NETWORKING NOTE 2022 ENGR.

ABUBAKAR IBRAHIM 07085817280

COMPONENT OF DATA & COMMUNICATION

Transmission Error Control 1. Message
2. Protocol
Error Control is a process of detecting and retransmitting the
data which has been lost or corrupted during the transmission 3. Sender
of data. Any reliable system must have a mechanism for 4. Receiver
detecting and correcting such errors. 5. Transmission Medium

 Message : is the information or Data to be

communicated example : Text, Picture, Audio, e.t.c
 Protocol : is a set of rules that govern the data
communication.
 Sender : is the device that sends the data information
such as message, it can be a computer, Workstation,
Parity Check Telephone… e.t.c
 Receiver : is the receiver that received the data
The parity check is the process that ensures accurate data information, it can also be a computer, workstation.
transmission between nodes during communication. A parity bit is
appended to the original data bits to create an even or odd bit
 Transmission Medium : is the physical path by which
number; the number of bits with value one. a message travel from Sender to Receiver example Radio
wave, fiber optic cable… e.t.c
The parity check is suitable for single bit error detection only.
The two types of parity checking are  DATA FLOW
A communication between Two device can be
 Even Parity − Here the total number of bits in the one of the following :
message is made even. 1. Simplex
 Odd Parity − Here the total number of bits in the 2. Half – Duplex
message is made odd. 3. Full – Duplex
 Simplex : The communication is unidirectional as one way
Cyclic Redundancy Check street, it is only one of the two devices on a link can
transmit and the other device can only receives the
A cyclic redundancy check (CRC) is an error-detecting code message. Example : Keyboard, Radio, Traditional
commonly used in digital networks and storage devices to Monitor…..e.t.c
detect accidental changes to digital data. Blocks of data Mainframe Monitor
entering these systems get a short check value attached, based Direction of the Data
on the remainder of a polynomial division of their contents.
 Half - Duplex : The communication that each station can
both Transmit and Received but not at the same Time,
DATA COMMUNICATION
when one device is sending the message the other one can
Are the exchange of data between two devices via some form only receive the message. Example : Over-over, Walkies-
of transmission medium such as wire cable or wireless, For Talkies, Citizen Band Radio.. etc
data communications to occur, the communicating devices Station 1 Station 2
must be part of a communication system made up of a
combination of hardware (physical equipment) and software  Full – Duplex : In full – duplex mode also called Duplex,
(programs). where both the stations can Transmit and Received
simultaneously examples :
 NETWORK 1. When two people are
communicating by a telephone
Is the process of sharing data and information between two
line, both can talk and listen at the
or more computers.
same time.
 TELECOMMUNICATION Station 1 Station 2
This refers to means of communication at distances that
Coding Schemes : is the process of changing letter to digit i.e 0 and 1 in
includes; Telephony, Telegraphy, and Television. order for computer to understand. The process of representing symbols is
called Coding.

(1) ASCII : American Standard Code for Information Interchanges

(2) EBCDIC : Extended Binary Code Decimal Interchange Code.

NETWORKING NOTE 2022 ENGR. ABUBAKAR IBRAHIM 07085817280

What Is Asynchronous Communication?

 Application Layer {7}
Asynchronous communication is the type of communication
where people sending out information are going to receive a This layer provides the services for user and software tasks,
response at a later time than right now. It determines how the user will use the data web. It enables
the client to use the network.
We communicate in an asynchronous way almost every day. The layer is what the user sees in terms of loading an
Asynchronous communication can be seen taking place Application ; your application is your browser software
everywhere, ranging from a simple file transfer to sending such as MicroSoft Internet Explorer, Chrome. Some of the
out a pre-recorded video message. protocols on Application Layer include : HTTP, FTP, POP3,
Telnet.
Advantages Of Asynchronous Communication  Presentation Layer {6}
1. Gateway To Deep Work The presentation layer performs the functions related to
the syntax and semantics of the information transmitted
2. Leads To Greater Productivity
and it modifies the format of the Data i.e Converting a data
3. Perks Of Recorded
or information into plain Text. The presentation layer is also
Communication responsible for Encryption, Decryption and compression
4. Remote Work Made Easy e.g JPEG, MPEG and GIF

