3.

0 KINEMATICS: MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS

The Displacement, Velocity, and Acceleration Vectors
Two-Dimensional Motion with Constant Acceleration
Projectile Motion
Uniform Circular Motion
Tangential and Radial Acceleration
Relative Velocity and Relative Acceleration

THE DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION VECTORS

In the previous lecture (Lecture 1 of Week 2) we found that the motion of a particle moving
along a straight line is completely known if its position is known as a function of time. Now let
us extend this idea to motion in the xy plane (Fig 3.1). We begin by describing the position of
a particle by its position vector r, drawn from the origin of some coordinate system to the
particle located in the xy plane, as in Figure below.

Figure 3.1. A particle moving in the xy plane is located with the position vector r drawn from
the origin to the particle. The displacement of the particle as it moves from A to B in the time
interval ∆t = tf – ti is equal to the vector ∆r = rf – ri

We now formally define the displacement vector ∆r for the particle of above as being the
difference between its final position vector and its initial position vector:
∆r ≡ rf – ri 3.1
We define the average velocity of a particle during the time interval ∆t as the displacement of
the particle divided by that time interval:
∆

 ≡ 3.2
∆

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The instantaneous velocity v is defined as the limit of the average velocity ∆r/∆t as ∆t
approaches zero:
∆ 

≡ = 3.3
∆ → ∆ 

That is, the instantaneous velocity equals the derivative of the position vector with respect to
time.

The average acceleration of a particle as it moves from one position to another is defined as the
change in the instantaneous velocity vector ∆v divided by the time ∆t during which that change
occurred:

 –
 ∆

 ≡  3.4
 –  ∆

The instantaneous acceleration a is defined as the limiting value of the ratio ∆v/∆t as ∆t
approaches zero:
∆ 
 ≡ = 3.5
∆ → ∆ 

In other words, the instantaneous acceleration equals the derivative of the velocity vector with
respect to time.

TWO-DIMENSIONAL MOTION WITH CONSTANT ACCELERATION

Let us consider two-dimensional motion during which the acceleration remains constant in both
magnitude and direction. The position vector for a particle moving in the xy plane can be
written
r = xi + yj 3.6
where x, y, and r change with time as the particle moves while i and j remain constant. If the
position vector is known, the velocity of the particle can be obtained from Equations 3.3 and
3.6, which give
v = vxi + vyj 3.7
we may write them in component form:
vxf = vxi + ax t
vf = vi + at  3.8
v yf = v yi + a y t
2
  x f = xi + vxi t + 12 ax t
rf = ri + vit + at 2  3.9
 1 2
 y f = yi + v yi t + 2 a y t
These components are illustrated in Figure 3.2. The component form of the equations for vf

31
and rf show us that two-dimensional motion at constant acceleration is equivalent to two
independent motions — one in the x direction and one in the y direction having constant
accelerations ax and ay.

Figure 3.2: Vector representations and components of (a) the displacement and (b) the velocity
of a particle moving with a uniform acceleration a. To simplify the drawing, we have set ri = 0

PROJECTILE MOTION
Anyone who has observed a baseball in motion (or, for that matter, any other object thrown
into the air) has observed projectile motion. The ball moves in a curved path, and its motion is
simple to analyse if we make two assumptions:
(1) the free-fall acceleration g is constant over the range of motion and is directed
downward,
(2) the effect of air resistance is negligible.
With these assumptions, we find that the path of a projectile, which we call its trajectory, is
always a parabola. We use these assumptions throughout our discussions in projectiles.
To show that the trajectory of a projectile is a parabola, let us choose our reference frame such
that the y direction is vertical and positive is upward. Because air resistance is neglected, we
know that (as in one-dimensional free fall) and that Furthermore, let us assume that at t = 0, the
projectile leaves the origin) with speed vi, as shown in Figure 3.3. The vector vi makes an angle
θi with the horizontal, where θi is the angle at which the projectile leaves the origin. From the
definitions of the cosine and sine functions we have
cos θi = vxi vi sin θi = v yi vi

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Therefore, the initial x and y components of velocity are
vxi = vi cos θi v yi = vi sin θi

Substituting the x component into Equation 3.9a with xi = 0 and ax = 0, we find that

x f = vxi t = ( vi cos θ i ) t 3.10 Horizontal position component

Repeating with the y component and using yi = 0 and ay =-g, we obtain

y f = v y i t + 12 a y t 2 = ( vi sin θ i ) t − 12 gt 2 3.11 Vertical position component

