below 35 psig?
(Note, this is often the minimum design pressure.)

Water Tower

Solution

(a) Assume static conditions (reasonable since water

in the tanks moves very slowly). Also, assume the
water mains are buried 5 ft below grade.
For hydrostatic conditions,

p = H
where = 62.4 lb/ft3 for water at 20 oC with H in ft,
and p is in lb/ft2.
Divide by 144 to get p in lb/in2 and the reference
pressure is 0 atm (gage pressure), so
Problem Diagram for Part (a) p = (62.4 lb/ft3)(H ft)(1 ft2/144 in2)
For H = 100 + 5 = 105 ft: p = 45.5 psig
For H = 125 + 5 = 130 ft: p = 56.3 psig
Hence, the pressure range is

45.5 psig p 56.3 psig

(b) Find H if p = 35 psig
H = (35 psig)(144 in2/ft2) / 62.4 lb/ft3 = 80.8 ft
Hence, the minimum water level in the tank is
Hmin = 80.8 - 5 = 75.8 ft
Problem Diagram for Part (b) Note: 2.31 ft static water = 1 psig pressure, which is a
good conversion factor to remember
 2. Pressure Measurement

FLUID MECHANICS - CASE STUDY

Introduction

A wind-tunnel experiment is conducted to study the

effect of wind on tall buildings. In order to obtain the
volumetric flow rate through the test section of the
wind tunnel, engineers are first asked to determine
the pressure drop between points A and B using a
differential U-tube manometer. The fluid in the wind
tunnel has a density of 1000 kg/m 3 while the density
of the gage fluid is 1600-kg/m3. Column heights are
given as h1 = 1.25 m and h2 = 0.75 m.
Wind Tunnel Experiment

Question

First derive an equation for the pressure drop (pA -

pB). Then, calculate the value of (pA - pB) for the given
values of fluid densities and column heights.

Approach

Although the fluid in the wind tunnel is flowing, the

fluid in the manometer remains stationary. Hence,
hydrostatic pressure analysis is still valid to determine
U-Tube Differential Manometer the pressure drop.
 FLUID MECHANICS - CASE STUDY

Introduction

A wind-tunnel experiment is conducted to study the

effect of wind on tall buildings. In order to obtain the
volumetric flow rate through the test section of the
wind tunnel, engineers are first asked to determine
the pressure drop between points A and B using a
differential U-tube manometer. The fluid in the wind
tunnel has a density of 1000 kg/m 3 while the density
of the gage fluid is 1600-kg/m3. Column heights are
given as h1 = 1.25 m and h2 = 0.75 m.
Wind Tunnel Experiment

Question

First derive an equation for the pressure drop (p A -

pB). Then, calculate the value of (pA - pB) for the given
values of fluid densities and column heights.

Approach

Although the fluid in the wind tunnel is flowing, the

fluid in the manometer remains stationary. Hence,
hydrostatic pressure analysis is still valid to determine
U-Tube Differential Manometer the pressure drop.
 FLUID MECHANICS - THEORY

The concept of absolute and gage pressure is

discussed in this section. Several common pressure
measurement devices and techniques are also
introduced.

Absolute and Gage Pressure

When pressure is measured relative to absolute zero

pressure, it is called absolute pressure. On the other
hand, pressure measuring devices often use gage
pressure, which is measured relative to atmospheric
Gage Pressure pressure. Standard atmospheric pressure at sea level is
101.3 kPa or 14.7 psi. Gage pressure is referred to as
vacuum or suction pressure when it is negative.
Gage Pressure: pgage = pabsolute - patm
Vacuum Pressure: pvacuum = patm - pabsolute
For example, when the driver's manual for your car
suggests that you keep your tires at a pressure of 30
psi, it is refering to the gage pressure. This is
equivalent to 44.7 psi absolute pressure.
Vacuum Pressure

Barometer

Atmospheric pressure can be measured through a

mercury barometer. A simple barometer consists of an
inverted glass tube filled with mercury with its open
end submerged in a mercury container.
According to the hydrostatic pressure distribution
derived in the last section, the atmospheric pressure is
given by
patm = gh + pvapor
The vapor pressure in the glass tube is negligibly small,
hence the atmospheric pressure is simply given by the
height of the mercury column:
patm = gh
Mercury Barometer For example, a column height of 760 mm Hg
corresponds to the standard atmospheric pressure of
101.3 kPa (14.7 psi) at sea level. If water is substituted
for mercury, then a column height of 10.3 m H2O is
needed for atmospheric pressure.
 Piezometer

A piezometer is the simplest form of a pressure

measuring device. It has a vertical tube connected to
the container in which the pressure is needed. The
pressure head of the fluid column indicates the
pressure of the container:
pA = gh
where pA is the gage pressure at point A within the
container.