MIME (multi – purpose Internet Mail Extensions) This

Disadvantages Of Asynchronous Communication
protocol will also be responsible for converting the text
1. Not Providing Enough Resources back into an Image at the final Destination.
2. Failing To Fix A Response Time
3. Incoherent Expression  Session Layer {5}
This layer is vital for establishing, controlling, and
What is Synchronous Communication? arbitrating the dialogues between the communication
Synchronous communication may be a face-to-face type of software. It is also answerable for the orderly recovery
from failures by implementing appropriate check pointing
conversation, it might be a message or a full-blown
mechanisms.
brainstorming session. The difference between the two is that
synchronous communication happens in real-time.  Transport Layer {4}
You sort out information through synchronous communication
so as to be on the same page with your team. This layer guarantees the orderly and reliable delivery of
data between the end systems after accepting the data
from the session layer. The session layer maps the data to
the Network layer, and it provides that the packets appear
correctly at the receiving side.
OSI REFERNCE MODEL & PROTOCOL
The Transport layer performs a number of functions and
Open System Interconnection model is a reference tool the most important are : Error Checking, Error Recovering,
for understanding data communication between any two and Flow Control
networked systems. OSI model originally designed to Some common transport – layer protocols are : UDP and
allow vendor independent protocols and eliminate TCP
monolithic protocols suites.
The OSI reference model is a seven-layered Some Common Transport Layer Protocol
architecture and Each layer in the model has specific sets of
procedures, functions, and protocols. One layer can User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
communicate with an adjacent layer by using its interface.
1. Application Layer Layer (7)  UDP (User Datagram Protocol), also known as
2. Presentation Layer Layer (6) Connectionless Communication which provides
3. Session Layer Layer (5) an unreliable, connectionless service to the
4. Transport Layer Layer (4) invoking application. no initial connection is
5. Network Layer Layer (3) established Used to called "fire and forget."
6. Data Link Layer Layer (2) Basically, the transport layer fires out the packet
7. Physical Layer Layer (1) and forgets about it.

In most cases, connection-based communication also

means No guaranteed delivery.
NETWORKING NOTE 2022 ENGR. ABUBAKAR IBRAHIM 07085817280

(UDP) User Datagram Protocol In terms of Flow Control

Services/Application
UPD provides a connectionless service, this means that each user
Flow control is used to prevent the sender from overwhelming
the receiver. If the receiver is overloaded with too much data,
Datagram sent by UDP is an independent datagram. UDP is a very
then the receiver discards the packets and asking for the
simple unreliable transport protocol , there is no flow control and
retransmission of packets.
hence no window mechanism. The receiver may overflow with
incoming messages.
For example, imagine that PC A is running at 100 Mbps and PC B is
To send a message from one process to another the UDP running at 10 Mbps. If PC A sends something to PC B at full speed, 90
protocol encapsulates and decapsulates messages in an IP datagram. percent of the information will be lost because PC B cannot accept the
information at 100 Mbps. This is the reason for flow control.
When a message arrives for a client, UDP checks to see if
an incoming queue has been created for the port number specified Types Of Flow Control
in the destination port number field of the user datagram.

 Buffering Commonly used in conjunction with other

methods of flow control, buffering is probably the simplest
(TCP) Transmission Control Protocol In terms method. Think of a buffer as a sink.

of Services/Feature
 Congestion Notification : is slightly more complex than
buffering, and it is typically used in conjunction with
 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol), also known as buffering to eliminate its major problems. With congestion
Connection-Based which provides a reliable, notification, when a device's buffers begin to fill it sends a
connection-oriented service to the invoking message to the originating station basically saying "Slow
application. the transport-layer protocol sends packets down, pal!"
to the destination specifically to let the other end know
 Windowing : The most complex and flexible form of flow
that data is coming. The destination then sends a
control, windowing means that one station should not be
packet back to the source specifically to let the source able to easily overload another station: it must wait on the
know that it received the "notification" message. In this remote station to respond before sending more data.
way, both sides are assured that communication can 
occur.
 Network Layer {3}
In most cases, connection-based communication also The network layer is the makeup software that
means guaranteed delivery. addresses the protocol data units (PDUs) and
transfers them to the ultimate destination.
Transport Layer Can be TCP/UDP i.e This is done by setting up the suitable paths between
Reliable/Unreliable Example : the multiple nodes. The primary objective of this
layer is to control the service of the subnet. It is the
Standard mail and Certified mail. layer, which supports Internet Protocol (IP) to use it.
 The Internet uses IP addressing to provide
With standard mail, you send off your message and connectivity to millions of Network around the
hope it gets there. You have no way of knowing whether world
the message was received. This is unreliable (UDP).  A router’s Network layer is usually responsible
for doing this Fragmentation.
With certified mail, your message is either delivered
 Data Link Layer {2}
correctly and you get a receipt, or your message is
attempted to be delivered many times before it times It takes the physical layer’s bits and detects an error.
out. Either way, you are guaranteed to be notified of This establishes an error-free communications path
what happened so that you can take appropriate between the network nodes over the physical
measures. medium.