Next, we solve Equation 3.10 for t = xf/ (vi cos θi) and substitute this expression for t into
Equation 3.11; this gives
 g  2
y = ( tan θi ) x −  2 2 x 3.12
 2vi cos θi 

3.3 The parabolic path of a projectile that leaves the origin with a velocity vi. The velocity
vector v changes with time in both magnitude and direction. This change is the result of
acceleration in the negative y direction. The x component of velocity remains constant in time
be-cause there is no acceleration along the horizontal direction. The y component of velocity
is zero at the peak of the path.

33
This equation is valid for launch angles in the range 0 < θi < π/2. We have left the subscripts
off the x and y because the equation is valid for any point (x, y) along the path of the projectile.
The equation is of the form y = ax – bx2, which is the equation of a parabola that passes through
the origin. Thus, we have shown that the trajectory of a projectile is a parabola. Note that the
trajectory is completely specified if both the initial speed vi and the launch angle θi are known.
The vector expression for the position vector of the projectile as a function of time follows
directly from Equation 3.9, with ri = 0 and a = g:

r = vit + gt2


This expression is plotted in Figure 3.4

Figure 3.4 The position vector r of a projectile whose initial velocity at the origin is vi. The

vector vit would be the displacement of the projectile if gravity were absent, and the vector


gt2 is its vertical displacement due to its downward gravitational acceleration.

It is interesting to realize that the motion of a particle can be considered the superposition of

the term vit, the displacement if no acceleration were present, and the term gt2, which arises


from the acceleration due to gravity. In other words, if there were no gravitational acceleration,
the particle would continue to move along a straight path in the direction of vi. Therefore, the
vertical distance through which the particle “falls” off the straight-line path is the same distance
that a freely falling body would fall during the same time interval.
We conclude that projectile motion is the superposition of two motions: (1) constant-velocity
motion in the horizontal direction and (2) free-fall motion in the vertical direction. Except
for t, the time of flight, the horizontal and vertical components of a projectile’s motion are
completely independent of each other.

34
Horizontal Range and Maximum Height of a Projectile
Let us assume that a projectile is fired from the origin at ti = 0 with a positive vyi component,
as shown in Figure 3.5. Two points are especially interesting to analyse: the peak point A,
which has Cartesian coordinates (R/2, h), and the point B, which has coordinates (R, 0). The
distance R is called the horizontal range of the projectile, and the distance h is its maximum
height. Let us find hand R in terms of vi, , θi, and g.
We can determine h by noting that at the peak, vyA = 0. Therefore, we can use Equation 3.8a to
determine the time tA it takes the projectile to reach the peak:
v yf = v yi + a y t
0 = vi sin θi − gt A
Time taken to reach peak of projectile
v sin θ i (half of total time taken)
tA = i
g
Substituting this expression for tA into the y part of Equation 4.9a and replacing with h, we
obtain an expression for h in terms of the magnitude and direction of the initial velocity vector:
2
v sin θi 1  vi sin θi 
h = ( vi sin θi ) i − 2 g 
g  g  3.13
v 2 sin 2 θi Maximum height of projectile
h= i
2g
The range R is the horizontal distance that the projectile travels in twice the time it takes to
reach its peak, that is, in a time tB = 2tA . Using the x part of Equation 3.9a, noting that vxi = vxB
= vi cosθi, and setting R ≡ xB at t = 2tA we find that
R = vxi t B = ( vi cos θi ) 2t A
2vi sin θi 2vi 2 sin θi cos θi
= ( vi cos θ i ) =
g g
Using the identity sin 2θ =2 sin θ cos θ, we write R in the more compact form
vi 2 sin 2θi
R= 3.14
g Range of projectile

Keep in mind that Equations 3.13 and 3.14 are useful for calculating h and R only if vi and θi
are known (which means that only vi has to be specified) and if the projectile lands at the same
height from which it started, as it does in Figure 3.5.

35
 Figure 3.5: A projectile fired from the origin at
ti = 0 with an initial velocity vi. The maximum
height of the projectile is h, and the horizontal
range is R. At A, the peak of the trajectory, the
particle has coordinates (R/2, h).

