(1) WHY STUDY MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING?

Why do we study materials? Many an applied scientist or engineer, whether mechanical,

civil, chemical, or electrical, will at one time or another be exposed to a design problem
involving materials. Examples might include a transmission gear, the superstructure for a
building, an oil refinery component, or an integrated circuit chip. Of course, materials
scientists and engineers are specialists who are totally involved in the investigation and
design of materials.

(2) CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS

(2.1) Metals

Materials in this group are composed of one or more metallic elements (such as iron,
aluminum, copper, titanium, gold, and nickel), and often also nonmetallic elements (for
example, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen) in relatively small amounts.3 Atoms in metals and
their alloys are arranged in a very orderly manner (as discussed in Chapter 3), and in
comparison to the ceramics and polymers, are relatively dense (Figure 1.3).With regard to
mechanical characteristics, these materials are relatively stiff (Figure 1.4) and strong (Figure
1.5), yet are ductile (i.e., capable of large amounts of deformation without fracture), and are
resistant to fracture (Figure 1.6), which accounts for their widespread use in structural
applications. Metallic materials have large numbers of nonlocalized electrons; that is, these
electrons are not bound to particular atoms. Many properties of metals are directly
attributable to these electrons.
For example, metals are extremely good conductors of electricity (Figure 1.7) and heat, and
are not transparent to visible light; a polished metal surface has a lustrous appearance. In
addition, some of the metals (viz., Fe, Co, and Ni) have desirable magnetic properties.
(2.2) Ceramics
Ceramics are compounds between metallic and nonmetallic elements; they are most
frequently oxides, nitrides, and carbides. For example, some of the common ceramic
materials include aluminum oxide (or alumina, Al2O3), silicon dioxide (or silica, SiO2),
silicon carbide (SiC), silicon nitride (Si3N4), and, in addition, what some refer to as the
traditional ceramics—those composed of clay minerals (i.e., porcelain), as well as cement
and glass. With regard to mechanical behavior, ceramic materials are relatively stiff and
strong—stiffnesses and strengths are comparable to those of the metals (Figures 1.4 and 1.5).
In addition, ceramics are typically very hard. On the other hand, they are extremely brittle
(lack ductility) and are highly susceptible to fracture (Figure 1.6). These materials are
typically insulative to the passage of heat and electricity (i.e., have low electrical
conductivities, Figure 1.7), and are more resistant to high temperatures and harsh
environments than metals and polymers.
With regard to optical characteristics, ceramics may be transparent, translucent, or opaque
(Figure 1.2), and some of the oxide ceramics (e.g., Fe3O4) exhibit magnetic behavior.
(2.3) Polymers

Polymers include the familiar plastic and rubber materials. Many of them are organic
compounds that are chemically based on carbon, hydrogen, and other non-metallic elements
(viz. O, N, and Si). Furthermore, they have very large molecular structures, often chain-like
in nature with a backbone of carbon atoms. Some of the common and familiar polymers are
polyethylene (PE), nylon, poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC), polycarbonate (PC), polystyrene (PS),
and silicone rubber. These materials typically have low densities (Figure 1.3), whereas their
mechanical characteristics are generally dissimilar to the metallic and ceramic materials—
they are not as stiff nor as strong as these other material types (Figures 1.4 and 1.5).
However, on the basis of their low densities, many times their stiffnesses and strengths on a
per-mass basis are comparable to the metals and ceramics. In addition, many of the polymers
are extremely ductile and pliable (i.e., plastic), which means they are easily formed into
complex shapes. In general, they are relatively inert chemically and unreactive in a large
number of environments. One major drawback of the polymers is their tendency to soften
and/or decompose at modest temperatures, which, in some instances, limits their use.
Furthermore, they have low electrical conductivities (Figure 1.7) and are nonmagnetic.
(2.4) Composites

A composite is composed of two (or more) individual materials, which come from the
categories discussed above—viz., metals, ceramics, and polymers. The design goal of a
composite is to achieve a combination of properties that is not displayed by any single
material, and also to incorporate the best characteristics of each of the component materials.
A large number of composite types exist that are represented by different combinations of
metals, ceramics, and polymers. Furthermore, some naturally-occurring materials are also
considered to be composites—for example, wood and bone. However, most of those we
consider in our discussions are synthetic (or man-made) composites.

(2.5) ADVANCED MATERIALS

Materials that are utilized in high-technology (or high-tech) applications are sometimes
termed advanced materials. By high technology we mean a device or product that operates or
functions using relatively intricate and sophisticated principles; examples include electronic
equipment (camcorders, CD/DVD players, etc.), computers, fiber-optic systems, spacecraft,
aircraft, and military rocketry.

(2.6) Semiconductors
Semiconductors have electrical properties that are intermediate between the electrical
conductors (viz. metals and metal alloys) and insulators (viz. ceramics and polymers)—
Figure 1.7. Furthermore, the electrical characteristics of these materials are extremely
sensitive to the presence of minute concentrations of impurity atoms, for which the
concentrations may be controlled over very small spatial regions. Semiconductors have made
possible the advent of integrated circuitry that has totally revolutionized the electronics and
computer industries (not to mention our lives) over the past three decades.

(2.7) Biomaterials
Biomaterials are employed in components implanted into the human body for replacement of
diseased or damaged body parts. These materials must not produce toxic substances and must
be compatible with body tissues (i.e., must not cause adverse biological reactions). All of the
above materials—metals, ceramics, polymers, composites, and semiconductors—may be
used as biomaterials. For example, some of the biomaterials that are utilized in artificial hip
replacements are discussed in the online biomaterials module.

(2.8) Materials of the Future

Smart Materials
Smart (or intelligent) materials are a group of new and state-of-the-art materials now
being developed that will have a significant influence on many of our technologies.
Nanoengineered Materials
We call this the “bottom-up” approach, and the study of the properties of these materials is
termed “nanotechnology”; the “nano” prefix denotes that the dimensions of these structural
entities are on the order of a nanometer (10−9 m)—as a rule, less than 100 nanometers
(equivalent to approximately 500 atom diameters).