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How to ... Liquid Distributors [Engineering Practice Magazine JAN/2025]

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How to...
LIQUID
DISTRIBUTORS
All Basics to know about Liquid Distributors
How to... LIQUID DISTRIBUTORS
All Basics to know about Liquid Distributors
Dr.-Ing. Volker Engel

Liquid distributors are essential and critical parts of all packed towers. Due to the large number of
parameters (column diameter, phase ratio, number of drip points, operational range, ...), there are
many different distributor types and designs.
This article covers the main types of liquid distributors, their operating principles, as well as the
challenges and optimization options for their use.

Introduction Metering Elements

The most obvious task of a liquid distributor is to In gravity distributors, liquid is fed into open
distribute liquid across the column cross- channels and pots and flows from there via
sectional area to wet the top layer of structured openings onto the packing. These openings
packings or the top of random packed beds. (called metering elements) can be at the bottom
The basic idea is to wet the cross-sectional area of the distributor, in its wall or in tubes.
as evenly as possible. If the liquid is applied at The challenge in designing liquid distributors is
specific drip points, this pattern should be not only to have a uniform distribution pattern,
uniform. Fig. 1 shows uniform patterns with but also to have same conditions (same liquid
different drip point densities for a-c. In the level, no horizontal liquid velocity) at each drip
context of a perfect liquid distribution, point.
representation Fig. 1d would be the ideal liquid
Bottom holes
distributor. Such a covering is achieved with
spray distributors – however, such a distribution The liquid flow through a bottom opening
means that the gas flow passes through the (Fig. 2) depends on geometric and operational
liquid feed and inevitably entrains liquid parameters. Shape, dimension and material
droplets. This is why such spray distributors are thickness are defined by distributor design and
mainly used for heat transfer (quench are assumed to be constant (as long as there is
applications). For the liquid distribution at no fouling or corrosion). The operational
classical mass transfer applications, so-called parameters lead to a liquid level h above the
gravity distributors are normally used. opening, a horizontal velocity within the liquid
and a gas pressure drop Dp across the liquid
distributor.

a b
Fig. 2: Bottom holes

All these parameters are used to calculate the

liquid volume flow rate through a single opening
(eq. 1).

c d (1)
Fig. 1: Liquid distribution
1
The orifice coefficient factor a is a function of The qualitative liquid flow rate through a lateral
the geometric parameters and also takes opening in this case results as depicted in Fig. 5:
operational aspects into account. The curve is like the bottom opening
characteristics, but the opening only becomes
For a certain a, the qualitative liquid flow rate
active from a certain liquid level.
through an opening can be plotted as shown in
Fig. 3: On the y-axis, the liquid level above the
opening is shown, the x-axis represents the
liquid flow rate through the opening. This type
of graph – calculated for an entire distributor – hLevel
is called distributor characteristics.

hLevel VLiquid
Fig. 5: Lateral hole characteristics

This type of opening withstands fouling, as long

as the fouling hasn't filled the distributor up to
VLiquid this level. Additionally, it is possible to have
openings at several levels in the wall. By this you
Fig. 3: Bottom hole characteristics
can adapt a distributor for a high operation
With the use of bottom holes, it is quite easy to range (see later). But it is comparable difficult to
design a uniform distribution pattern for the clean (and check) those lateral openings –
openings across the tower cross-sectional area. especially when it is covered by a guiding tube.
Additionally, it is easy to check the cleaning Liquid from the opening is exposed to the gas
state of the openings at turnarounds. The main and – unlike the bottom openings – may not
disadvantage of bottom holes is their blocking flow vertical towards the packing. At high
when (particle) fouling occurs. And at low liquid surface tension and low liquid load you may
loads, the liquid might not detach from the observe liquid running along the walls and
bottom of the distributor and runs along the keeping to the bottom of the distributor. For this
bottom side. By this, the liquid may accumulate reason, guiding tubes are often added to the
at a certain drip point of the distributor. This openings, to guide the liquid down the wall to
effect may occur at low liquid flow rates, high the packing (Fig. 6). Those guiding elements are
liquid surface tension (e.g. aqueous systems) or welded to the distributors or consist of back and
high gas loads. front plate (removeable for cleaning).

