AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING – MRCET (UGC – Autonomous)

UNIT - I
Mechanical behavior of materials Mechanical behavior of engineering materials
INTRODUCTION
Materials are very important in development of human civilization at various ages.
Engineering materials play an important role in the construction and manufacturing of equipment
and tools. The knowledge of properties, uses, availability and cost of the material used for the
fabrication of an equipment/tool is very important for a design engineer.

Engineering materials subject deals with the manufacturing, properties and uses of materials in
applied engineering. The range of engineering materials varies from light weight to heavy
materials eg. Alloys and composites for aircrafts, Semi – conductor chips for pc, Energy storage in
photo voltaic cells, Semi conductor scanner, etc.,

The major domain of material science is the combination of physics, chemistry, and focus on the
relation between the properties of a material and its micro or atomic structure. Properties are the
way the material responds to the environment. Processing of the materials is the application of
heat, mechanical forces etc., to affect their microstructure and thereby its properties.

Classification of Materials

Materials are classified in groups based on their structure, properties, use etc., The atomic structure
of the material plays an important role in its application.

In general the materials can be classified as follows:

MATERIALS

METALLIC MATERIALS NON - METALLIC MATERIALS ALLOYS

 Composites
FERROUS NON-FERROUS  Ceramics FERROUS NON-FERROUS
 Plastic/ploymer
(Thermosetting
Iron  Aluminium s and Thermo  Stainless  German
 Copper plastics) Steel Silver
Cast Iron  Manganes  Electronics  Ni Steel  Silver
e
Steel  Vn Steel  Duralumin
 Titanium
 Mn Steel  Bronze
 Nickel
Alloys of Iron  Etc.,  W Steel  Brass

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Metals

Metals account for two thirds of all materials. They have useful properties like strength,
ductility, high melting points, thermal and electrical conductivity and toughness. A few of the
common metals are as below:

 Iron/Steel - Steel alloys are used for strength critical applications

 Aluminum - Aluminum and its alloys are used because they are easy to form, readily
available, inexpensive, and recyclable.
 Copper - Copper and copper alloys have a number of properties that make them useful,
including high electrical and thermal conductivity, high ductility, and good corrosion
resistance.
 Titanium - Titanium alloys are used for strength in higher temperature (~1000° F)
application, when component weight is a concern, or when good corrosion resistance is
required
 Nickel - Nickel alloys are used for still higher temperatures (~1500-2000° F) applications
or when good corrosion resistance is required.
 Refractory materials are used for the highest temperature (> 2000° F) applications.

The key feature that distinguishes metals from non-metals is their bonding. Metallic materials
have free electrons that are free to move easily from one atom to the next. The existence of these
free electrons has a number of profound consequences for the properties of metallic materials.

For example, metallic materials tend to be good electrical conductors because the free
electrons can move around within the metal so freely.

Alloy

An alloy is a mixture of metals. It is obtained by melting two or more elements together, one of
them being a metal. An alloy crystallizes into a solid solution, mixture or intermetallic compound.
The components of an alloy cannot be separated using physical means. An alloy is homogenous
material which retains the property of a metal, even if it includes metalloids or non metals in its
composition.

90% of the metals in engineering are used in alloy form. Alloys are mainly used in manufacturing
because their physical properties are superior for an application than that of the pure element
components. Typical improvements include corrosion resistance, improved wear, special electrical
or magnetic properties and heat resistance. They are less expensive when compared to the pure
forms.

Ceramics

A ceramic material is an inorganic, non-metallic, often crystalline oxide, nitride or carbide

material. Some elements, such as carbon or silicon, may be considered ceramics. Ceramic materials
are brittle, hard, and strong in compression, weak in shearing and tension. Si based ceramics are
widely used in aero applications due to heat resistance.

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They are typically crystalline in nature and are compounds formed between metallic and
nonmetallic elements such as aluminum and oxygen (alumina-Al2O3), calcium and oxygen (calcia -
CaO), and silicon and nitrogen (silicon nitride-Si3N4).

USES:

 Ceramics are used in commercial and military aircraft and space shuttles. The low mass of
ceramics is highly advantageous for use in aerospace industry.
 Ceramics are used in Structural applications (crystalline inorganic non-metals) as Thermal
barrier coatings (TBC’s) in the hot part of the engine.
 They are used in composites as a reinforcement or as a ceramic matrix composites (CMC)
 Thermal protection systems in rocket exhaust cones
 Insulating tiles for space shuttle
 Missile nose cones
 SiC ceramics are used in turbine blades

Ceramics have excellent strength and hardness properties and are brittle in nature. Ceramics can
also be formed to serve as electrically conductive materials or insulators. Some ceramics, like
superconductors, also display magnetic properties. They are also more resistant to high
temperatures and harsh environments than metals and polymers. Due to ceramic materials wide
range of properties, they are used for a multitude of applications.

The broad categories or segments that make up the ceramic industry can be classified as:

 Structural clay products (brick, sewer pipe, roofing and wall tile, flue linings, etc.)
 White wares (dinnerware, floor and wall tile, electrical porcelain, etc.)
 Refractories (brick and monolithic products used in metal, glass, cements, ceramics, energy
conversion, petroleum, and chemicals industries)
 Glasses (flat glass (windows), container glass (bottles), pressed and blown glass
(dinnerware), glass fibers (home insulation), and advanced/specialty glass (optical fibers))
 Abrasives (natural (garnet, diamond, etc.) and synthetic (silicon carbide, diamond, fused
alumina, etc.) abrasives are used for grinding, cutting, polishing, lapping, or pressure blasting
of materials)
 Cements (for roads, bridges, buildings, dams, and etc.)
 Advanced ceramics
o Structural (wear parts, bioceramics, cutting tools, and engine components)
o Electrical (capacitors, insulators, substrates, integrated circuit packages, piezoelectrics,
magnets and superconductors)
o Coatings (engine components, cutting tools, and industrial wear parts)
o Chemical and environmental (filters, membranes, catalysts, and catalyst supports)

The atoms in ceramic materials are held together by a chemical bond which will be discussed a bit
later. Briefly though, the two most common chemical bonds for ceramic materials are covalent and
ionic. Covalent and ionic bonds are much stronger than in metallic bonds and, generally speaking,
this is why ceramics are brittle and metals are ductile.

Polymer

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A polymeric solid can be thought of as a material that contains many chemically bonded parts or
units which themselves are bonded together to form a solid. The word polymer literally means
"many parts." Two industrially important polymeric materials are plastics and elastomers.

Plastics are a large and varied group of synthetic materials which are processed by forming or
molding into shape. Just as there are many types of metals such as aluminum and copper, there are
many types of plastics, such as polyethylene and nylon.

Elastomers or rubbers can be elastically deformed a large amount when a force is applied to them
and can return to their original shape (or almost) when the force is
released.

Polymers have many properties that make them attractive to use in

certain conditions. Many polymers:

 are less dense than metals or ceramics,

 resist atmospheric and other forms of corrosion,
 offer good compatibility with human tissue, or
 Exhibit excellent resistance to the conduction of electrical current.

The polymer plastics can be divided into two classes, thermoplastics

and thermosetting plastics, depending on how they are structurally and
chemically bonded.