The maximum value of R from Equation 3.14 is Rmax = vi2/g. This result follows from the fact
that the maximum value of sin 2θi is 1, which occurs when 2θi = 90°. Therefore, R is a
maximum when θi = 45°.
Figure 3.6 illustrates various trajectories for a projectile having a given initial speed but
launched at different angles. As you can see, the range is a maximum for θi = 45°. In addition,
for any θi other than 45°, a point having Cartesian coordinates (R, 0) can be reached by using
either one of two complementary values of θi, such as 75° and 15°. Of course, the maximum
height and time of flight for one of these values of θi are different from the maximum height
and time of flight for the complementary value.

Figure 3.6 A projectile fired from the origin with an initial speed of 50 m/s at various angles
of projection. Note that complementary values of θi result in the same value of x (range of the
projectile)

36
WORKED EXAMPLES
The Long-Jump
A long-jumper leaves the ground at an angle of 20.0° above the horizontal and at a speed
of 11.0 m/s. (a) How far does he jump in the horizontal direction? (Assume his motion is
equivalent to that of a particle.)
Because the initial speed and launch angle are given, the most direct way of solving this
problem is to use the range formula given by Equation 3.14. However, it is more instructive to
take a more general approach and use Figure 3.5. As before, we set our origin of coordinates at
the take-off point and label the peak as A and the landing point as B. The horizontal motion is
described by Equation 3.10:
x f = xB = ( vi cos θ i ) 2t B = (11.0m/s)(cos 20.0°)t B
The value of xB can be found if the total time of the jump is known. We are able to find tB by
remembering that and by using the y part of Equation 3.8a. We also note that at the top of the
jump the vertical component of velocity vyA is zero:
v yf = v yA = vi sin θ i − gt A
0 = (11.0 m/s) sin 20.0° − (9.80 m/s 2 )t A
t A = 0.384 s
This is the time needed to reach the top of the jump. Because of the symmetry of the vertical
motion, an identical time interval passes before the jumper returns to the ground.
Therefore, the total time in the air is Substituting this value into the above expression for xf
gives
x f = xB = (11.0m/s)(cos 20.0°)(0.768 s) = 7.94m

(b) What is the maximum height reached?

We find the maximum height reached by using Equation 3.11:
ymax = y A = (vi sin θ i )t A − 12 gt A2
= (11.0 m/s)(sin 20.00 )(0.384 s) − 12 (9.80 m/s 2 )(0.384 s) 2
= 0.722 m
Exercise: To check these calculations, use Equations 3.13 and 3.14 to find the maximum
height and horizontal range.

37
Stone throw!!!
A stone is thrown from the top of a building upward at an angle of 30.0° to the horizontal
and with an initial speed of 20.0 m/s, as shown in Figure 3.12. If the height of the build-
ing is 45.0 m, (a) how long is it before the stone hits the ground?
We have indicated the various parameters in Figure 3.7. When working problems on your own,
you should always make a sketch such as this and label it.
The initial x and y components of the stone’s velocity are
vxi = vi cos θ i = (20.0 m/s)(cos 30.00 ) = 17.3 m/s
v yi = vi sin θi = (20.0 m/s)(sin 30.00 ) = 10.0 m/s

To find t, we can use y f = v yi t + 12 a y t 2 (Eq. 3.9a) with yf = - 45.0m, ay = -g, and vyi = 10.0 m/s

(there is a minus sign on the numerical value of yf because we have chosen the top of the
building as the origin):
−45.0 m = (10.0 m/s)t − 12 (9.80 m/s 2 )t 2
Solving the quadratic equation for t gives, for the positive root, t = 4.22s
(b) What is the speed of the stone just before it strikes the ground?
We can use Equation 3.8a, vyf = vyi + ayt, with t = 4.22 s to obtain the y component of the
velocity just before the stone strikes the ground:
v yf = 10.0 m/s − (9.80 m/s 2 )(4.22 s) = -31.4 m/s

The negative sign indicates that the stone is moving down-ward. Because vxf = vxi = 17.3m/s,
the required speed is

v f = vxf 2 + v yf 2 vi = (17.3) 2 + (−31.4) 2 m/s = 35.9 m/s

Exercise Where does the stone strike the ground?

Answer 73.0 m from the base of the building.