 Physical Addressing : All devices must have a

physical address. This is normally a MAC address.
The physical address is designed to uniquely
identify the device globally. A MAC address (also
known as an Ethernet address, LAN address,
physical address, hardware address).

NETWORKING NOTE 2022 ENGR. ABUBAKAR IBRAHIM 07085817280

 Error Detection : is Another datalink-layer Forwarding:

function it determines whether problems with a
packet were introduced during transmission. It When a router receives a packet from one of its attached
does this by introducing a trailer, the FCS, before networks, it needs to forward the packet to another attached
it sends the packet to the remote machine.
network (in unicast routing) or to some attached networks (in
multicast routing).
This FCS uses a Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) to
generate a mathematical value and places this value in
the trailer of the packet. When the packet arrives at its To make this decision, the router uses a piece of information
destination, the FCS is examined and the reverse of the in the packet header, which can be the destination address or
original algorithm that created the FCS is applied. If the
frame was modified in any way, the FCS will not
a label, to find the corresponding output interface number in
compute, and the frame will be discarded. the forwarding table.

 Framing : Framing is a term used to describe the Other Services in Network Layer
organization of the elements in a packet.
1. Error Control
 Physical Layer 2. Flow Control
The physical layer is vital for transmitting bits from 3. Congestion Control
one device to the other device. It is not involved with 4. Security
the bits representation, but it manages the physical
relation to the structure with communication and IP Addressing
signal acceptance.
An Internet Protocol address (IP address) is a numerical
 The Network Layer In Details label such as 192.0.2.1 that is connected to a computer
network that uses the Internet Protocol for
The network layer is responsible for the host-to-host delivery communication. An IP address serves two main functions:
of datagrams and It provides services to the transport layer network interface identification and location addressing.
and receives services from the data-link layer.
The IP address is the address of the connection, not the host
• The network layer provide two main services. or the router, because if the device is moved to another
network, the IP address may be changed.
1. Packetizing
IPv4 Addressing
2. Routing and Forwarding
An IPv4 address is a 32-bit address that uniquely and
Packetizing : means Network layer is to carry a payload from universally defines the connection of a host or a router to the
the source to the destination without changing it or using it. Internet. IPv4 addresses are unique in the sense that each
Example The network layer is doing the service of a carrier address defines one, and only one, connection to the Internet.
such as the postal office, which is responsible for delivery of
packages from a sender to a receiver without changing or What Is a Private IP Address?
using the contents.
A private IP address is an IP address that's reserved for
It can also be explain as Encapsulating the payload in a internal use behind a router or other Network Address
network-layer packet at the source and decapsulating the Translation (NAT) device, apart from the public. These are in
payload from the network-layer packet at the destination. contrast to public IP addresses, which are public and can't be
used within a home or business network. Sometimes a
Routing : The network layer is responsible for routing the private address is also referred to as a local IP address.
packet from its source to the destination. A physical network
is a combination of networks (LANs and WANs) and routers  Automatic Private IP Addressing (APIPA) is a DHCP fail-
that connect them. This means that there is more than one safe that protects a computer system from failure. It
route from the source to the destination. invokes a standby mechanism for local Internet Protocol
version 4 (IPv4) networks supported by Microsoft
 The network layer is responsible for finding Windows. With APIPA, DHCP clients can obtain IP
the best one among these possible routes. addresses even when DHCP servers are not functional.
APIPA exists in all modern versions of Windows, including
 The network layer needs to have some
Windows 10.
specific strategies for defining the best
route.
NETWORKING NOTE 2022 ENGR. ABUBAKAR IBRAHIM 07085817280

Classes Of IPv4 Addressing  Subnetting

There are five address classes, as follows− Subnetting is a process of borrowing/stealing bit/s from host
portion in order to create more networks. Bit/s moved from
 Class A: It uses an 8-bit network number whose first bit is
host the portion to the network portion .
always zero, It is reserved for IP unicast addresses. If the

number of hosts is huge on a network, this class is used.  What is Subnet Mask?
The numbers of the network, which can accommodate, are
A subnet mask is a 32-bit number created by setting host bits to all
2 or 128
8