Thermoplastic polymers comprise the four most important commodity materials – polyethylene,
polypropylene, polystyrene and polyvinyl chloride.

There are also a number of specialized engineering polymers. The term ‘thermoplastic’ indicates
that these materials melt on heating and may be processed by a variety of molding and extrusion
techniques.

Thermosetting polymers cannot be melted or re-melted. Thermosetting polymers include alkyds,

amino and phenolic resins, epoxies, polyurethanes, and unsaturated polyesters.

Rubber is a natural occurring polymer. However, most polymers are created by engineering the
combination of hydrogen and carbon atoms and the arrangement of the chains they form.

The polymer molecule is a long chain of covalent-bonded atoms and secondary bonds then hold
groups of polymer chains together to form the polymeric material. Polymers are primarily
produced from petroleum or natural gas raw products but the use of organic substances is growing.
The super-material known as Kevlar is a man-made polymer. Kevlar is used in bullet-proof vests,
strong/lightweight frames, and underwater cables that are 20 times stronger than steel.

Composite Materials

A composite is commonly defined as a combination of two or more distinct materials, each of

which retains its own distinctive properties, to create a new material with properties that cannot be
achieved by any of the components acting alone. Using this definition, it can be determined that a
wide range of engineering materials fall into this category. For example, concrete is a composite

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because it is a mixture of Portland cement and aggregate. Fiberglass sheet is a composite since it is
made of glass fibers imbedded in a polymer.

Composite materials are said to have two phases. The reinforcing phase is the fibers, sheets, or
particles that are embedded in the matrix phase. The reinforcing material and the matrix material
can be metal, ceramic, or polymer. Typically, reinforcing materials are strong with low densities
while the matrix is usually a ductile, or tough, material.

Some of the common classifications of composites are:

 Reinforced plastics
 Metal-matrix composites
 Ceramic-matrix composites
 Sandwich structures
 Concrete

Composite materials can take many forms but they can be separated
into three categories based on the strengthening mechanism. These
categories are dispersion strengthened, particle reinforced and fiber
reinforced. Dispersion strengthened composites have a fine
distribution of secondary particles in the matrix of the material.
These particles impede the mechanisms that allow a material to deform. (These mechanisms
include dislocation movement and slip, which will be discussed later). Many metal-matrix
composites would fall into the dispersion strengthened composite category. Particle reinforced
composites have a large volume fraction of particle dispersed in the matrix and the load is shared
by the particles and the matrix. Most commercial ceramics and many filled polymers are particle-
reinforced composites. In fiber-reinforced composites, the fiber is the primary load-bearing
component. Fiberglass and carbon fiber composites are examples of fiber-reinforced composites.

If the composite is designed and fabricated correctly, it combines the strength of the reinforcement
with the toughness of the matrix to achieve a combination of desirable properties not available in
any single conventional material. Some composites also offer the advantage of being tailorable so
that properties, such as strength and stiffness, can easily be changed by changing amount or
orientation of the reinforcement material. The downside is that such composites are often more
expensive than conventional materials.

Advanced Materials

Materials used in "High-Tec" applications, usually designed for maximum performance, and
normally expensive. Examples are titanium alloys for supersonic airplanes, magnetic alloys for
computer disks, special ceramics for the heat shield of the space shuttle, etc.

Modern Material's Needs

An aircraft must be constructed of materials that are both light and strong.

 Engine efficiency increases at high temperatures: requires high temperature structural

materials
 Use of nuclear energy requires solving problem with residues, or advances in nuclear waste
processing.
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 Hypersonic flight requires materials that are light, strong and resist high temperatures.
 Optical communications require optical fibers that absorb light negligibly.
 Civil construction – materials for unbreakable windows.
 Structures: materials that are strong like metals and resist corrosion like plastics.

1.1.LINEAR AND NONLINEAR ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF

MATERIALS

1.1. i.Mechanical Properties of materials

Density: Density is weight of a unit volume of material. It is very

important property in estimating the weight of the member and decides which
material to be used in the construction of the aircraft.

Hardness: It is the property of resisting penetration or permanent

distortion. Hardness can be increased by hammering, rolling or working on it. The hardness of alloys
and metals, hardness can be increased by a heat treatment. Annealing is a process of heat treatment
which softens materials. Eg: Diamond

Brittleness: It is a property of resisting a change in relative

position of molecules, or tendency to fracture without change of shape.
Hard material is more brittle than soft material. Brittle materials fail due
to the shock loads applied when used in aircraft. Eg: glass, ceramics etc.,

Malleability: The property of the material which allows them

to be bent or permanently distorted without rupture. This property
permits the manufacture of sheets, bar stocks, forgings and fabrication
by bending or hammering. It is opposite to brittleness.

Ductility: It is the property of metals which allows

them to be drawn out without breaking. This property is very
important in manufacture of wire and tubing by drawing. Ductile
material is preferred because of its ease of forming and its
resistance to failure under shock loads. In aircraft construction a
material is usually referred to as soft or hard or else ductile or
brittle. Eg: copper

Elasticity: It is the property of returning to

original shape when the force causing the change is
removed. The structural design of aircraft is based on this

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property. The point beyond which the material cannot be loaded is called elastic limit of the material.
The members are designed such that the maximum applied loads to which it is subjected to will
never exceed elastic limit.

Fusibility: Fusibility is the property of being liquefied by heat. Metals are fused in
welding.

Conductivity: It is the property of transmitting heat or

electricity. During welding, the amount of heat to be used to design a
jig depends on the conductivity of the material. In aircraft materials,
electrical conductivity is very important in connection with the bonding
of atoms to eliminate radio interference.

Contraction and Expansion: They are caused by cooling and heating of metals. These
properties effect the design of welding jigs, castings, and tolerances necessary for hot rolled material.

Stiffness: Resistance to undergoing (elastic) deformation in response to the application of a

force, the property of being inflexible and hard to distort. A stiff material has a strong supporting
structure and does not deform much when a stress is applied. The stiffness of a material is
represented by the ratio between stress and strain (called ‘‘Young’s modulus of elasticity,’’ ‘‘elastic
modulus,’’ or ‘‘modulus of elasticity’’). Stiff materials, by definition, have a high modulus of
elasticity (i.e., a considerable stress is need for a minor deformation)

Compliance (Flexibility): Reciprocal of stiffness, representing the tolerance of a material

to undergo elastic deformation, the property of being flexible and easy to distort. Compliant
(flexible) materials, by definition, have a low elastic modulus, and only minor stress is required for a
considerable strain. Highly compliant materials are easily stretched or distended.

Resilience/Proof Resilience: Resilience is the ability of a material to absorb energy when it

is deformed elastically, and release that energy upon unloading. Proof resilience is defined as the
maximum energy that can be absorbed up to the elastic limit, without creating a permanent
distortion.

1.1 .ii.Mechanical Terms

Loading: The application of force on an object is called

loading. The performance of a material depends on the loading
conditions. There are five fundamental loading conditions viz.,
tension, compression, shear, torsion and bending.