38
Fig 3.7: A schematic of the man throwing a stone from the top of the cliff

The Stranded Explorers

An Alaskan rescue plane drops a package of emergency rations to a stranded party of
explorers, as shown in Figure 3.8. If the plane is traveling horizontally at 40.0 m/s and is
100 m above the ground, where does the package strike the ground relative to the point
at which it was released?
For this problem we choose the coordinate system shown in Figure 3.8, in which the origin is
at the point of release of the package. Consider first the horizontal motion of the package. The
only equation available to us for finding the distance travelled along the horizontal direction is
(Eq. 3.9a). The initial x component of the package velocity is the same as that of the plane when
the package is released: 40.0 m/s. Thus, we have

x f = (40.0 m/s)t

39
If we know t, the length of time the package is in the air, then we can determine xf, the distance
the package travels in the horizontal direction. To find t, we use the equations that describe the
vertical motion of the package. We know that at the instant the package hits the ground, its y
coordinate is yf = -100m. We also know that the initial vertical component of the package
velocity vyi is zero because at the moment of release, the package had only a horizontal
component of velocity.
From Equation 3.9a, we have
y f = − 12 gt 2
−100 m = − 12 (9.80 m/s 2 )t 2
t = 4.52 s
Substitution of this value for the time of flight into the equation for the x coordinate gives
x f = (40.0 m/s)(4.52 s) = 181m

The package hits the ground 181 m to the right of the drop point.
Exercise: What are the horizontal and vertical components of the velocity of the package
just before it hits the ground?
vxf = 40.0 m/s; v yf = −44.3 m/s

Exercise: Where is the plane when the package hits the ground? (Assume that the plane
does not change its speed or course.)
Answer Directly over the package.

Fig 3.8: A schematic of the emergency aircraft and stranded explorer

40
The End of the Ski Jump
A ski jumper leaves the ski track moving in the horizontal direction with a speed of 25.0
m/s, as shown in Figure 3.9. The landing incline below him falls off with a slope of 35.0°.
Where does he land on the incline?

Fig 3.9: A schematic of the ski jumper

It is reasonable to expect the skier to be air-borne for less than 10 s, and so he will not go farther
than 250 m horizontally. We should expect the value of d, the distance travelled along the
incline, to be of the same order of magnitude. It is convenient to select the beginning of the
jump as the origin (xi = 0, yi = 0). Because vxi = 25.0m/s and vyi = 0, the x and y component
forms of Equation 3.9a are
(1) x f = vxi t = (25.0 m/s)t
(2) y f = − 12 a y t 2 = − 12 (9.80 m/s 2 )t 2

From the right triangle in Figure 3.9, we see that the jumper’s x and y coordinates at the landing
point are xf = d cos 35.0° and yf = -d sin 35.0°. Substituting these relationships into (1) and (2),
we obtain
(3) d cos 35.00 = (25.0 m/s)t
(4) -d sin 35.00 = − 12 (9.80 m/s 2 )t 2

41
Solving (3) for t and substituting the result into (4), we find that d = 109 m. Hence, the x and y
coordinates of the point at which he lands are
x f = d cos 35.00 = (109 m) cos 35.00 = 89.3 m
y f = −d sin 35.00 = −(109 m) sin 35.00 = −62.5 m

Exercise Determine how long the jumper is airborne and his vertical component of
velocity just before he lands.
Answer: 3.57 s; -35.0 m/s
What would have occurred if the skier in the last example happened to be carrying a stone and
let go of it while in mid-air? Because the stone has the same initial velocity as the skier, it will
stay near him as he moves — that is, it floats along-side him. This is a technique that NASA
uses to train astronauts. The plane pictured at the beginning of the chapter flies in the same type
of projectile path that the skier and stone follow. The passengers and cargo in the plane fall
along-side each other; that is, they have the same trajectory. An astronaut can release a piece
of equipment and it will float freely alongside her hand. The same thing happens in the space
shuttle. The craft and everything in it are falling as they orbit the Earth.

42
 UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION
Figure 3.10a shows a car moving in a circular path with constant linear speed v. Such motion
is called uniform circular motion. Because the car’s direction of motion changes, the car has an
acceleration. For any motion, the velocity vector is tangent to the path. Consequently, when an
object moves in a circular path, its velocity vector is perpendicular to the radius of the circle.
We now show that the acceleration vector in uniform circular motion is always perpendicular
to the path and always points toward the centre of the circle.