Lateral openings (Wall openings)

The liquid flow rate through a lateral opening
(Fig. 4) is quite like that of a bottom hole.
Equation eq. 1 is still valid, as long as the entire
opening is filled by liquid. Of course, the orifice
coefficient a is different from those of the
bottom openings. Fig. 6: Guiding tubes for lateral openings

Drip tubes
The third type of metering elements is the drip
tube (see Fig. 7). It combines the feature of the
bottom hole (to have a liquid feed point
anywhere in the distributor area) with the
Fig. 4: Lateral holes feature of the wall opening (not operating at the

2
 Fig. 9 shows examples of those combinations.
This helps to reduce the height of the
distributor for a certain load range. When there
are certain load scenarios, you may link each
load to a stage. Therefore, you will find
distributors with three stages (one for MIN, one
for DESIGN, one for MAX load).
Fig. 7: Drip tubes
The lower sketch in Fig. 9 demonstrates the
combination of all metering element types. In
ground level of the distributor and therefore not practice you will not combine bottom holes with
struggling with fouling). One difference to lateral lateral openings: By combining bottom openings
openings is the limiting cross-sectional area of and lateral openings, the distribution pattern
the tube: If the opening(s) for the liquid are changes when the lateral openings get active.
larger than the tube area, the liquid flow is
limited by the tube.
The calculation is like that for the wall openings Distributor types
(see Fig. 8). The orifice coefficient for the
In practice, three different types of gravity
opening in the tube is slightly different from that
distributors are used: deck-type, pan-type and
of the wall.
trough distributors. They vary in partitioning the
column cross-sectional area to form a liquid
hLevel volume from which the liquid drains onto the
packing.
Deck distributor
A deck distributor is very similar to a chimney
VLiquid tray where the base panels are perforated and
used for liquid distribution (Fig. 10). The panels
Fig. 8: Drip tube characteristics
are segmented with integrated beams as for
standard trays. The risers are integrated into this
Combination of metering elements
base construction. For larger diameters, there
All three variants of metering elements are used are – of course – additional major beams. The
in liquid distributors. To achieve a good liquid distributor is placed (gasketed) on a full support
distributor quality at high liquid load ranges at ring.
acceptable installation height, the metering
element types are combined.

hLevel

VLiquid

hLevel

VLiquid
Fig. 9: Combination of metering elements
3
 The advantages of deck distributors are good
statics (robust) and it is easy to use them as re-
distributors by adding roofs to the risers.
Deck distributors are not used for high quality
distribution, because the panel segments
interfere with the distribution pattern.

Fig. 10: Deck distributor

Pan-type distributor
By this, the desired equal distribution can be Pan-type distributors are normally used for
achieved by a good placement of the risers. small column diameters.
Fig. 11 shows on the left the wanted distribution
pattern, in the middle the placement of small
risers without disturbing the pattern, and on the
right larger risers (where some of the
distribution points can't be realized; those lost
elements are shown in red).

Fig. 13: Pan-type distributor

The distribution pattern of trough and deck-type

distributor variants – typically used for large
Fig. 11: Placement of risers at deck distributors
diameters – are normally equilateral, triangular
or rectangular spaced. For pan-type distributors,
Metering elements used on a deck distributor you may find this type, too (Fig. 14a). But since
are bottom holes and drip tubes as well as the pan-type distributors are preferably used for
lateral openings in the gas risers. small diameters, it is easier to have a radial-
The horizontal liquid velocity within the based pattern. It is point-symmetrical and
distributor volume should not be high (the value therefore good for small dimensions (Fig. 14b).
of 0.3 m/s is often considered as maximum). To position a pan-type distributor on such a
Any horizontal liquid velocity affects the orifice pattern, one can choose a certain diameter of
coefficient and leads to a hydraulic gradient the pan (Fig. 14c). The drip points in the outer
resulting in different liquid levels within the area (the area for the gas flow) are lost and
distributor. Therefore, it is important to feed the shown in red.
distributor in a suitable way.
For high liquid loads and large diameters, the
use of parting boxes (Fig. 12) helps to feed the
right amount of liquid to the area where it will
leave the distributor.
a b c

Fig. 14: Distribution pattern of

pan-type distributors

Most of the pan-type distributors are working

with bottom holes. Some of them are designed
with drip tubes and lateral openings. At high gas
load or at larger diameters, risers in the pan
Fig. 12: Parting box for deck distributor area are added. (If the entire gas flow is forced

4
to pass the pan at the outer ring, there is the Besides this variability for achieving a certain
risk of generating a significant gas maldistri- distribution quality (for different gas and liquid
bution. Since the void fraction at the tower shell loadings), the advantages of this distributor type
of random packings is structurally higher, gas are good leveling and easy segmentation (for
should not be led to this area.) manhole passage).
In small pans, the liquid is fed by a central pipe. As the distributor consists of many separate
For larger diameters and high liquid loadings, liquid volumes, it is very important to feed the
there will be an additional feed device (parting correct amount of liquid to each of these
box). compartments. Fig 17a shows the default of a
Pan-type distributors are normally used for parting box position: It is above the distributor
small tower diameters. In most cases, the pan is troughs. Liquid flows through bottom or lateral
installed through the tower flange. (In rare cases openings from the parting box to distributor
you will find segmented pots for manhole troughs.
installation.)