Tension: Either pulled apart or elongated

Compression: Reverse of tensile loading, involves pressing
Shear: applying load parallel to the plane which causes one
side of the plane to slide on the other side of the plane.
Torsion: Causes twisting in the material.
Bending: Applying load in a manner that causes the
material to curve.

Stress: Stress is the load acting on the certain cross-

section material. Internal
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1. During a large number of cycles, the damage develops on the microscopic level and
grows until a macroscopic crack is formed.
2. The macroscopic crack grows for each cycle until it reaches a critical length.
3. The cracked component breaks because it can no longer sustain the peak load.

1.9. Comparative Study Of Metals, Ceramics, Plastics And Composites:

1. Classification of materials: Solid materials have been conveniently grouped into three
basic classifications: metals, ceramics, and polymers.
This scheme is based primarily on chemical makeup and atomic structure, and most
materials fall into one distinct grouping or another, although there are some intermediates. In
addition, there are the composites, combinations of two or more of the above three basic
material classes. A brief explanation of these material types and representative
characteristics is offered next. Another classification is advanced materials—those used in
high technology applications—viz. semiconductors, biomaterials, smart materials, and nano
engineered materials.
1.9.1. Metals: Materials in this group are composed of one or more metallic elements (such
as iron, aluminum, copper, titanium, gold, and nickel), and often also nonmetallic elements
(for example, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen) in relatively small amounts. Atoms in metals
and their alloys are arranged in a very orderly manner and in comparison to the ceramics and
polymers, are relatively dense (Fig 1.1).With

Fig.1

Bar-chart of room temperature density values for various metals, ceramics, polymers, and
composite materials regard to mechanical characteristics, these materials are relatively stiff
(Fig 2) and strong (Fig 3), yet are ductile (i.e., capable of large amounts of deformation
without fracture), and are resistant to fracture (Fig 4), which accounts for their widespread
use in structural applications. Metallic materials have large numbers of nonlocalized
electrons; that is, these electrons are not bound to particular atoms. Many properties of metals
are directly attributable to these electrons. For example, metals are extremely good
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conductors of electricity (Fig 5) and heat, and are not transparent to visible light; a polished
metal surface has a lustrous appearance. In addition, some of the metals (viz., Fe, Co, and
Ni) have desirable magnetic properties. Fig 6 is a photograph that shows several common and
familiar objects that are made of metallic materials.

1.9.2 Ceramics
Ceramics are compounds between metallic and nonmetallic elements; they are most
frequently oxides, nitrides, and carbides. For example,some of the common ceramic

Fig.2
Bar-chart of room temperature Stiffness (i.e., elastic modulus) values for various metals,
ceramics, polymers, and composite materials.

Fig.3
Bar-chart of room temperature strength (i.e., tensile strength) values for various metals,
ceramics, polymers, and composite materials materials include aluminum oxide (or
alumina,Al2O3), silicon dioxide (or silica, SiO2), silicon carbide (SiC), silicon nitride
(Si3N4), and, in addition, what some refer to as the traditional ceramics—those composed of
clay minerals (i.e., porcelain), as well as cement, and glass. With regard to mechanical
behavior, ceramic materials are relatively stiff and strong—stiffnesses and strengths are
comparable to those of the metals (Fig 2 and 3). In addition, ceramics are typically very hard.

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On the other hand, they are extremely brittle (lack ductility), and are highly susceptible to
fracture (Fig 4). These materials are typically insulative to the passage of heat and electricity
(i.e., have low electrical conductivities, Fig 5), and are more resistant to high temperatures
and harsh environments than metals and polymers. With regard to optical characteristics,
ceramics may be transparent, translucent , or opaque (as shown in figure (A)), and some of
the oxide ceramics (e.g., Fe3O4) exhibit magnetic behavior.

Photograph of three thin disk specimens of aluminum oxide, which havebeen placed over a
printed page in order to demonstrate their differences in light-transmittance characteristics.

Fig.4

Bar-chart of room-temperature resistance to fracture (i.e., fracture toughness) for various

metals, ceramics, polymers, and composite materials.

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Fig.5

Bar-chart of room temperature electrical conductivity ranges for metals, ceramics, polymers,
and semiconducting materials.
1.9.3 Polymers
Polymers include the familiar plastic and rubber materials. Many of them are organic
compounds that are chemically based on carbon, hydrogen, and other nonmetallic elements
(viz.O,N, and Si). Furthermore, they have very large molecular structures, often chain-like in
nature that have a backbone of carbon atoms. Some of the common and familiar polymers are
polyethylene (PE), nylon, poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC), polycarbonate (PC), polystyrene (PS),
and silicone rubber. These materials typically have low densities (Fig1), whereas their
mechanical characteristics are generally dissimilar to the metallic and ceramic materials—
they are not as stiff nor as strong as these other material types (Fig 2 and 3). However, on the
basis of their low densities, many times their stiffnesses and strengths on a per mass.

Fig.6

Familiar objects that are made of metals and metal alloys: (from left to right) silverware (fork
and knife), scissors, coins, a gear, a wedding ring, and a nut and bolt.

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Fig.7

Common objects that are made of ceramic materials: scissors, a china tea cup, a building
brick, a floor tile, and a glass vase. basis are comparable to the metals and ceramics. In
addition, many of the polymers are extremely ductile and pliable (i.e., plastic), which means
they are easily formed into complex shapes. In general, they are relatively inert chemically
and unreactive in a large number of environments. One major drawback to the polymers is
their tendency to soften and/or decompose at modest temperatures, which, in some instances,
limits their use. Furthermore, they have low electrical conductivities (Figure 1.5) and are
nonmagnetic.
The photograph in Fig 8 shows several articles made of polymers that are familiar to the
reader.

Fig.8

Several common objects that are made of polymeric materials: plastic tableware (spoon, fork,
and knife), billiard balls, a bicycle helmet, two dice, a lawnmower wheel (plastic hub and
rubber tire), and a plastic milk carton.

1.9.4 Composites
A composite is composed of two (or more) individual materials, which come from the
categories discussed above—viz., metals, ceramics, and polymers. The design goal of a
composite is to achieve a combination of properties that is not displayed by any single
material, and also to incorporate the best characteristics of each of the component materials.
A large number of composite types exist that are represented by different combinations of
metals, ceramics, and polymers. Furthermore, some naturally-occurring materials are also
considered to be composites—for example, wood and bone. However, most of those we

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consider in our discussions are synthetic (or man-made) composites. One of the most
common and familiar composites is fiberglass, in which
small glass fibers are embedded within a polymeric material (normally an epoxy or
polyester). The glass fibers are relatively strong and stiff (but also brittle), whereas the
polymer is ductile (but also weak and flexible). 3) flexible, and ductile. In addition, it has a
low density (Fig1). Another of these technologically important materials is the “carbon fiber
reinforced polymer” (or “CFRP”) composite—carbon fibers that are embedded within a
polymer. These materials are stiffer and stronger than the glass fiber-reinforced materials (Fig
2 and 3), yet they are more expensive. The CFRP composites are used in some aircraft and
aerospace applications, as well as high-tech sporting equipment (e.g., bicycles, golf clubs,
tennis rackets, and skis/snowboards).
Metals Ceramics Polymers Composites