The disadvantages of piezometers are:

(1) Cannot measure vacuum pressure since air would
Piezometer
be sucked into the container through the tube.
(2) The measured pressure should be reasonably low,
otherwise a very long vertical tube is needed.

Manometer

Another pressure measuring device is the manometer.

It consists of a U-tube with one end connected to the
container with an unknown pressure and the other end
open to the known atmospheric pressure. The fluid in
the U-tube manometer (gage fluid) can be different
from the fluid in the container.
The procedure for determining the pressure inside the
container is:
(1) Start from one end, and work from one fluid level
to another, up to the open end of the manometer.
(2) Remember that pressure increases linearly with
depth for a fluid at rest.

Consider the U-tube manometer shown. The pressure

at point A inside the tank is calculated as:
pA + 1gh1 - 2gh2 = 0
which gives:
pA = 2gh2 - 1gh1
Once again, gage pressure is used in the above
equation (i.e., theatmospheric pressure at the open
end is zero gage). If the fluid in the tank is a gas, then
U-Tube Manometer
the pressure between point 1 and 2 is negligible, hence
pA = 2gh2
 The U-tube manometer also can be used to determine
the pressure difference between two systems. This type
of manometer is called a differential U-tube manometer.
Consider the differential manometer connected
between tanks A and B, as shown in the figure. The
pressure will be determined by moving from point A to
point B:

pA + 1gh1 - 2gh2 - 3gh3 = pB

Differential U-Tube Manometer
The pressure difference is given by

pA - pB = 2gh2 + 3gh3 - 1gh1

Another type of manometer is the inclined-tube

manometer which is used to measure small pressure
differences between two systems (say for gases). The
advantage of the inclined manometer is that the
differential reading scales along the tube can be made
large compared to a vertical manometer for a given
pressure difference, hence improving the accuracy in
Inclined-Tube Manometer reading the scale.

The pressure difference between point A and B is given

by

pA + 1gh1 - 2gL2sin - 3gh3 = pB

For cases where the columns h1 and h3 are gas, the

weights can be neglected, simplifying the equation

pA - pB = 2gL2 sin
 FLUID MECHANICS - CASE STUDY SOLUTION

To determine the pressure difference between point A

and B, start from one end and work to the other end:

pA - 1gh1 - 2gh2 + 1g (h1 + h2) = pB

Rearrange terms to yield:

pA - pB = gh2 (2 - 1)

For the given values of 1 = 1000 kg/m3, 2 = 1600

kg/m3 and h2 = 0.75 m:

U-Tube Differential Manometer pA - pB = (9.8 m/s2) (0.75 m) (1600 - 1000) kg/m3

= 4.4 kPa
 3. Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface

FLUID MECHANICS - CASE STUDY

Introduction

A problem is given to students after a field trip to a

dam. To simplify the analysis, assume that the dam
structure is an inclined plane surface and has the
dimensions shown in the figure. The water level behind
the dam is 700 ft.

Question

Determine the magnitude and location of the resultant

force exerted on the dam surface by the water.

Hoover Dam
Approach

Assume the water behind the dam has a

density of 1.94 slugs/ft3, and is incompressible.
Work the problem based on a unit width.

Problem Description
 FLUID MECHANICS - THEORY

In this section, the discussion is focused on how to

determine hydrostatic forces exerted on a plane
surface submerged in a static fluid. Determining this
hydrostatic force is particularly crucial in the design of
engineering structures, such as dams, storage tanks
and hydraulic systems. The concept of using a
pressure prism to obtain the hydrostatic force will also
be introduced.

Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface

Consider an inclined plane submerged in a static fluid

as shown in the figure. The resultant force FR is acting
perpendicular to the plane since no shear force is
present when the fluid is at rest. FR has a line of action
that passes through the point (xcp , ycp), which is called
the center of pressure. Note that the pressure acting
perpendicular to the plane surface is also referred to as
the normal stress.

Now take a small differential element dA at a depth of

h. The differential force dF acting on dA is given by

dF = gh dA

The magnitude of the resultant force can be obtained

by integrating the differential force over the whole area
Hydrostatic Force on an
Inclined Arbitrary Plane Surface

The integral represents the first moment of the

area about the x axis, which is equal to

where yc is the y coordinate of the centroid of the plane

surface.