0s and setting network bits to all 1s. In this way, the subnet mask
o Public IP Range: 1.0.0.0 to 127.0.0.0
o Private IP Range: 10.0.0.0 to separates the IP address into the network and host addresses.
10.255.255.255
o Subnet Mask: 255.0.0.0 (8 bits) The “255” address is always assigned to a broadcast address, and
o Number of Networks: 126 the “0” address is always assigned to a network address. Neither can
o Number of Hosts per Network: 16,777,214 be assigned to hosts, as they are reserved for these special
purposes.
 Class B: It facilitates 16 bits for both the network address
and host address. The first two bits are continually 10. It The IP address, subnet mask and gateway or router comprise an
underlying structure—the Internet Protocol—that most networks
uses 2 octets for a specific network, while the remaining
use to facilitate inter-device communication.
two octets for host IDs. They are mainly used for medium
When organizations need additional subnetworking, subnetting
to large-sized networks.
divides the host element of the IP address further into a subnet. The
o Public IP Range: 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.0.0
goal of subnet masks are simply to enable the subnetting process.
o Private IP Range: 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255
The phrase “mask” is applied because the subnet mask essentially
o Subnet Mask: 255.255.0.0 (16 bits)
uses its own 32-bit number to mask the IP address.
o Number of Networks: 16,382
o Number of Hosts per Network: 65,534
Two Types of Subnetting:
 Class C: It is distant for IP unicast addresses. They are
defined as small networks. The first 3 octets determine 1. Fixed Length Subnetting
a specific network, and the last octet specifies host IDs.
2. Variable Length Subnet Mask(VLSM) Subnetting
Its first three bits are continually set to 110.
o Public IP Range: 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.0 Problems
o Private IP Range: 192.168.0.0 to192.168.255.255
o Special IP Range: 127.0.0.1 to 127.255.255.255 (
1. An organization is granted the block 192.168.10.0/24. The administrator
o Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0 (24 bits) wants to create 9 subnets.
o Number of Networks: 2,097,150
o Number of Hosts per Network: 254 a. Find the number of addresses in each subnet.
 Class D: It defines IP multicast addresses is not divided
b. Find the new subnet mask.
into prefix and suffix.
o Range: 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255
c. Find the first and the last address in the first subnet.
o Number of Networks: N/A
o Number of Hosts per Network: Multicasting
d. Find the first and the last address in the last subnet
 Class E: These addresses were reserved for practical
2. An ISP is granted the block 16.12.64.0/20. The ISP needs to
uses. All addresses that start with 1111 in binary belong
allocate addresses to the below organizations using VLSM.
to class E and is not divided into prefix and suffix.
a) Organization A with 30 hosts
b) Organization B with 25 hosts
c) Organization C with 12 hosts
d) Organization E with 2 hosts

Network Interface Cards (NICs) :

NICs sometimes called Netwrok card is a mechanisms by

which computers connected to a network
NETWORKING NOTE 2022 ENGR. ABUBAKAR IBRAHIM 07085817280

Transmission Impairment Transmission Media

Transmission Impairment means when a signal transmit from A transmission medium can be broadly defined as anything
one medium to another, the signal that received may differ that can carry information from a source to a destination such
from the signal that is transmitted due to various impairment. as cable. The transmission medium is usually free space,
metallic cable, or fiber-optic cable
Consequences Of The Impairment
Transmission Media Categories Into Two (2)
 Analog Signal : Degration of signal quality, receiver
will not receivec the exact quality of the message.
 Digital Signal : Bit error, the receiver may receive
Zero’s instead of One’s.

 Attenuation : it refers to loss of energy by a signal

time, when a signal travels through a medium it loss
some of its energy in overcoming the resistence of NOTE :
the medium, to overcome this loss amplifiers are
used to amplify the signal.  Go and Learn all the Calculation that
includes : Parity checking, CRC, and
Subnet Mask… e.t.c

 Distortion : means signal changes its form or

shaped, Distortion can occur in a composite signal
that made from different frequencies. Differences in
delay may create a difference in phase, if the delay is
not exactly as the period duration.

 Noise : Noise is another cause of impairment that

used to corrupt the signal, types of Noise :

 Thermal Noise
 Induced Noise
 CrossTalk Noise
 Impulse Noise
 CrossTable Nois

Transmission Media