Ceramics are generally Plastics (or Composites

compounds between polymers) are A combination of two or
metallic and nonmetallic
elements and include such
generally organic more materials differing
This type of materials compounds as oxides, compounds based in form or composition.
has characteristics like, nitrides, and carbides. upon carbon and The differnet parts still
high electrical and Typically they are hydrogen. They are have the same features
thermal conductivity, the insulating (not electrical or very large molecular they originally did, that
ability to be deformed or thermally conductive) and
resistant to high
structures. Usually is, they do not dissolve
cut into new shapes
temperatures and harsh they are low density or merge completely
without breaking, and
high mechanical environments (corrosion and are not stable at into one another,
resistant). They usually high temperatures. however, their
strength. Since metals
have lower electrical and They can be readily properties are enhanced
must be reduced from thermal conductivity,
chemical compounds, higher stiffness, good formed into complex by eachother. Normally,
they tend to be somewhat resistance to corrosive shapes. Their the components can be
more costly than non- environments, and lower strength, stiffness, physically identified and
metallic materials, and fracture toughness than and melting exhibit an interface
they are often vulnerable metals. With the exception temperatures are (boundary) between one
to corrosion damage as of glasses, ceramics usually
cannot be reshaped easily.
generally much another. Fiberglass, a
the metals react with lower than those of combination of glass
their environment to re- To shape a ceramic, a
mixture of ceramic metals and ceramics. and a polymer, is an
form those compounds.
powders, water, and binder Their light weight, example. Concrete and
They tend to be shiny materials is molded into the
and malleable. Metals low cost, and ease of plywood are other
desired dimensions to
have these form a temporary shape.
forming make them familiar composites.
characteristics because These temporary shapes the preferred Many new combinations
they have nonlocalized called "green bodies" are material for many include ceramic fibers
then dried to remove water engineering in metal or polymer
electrons. and heated to allow the applications. matrix.
binder materials to oxidize,
leaving the ceramic powder
particles to bond to each
other during the high
temperature baking.

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  The change in structure is due to precipitation of one of the constituents from a
saturated solid solution and results in a stronger and harder metal but less ductile

 Usually for Non – Ferrous Metals

I.Light Metal Alloys:

The term ‘light metals’ has traditionally been given to both aluminium and magnesium because
they are frequently used to reduce the weight of components and structures.

The term ‘light metals’ has traditionally been given to both aluminium and magnesium
because they are frequently used to reduce the weight of components and structures. On this
basis, titanium also qualifies and beryllium should be included although it is little used and will
not be considered in detail in this book. These four metals have relative densities ranging from
1.7 (magnesium) to 4.5 (titanium) which compare with 7.9 and 8.9 for the older structural metals,
iron and copper, and 22.6 for osmium, the heaviest of all metals. Ten other elements that are
classified as metals are lighter than titanium but, with the exception of boron in the form of
strong fibres contained in a suitable matrix, none is used as a base material for structural
purposes. The alkali metals lithium, potassium, sodium, rubidium and caesium, and the alkaline
earth metals calcium and strontium are too reactive, whereas yttrium and scandium are
comparatively rare.

Characteristics of light metals and alloys The property of lightness translates directly to
material property enhancement for many products since by far the greatest weight reduction is
achieved by a decrease in density (Fig. 1.1). This is an obvious reason why light metals have
been associated with transportation, notably aerospace, which has provided great stimulus to the
development of light alloys.

2.1. Aluminum and its alloys:

Aluminium is a very soft light alloy and can be processed with simple tools. The
material is characterised by a long service life and good corrosion resistance, as well as different
surface finishes from high gloss to silver-matte. Because of these aluminium properties, the
metal is used in many applications.

Within the family of metals only silver, copper and gold have better electrical
conductivity. Also the thermal conductivity of aluminium is very high, while its melting point is
just above 660°C.
Anodised aluminium has an even higher corrosion protection than the untreated raw material as a
result of its special surface. In addition, aluminium is corrosion-proof in the neutral pH range due
to its oxide layer. Rust does not adhere to this top layer since the light alloy is itself protected by
this sealing layer.
Furthermore, no iron contents are present in aluminium. This has as result that it is not
magnetisable or is only paramagnetic, which means that it has no external magnetic
characteristics. An important property and difference in comparison with steel and iron.

Aluminium or aluminum is a chemical element with symbol Al and atomic number 13. It
is a silvery-white, soft, nonmagnetic and ductile metal in the boron group. By mass, aluminium
makes up about 8% of the Earth's crust; it is the third most abundant element
after oxygen and silicon and the most abundant metal in the crust, though it is less common in
the mantle below. The chief ore of aluminum is bauxite.

The unique combinations of properties provided by aluminum and its alloys make aluminum
one of the most versatile, economical, and attractive metallic materials for a broad range of
uses—from soft, highly ductile wrapping foil to the most demanding engineering applications.
Aluminum alloys are second only to steels in use as structural metals.

Aluminum has a density of only 2.7 g/cm3, approximately one-third as much as steel (7.83
g/cm3). Aluminum resists the kind of progressive oxidization that causes steel to rust away. The
exposed surface of aluminum combines with oxygen to form an inert aluminum oxide film only
a few ten-millionths of an inch thick, which blocks further oxidation.

Appropriately alloyed and treated, aluminum can resist corrosion by water, salt, and other
environmental factors, and by a wide range of other chemical and physical agents.

Alloy Categories. It is convenient to divide aluminum alloys into two major categories: wrought
compositions and cast compositions.

Many alloys respond to thermal treatment based on phase solubilities. These

treatments include solution heat treatment, quenching, and precipitation, or age, hardening. For
either casting or wrought alloys, such alloys are described as heat treatable. A large number of
other wrought compositions rely instead on work hardening through mechanical reduction,
usually in combination with various annealing procedures for property development. These
alloys are referred to as work hardening. Some casting alloys are essentially not heat treatable
and are used only in as-cast or in thermally modified conditions unrelated to solution or
precipitation effects.

Applications :

Aluminum alloys are economical in many applications.

They are used in the automotive industry, aerospace industry, in construction of machines,
appliances, and structures, as cooking utensils, as covers for housings for electronic equipment,
as pressure vessels for cryogenic applications, and in innumerable other areas. Typical
applications for some of the more commonly used wrought and cast alloys, respectively.

Ultra-lightweight alloys with high strength, ductility and corrosion resistance are
desirable for applications in the automotive, aerospace, defence, biomedical, sporting and
electronic goods sectors. Ductility and corrosion resistance are generally inversely correlated
with strength, making it difficult to optimize all three simultaneously. Here we design an
ultralow density (1.4 g cm−3) Mg–Li-based alloy that is strong, ductile, and more corrosion
resistant than Mg-based alloys reported so far. The alloy is Li-rich and a solute nanostructure
within a body-centred cubic matrix is achieved by a series of extrusion, heat-treatment and
rolling processes. Corrosion resistance from the environment is believed to occur by a uniform
lithium carbonate film in which surface coverage is much greater than in traditional hexagonal
close-packed Mg-based alloys, explaining the superior corrosion resistance of the alloy.