Fig 3.10 (a) A car moving along a circular path at constant speed experiences uniform circular
motion. (b) As a particle moves from A to B, its velocity vector changes from vi to vf.
(c) The construction for determining the direction of the change in velocity ∆v, which is toward
the centre of the circle for small ∆r.
An acceleration of this nature is called a centripetal (centre-seeking) acceleration, and its
magnitude is
v2
ar = 3.15
r
where r is the radius of the circle and the notation ar is used to indicate that the centripetal
acceleration is along the radial direction.
To derive Equation 3.15, consider Figure 3.10b, which shows a particle first at point A and then
at point B. The particle is at A at time ti, and its velocity at that time is vi. It is at B at some later
time tf, and its velocity at that time is vf. Let us assume here that vi and vf differ only in direction;
their magnitudes (speeds) are the same (that is, vi = vf = v). To calculate the acceleration of the
particle, let us begin with the defining equation for average acceleration (Eq. 3.4):

 –
 ∆

  
 –  ∆

43
This equation indicates that we must subtract vi from vf, being sure to treat them as vectors,
where ∆v= vf -vi is the change in the velocity. Because vi + ∆v = vf, we can find the vector ∆v,
using the vector triangle in Figure 3.10c.
Now consider the triangle in Figure 3.10b, which has sides ∆r and r. This triangle and the one
in Figure 3.10c, which has sides ∆v and v, are similar. This fact enables us to write a relationship
between the lengths of the sides:
∆
∆

 
This equation can be solved for ∆v and the expression so obtained substituted into   ∆
⁄∆
(Eq. 3.4) to give
∆
 
∆
Now imagine that points A and B in Figure 3.10b are extremely close together. In this case ∆v
points toward the center of the circular path, and because the acceleration is in the direction of
∆v, it too points toward the centre. Furthermore, as A and B approach each other, ∆t approaches
zero, and the ratio ∆r/∆t approaches the speed v. Hence, in the limit ∆t →0, the magnitude of
the acceleration is
v2
ar =
r
Thus, we conclude that in uniform circular motion, the acceleration is directed to-ward the
centre of the circle and has a magnitude given by v2/r, where v is the speed of the particle and
r is the radius of the circle. You should be able to show that the dimensions of ar are L/T2

TANGENTIAL AND RADIAL ACCELERATION

Now let us consider a particle moving along a curved path where the velocity changes both in
direction and in magnitude, as shown in Figure 3.11. As is always the case, the velocity vector
is tangent to the path, but now the direction of the acceleration vector a changes from point to
point. This vector can be resolved into two component vectors: a radial component vector ar
and a tangential component vector at. Thus, a can be written as the vector sum of these
component vectors:
a = ar + at 3.16 Total acceleration

44
The tangential acceleration causes the change in the speed of the particle. It is parallel to the
instantaneous velocity, and its magnitude is
|| 3.17 Tangential acceleration
 

The radial acceleration arises from the change in direction of the velocity vector as described
earlier and has an absolute magnitude given by
v2 3.18
ar = Radial acceleration
r
where r is the radius of curvature of the path at the point in question. Because ar and at are

mutually perpendicular component vectors of a, it follows that a = ar 2 + at 2

As in the case of uniform circular motion, ar in non-uniform circular motion always points
toward the center of curvature, as shown in Figure 3.11. Also, at a given speed, ar is large when
the radius of curvature is small (as at points A and B in Figure 3.11) and small when r is large
(such as at point C). The direction of at is either in the same direction as v (if v is increasing)
or opposite v (if v is decreasing).
In uniform circular motion, where v is constant, at at = 0 and the acceleration is always
completely radial, as described earlier. (Note: Eq. 3.18 is identical to Eq. 3.15.) In other words,
uniform circular motion is a special case of motion along a curved path. Furthermore, if the
direction of v does not change, then there is no radial acceleration and the motion is one-
dimensional (in this case, ar = 0, but at may not be zero).