From trigonometry,
hc = yc sin
 where hc is the vertical distance from the fluid surface
to the centroid of the plane surface. The resultant force
is simplified to

FR = ghcA

The center of pressure, xcp and ycp can be obtained by

summing moments about the y and x axis, respectively.
First, by equating the sum of moments of all pressure
forces about the x axis to the moment of the resultant
force:

Ix
[
T
y
where p
is the second moment of the area or
the area moment of inertia e (Ix) about the x axis.
According to the parallelaaxis theorem, the moment of
inertia can also be written as
Parallel Axis Theorem q
Ix = Ix' + Ayc2 u
o
where Ix' is the second moment of the area with respect
t is parallel to the x axis.
to the centroidal axis, which
e
Hence, the center of pressure
fr coordinate ycp is given by
o
m

t
Similarly, xcp can be obtained by equating the sum of
h
moments of all pressure forces about the y axis to the
moment of the resultant eforce
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
o
r
t
h
e
s
u
 where is the product of inertia (Ixy) of the area
about the x and y axes. Once again according to the
parallel axis theorem, it can also be written as

Ixy = Ixy' + Axcyc

where Ixy' is the product of inertia of the area with

respect to the centroidal axes.

Hence, the coordinate xcp is given by

The values for the second moment of inertia and

product of inertia with respect to the centroidal axes for
various common geometries are given in the appendix.
From the formulations of xcp and ycp, it is noted that the
center of pressure is always lower in the liquid than the
centroid of the plane area.

Pressure Prism

An alternate approach of determining the hydrostatic

force is by means of a pressure prism. Consider a
vertical plane submerged in a static fluid, as shown in
the figure. The pressure increases linearly with the
depth. One can then easily construct a corresponding
three-dimensional diagram of the pressure distribution,
and such a volume is called a pressure prism. The
resultant force is the total volume of the pressure
prism, that is
Hydrostatic Pressure Force Exerted
on a Vertical Plane Surface FR = Volume = 1/2 (gh) (bh)
 The resultant force passes through the centroid of the
pressure prism. For this particular example, the
centroid of a triangular element is located at a distance
of h/3 from its base and lies in the vertical symmetry
axis.

As illustrated, this method is particularly convenient

when the shape of the pressure prism is a common
geometry, in which the volume and centroid can be
readily obtained.

Pressure Prism
 FLUID MECHANICS - CASE STUDY SOLUTION

The magnitude of the resultant force is given by

FR = ghcA

The vertical distance to the centroid of the dam surface

is given by
hc = 700 / 2 = 350 ft
Problem Diagram I
The total length L of the dam surface is calculated to
be
L = (6002 + 7002)0.5 = 922 ft

The magnitude of the resultant force is thus given by

FR = (1.94)(32.2)(350)(922) = 20.2 (106) lb

The coordinates for the center of pressure are given by

Problem Diagram II

From the appendix, for a rectangle,

Ix' = (922)3(1) / 12
Ixy' = 0

Hence, it is found that

xcp = xc

which is at the centerline of the dam surface. The y

coordinate for the center of pressure is
 ycp = (922)3(1) / (12)(461)(922) + 461 = 614.7 ft

The pressure prism approach can be used to verify the

results obtained. Based on the pressure prism shown
in the figure, the magnitude of the resultant force is
represented by the total volume of the pressure prism.

FR = Volume = 1/2 (43,730)(1)(922) = 20.2 (106) lb

This resultant force passes through the centroid of the

pressure prism, which is located at a distance of 922/3
= 307.3 ft from its base and lies in the vertical
Pressure Prism symmetry axis.

FLUID MECHANICS - EXAMPLE

Questions

A gravity dam can resist a maximum lateral force of Fm =

78, 000 lb. (a) What is the maximum height of the dam
if there is no downstream (right side of dam)? (b) What
if the water depth downstream is 10 ft? (c) Would it be
a good idea to design the dam for the condition of part
(b)?
A Gravity Dam

Solution

(a) The resultant force (FR) due to water pressure is

perpendicular to the dam surface. Here, only concerned
with lateral (horizontal) component, so you can use the
projected vertical dimension of the dam.

The Resultant Forces Act The lateral force (FH) due to fluid pressure (hydrostatic
Perpendicular to the Dam conditions) acting on the projected area Ap can be
determined for a unit width as

Fh = hc Ap = (h/2) Ap
 where h is the total water depth.