Areas of application:

Aluminium can be used for many purposes and is therefore a particularly good selection for DIY
craftsmen. Often consumers decide between wood and metal, for example in case of carports,
garden houses or balcony balustrades.
The advantage compared to wood in the outdoor area is the weathering protection: unlike wood,
you do not need to paint the metal regularly. Also in the house aluminium profile sections
have uses, among other things, as carpet edge protection, furniture elements or for LED
installations. Here in particular the optics plays a large role.
Aluminium surfaces can be very varied. The material is also often used for modern items of
jewellery. In comparison with steel, a simple further processing of the material is possible.

2.2. Titanium and its Alloys:

Titanium is recognized for its high strength-to-weight ratio.

It is a light, strong metal with low density

 Is quite ductile when pure (especially in an oxygen-free environment),lustrous, and
metallic-white in color.
 The relatively high melting point makes it useful as a refractory metal.
 7th most abundant metal
 The world production of titanium is nevertheless very small, hundreds of thousands of
tonnes, which compares say with steel at 750 million tonnes per annum.
 Melting point = 1668c
 Boiling point = 3287
 Pure titanium melts at 1670oC and has a density of 4.51 g cm-3. It should therefore be
ideal for use in components which operate at elevated temperatures, especially where
large strength to weight ratios are required.
  Commercially pure titanium
(a) Hard anddifficult to machine
(b) looses strength above 430 degrees Celsius
(c) Burns in oxygen and nitrogen
(d) Low electrical and thermal conductivity

Production

1. Reduction of ore to sponge

2. Melting of sponge to form an ingot<
3. Primary fabrication into a billet/bar,..
4. Secondary fabrication into finished shape

Crystallographic forms of Titanium

1. Hexagonal close-packed (hcp) or alpha (α) phase, found at room temperature

2. Body centered cubic (bcc) or beta (ß) phase, found above 883 °C

Note: hexagonal alpha form changes to high temperature Beta very slowly above 880 degree
Celsius

Alpha alloys

 creep resistance superior to beta alloys.

 suitable for somewhat elevated temperature applications
 sometimes used for cryogenic applications. (low temp)
 have adequate strength, toughness, and weldability for various applications
 are not as readily forged as many beta alloys.
 cannot be strengthened by heat treatment.

Beta alloys

 have good forging capability.

 cold formable when in the solution treated condition.
 prone to a ductile to brittle transition temperature.
 can be strengthened by heat treatment; are solutioned followed by aging to form finely
dispersed particles in a beta phase matrix.

Alpha + beta alloys

Alloys with beta contents less than 20% are weldable.

normally have good formability ( Ti-6Al-4V is fairly difficult to form)
 Heat Treatment of Alpha + Beta alloys :

Solution treatment : components are quickly cooled from a temperature high in the alpha-
beta range or even above the beta transus.
Aging :
generates a mixture of alpha and transformed beta.
Microstructure depends on the cooling rate from the solution temperature.
Applications:
1.Titanium can catch fire and cause severe damage in circumstances where it rubs against
other metals at elevated temperatures. This is what limits its application in the harsh
environment of aeroengines, to regions where the temperature does not exceed 400oC.
2.80% of all the titanium produced is used in the aerospace industries. Car suspension
springs could easily be made of titanium with a great reduction in weight but titanium is
not available in the large quantities needed and certainly not at the price required for
automobile applications. The target price for titatnium needs to be reduced to about 30%
of its current value for serious application in mass-market cars.
3.Pure titanium has excellent resistance to corrosion and is used widely in the chemical
industries. There is a passive oxide film which makes it particularly resistant to corrosion
in oxidising solutions. The corrosion resistance can be further improved by adding
palladium (0.15 wt%), which makes hydrogen evolution easier at cathodic sites so that
the anodic and cathodic reactions balance in the passive region
4.Titanium is capable of absorbing up to 60 at.% of hydrogen, which can also be removed
by annealing in a vacuum. Hydrogen enters the tetrahedral holes which are larger in b.c.c.
than c.p.h. Thus the solubility of hydrogen is larger in β. The enthalpy of solution of
hydrogen in Ti is negative (ΔH<0).<br />the solubility actually decreases with
temperature. This contrasts with iron which shows the opposite trend.<br />
5.Because of this characteristic, titanium is a candidate material for the first wall of
magnetically confined fusion reactors. The hydrogen based plasma is not detrimental
since at 500oC and 1Pa pressure, the Ti does not pick up enough hydrogen for
embrittlement. An additional feature is that Ti resists swelling due to neutron damage
6.Some applications of titanium alloys
 Surgical Implants
 Prosthetic devices
 Jet engines
 Chemical processing plants
 Pulp and paper industry
 Marine applications
 Sports equipment

2.3.Classification of steels alloys :

According to the World Steel Association, there are over 3,500 different grades of steel,
encompassing unique physical, chemical, and environmental properties.
2.6.Maraging steels:
Maraging steels are carbon free iron-nickel alloys with additions of cobalt, molybdenum,
titanium and aluminium. The term maraging is derived from the strengthening mechanism,
which is transforming the alloy to martensite with subsequent age hardening.
The 18% Ni-maraging steels, which belong to the family of iron-base alloys, are strengthened by
a process of martensitic transformation, followed by age or precipitation hardening. Precipitation
hardenable stainless steels are also in this group.
Maraging steels work well in electro-mechanical components where ultra-high strength is
required, along with good dimensional stability during heat treatment. Several desirable
properties of maraging steels are:
 Ultra-high strength at room temperature
 Simple heat treatment, which results in minimum distortion
 Superior fracture toughness compared to quenched and tempered steel of similar strength
level
 Low carbon content, which precludes decarburization problems
 Section size is an important factor in the hardening process
 Easily fabricated
 Good weldability.
These factors indicate that maraging steels could be used in applications such as shafts, and
substitute for long, thin, carburized or nitrided parts, and components subject to impact fatigue,
such as print hammers or clutches.

Variations of Properties in Maraging Steels

The dependence of mechanical properties of maraging steels on the temperature of tempering is
of the same pattern as that for all precipitation-hardenable alloys, i.e. the strength properties
increase to a maximum, after which softening takes place. By analogy with ageing, the stages of
hardening and softening tempering may be separated in the process.

The hardening effect is caused by the formation of segregates at dislocations and, what is most
important, by the formation of partially coherent precipitates of intermediate phases of the
type Ni3Ti or Ni3Mo. The softening is due, in the first place, to replacement of disperse
precipitates having greater interparticle spacing and, in the second place, to the
reverse f?•¨fÁ martensitic transformation which is accompanied by the dissolution of
intermetallics in the austenite.

II. High Strength and Heat Resistant Alloys:

High temperature, corrosion resistant alloys are mixtures of various metals, including
stainless,steel, chrome, nickel, iron, copper, cobalt, molybdenum, tungsten andtitanium,
that can resist high heat and corrosion more effectively than standard carbon steel.

I. HEAT RESISTANT ALLOYS

Heat resistant alloys of iron, nickel and cobalt are used where high temperature
performance, particularly creep resistance, is required. These alloys have been typically
selected for gas turbine components such as blades, turbine wheels and latter stage
compressor disks, which are subjected to long term rotational stresses and high
temperatures. Increased understanding of the alloy systems has permitted the upgrading
of forgings by mechanical and thermal treatment to satisfy requirements for high strength
in applications other than creep resistance, such as low and high cycle fatigue and crack
growth resistance.