Trough Distributor
Trough distributors are the most flexible one
and probably the distributor type which is used
the most often.
The trough distributor consists of parallel
troughs. The space between the troughs is the
free area for the gas flow (Fig. 15).

a b

Fig. 17: Parting boxes for trough distributors

(a: above troughs, b: inside troughs)

Because each distribution trough must receive

exactly as much liquid as it releases, the
Fig. 15: Trough distributor
openings in the parting box have to be adapted
All metering elements discussed above can be to the liquid flow rate for each trough! Precisely
used in trough distributors. The dimension of dosing by the parting box is very important!
the troughs defines the appropriate metering Instead of positioning the parting box above the
element types. Fig. 16 shows the same distribution troughs, you can integrate the
distribution pattern for different trough widths parting box in the troughs (Fig 17b). This
(W). In Fig. 16a, troughs (width W) with ground reduces the height of the distributor and all
openings are used, in Fig. 16b liquid is fed by troughs are hydraulically connected by the
wall openings (trough width 2W) and when the parting box. As a result, any effect of different
width of the troughs is 3W (Fig. 16c), there is levels in the troughs is minimized, because
the need of additional drip tubes in the center liquid can equalize.
line of the trough.

Feed to parting boxes

The parting box usually gets its fluid from a pipe
or a pipe system (single pipe, T-Pipe, I-pipe with
downpipes). To manage the transfer to the
a b c distribution troughs, the impulse of the liquid
Fig. 16: Covering of distribution pattern from the pipe system should be moderated.
by different sized troughs Fig. 18a shows a direct feed of a pipe to a
5
a b c

d e f

Fig. 18: Inlet of liquid to a parting box

(a: direct input, b: staggered-slotted plates, c: packing block, d: weir trough,
e: slotted box, f: slotted box filled with random packings)

trough. There are several designs for reducing Splitters. Fig. 19b shows a TNS distributor from
the feed velocity. Those devices are called KES. There is a square pot beneath the outlet
Calming devices. Fig. 18b-f show some calming and the liquid is spread to the packing by each
elements to reduce the liquid impulse. corner. As a result, the original drip point is
increased to 4 drip points.
Fig. 19c shows a design from KES-Montz. It is a
Flow multiplier / Dispenser pot with special fingers to guide the liquid,
Fig. 19a shows a classical drip point, where which split the liquid into 6 or 8 fingers equally.
liquid leaves the distributor and enters the Another idea of distributing drip points to a
packing at the vertical position. To enlarge the larger area is a so-called line distributor shown
number of drip points – without changing the in Fig. 19d: The liquid from a hole is spread
number of metering elements – there are some across a baffle plate and becomes a continuous
special add-ons shown in Fig. 19b-d. They are liquid line. The next hole is positioned so that
called Flow multipliers, Dispensers, Fingers or the liquid overlaps at the baffle.

a b c d

Fig. 19: Flow multiplier

(a: no multiplier, b: square box. c: pot with fingers, d: line plate)
6
Another (positive) effect of all these dispenser The overlapping area – shown in dark blue at
elements: The drip points are getting closer to Fig. 20-C – is named parameter C. In this
the packing. This is a feature when there is a example, the area is 'double irrigated'. But there
high gas flow rate, which can blow away falling may be three- or four-times irrigation at other
droplets or streamlets and hinder them from layouts, too.
entering the packing!
Parameter B defines the irrigation within one
twelfth of the tower area where the highest or
the poorest irrigation takes place. In the
Liquid distributor quality example shown, the center of the tower has a
As the above list of possible types and designs poor irrigation. The red area shows one twelfth
shows, there are very different distributors. In of the tower. The liquid circles within this area
order to be able to compare their distribution are shown in yellow. Parameter B is the yellow
efficiency and suitability, an objective statement area divided by the twelfth of the tower area.
on their distribution quality is desirable. The distributor quality acc. to Moore/Rukovena
There are few contributions to this in literature. is calculated by formula eq. 2.
The best known is probably the publication by (2)
Moore/Rukovena [1] from 1987. It is an empiric
approach to calculate a distribution quality
value.
Fig. 21 and Fig. 22 show some examples of
The basic idea of the model is to scale the area common distributors evaluated by this quality
of the drip points according to the liquid flow. calculation.
The area of all drip points equals the tower
cross-sectional area. The liquid circle of each
a
drip point is drawn. Out of this graph, three A = 0%
parameters are extracted: Fig. 20 shows the
B = 100%
formation of these parameters for a simple
distributor with 12 drip points. C = 0%