To find the maximum h, set Fh to the allowable force, Fm,

to give

F h = Fm
(62.4 lb/ft3) (h/2) [h (1 ft)] = 78,000 lb
The Lateral Force Component on only h = [78,000 / 31.2]0.5 = 50 ft
One Side of Dam Ap

(b) If the water depth downstream is 10 ft, then a

resultant force will act on that side of the dam, and will
counteract the upstream force.

Fh1 - Fh2 = Fm
hc1 Ap1- hc2 Ap2 = 78,000 lb
62.4 (h/2) [(h)(1)] - 62.4 (5) [(10)(1)] = 78,000
31.2 h2 = 81,120

Lateral Force Components h = 51.0 ft

Acting on the Dam
(c) Since the 10 ft of water downstream may not exist in
times of draught, the dam should be limited to 50 ft of
water.
4. Hydrostatic Force on a Curved Surface

FLUID MECHANICS - CASE STUDY

Introduction

For safety reasons, most dams are

equipped with spillway gates to control the
water level of the reservoir in the event of a
flood. Consider a spillway gate that consists
a circular arc AB as shown in the figure. The
arc has a radius of 3 meters and the water
level is at 6 meters. The spillway gate is 8
meters wide.

Spillway Gate Question

What is the magnitude and the line of action

of the resultant force exerted on the circular
surface AB by the fluid?

Approach

Assume the fluid is at rest.

The fluid is incompressible and has
a density of 1000 kg/m3.
 FLIUD MECHANICS - THEORY

Based on the methods developed for determining forces on a

submerged plane surface in the previous section, forces exerted
on a curved surface can be easily determined as given in this
section.

Hydrostatic Force on a Curved Surface

For a curved surface AB, as shown in the figure, the magnitude

and the line of action of the resultant force FR exerted on the
surface can be best derived by splitting the force into its
horizontal and vertical components.

The x-component of the resultant force FRx is the normal force

Hydrostatic Force on a Curved acting on the vertical projection of the curved surface (i.e.,
Surface surface AE). This force FRx passes through the center of pressure
for the projected area AE.

The y-component of the resultant force FRy is the weight of the

liquid directly above the curved surface (i.e., volume ABCD).
Note that this volume can be either real or imaginary. In this
case, the volume is real since the liquid actually occupies this
volume. Another example will be given later to illustrate an
imaginary volume. This force, FRy ,passes through the center of
gravity of volume ABCD. If the gravitational acceleration is
assumed to be constant and the fluid is incompressible, then the
center of gravity is the same as the centroid of the fluid volume.
X-Component of the Resultant
Force The magnitude of the resultant force is then determined by
FR = ( F2Rx + F2Ry )0.5

By inspection, it is noted that pressure forces are always

perpendicular to the surface AB (i.e., the normal stresses). Since
all points on a circle have a normal passing through the center of
a circle, the resultant force FR has to pass through point E. The
direction of the resultant force is given by

= tan -1 (FRy / FRx)

Y-Component of the Resultant For non-circular shapes, the resultant angle is not used and the
Force horizontal and vertical gravity center may not align with the actual
surface. Again, it is easiest to keep the horizontal and vertical
components separate in all calculations.
 Now consider another curved surface AB, as shown in the figure.
The y-component of the resultant force is given by the weight of
the liquid in a volume above surface AB (i.e., volume ABC); the
volume in this case is an imaginary one since volume ABC is not
occupied by an actual liquid.

Concept of the Imaginary Volume

FLUID MECHANICS - CASE STUDY SOLUTION

In order to determine the magnitude of the resultant

force exerted on the curved surface AB, first find its
force components FRx and FRy.

The horizontal projection of the curved surface AB is

the plane area AC. The x-component of the resultant
force is given by the normal force acting on this plane
area. That is,

FRx = ghc AAC

1.5 m = (1000 kg/m 3) (9.8 m/s2) (4.5 m) (3 m) (8 m)
= 1,058 kN
X-Component of the Resultant Force
Note that hc is the vertical distance to the centroid of
plane area AC.
 The y-component of the resultant force is the weight of
the water directly above the curved surface (i.e.,
imaginary volume ABEF).