Such alloys are designed to offer high strength at elevated temperatures. These
characteristics, which are desirable in the end product, make forging very difficult.
Furthermore, any additive that improves service temperature performance tends to
decrease workability. Alloy cleanliness also has a significant effect on hot forgeability.

Alloy selection is generally directed at optimizing one or more of seven properties:

 Creep strength
 Tensile strength
 Low-cycle fatigue response
 High-cycle fatigue response
 Fracture toughness
 Creep rupture behavior
 Cyclic rupture (creep-fatigue interaction) behavior.
An example of a forged iron-based heat resistance alloy is A286 (AMS 5737). This and
similar alloys are forged with practices similar in many respects to those used for 18-8
austenitic stainless grades. Because they are alloyed with reactive elements such as
titanium, aluminum, boron, or columbium, they respond to solution and aging cycles
similar to the specialty stainless grades.

Cobalt based forging alloys such as L605, Alloy 188 and N-155 continue to be used. S-
816 alloys are still used for exhaust valves on gasoline and diesel engines.

The most widely forged true heat resistant alloys are Ni-Cr-Fe-based, such as alloys 718,
706 and 625. More highly alloyed Ni-Cr-Co based materials like Waspaloy, alloy 41 and
alloy 500, which are very high strength and very difficult to forge, are less widely used.
Forging process for heat resistant alloys are highly refined to control temperatures, strain
rate, strain and alloy condition. These controls are necessary to achieve uniform critical
 properties, such as grain size, and other characteristics after heat treatment.

Some "super-superalloys" such as Rene 95, IN 100, Merl 76 and low-carbon Astroloy are
best forged with a more complex process that includes the initial consolidation of
compacted billets of powder, followed by sintering, canning, and then hot extrusion to
develop the starting billets for forging. This P/M (powder metallurgy) route precedes the
use of isothermal or hot die forging process to near-net shapes. These alloys contain less
cobalt and more reactive metals like titanium, aluminum, columbium, or tungsten. They
tend to form stable carbides that improve creep resistance at higher service temperatures.

Heat resistant alloy forgings and processes are often computer modeled using various
commercial codes. Modeling reduces costly tryout and costly inputs, such as material and
die preparations, prior to tooling and process development. This practice has led to some
remarkable refinements in the forgings processes and quality improvements.

Typical forging grades and nominal compositions are:

IronBasedHeatResistantAlloy

A286 AM5737

Nickel-IronBasedHeatResistantAlloy

Alloy 901 AMS 5660

CobaltBasedHeatResistantAlloys

L605 AMS 5758

188 AMS 5772

N-155 AMS 5769

NickelBasedHeatResistantAlloys
Ni-600 AMS 5665

Ni-625 AMS 5666

Ni-706 AMS 570

Ni-718 AMS 5663

Ni-X750 AMS 5667

Waspaloy AMS 5708

Alloy 41 AMS 5712

Following are nominal compositions for several heat resistant alloys.

AlloyDesignation PrincipalElement Percentcomposition

AL Cb Co Cr Fe Mo Ni Ti W

A286 Iron 0.2 15 54 1 26 2

Stellite Cobalt Bal 30 3 1 23 4

L605 Cobalt 53 20 0 15

S-816 Cobalt Bal. 20 3 4 20

IN 901 Nickel 0.2 4 12 36 6 43 3

Astroloy Nickel 4 17 15 5 55 4

IN 718 Nickel 1 5 19 18 3 52 3

Rene 41 Nickel 2 11 19 1 55 3

Rene 95 Nickel 4 4 8 14 3 61 3 4

Udimet 700 Nickel 4 17 15 5 55 3

Waspaloy Nickel 1 13 19 4 58 3
 MERL 76 Nickel 5 18 12 3 59 4 v

-NIMONIC alloys

Nimonic alloys are primarily composed of nickel and chromium. These alloys are known for
their high-temperature low-creep and high performance. Additives like aluminium, carbon and
titanium are infused into the alloy. The NIMONIC alloy was first developed in 1940 in England.
NIMONIC alloys available commercially are NIMONIC 75, NIMONIC 80A, 81, 86, NIMONIC PE11
and 16.

NIMONIC alloy 80A is a wrought, age-hardened alloy that is strengthened by additives like
titanium, aluminium and carbon. It is manufactured by high-frequency melting and casting in
air. It is similar to NIMONIC alloy 75. It has good corrosion and oxidation resistance. The creep
rupture and tensile properties are high at 815°C (1500°F).

This datasheet will look into the chemical composition, properties and applications of NIMONIC
alloy 80A.

Chemical Composition

The chemical composition of NIMONIC alloy 80A is given in the following table.

Element Content (%)

Nickel, Ni 69

Chromium, Cr 18-21

Iron, Fe ≤3

Cobalt, Co ≤2

Titanium, Ti 1.8-2.7

Aluminum, Al 1.0-1.8

Others Remainder
Physical Properties

The following table discusses the physical properties of NIMONIC alloy 80A.

Properties Metric Imperial

Density 8.19 gm/cm3 0.296 lb/in3

Mechanical Properties

The mechanical properties of NIMONIC alloy 80A are tabulated below.

Properties Metric Imperial

Tensile strength(annealed) 1250 MPa 181 ksi

Yield strength(annealed) 780 MPa 113 ksi

Elongation at Break 30% 30%

Fabrication

Machinability

The conventional machining techniques used on iron alloys may be used for this alloy. This alloy
work-hardens during machining.

Welding

NIMONIC alloy 80A can be welded using common techniques, using a matching filler metal. A
prerequisite for welding is that the metal should be solution treated. Fusion welding by
tungsten inert gas welding and metal inert gas welding will be suitable for this alloy.

Hot working

NIMONIC alloy 80A can be hot worked at temperature ranges of 1050-1200°C (1920-2190°F).

Forging

NIMONIC alloy 80A can be hot forged at temperatures in the range of 982-1176°C (1800-
2150°F).
Cold working

Cold working may be done on the alloy.

Annealing

NIMONIC alloy 80A should be annealed at 1079°C (1975°F) for about 8 hours and air cooled.

Applications

The NIMONIC alloy 80A is used in the following applications:

 Gas turbine engineering

 Automobile exhaust valves
 Die-casting inserts and cores
 Nuclear boiler tube part

Inconel alloys:

Inconel® is a registered trademark (of Special Metals Corporation) referring to a family of

austenitic nickel-chromium super alloys.

Inconel® is typically used in applications where high temperatures are present due to a thick,
stable passivating oxide layer which is formed when Inconel is heated. This layer protects the
Inconel's surface making it resistant to heat. In addition to heat, Inconel has a high resistance to
corrosion, pressure and oxidation. Inconel superalloys also have excellent mechanical
properties and are frequently used in the chemical and aerospace industries.

There exists an extensive variety of nickel based alloys which are widely used in aerospace
engineering.
These nickel alloys for aerospace use are selected based on their ability to resist extremely
high temperature oxidation/corrosion, stress-rupture failures and constant wear.