Q = 102%

b A = 16%
A
B = 51%
C = 24%

Q = 59%

C B
Fig. 21: Evaluation of distributor examples
Fig. 20: Graphical determination of acc. to Moore/Rukovena
parameters A, B and C acc. to Moore/Rukovena
An ideal distributor is shown in Fig. 21a
To cover most of the cross-sectional area, the (Parameter A is 0%: all tower area is covered by
liquid circles are partly outside the column and liquid circles. Parameter B is therefore 100%:
are overlapping. The remaining area is shown in the twelfth of the tower area is ideally irrigated.
green (Fig. 20-A). The ratio of the blue covered Parameter C is 0%: No over-irrigation takes
area inside the column to the cross-sectional place).
area is called parameter A in the model.
7
 a Fig. 23 shows in principle the aspect of good
A = 16% and poor distribution quality in respect of the
B = 77% packing type: A perfect distribution is good for
C = 14% an open packing structure (high void fraction),
where little maldistribution takes place. But
note: At high gas load even a modern random
packing as well as a structured packing will tend
Q = 78% to squeeze the liquid to the wall.
A perfect distribution for a random packing of
b the first- or second-generation random packings
A = 6% (small void fraction) will lead to a high liquid wall
B = 84% ratio after considerable short bed length. The
integral wetting of such a packing might be
C = 5% better by a poor liquid distribution (shown in
Fig. 23 on the right). This illustrates the aspects
of the discussion of distribution quality values.
Q = 89% The software TrayHeart [3] calculates the
distribution quality of a liquid distributor for a
Fig. 22: Evaluation of distributor examples certain packing type. The WELCHEM Cell
acc. to Moore/Rukovena model [2] is used to calculate the wetting of
each packing element and the distribution
For a trough distributor with some distance to quality in each layer of the bed.
the tower shell (e.g. fastened at a support ring), In this model, the dimension of the hexagonal
the quality is about 59% (Fig. 21b). cells is based on the size of the random packing
Fig. 22a shows a standard TNT distributor (KES). elements. A perfect distribution would show the
Its quality value is about 78%. After optimizing same liquid holdup of each cell (cells shown in
the distribution pattern, you will gain a quality green in Fig. 24). Any deviation lowers the
value of about 90% (Fig. 22b). distribution quality: Cells with high liquid holdup
are shown in red, low holdup is shown in blue.
This empiric model is able to qualify a distri-
butor in respect to its distribution pattern. It At Fig. 24 the distribution quality for a trough
does not take into account, for which task the distributor above a random packing (1" Pall
distributor is used. rings) is shown.

Open random packing 1generation

Structured packing random packing

Good distribution

Poor distribution

Fig. 23: Resulting flow in a packing

8
 At the top layer of the packing, the drip points Distribution quality [%]
Liquid fraction @ column shell [%]
of the distributor over-irrigates the correspon- 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
0.0
ding cells. Liquid will spread to neighbour cells
by trickling through the bed. The graph shows
the cross-sectional distribution quality plots 0.4

after 1m, 2m, 3m and 4m.

The blue curve shows the distribution quality 0.8

per layer. The red curve is the liquid fraction at

the column wall.
1.2

The mean distribution quality for the entire bed

can qualify the distributor‘s quality for this type
and length of packing. 1.6

With the same calculation method one can

evaluate the need (and its potential benefit) of 2.0

redistributing liquid after a certain bed length.

2.4

Conclusion
2.8
Liquid distributors are vital components of
packed towers, ensuring uniform liquid
distribution over the column's cross-sectional 3.2

area to optimize mass and heat transfer. There

are three main types of metering elements:
bottom holes, lateral openings, and drip tubes, 3.6

each with unique advantages and limitations.

Distributors can be categorized as deck, pan, or 4.0

trough types, that are chosen based on tower Run length [m]

dimensions and operational requirements.

Proper distributor design and optimization
enhance column performance while addressing Fig. 24: Evaluation of distribution quality
challenges like fouling, gas-liquid interactions, by WELCHEM Cell model [3]
and liquid maldistribution.

About the author

Volker Engel studied process engineering at the Technical University of Munich and did his Ph.D.
thesis on packed columns with Prof. Johann G. Stichlmair. Since 1998 he has been the managing
director of WelChem Process Technology GmbH and head of the TrayHeart software. TrayHeart has
developed into the state-of-the-art design tool for trays and internals in process technology.
Contact: volker.engel@welchem.com

References
[1] Moore, F.; Rukovena, F.: Liquid and gas distribution in commercial packed towers, Chem. Plants
Process. (1987), pp. 11-15
[2] Wild, A.; Engel, V.: Ein neuartiges Zellenmodell zur Maldistribution und Verteilgütebestimmung,
ProcessNet-Conference, Karlsruhe (2007)
[3] WelChem Process Technology: TrayHeart Software. Tower Internals Calculation Software.
Internet: www.welchem.com; Info: service@welchem.com

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