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WONDEX ACADEMY
PHYSICS SHORT NOTE
FOR GRADE 12
BY:
Wondex Getch
(2017 EC)
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UNIT-2: Two-dimensional motion
Introduction
Kinematics is the study of motion without considering its causes
(force). For example, studying the motion of a football without
considering what forces cause or change its motion.
Two-dimensional kinematics are simple extensions of the
one-dimensional kinematics developed for motion in a straight line in
Grade 11.
This simple extension will allow us to apply physics to many more
situations, and it will also yield unexpected insights about nature.
A ball kicked by a football player, the orbital motion of planets, a
bicycle rounding a curve,the rotation of wheels of a car are a few
examples of two-dimension motion.
In fact, most motions in nature follow curved paths rather than
straight lines. Such types of motion along a curved plane are
described by two-dimensional kinematics.
2.1 Projectile motion
A projectile is a thrown, fired, or released object that moves only
under the influence of gravitational force. The projectile acceleration
is g = 9.8m/s 2 .
Anyone who has observed the motion of a ball kicked by a football
player (Figure below) has observed projectile motion. The ball
moves in a curved path and returns to the ground.
Other examples of projectile motion include a cannonball fired from
a cannon, a bullet fired from a gun, the flight of a golf ball and a jet
of water escaping a hose.
Projectile motion of an object is simple to analyze if we make three
assumptions:
1 The free-fall acceleration is constant over the range of motion, and it
is always directed downward. It is the acceleration due to gravity
(g ) = 9.8m/s 2 .
2 The effect of air resistance is negligible.
3 The horizontal velocity is constant because the acceleration of the
object does not have vertical component. With these assumptions,
we find that the path of a projectile, which we call its trajectory, is a
parabola as shown in Figure above.
The horizontal and vertical components of a projectile’s motion are
completely independent of each other and can be handled
separately, with time t as a common variable for both components.
Inclined projectile motion
This is a type of motion in which an object is projected with an
initial velocity u which makes an angle θ with the horizontal (Figure
below).The initial velocity can be resolved into two components,
vertical and horizontal component.
The vertical component of the velocity changes with time as a result
there is acceleration due to gravity.
The horizontal component of the velocity is constant throughout the
flight; this is because there is no force acting along the horizontal
direction of the projectile as a result there is no acceleration along
x-axis.
The analysis of the motion involves dealing with the two motions.
As shown in Figure below, the projectile has velocity components at
different positions.
At the top where it reaches its maximum height (H) the vertical
component of the velocity becomes zero vy = 0.
After Vy becomes zero the projectile changes its direction and make
free fall.

The initial velocity can be expressed as x component and y

component:

ux = u cos θ and uy = u sin θ

The horizontal and vertical velocity at any time t is:

vx = u cos θ = ux (constant)

vy = u sin θ − gt
The horizontal and vertical displacement at any time t is:

sx = ∆x = u cos θt
1
sy = ∆y = u sin θt − gt 2
2
Time of flight
The time of flight is the total time for which the projectile remains
in flight. The time of flight depends on the initial velocity u of the
object and the angle of the projection, θ.
1
sy = ∆y = u sin θt − gt 2
2
When the point of projection and point of return are on the same
horizontal level, the net vertical displacement of the object is zero,
∆y = 0.
1
0 = u sin θt − gt 2
2
Rearrange and solving for t, we have:
1 2u sin θ
u sin θt = gt 2 =⇒ tf =
2 g
 This last equation does not apply when the projectile lands at a
different elevation from the one at which it was launched.
By symmetry, the time to reach the maximum height is half of the
flight time.
1 u sin θ
tH = tf =
2 g

Horizontal range and maximum height of a Projectile

Let us now consider a special case of projectile motion. Assume a projectile is
launched from the origin at O, as shown in Figure above, and returns to the
same horizontal level.
This situation is common in sports, where baseballs, footballs and golf balls
often land at the same level from which they were launched.
Two points in this motion are especially interesting to analyze: the peak point
A, which has Cartesian coordinates (R/2, H), and the point B, which has
coordinates (R, 0).
The distance R is called the horizontal range of the projectile, and the distance
H is its maximum height. Let us find R and H mathematically in terms of u, θ,
and g.
Range (R)
The range of the projectile is the maximum displacement in the
horizontal direction. There is no acceleration in this direction since
gravity only acts vertically.