Nickel alloys are one of the toughest structural materials available. They also have a good
electrical conductivity and magnetic properties. For these reasons, a choice to use nickel alloys
are almost inevitable when it comes to aerospace applications. The following is a breakdown of
some of the most advantageous properties which make Nickel alloys so vital for aerospace
applications:

 Immense strength at extremely high temperatures

 Resistance to oxidation and corrosion
 Creep resistance under high stress conditions

 Weight-saving alloys
  Low-expansion at high temperatures

Immense Strength At Extremely High Temperatures

WASPALOY® is a great example of nickel alloys used in aerospace. The alloy provides strength
and structural reliability at high temperatures, as this alloy remains structurally sound at
temperatures as high as 870°C. As a result of Wasaploy’s great temperature resistance, it is
routinely used in the exhaust section of an aircraft where burning jet fuel can cause parts to
become immensely hot for extended periods of time. Other nickel alloys commonly used in the
‘hot section’ are Alloy 25, 188, 282®, 625, 718, X and Rene 41. (* ‘hot section’ refers to
combustion chambers and exhaust systems of an aircraft).

RESISTANCE TO OXIDATION AND CORROSION

CREEP RESISTANCE UNDER HIGH STRESS CONDITIONS

Apart from the superalloy mentioned above, other nickel alloys for aerospace applications such
as Nimonic®80A and Nimonic®90 have exceptional creep resistance and stress-rupture
properties. This alloys’ ability to retain its fortitude under high degrees of stress and at
temperatures from 815-920°C makes it extremely useful for the construction of aircraft exhaust
valves, turbine rotors and other rotating parts.

What Properties make Inconel Alloys Special?

Inconel alloys are resistant to oxidation and have the ability to maintain its structural integrity
in high temperature atmospheres. There are several Inconel alloys that are used in applications
that require material properties that do not easily succumb to caustic corrosion, or corrosion
caused by high purity water, and stress-corrosion cracking. While each variation of Inconel has
unique traits that make it effective in different circumstances, the majority of the alloys are
used frequently in the chemical industry.
 Inconel®
Description
Alloy

Readily fabricated for commercial gas turbine and aerospace applications. Offered in
Inconel® 188
sheet, plate and bar.

Ideal for hardware and components in the power, aerospace and chemical processing
Inconel® 625
industries. Offered in sheet, plate, bar and forgings.

The preferred material for cryogenic storage tanks, turbines, downhole shafts and
Inconel® 718
wellhead parts offered in sheet, plate and bar.

Inconel® X-
Commonly used for gas turbine components, including blades, seals and rotors.
750

230 Plate &

Trusted by the power, aerospace, chemical processing and industrial heating industries.
Sheet

inconel alloys serve a wide variety of different industries including:

 Aerospace
 Jet Engine Components
 Commercial Gas Turbines
 Food Processing
 Chemical Processing
 Cryogenic Storage Tanks

Inconel 600

Inconel 600 is a nickel-chromium alloy that offers high levels of resistance to a number of
corrosive elements. In high-temperature situations, Inconel 600 will not succumb to chloride-
ion stress-corrosion cracking or general oxidation. The alloy is also resistant to caustic corrosion
and corrosion caused by high purity water.

Its ability to withstand corrosion in a variety of forms has made Inconel 600 the perfect alloy for
use in furnace components and chemical processing equipment. However, Inconel 600 is also
used effectively in the food industry and in nuclear engineering, because it will maintain its
structure in applications that would cause permanent, irreversible distortion to other alloys.

It is possible to order Inconel 600 from several leading distributors on the market. However, as
is the case with many rare and specialty alloys, you generally won’t have a lot of ordering
options. If you are interested in custom projects and designs, may find it hard to locate a
distributor who can help you.

Inconel 601

Like Inconel 600, Inconel 601 offers resistance to various forms of high-temperature corrosion
and oxidization. However, unlike 600, this nickel-chromium alloy has an addition of aluminum.
This addition allows it to demonstrate high mechanical properties even in extremely hot
environments.

Inconel 601’s ability to stave off the strain that would result in many alloys when exposed to
high temperatures has led to its use in furnaces and heat treating equipment like retorts and
baskets. You will also find Inconel 601 in gas-turbine components and petrochemical processing
equipment.

-Super alloy: A precipitation-hardenable nickel-chromium superalloy, Rene 41 exhibits

extremely high room and elevated temperature tensile properties.

With the addition of significant amounts of cobalt and molybdenum, Rene 41 has exceptional
strength from room temperature up to 871°C.

The term "superalloy" was first used shortly after World War II to describe a group of alloys
developed for use in turbosuperchargers and aircraft turbine engines that required high
performance at elevated temperatures. The range of applications for which superalloys are
used has expanded to many other areas and now includes aircraft and land-based gas turbines,
rocket engines, chemical, and petroleum plants. They are particularly well suited for these
demanding applications because of their ability to retain most of their strength even after long
exposure times above 650°C (1,200°F). Their versatility stems from the fact that they combine
this high strength with good low-temperature ductility and excellent surface stability.
Superalloys are based on Group VIIIB elements and usually consist of various combinations of
Fe, Ni, Co, and Cr, as well as lesser amounts of W, Mo, Ta, Nb, Ti, and Al. The three major
classes of superalloys are nickel-, iron-, and cobalt-based alloys.

Superalloys, or high performance alloys, are alloys that exhibit excellent mechanical strength
and creep resistance at high temperatures, good surface stability, and corrosion and oxidation
resistance. They typically have an austenitic face-centered cubic crystal structure with a base
alloying element of nickel, cobalt, or nickel-iron. The development of superalloys has primarily
been driven by the aerospace and power industries.

The corrosion-resistant superalloys are widely used in extreme environments where

tremendous heat and corrosion resistance is paramount to the integrity of the end product.
Chemical and petrochemical processing, power plants, and oil and gas industries widely use
these superalloys.

Many of the industrial nickel-based superalloys contain alloying elements, including chromium
(Cr), aluminum (Al), titanium(Ti), molybdenum(Mo), tungsten (W), niobium (Nb), tantalum (Ta)
and cobalt (Co).

Superalloys, a.k.a. high performance alloys, have become the steel of choice for corrosion
resistance and versatility.

The name “superalloy” refers to metals that have been developed to withstand high
temperatures without deforming (including creep) or corroding. Many of these have been
developed for use in applications such as gas turbine and jet engines, more specifically in areas
where extreme heat is encountered. Hence, it comes as no surprise that approximately 75% of
superalloys are used in aerospace applications, of which civilian transport has been identified as
a growth area over the next twenty years.

Due to their ability to withstand deformation at high temperatures, they are inherently non-
ductile and consequently difficult to hot and cold work.

To achieve the properties required to be classified as a “superalloy”, they usually have high
proportions of refractory alloying agents such as nickel and cobalt.

Some examples of superalloy families are given in the following table.