FRy = g VolABEF = g (VolADEF + VolABD)

= (1000 kg/m 3) (9.8 m/s2) [ (3 m) (3 m) (8 m)
+ ( 32/4) m2 (8 m) ]
= 1,260 kN

Hence, the resultant force is given by

Y-Component of the Resultant Force
FR = (FRx2 + FRy2)0.5
= [ (1,058 kN)2 + (1,260 kN)2 ]0.5
= 1,645 kN

And the angle is given by

= tan -1 (FRy / FRx)

= tan -1 (1,260 kN / 1,058 kN)
= 50o

Also, the resultant force FR has to pass through point

D since all the pressure forces are perpendicular to the
curved surface.

Resultant Force and its Line of Action

FLUID MECHANICS - EXAMPLE

Questions

One type of water tank for a municipal water supply

system is a standpipe. If the standpipe is 120 ft tall
and the diameter is 30 ft, calculate the stress in the
0.5 in. thick steel plates at the bottom of the tank.
Assume both ends are spherical and the tank is
completely filled with water. Ignore minor pressure
variations in curved ends.

Water Standpipe
 Solution

The dimensions of the standpipe are:

120 ft tall
d = 30 ft or r = 15 ft
t = 0.5 in
Water pressure (hydrostatic pressure variation) at
the bottom of the standpipe
p = w z = (62.4 pcf)(120 ft)
= 7,488 psf = 52.0 psi
Free Body Diagram
From the free body diagram, for equilibrium Fs = pA
For unit thickness (pressure variation negligible in the
limit): h (2r ) (t) = p (r2)
The hoop stress is calculated as
h = pr / 2t = (52 psi)(15 ft)(12 in/ft) / [2 (0.5 in)]
= 9,360 psi = 9.36 ksi
Note 1: the tensile strength of steel is on the order of
40 - 80 ksi, so 0.5 in. is sufficient thickness.
Note 2: final plate thickness used in design must
consider wind and/or earthquake loads.
 6. Buoyancy

FLUID MECHANICS - CASE STUDY

Introduction

In preparation for the upcoming Concrete Canoe

Competition, the University of Oklahoma chapter of
the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) is
currently soliciting design ideas from its student
members. Two canoe design layouts (as shown in the
figures) have been received so far. These designs are
similar in shape but with different dimensions.
Assume either canoe weighs 120 pounds and the
Canoe total weight of the paddlers and gear is 630 pounds.

Question

Based on a simple buoyancy analysis, determine if

the designs will float or sink by calculating the
submerged waterline.
Design Diagram A

Approach

For a simple analysis, use a single

concentrated load instead of distributed load.
Assume a water density of 1.94 slugs/ft3.
Design Diagram B
 FLUID MECHANICS - THEORY

In this section, the discussion focuses on determining

the buoyant force exerted by the fluid on a submerged
or floating body. It is also desired to determine what
factors affect the stability of the body.

Buoyancy - Archimedes' Principle

When a body is totally or partially submerged in a

Totally Submerged Body fluid, a resultant force acts on the body pushing the
body upward. This force is called the buoyant force.
Its magnitude is given by the weight of the fluid
displaced by the body. That is,

FB = gV

where is the density of the fluid and V is the

Partially Submerged / Floating Body displaced volume.

The direction of this buoyant force is upward, and it

passes through the center of gravity (CG) of the
displaced volume (not the CG of the object itself).
This point is called the center of buoyancy (CB). This
is known as Archimedes' principle.

For a partially submerged or floating body, the weight

displaced by the fluid above the liquid surface (usually
air) is relatively small compared to the weight
displaced by the liquid, hence it can be neglected.
 Stability of Submerged or Floating Bodies

A completely submerged body is said to be in stable

equilibrium as long as its CG (not the CG of the
displaced volume) is directly below the CB. In the
event when CG coincidents with CB, the body is said
to be in neutral equilibrium. If the CG is above the CB
then the body may be unstable, and the problem
requires further analysis.

Stability issues are great concerns in the design of

ships (a partially submerged body). Consider a ship in
an equilibrium condition, as shown in the figure, such
A Ship in Equilibrium that CG is directly above CB. If the ship is tipped, the
location of CB is shifted due to the change in the
displaced volume; if the ship is located such that CB
is at the left of CG, the buoyant force and the weight
will form a couple. The tendency of this couple is to
restore the ship to its original equilibrium position,
hence the ship is said to be in stable equilibrium. If
the ship is tipped such that CB is at the right of CG,
the produced couple tends to capsize the ship and the
ship is now in an unstable equilibrium position.