∆x = u cos θt
When ∆x is maximum, ∆x → R.
Since the time to cover the range is the total time of flight (tf ):

2u sin θ
R = u cos θtf = u cos θ( )
g

2u 2 sin θ cos θ u 2 sin(2θ)

R= =
g g
This equation is valid for launch and impact on a horizontal surface,
as shown in Figure below. We can see in Figure (a) the range is
directly proportional to the square of the initial speed u and sin 2θ.
Furthermore, we can see from the factor sin 2θ that the range is
maximum at 450 .

u2
Rmax = → maximum possible range
g
In Figure (a) we can see that the greater the initial velocity, the
greater the range. In Figure (b) the range is maximum at 450 .
This is true only for conditions ignoring air resistance. It is
interesting that the same range is found for two initial launch angles
that add up to 900 (complimentary angles).
The projectile launched with the smaller angle has a lower peak than
the higher angle, but they both have the same range (for
complimentary angles).
Maximum height (H)
The maximum height of a projectile trajectory occurs when the
vertical component of velocity equals zero, (vy = 0) .
As the projectile moves upwards it goes against gravity, and
therefore the velocity begins to decrease.
Eventually the vertical velocity will reach zero, and the projectile is
immediately accelerated downward under gravity.
Thus, once the projectile reaches its maximum height, it begins to
accelerate downward.
1
∆y = u sin θt − gt 2
2
u sin θ
The time to cover the maximum height is: tH = g
When ∆y is maximum, ∆y → H
1
H = u sin θtH − gtH2
2
 u sin θ 1 u sin θ 2 u 2 sin2 θ
H = u sin θ( ) − g( ) =
g 2 g 2g

This can be done also from the fifth equation of motion:

vy2 = uy2 − 2g ∆y = u 2 sin2 θ − 2g ∆y

At maximum height, vy = 0 and ∆y → H

u 2 sin2 θ
0 = u 2 sin2 θ − 2gH =⇒ H =
2g
The maximum possible height that can be reached by a projectile is:

u2
Hmax = → maximum possible height
2g

This is achieved when sin θ = 1, that is: at θ = 900

Relation between range and maximum height
Consider a projectile motion as shown in figure below. The initial
velocity of the projectile is u, H is the maximum height and R is its
horizontal range.

We know that the maximum height of the

projectile H, and horizontal range are given
by the equations:

u 2 sin2 θ u 2 sin(2θ)
H= and R =
2g g
Divide the maximum height of the projectile by the horizontal range.
In the equation, sin2 θ can be written as sin θ sin θ, and sin 2θ can be
written as 2 sin θ cos θ.
H tan θ R 4H
= =⇒ H = tan θ =⇒ R =
R 4 4 tan θ
The Path Equation
This is the equation of the trajectory(path) followed by projectile,
which is inverted(open downward) parabola.
The horizontal displacement traveled by projectile in a given time t
is:
x = ux t = u cos θt................1
The vertical displacement traveled by the projectile in a given time t
is:
1
y = uy t + gt 2
2
Since, uy and g are opposite so, g =⇒ −g

1
y = uy t + (−g )t 2
2
1
y = uy t − gt 2
2
 1
y = u sin θt − gt 2 ...........2
2

Find t from equation (1) and substitute into equation (2), then we
get

x 1 x2
y = u sin θ − g 2
u cos θ 2 u cos2 θ
Therefore, the equation
g
y =− x 2 + tan θx
2u 2 cos2 θ
is called path equation
Path equation is exactly looks like the equation of
parabola(quadratic equation) which has the form:

y = ax 2 + bx + c

Where,
g
a=−
2u 2 cos2 θ
b = tan θ
c=0
From the path equation, equation of range(R) and maximum
height(H) can be derived.
Consider the path equation:
g
y =− x 2 + tan θx
2u 2 cos2 θ
Solve for x as a range(R)

2u 2 sin θ cos θ
x = 0 and x= =⇒ R
g
R u 2 sin θ cos θ
At the maximum height x = 2 = g , substitute in the path
equation and solve for y .
g
y =− x 2 + tan θx
2u 2 cos2 θ
 2 2
g u sin θ cos θ u 2 sin θ cos θ
y =− 2 + tan θ
2u cos2 θ g g

u 2 sin2 θ
y= =⇒ H
2g
Example

1. A football player kicks a ball at angle of 370 with the horizontal.

The initial velocity of the ball is 40m/s.
a. Find the maximum height reached by the ball.
b. Find the horizontal range of the ball.
c. How long will the ball spend in the air?
⇒ Solution
u 2 sin2 θ (40m/s)2 x(sin(370 ))2
a. H = 2g = 2x10m/s 2
= 28.8m
u 2 sin(2θ) (40m/s)2 sin(2x370 )
b. R = g = 10m/s 2
= 153..8m
2u sin θ 2x40m/s sin(370 )
c. tf = g = 10m/s = 4.8s
 2. A ball is kicked from the ground with an initial speed of 25m/s at an
angle of 530 above the horizontal directly toward a wall, as shown in
Figure below. The wall is 24m from the release point of the ball.