HS-21 Hiperco Stellite

Cobalt – Based
Haynes
Iron – Based Astroloy
Hastelloy Inconel IN 100
Nickel - Based
Waspaloy
 Merl Monel

Rene Incoloy

Process:

Nickel-based alloys can be either solid solution or precipitation strengthened. Solid solutioned
strengthened alloys, such as Hastelloy X, are used in applications requiring only modest
strength. In the most demanding applications, such as hot sections of gas turbine engines, a
precipitation strengthened alloy is required. Most nickel-based alloys contain 10-20% Cr, up to
8% Al and Ti, 5-10% Co, and small amounts of B, Zr, and C. Other common additions are Mo, W,
Ta, Hf, and Nb (often still referred to as "columbium" although the name "niobium" was
adopted by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry in 1950 after more than 100
years of controversy). In broad terms, the elemental additions in Ni-base superalloys can be
categorized as being i) formers (elements that tend to partition to the matrix, ii) ' formers
(elements that partition to the ' precipitate, iii) carbide formers, and iv) elements that
segregate to the grain boundaries. Elements which are considered formers are Group V, VI,
and VII elements such as Co, Cr, Mo,W, Fe. The atomic diameters of these alloys are only 3-13%
different than Ni (the primary matrix element). ' formers come from group III, IV, and V
elements and include Al, Ti, Nb, Ta, Hf. The atomic diameters of these elements differ from Ni
by 6-18%. The main carbide formers are Cr, Mo, W, Nb, Ta, Ti. The primary grain boundary
elements are B, C, and Zr. Their atomic diameters are 21-27% different than Ni.

The major phases present in most nickel superalloys are as follows:

 Gamma ( ): The continuous matrix (called gamma) is an face-centered-cubic (fcc) nickel-

based austenitic phase that usually contains a high percentage of solid-solution
elements such as Co, Cr, Mo, and W.
 Gamma Prime ( '): The primary strengthening phase in nickel-based superalloys is
Ni3(Al,Ti), and is called gamma prime ( '). It is a coherently precipitating phase (i.e., the
crystal planes of the precipitate are in registry with the gamma matrix) with an ordered
L12 (fcc) crystal structure. The close match in matrix/precipitate lattice parameter (~0-
1%) combined with the chemical compatability allows the ' to precipitate
homogeneously throughout the matrix and have long-time stability. Interestingly, the
flow stress of the ' increases with increasing temperature up to about 650oC (1200oF).
In addition, ' is quite ductile and thus imparts strength to the matrix without lowering
the fracture toughness of the alloy. Aluminum and titanium are the major constituents
and are added in amounts and mutual proportions to precipitate a high volume fraction
in the matrix. In some modern alloys the volume fraction of the ' precipitate is around
70%. There are many factors that contribute to the hardening imparted by the ' and
include ' fault energy, ' strength, coherency strains, volume fraction of ', and '
particle size.
 Extremely small ' precipitates always occur as spheres. In fact, for a given volume of
precipitate, a sphere has 1.24 less surface area than a cube, and thus is the preferred
shape to minimize surface energy. With a coherent particle, however, the interfacial
energy can be minimized by forming cubes and allowing the crystalographic planes of
the cubic matrix and precipitate to remain continuous. Thus as the ' grows, the
morphology can change from spheres to cubes (as shown in this figure) or plates
depending on the value of the matrix/precipitate lattice mismatch. For larger mismatch
values the critical particle size where the change from spheres to cubes (or plates)
occurs is reduced. Coherency can be lost by overaging. One sign of a loss of coherency is
directional coarsening (aspect ratio) and rounding of the cube edges. Increasing
directional coarsening for increasing (positive or negative) mismatch is also expected.

 Carbides: Carbon, added at levels of 0.05-0.2%, combines with reactive and refractory
elements such as titanium, tantalum, and hafnium to form carbides (e.g., TiC, TaC, or
HfC). During heat treatment and service, these begin to decompose and form lower
carbides such as M23C6 and M6C, which tend to form on the grain boundaries. These
common carbides all have an fcc crystal structure. Results vary on whether carbides are
detrimental or advantageous to superalloy properties. The general opinion is that in
superalloys with grain boundaries, carbides are beneficial by increasing rupture strength
at high temperature.

 Topologically Close-Packed Phases: These are generally undesirable, brittle phases that
can form during heat treatment or service. The cell structure of these phases have close-
packed atoms in layers separated by relatively large interatomic distances. The layers of
close packed atoms are displaced from one another by sandwiched larger atoms,
developing a characteristic "topology." These compounds have been characterized as
possessing a topologically close-packed (TCP) structure. Conversely, Ni3Al (gamma
prime) is close-packed in all directions and is called geometrically close-packed (GCP).

TCPs ( , µ, Laves, etc.) usually form as plates (which appear as needles on a single-plane
microstructure.) The plate-like structure negatively affects mechanical properties
(ductility and creep-rupture.) Sigma appears to be the most deleterious while strength
retention has been observed in some alloys containing mu and Laves. TCPs are
potentially damaging for two reasons: they tie up and ' strengthening elements in a
 non-useful form, thus reducing creep strength, and they can act as crack initiators
because of their brittle nature.

Applications of superalloys include: Nickel-based superalloys are used in load-bearing

structures to the highest homologous temperature of any common alloy system (T m = 0.9, or
90% of their melting point). Among the most demanding applications for a structural material
are those in the hot sections of turbine engines. The preeminence of superalloys is reflected in
the fact that they currently comprise over 50% of the weight of advanced aircraft engines. The
widespread use of superalloys in turbine engines coupled with the fact that the thermodynamic
efficiency of turbine engines is increased with increasing turbine inlet temperatures has, in part,
provided the motivation for increasing the maximum-use temperature of superalloys. In fact,
during the past 30 years turbine airfoil temperature capability has increased on average by
about 4°F per year. Two major factors which have made this increase possible are

1. Advanced processing techniques, which improved alloy cleanliness (thus improving

reliability) and/or enabled the production of tailored microstructures such as
directionally solidified or single-crystal material.
2. Alloy development resulting in higher-use-temperature materials primarily through the
additions of refractory elements such as Re, W, Ta, and Mo.

About 60% of the use-temperature increases have occurred due to advanced cooling concepts;
40% have resulted from material improvements. State-of-the-art turbine blade surface
temperatures are near 2,100°F (1,150°C); the most severe combinations of stress and
temperature corresponds to an average bulk metal temperature approaching 1,830°F (1,000°C).

Although superalloys retain significant strength to temperatures near 1800°F, they tend to be
susceptible to environmental attack because of the presence of reactive alloying elements
(which provide their high-temperature strength). Surface attack includes oxidation, hot
corrosion, and thermal fatigue. In the most demanding applications, such as turbine blade and
vanes, superalloys are often coated to improve environmental resistance.

• Vanes and blades for jet and gas turbine engines

• Heat exchangers

• Components for chemical reaction vessels

• Equipment for heat treatment.

Also

 Aerospace
o Turbine blades and jet/rocket engines
  Marine industry
o Submarines
 Chemical processing industry
 Nuclear reactors
 Heat exchanger tubing
 Industrial gas turbines

Superalloys Availability

Mega Mex supplies most of the superalloys in the form of sheet, plate, bar, pipe & tube
(welded & seamless), wire, and fittings.