Figure 3.11 The motion of a particle along an arbitrary curved path lying in the xy plane. If
the velocity vector v (always tangent to the path) changes in direction and magnitude, the
component vectors of the acceleration a are a tangential component at and a radial component
ar

45
Worked Example
The Swinging Ball
A ball tied to the end of a string 0.50 m in length swings in a vertical circle under the
influence of gravity, as shown in Figure 4.19. When the string makes an angle θ = 20° with
the vertical, the ball has a speed of 1.5 m/s. (a) Find the magnitude of the radial component
of acceleration at this instant.
Figure 3.12 lets us take a closer look at the situation. The radial acceleration is given by
Equation 3.18. With v = 1.5 m/s and r = 0.50 m, we find that
v 2 (1.5 m/s)2
ar = = = 4.5 m/s 2
r 0.50 m
(b) What is the magnitude of the tangential acceleration when θ = 20°?
When the ball is at an angle θ to the vertical, it has a tangential acceleration of magnitude gsinθ
(the component of g tangent to the circle). Therefore, at θ = 20°,
at = g sin 200 = 3.4 m/s 2

(c) Find the magnitude and direction of the total acceleration a at θ=20°.
Because a = ar + at, the magnitude of a at θ = 20° is

a = ar 2 + at 2 = (4.5) 2 + (3.4)2 m/s 2 = 5.6 m/s 2

If ϕ is the angle between a and the string, then

at  3.4 m/s 2 
φ = tan −1 = tan −1  2 
= 370
ar  4.5 m/s 
Note that a, at, and ar all change in direction and magnitude as the ball swings through the
circle. When the ball is at its lowest elevation (θ = 0), at = 0 because there is no tangential
component of g at this angle; also, ar is a maximum because v is a maximum. If the ball has
enough speed to reach its highest position (θ = 180°), then at is again zero but ar is a minimum
because v is now a minimum. Finally, in the two horizontal positions (θ = 90° and 270°), and
ar has a value between its minimum and maximum values.

46
Figure 3.12 Motion of a ball suspended by a string of length r. The ball swings with non-
uniform circular motion in a vertical plane, and its acceleration a has a radial component ar
and a tangential component at.

RELATIVE VELOCITY AND RELATIVE ACCELERATION

In this section, we describe how observations made by different observers in different frames
of reference are related to each other. We find that observers in different frames of reference
may measure different displacements, velocities, and accelerations for a given particle. That is,
two observers moving relative to each other generally do not agree on the outcome of a
measurement.
For example, suppose two cars are moving in the same direction with speeds of 50 km/h and
60 km/h. To a passenger in the slower car, the speed of the faster car is 10 km/h. Of course, a
stationary observer will measure the speed of the faster car to be 60 km/h, not 10 km/h. Which
observer is correct? They both are! This simple example demonstrates that the velocity of an
object depends on the frame of reference in which it is measured.
Suppose a person riding on a skateboard (observer A) throws a ball in such a way that it appears
in this person’s frame of reference to move first straight upward and then straight downward
along the same vertical line, as shown in Figure 3.13a.

47
A stationary observer B sees the path of the ball as a parabola, as illustrated in Figure 3.13b.
Relative to observer B, the ball has a vertical component of velocity (resulting from the initial
upward velocity and the downward acceleration of gravity) and a horizontal component.

Figure 3.13 (a) Observer A on a moving vehicle throws a ball upward and sees it rise and fall
in a straight-line path. (b) Stationary observer B sees a parabolic path for the same ball.

In a more general situation, consider a particle located at point A in Figure 3.14. Imagine that
the motion of this particle is being described by two observers, one in reference frame S, fixed
relative to the Earth, and another in reference frame S’, moving to the right relative to S (and
therefore relative to the Earth) with a constant velocity v0. (Relative to an observer in S’, S
moves to the left with a velocity -v0.) Where an observer stands in a reference frame is irrelevant
in this discussion, but for purposes of this discussion let us place each observer at her or his
respective origin.
We label the position of the particle relative to the S frame with the position vector rand that
relative to the S’ frame with the position vector r’, both after some time t. The vectors r and r’
are related to each other through the expression r = r’ + vot, or
r’ = r - vot 3.19

48
Figure 3.14 A particle located at A is described by two observers, one in the fixed frame of
reference S, and the other in the frame S’, which moves to the right with a constant velocity v0.
The vector r is the particle’s position vector relative to S, and r’ is its position vector relative
to S’.

The woman standing on the beltway sees the walking man pass by at a slower speed than the
woman standing on the stationary floor does.