a. How long does the ball take to reach

the wall?
b. How far above the ground level does
the ball hit the wall?
c. What are the horizontal and vertical
components of its velocity as it hits
the wall?
d. What is the resultant velocity with it
hits the wall?
⇒ Solution
x 24m
a. t = ux =25m/s cos(53o ) = 1.6s
b. y = uy t − 21 gt 2 = 25m/s sin(53o )(1.6s)− 21 (10m/s 2 )(1.6s)2 = 19.2m
c. vx = ux = u cos θ = 25m/s cos(53o ) = 15m/s
vy = uy t − gt = 25m/s sin(530 ) − 10m/s 2 x1.6s = 4m/s
q p
d. v = vx2 + vy2 = (15m/s)2 + (4m/s)2 = 15.5m/s
Horizontal Projection
In this type of motion the projectile is projected horizontally from a
certain height (H = ∆y ) with initial velocity u, as shown in Figure
below.

Its initial velocity along the vertical

direction is zero and it possesses only
horizontal velocity at the beginning.
As the time progresses, due to the
impact of gravity, it acquires the
vertical component of velocity.
The projectile has zero acceleration along x direction. Therefore, the
initial velocity ux remains constant throughout the motion. We use
constant acceleration motion equations. The final horizontal
velocity, vx after a time t is:

vx = ux = u (constant)
The horizontal distance traveled by the projectile at a time t is given
by the equation

∆x = ux t = ut
The vertical motion is a constant accelerated motion. We use the
kinematic equations of motion for constant accelerated motion. The
final vertical velocity vy after time t is:

vy = uy + gt
Since the initial vertical velocity is zero (uy = 0).

vy = gt
From the kinematics equations, the vertical displacement, ∆y → H
has a form:
1
∆y = H = uy t + gt 2
2
 But uy = 0, therefore
1 1
∆y = gt 2 =⇒ H = gt 2
2 2

Time of flight
The time of flight is the time taken by the projectile to hit the ground.
We know that:
1
∆y = H = gt 2
2
Then s s
2∆y 2H
tf = =⇒ tf =
g g
Range
The range is the maximum horizontal distance traveled by the
projectile. Once we find the time of flight t, we can solve for the
horizontal displacement using:

∆x = R = ux tf

In projectile motion, the time to cover both the x and y displacement

is the same. By substituting the total time flight, we get:
s s
2∆y 2H
R = ux =u
g g
Impact angle
Impact angle (θ): the angle which projectile makes with ground
when it lands as shown in figure below.

(a) (b)

From the figure we see that:

vx = v cos θ.........(a) and vy = v sin θ.........(b)
Divide equation (b) to (a)
vy vy
tan θ = =⇒ θ = tan−1 ( )
vx vx
We know that:
vx = ux = u
p
vy = gt = 2gH
So the impact angle can also be expressed as:
√
gt 2gH
tan θ = =
u u
√
−1 gt −1 2gH
θ = tan ( ) = tan ( )
u u
The final velocity of a projectile(v ) as it strike the ground is the
combination of both horizontal and vertical velocity.
We have seen that:

vx = v cos θ and vy = v sin θ

square both vx and vy , then add together

vx2 + vy2 = v 2 cos2 θ + v 2 sin2 θ

vx2 + vy2 = v 2 (cos2 θ + sin2 θ)
(cos2 θ + sin2 θ) = 1 =⇒ pythagorian identity
vx2 + vy2 = v 2

q p p
v= vx2 + vy2 = u 2 + (gt)2 = u 2 + 2gH
Example

1. A rifle is aimed horizontally at a target 30m away as shown in Figure

below. The bullet hits the target 2 cm below the aiming point.
Assume gravity (g = 10m/s 2 ).

a. What is the bullet’s time of flight?