Another way to determine the stability of a floating

body is through the concept of the metacenter. The
metacenter (mc) is the point of intersection of the
Stable Equilibrium
vertical centerline axis of the body and the line of
action of the buoyant force. It can be observed from
the figures that when the mc is above CG, a restoring
couple is produced and the floating body is in stable
equilibrium; whereas when the mc is below CG, an
overturning couple is produced and the body is in
unstable equilibrium.

Unstable Equilibrium
 FLUID MECHANICS - CASE STUDY SOLUTION

The total weight of the canoe and the paddlers is

W = 120 lb + 630 lb = 750 lb

For equilibrium, the total weight must be balanced by

the buoyant force. That is,

W = FB

Force Equilibrium where the buoyant force is the weight of the liquid
displaced by the volume and is given by

FB = gVdisplaced

The submerged waterline is denoted as h and the

displaced volume for each design will be expressed in
terms of h as follows:

Submerged Water Line

For Design Layout A:

The displaced volume of layout A is given by

Vdisplaced = 2 (10 + h) h = area of trapezium x
width

Applying force equilibrium yields

750 = (1.94) (32.2) (2) (10 + h)h

h2 + 10h - 6 = 0
Displaced Volume of Design Layout A
Using the Quadratic Equation gives,

h = 0.5678 ft

The submerged height h (0.568 ft) is less

than the height of the canoe (1 ft), hence this
canoe will float.
 For Design Layout B:

The displaced volume of layout B is given by

Vdisplaced = 2 (11 + h) h

Applying force equilibrium yields

750 = (1.94) (32.2) (2) (11 + h)h

h2 + 11h - 6 = 0
Displaced Volume of Design Layout B h = 0.5208 ft

The submerged height h (0.521 ft) is greater

than the height of the canoe (0.5 ft), hence
this canoe will sink.

FLUID MECHANICS - EXAMPLES

Question #1

A wooden telephone pole paritally falls into a lake as

shown. What is the density of the pole? Assume the
density of the water is 1.94 slug/ft3.

Solution #1

The pole will come to a static position where the sum

of the moments about the point O is equal to zero.

Mo = 0
Telephone Pole Partially
Submerged in a Lake
Therefore, the buoyancy force multiplied by its lever
arm must be equal and opposite the gravitational
force times its lever arm. Mo = 0 = (W poleLpole -
FBLB)cos where
Lpole = L/2 (gravity acts uniformly along the entire
length), and
 (buoyancy force acts at the centroid of the submerged
part of the pole). Note, is not needed since it factors
out of the equation. Summing moments at O gives,

W poleLpole = FBLB

Problem Diagram where

W pole = pole V g = pole ( r2 L) g

FB = water V g = water ( r2 L/3) g

thus,

pole ( r2 L) g (L/2) = water ( r2 L/3) g (5L/6)

Cancelling terms,

pole (1/2) =(1.94 slug/ft3) (5/18)

The density of the pole is

pole = 1.078 slug/ft3

Question #2

Septic tanks are used by homes in rural areas not

serviced by sanitary sewers. Assume the tank is 6 ft x
6 ft x 10 ft (long) with 4 in. concrete walls, and
assume 1 ft of soil over the tank. At what groundwater
depth, d, if any, will the tank float? Any
recommendations to keep it from floating? Assume
concrete = 150 pcf, soil = 120 pcf, and water = 62.4 pcf

Solution #2

Inside dimensions: h, w, l
Septic Tank Outside dimensions: h + 2t, w + 2t, l + 2t
where t is the wall thickness

Vc = (h + 2t)(w + 2t)(l + 2t) - hwl

A = (w + 2t)(l + 2t)

Since there is 1 ft of soil over the top of tank,

z = (1 ft) + (h +2t) - d
where d is the water table.

concrete = 150 pcf

soil = 120 pcf
water = 62.4 pcf

To float, the buoyancy force acting on the bottom of

the tank must be greater than the weight of the tank
and the soil on top.

septic tank: h = 6 ft, w = 6 ft, l = 10 ft, t = 4 in.

Vc = 474.1 - 360 = 114.1 ft3

A = 71.11 ft2
z = 7.67 - d

If the groundwater table depth is less than 1.89 ft, the

septic tank will float.

Recommendation to keep it from floating: use 6 in.

walls instead of 4 in.
Appendix
Area Moment of Inertia

Rectangular

Right Triangle

Triangle
Parabolic Spandrel

Semi Parabolic

Circle
Semi-Circle

Quarter Circle

Circular Section
Ellipse

Half Ellipse

Quarter Ellipse