49
That is, after a time t, the S’ frame is displaced to the right of the S frame by an amount v0t.
If we differentiate Equation 3.19 with respect to time and note that v0 is constant, we obtain
′ 
 " #
 
Galilean velocity transformation
′   " # 3.20
where ′ is the velocity of the particle observed in the S frame and v is its velocity observed in
the S frame. Equations 3.19 and 3.20 are known as Galilean transformation equations. They
relate the coordinates and velocity of a particle as measured in a frame fixed relative to the
Earth to those measured in a frame moving with uniform motion relative to the Earth.
Although observers in two frames measure different velocities for the particle, they measure
the same acceleration when v0 is constant. We can verify this by taking the time derivative of
Equation 3.20:
′  
 "
  
Because vo is constant, dvo/dt = 0. Therefore, we conclude that a’ = a because a’ = dv’/dt and
a =dv/dt.
That is, the acceleration of the particle measured by an observer in the Earth’s frame of
reference is the same as that measured by any other observer moving with constant velocity
relative to the Earth’s frame.

Worked Examples
A Boat Crossing a River
A boat heading due north crosses a wide river with a speed of 10.0 km/h relative to the
water. The water in the river has a uniform speed of 5.00 km/h due east relative to the
Earth. Determine the velocity of the boat relative to an observer standing on either bank.
We know vbr, the velocity of the boat relative to the river, and vrE, the velocity of the river
relative to the Earth. What we need to find is vbE, the velocity of the boat relative to the Earth.
The relationship between these three quantities is
vbE = vbr + vrE
The terms in the equation must be manipulated as vector quantities; the vectors are shown in
Figure 3.15. The quantity vbr is due north, vrE is due east, and the vector sum of the two, vbE, is
at an angle θ, as defined in Figure 3.15. Thus, we can find the speed vbE of the boat relative to
the Earth by using the Pythagorean theorem:

50
vbE = vbr 2 + vrE 2 = (10.0)2 + (5.00) 2 km/h

= 11.2 km/h
The direction of vbE is
 vrE  −1  5.00 m/s 
2
θ = tan −1   = tan  2 
= 26.60
 vbr   10.0 m/s 
The boat is moving at a speed of 11.2 km/h in the direction 26.6° east of north relative to the
Earth.
Exercise If the width of the river is 3.0 km, find the time it takes the boat to cross it.
Answer 18 min.

Fig 3.8: A schematic of the boat crossing the river

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Which Way Should We Head?
If the boat of the preceding example travels with the same speed of 10.0 km/h relative to the
river and is to travel due north, as shown in Figure 3.16, what should its heading be?
Solution As in the previous example, we know vrE and the magnitude of the vector vbr, and we
want vbE to be directed across the river. Figure 3.16 shows that the boat must head upstream in
order to travel directly northward across the river. Note the difference between the triangle in
Figure 3.15 and the one in Figure 3.16 — specifically, that the hypotenuse in Figure 3.16 is no
longer vbE. Therefore, when we use the Pythagorean theorem to find vbE this time, we obtain

vbE = vbr 2 − vrE 2 = (10.0) 2 − (5.00)2 km/h = 8.66 km/h

Now that we know the magnitude of vbE, we can find the direction in which the boat is heading:
 vrE  −1  5.00 
θ = tan −1   = tan   = 30.0
0

 vbE   8.66 
The boat must steer a course 30.0° west of north

Exercise If the width of the river is 3.0 km, find the time it takes the boat to cross it.
Answer 21 min.

Fig 3.9: A schematic of the boat crossing the river on its new course (heading)

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Practice Exercises
Q3.1: A motorist drives south at 20.0 m/s for 3.00 min, then turns west and travels at 25.0 m/s
for 2.00 min, and finally travels northwest at 30.0 m/s for 1.00 min. For this 6.00-min trip, find
(a) the total vector displacement,
(b) the average speed, and
(c) the average velocity.
Use a coordinate system in which east is the positive x-axis.

Q3.2: One strategy in a snowball fight is to throw a first snow-ball at a high angle over level
ground. While your opponent is watching the first one, you throw a second one at a low angle
and timed to arrive at your opponent be-fore or at the same time as the first one. Assume both
snowballs are thrown with a speed of 25.0 m/s. The first one is thrown at an angle of 70.0° with
respect to the horizontal. (a) At what angle should the second (low-angle) snowball be thrown
if it is to land at the same point as the first? (b) How many seconds later should the second
snowball be thrown if it is to land at the same time as the first?