b. What is the initial velocity of the bullet?
c. Calculate the landing angle of the bullet
d. Find the final velocity ov the bullet
⇒ Solution
q q
a. tf = 2H g =
2x0.02m
10m/s 2
= 0.06s
R 30m
b. u = t =0.06s = 500m/s
c. θ = tan−1 ( gt −1 10x0.06
u ) = tan ( 500 ) = 0.069
o
p p
d. v = u 2 + 2gH = (500m/s)2 + 2x10m/s 2 x0.02m ≈ 500m/s
2. A rescue airplane travelling at 360 km/h horizontally drops a food
package from a height of 300 m when it passes over a car driver
stranded in the desert. Assuming g = 10m/s 2 .
a. How long will it take the food package to reach the ground?
b. How far from the car driver should the food package be dropped ?
⇒ Solution
q q
a. tf = 2Hg = 2x300m
10m/s 2
= 7.74s
b. R = ut = 100m/sx7.74s = 774m
2.2 Rotational Motion

Rotational motion is the motion of an object in a circle around a

fixed axis. For example, the rotation of Earth around its axis, the
rotation of the flywheel of a sewing machine, rotation of a ceiling
fan, rotation of wheels of a car, and so on.

The disc in Figure below, is performing

rotational motion because all of its
particles are rotating around a fixed axis,
called its axis of rotation. An object can
rotate around a fixed point in two
directions: a clockwise or an anticlockwise
direction (also known as counterclockwise).
Rigid body is n object with a perfectly defined and unchanging
shape. No matter the size of the force , the distance between any
two particles within the object remains constant.
Rotational Kinematics
Angular Displacement (∆θ)
Figure below, is a view from above of a rotating compact disc (CD).
The disc rotates around a fixed axis perpendicular to the plane of
the figure, passing through the center of the disc at O. One particle
of the disc P, is kept at a fixed distance r from the origin and rotates
around O in a circle of radius r.

Because the disc is a rigid object, as the particle moves through an

angle θ from the reference line, every other particle on the object
rotates through the same angle . Therefore, we can associate the
angle θ with the entire rigid object as well as with an individual
particle.
As the particle (P) travels from position A to position B in a time
interval ∆t ,as shown in Figure below, the line joining the particle to
the center sweeps out an angle ∆θ . This quantity ∆θ is defined as
the angular displacement of the rigid object.

∆θ = θf − θi

Because rotational motion involves studying circular paths, rather

than using meters to describe the angular displacement of an object,
physicists use radians(rad) or degrees(0 ) or revolution(rev).
 A radian is convenient because it naturally expresses angles in terms
of π since one complete turn of a circle (360 degrees) equals 2π
radians.

1rev = 3600 = 2πrad

As the particle moves along the circle through an angular
displacement of θ, it moves through an arc length s.
The arc length s is related to the angle θ through the equation:

s = rθ
Note that in this equation the angular displacement must be
expressed in rad (not degrees or revolutions).

The rotation of a body is

either clockwise or
counterclockwise.
Angular velocity(∆ω)
How fast an object is rotating can be calculated using the concept
of angular velocity. If the disc spins rapidly, the angular
displacement can occur in a short time interval. If it rotates slowly,
the angular displacement occurs in a longer time interval.
The rate at which angular displacement occurs can vary. These
different rotation rates can be quantified by defining the average
angular velocity ωav (Greek letter omega) as the ratio of the angular
displacement of a disc to the time interval ∆t during which the
displacement occurs.

θf − θi ∆θ
ωav = =
tf − ti ∆t
Angular velocity has units of radians per second (rad/s).
Since every particle on the object rotates through the same angle in
equal time interval, the angular velocity for each particles are equal.
Because point p, in the figure moves in a
circle, the translational velocity vector ⃗v is
always tangent to the circular path, and
hence is called tangential velocity.
The magnitude of the tangential velocity of the point P is by
definition the tangential speed v = ∆s∆t , where s is the distance
traveled by this point measured along the circular path.
Recalling that ∆s = r ∆θ and noting that r is constant, we get:
∆s ∆θ
v= =r = rω
∆t ∆t
Therefore, the tangential speed of a point on a rotating rigid object
equals the radius multiplied by the angular speed.
Although every point on the rigid object has the same angular
speed, not every point has the same tangential speed because r is
not the same for all points on the object.
The tangential speed of a point on the rotating object increases as it
moves outward from the center of rotation.
Angular acceleration
If the angular velocity of an object changes from ωi to ωf in the
time interval ∆t, the object has an angular acceleration.
The angular acceleration α (Greek letter alpha) of a rotating rigid
object is defined as the ratio of the change in the angular speed to
the time interval ∆t during which the change in the angular speed
occurs:

ωf − ωi ∆ω
α= =
tf − tf ∆t
Angular acceleration has units of radians per second squared
(rad/s 2 ).
We can relate the angular acceleration of the rotating rigid object to
the tangential acceleration of the point P by taking the rate of
change v.
∆v ∆ω
a= =r = rα
∆t ∆t
Direction of angular velocity and angular acceleration
Angular velocity and angular accelerations can be treated as a
vectors, so we must include magnitude and direction. For rotation
around a fixed axis, the direction of rotational motion is specified in
relation to the direction along the axis of rotation. Therefore, the
directions of ω and α are along this axis.
To illustrate this convention, it is convenient to use the right-hand
rule demonstrated in Figure below. When the four fingers of the
right hand are wrapped in the direction of rotation, the extended
right thumb points in the direction of ω.
The direction of α follows from its definition α = ∆ω∆t . It is in the
same direction as ω if the angular speed is increasing in time, and it
is anti-parallel (parallel but moving in the opposite direction) to ω if
the angular speed is decreasing in time.
Figure: The right-hand rule for determining the direction of the
angular velocity vector
Equation of motion for constant angular acceleration

Consider a rigid object such as the CD rotating around a fixed axis

with a constant angular acceleration. A set of kinematic equations
exist for rotational motion just as they do for translational motion.
They have a similar form and are derived in a similar fashion.
ωf − ωi
α=
∆t
Then, by rearranging, we get an equation

ωf = ωi + α∆t ..................(1)
where ωi is the angular speed of the rigid object at time t = 0. This
equation allows us to find the angular speed ωf of the object at any
later time t.
If the angular acceleration is constant, the average angular velocity
is obtained by:
ωi + ωf ∆θ
ωav = and ωav =
2 ∆t
Combining these two equations, you we get:
1
∆θ = (ωi + ωf )∆t ...............(2)
2
Substitute equation (1) into (2)
1
∆θ = ωi ∆t + α∆t 2 ..................(3)
2
Find ωi from equation (1) and substitute into equation (2)

1
∆θ = ωf ∆t − α∆t 2 ..................(4)
2
Find t from equation (1) and substitute into equation (2)

ωf2 = ωi2 + 2α∆θ ..................(5)

Table below shows the analogy between linear and angular motion
equations.
Equation for angular motion Equation for linear motion
ω = ω0 + αt v = u + at
θ = 12 (ω0 + ω)t s = 12 (u + v ) t
θ = ω0 t + 12 αt 2 s = ut + 12 at 2
1
θ = ωt − 2 αt 2 s = vt − 21 at 2
ω 2 = ω02 + 2αθ v 2 = u 2 + 2as
θ: angular displacement s: tangential displacement
ω0 : initial angular velocity u: initial tangential velocity
ω: final angular velocity v : final tangential velocity
α: angular acceleration a: tangential acceleration
t: time t: time
Example

1. What is the average angular velocity of a rotating wheel if its

angular speed changes from 30 rad/s to 50 rad/s in 2s?
2. A rotating wheel has an initial angular velocity of 10 rad/s and
accelerates at 2.5rad/s 2 .
(a) How many revolutions are completed in 30 s?
(b) What is angular speed of the wheel at t =20 s?
3. A car’s wheel has an initial angular velocity of 6 rad/s and a
constant angular acceleration of 3rad/s 2 . Calculate the angular
velocity after 100 rev?
4. A wheel has a radius of 20 cm and accelerates from rest to 15 rev/s
in 30 s. What is the magnitude of the tangential acceleration of a
point at the tip of the wheel.
5. A car accelerates from 20 m/s to 24 m/s in 5 s. Calculate the
angular acceleration of the wheels of the car if the radius of a wheel
is 40 cm.
 6. A boy rides a bicycle for 5 minutes. The wheel with radius of 30 cm
completes 2000 rev during this time. Calculate.
(a) the average angular velocity of the wheel.
(b) the linear distance traveled by the bicycle in 5 minutes.