Q3.3: An astronaut on a strange planet finds that she can jump a maximum horizontal distance
of 15.0 m if her initial speed is 3.00 m/s. What is the free-fall acceleration on the planet?

Q3.4: A firefighter 50.0 m away from a burning building directs a stream of water from a fire
hose at an angle of 30.0° above the horizontal, as in Figure Q3.4. If the speed of the stream is
40.0 m/s, at what height will the water strike the building?

Figure Q3.4 Fire Fighter

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Q3.5: The orbit of the Moon about the Earth is approximately circular, with a mean radius of
3.84 × 108m. It takes 27.3 days for the Moon to complete one revolution about the Earth. Find
(a) the mean orbital speed of the Moon and (b) its centripetal acceleration.

Q3.6: The athlete shown in Figure Q3.6 rotates a 1.00-kg discus along a circular path of radius
1.06 m. The maximum speed of the discus is 20.0 m/s. Determine the magnitude of the
maximum radial acceleration of the discus.

Figure Q3.6: An athlete with a discus

Q3.7: Young David who slew Goliath experimented with slings before tackling the giant. He
found that he could revolve a sling of length 0.600 m at the rate of 8.00 rev/s. If he increased
the length to 0.900 m, he could revolve the sling only 6.00 times per second. (a) Which rate of
rotation gives the greater speed for the stone at the end of the sling? (b) What is the centripetal
acceleration of the stone at 8.00 rev/s? (c) What is the centripetal acceleration at 6.00 rev/s?

Q3.8: A train slows down as it rounds a sharp horizontal curve, slowing from 90.0 km/h to 50.0
km/h in the 15.0 s that it takes to round the curve. The radius of the curve is 150 m. Compute
the acceleration at the moment the train speed reaches 50.0 km/h. Assume that the train slows
down at a uniform rate during the 15.0-s interval.

Q3.9: A student attaches a ball to the end of a string 0.600 m in length and then swings the ball
in a vertical circle. The speed of the ball is 4.30 m/s at its highest point and 6.50 m/s at its
lowest point. Find the acceleration of the ball when the string is vertical and the ball is at (a) its
highest point and (b) its lowest point.

54
Q3.10: A river has a steady speed of 0.500 m/s. A student swims upstream a distance of 1.00
km and swims back to the starting point. If the student can swim at a speed of 1.20 m/s in still
water, how long does the trip take? Compare this with the time the trip would take if the water
were still.

Q3.11: A child in danger of drowning in a river is being carried downstream by a current that
has a speed of 2.50 km/h. The child is 0.600 km from shore and 0.800 km up-stream of a boat
landing when a rescue boat sets out.
(a) If the boat proceeds at its maximum speed of 20.0 km/h relative to the water, what
heading relative to the shore should the pilot take?
(b) What angle does the boat velocity make with the shore?
(c) How long does it take the boat to reach the child?

Q3.12: A bolt drops from the ceiling of a train car that is accelerating northward at a rate of
2.50 m/s2. What is the acceleration of the bolt relative to (a) the train car and (b) the Earth?

Q3.13: A basketball player who is 2.00 m tall is standing on the floor 10.0 m from the basket,
as in Figure Q3.13. If he shoots the ball at a 40.0° angle with the horizontal, at what initial
speed must he throw so that it goes through the hoop without striking the backboard? The basket
height is 3.05 m.

Figure Q3.13: A schematic of the basketball player trying to throw the ball

55
Q3.14: A skier leaves the ramp of a ski jump with a velocity of 10.0 m/s, 15.0° above the
horizontal, as in Figure Q3.14. The slope is inclined at 50.0°, and air resistance is negligible.
Find (a) the distance from the ramp to where the jumper lands and (b) the velocity components
just before the landing. (How do you think the results might be affected if air resistance were
included? Note that jumpers lean forward in the shape of an airfoil, with their hands at their
sides, to increase their distance. Why does this work?)

Figure Q3.14: A schematic of the skier

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Q3.15: An enemy ship is on the western side of a mountain island, as shown in Figure Q3.15.
The enemy ship can manoeuvre to within 2 500 m of the 1 800-m-high mountain peak and can
shoot projectiles with an initial speed of 250 m/s. If the eastern shoreline is horizontally 300 m
from the peak, what are the distances from the eastern shore at which a ship can be safe from
the bombard-ment of the enemy ship?

Figure Q3.15: A schematic of the battleships vis-à-vis the mountain island

57