7. A rope is wrapped many times around a pulley

of radius 50 cm as shown in Figure below. How
many revolutions of the pulley are required to
raise a bucket to a height of 20 m?
8. The angular velocity of a bicycle wheel is 18 rad/s. If the radius of the
wheel is 40 cm, what is the speed of the bicycle in m/s?
9. Consider two particles, A and B, on a flat rotating disk as shown in Figure
below. Particle A is 20cm and particle B is 40cm from the center. The disc
starts from rest and its angular speed increases to 20rad/s in 4s.

a. What is the average angular and linear

acceleration for particle B?
b. What is the average angular and linear
acceleration for particle A?
Rotational Dynamics

Having developed the kinematics of rotational motion, we now turn

to the dynamics of rotational motion. Just as force played a big role
in linear dynamics, we have a torque in rotational dynamics. We
begin by defining this quantity and showing how it acts on objects in
rotational motion. Next, we relate torque to our study of kinematics
through an equation very similar to Newton’s second law.
Moment of inertia (I)
The moment of inertia of an object is the quantitative measure of
rotational inertia, just as mass is the quantitative measure of linear
inertia in translational motion. Moment of inertia is the rotational analog
of mass for linear motion.
The greater the moment of inertia of a rigid object or system of particles,
the greater is its resistance to change in angular velocity about a fixed
axis of rotation.
 The moment of inertia depends on the mass and axis of rotation of
the body.The moment of inertia is given the symbol I. For a single
point mass, as shown in Figure below, rotating at radius r from the
axis of rotation the moment of inertia is:

I = mr 2
From the formula, the SI unit of moment
of inertia is kgm2 . Moment of inertia is a
scalar quantity.
The moment of inertia for more than one particle around a fixed axis
is:
n
X
2 2 2 2
I = m1 r1 + m2 r2 + m3 r3 + · · · + mn rn = mi ri2
i=1
Example

1. Three particles are connected by rigid rods

of negligible mass lying along the y-axis as
shown in Figure. If the system rotates
about the x-axis with angular speed of 2
rad/s, find the moment of inertia about the
x-axis.

2. Consider four masses mounted on the x-and y-axis at coordinates

shown in the figure below. Calculate the moment of inertia of the
masses when the axis of rotation is:
a) along the x-axis.
b) along the y-axis.
c) along the z-axis.
For the rigid body Moment of inertia is a measure of the manner in
which the mass of that body is distributed in relation to the axis
about which that body is rotating. It depends on the: Mass of the
body, Size of the body, Shape of the body, Axis of rotation.

Two bodies can have the same mass, but different moments of
inertia, if their mass is distributed through the bodies differently.
Parallel Axis Theorem
If the moment of inertia of a body about the axis which passes
through the centre of mass of that body is known, then the moment
of inertia of the body about any axis (which passes through any
pivot point that is parallel to the axis passes through the centre of
mass) can be calculated.
That is, If the axis of rotation is parallel to the axis that is used to
calculate the moment of inertia about the centre of mass, there is a
simple relationship between the two moments of inertia:

Ip = Icm + Md 2
where Ip is the moment of inertia about
the axis parallel to the one used to
calculate the moment of inertia about the
centre of mass, Icm is the moment of inertia about the centre of mass, M
is the mass of the body and d is the displacement of Ip from Icm .
Example

1
1. The moment of inertia around the centre of mass for a rod is 12 ML2
where L is the length of the rod. Find its moment of inertia, if
rotates about one of its ends, as shown in Figure below, using the
parallel axis theorem:

2. A body of mass 2 kg has a moment of inertia about its centre of

mass of 20kgm2 . It is then rotated about an axis which has a
displacement of (2, 3) m. Find the moment of inertia of the body
about the axis (2, 3) m.
3. The moment of inertia of an object of mass 4 kg is 15kgm2 . Use the
parallel axis theorem to find the moment of inertia about an axis
that has a displacement (12, 5) m.
4. The moment of inertia of a uniform solid sphere is 52 MR 2 . Use the
parallel axis theorem to show that the moment of inertia about any
point on its surface is 75 MR 2
Torque
Torque is the rotational effect of force. Torque is what causes an
object to acquire angular acceleration. If F is the force acting on an
object and r is the distance from the axis of rotation to the point of
application of the force, as shown in Figure below, the magnitude of
the torque is given by:

⃗τ = ⃗r × F⃗ = rF sin θn̂
where θ is the angle between r and F when they are drawn from the
same origin.
Torque is a vector quantity, meaning it has both a direction and a
magnitude. Its SI unit is Nm.
The direction of the torque is along the axis of rotation. It is
determined by a right-hand-rule: when you curl the fingers of your
right hand in the direction of the rotation, your thumb points in the
direction of the torque.
If the force (F⃗ ) and ⃗r (distance from axis of rotation) are given in
component form:

F⃗ = Fx iˆ + Fy jˆ + Fz k̂ and ⃗r = rx iˆ + ry jˆ + rz k̂

iˆ jˆ k̂
⃗
⃗τ = ⃗r × F = rx ry rz
Fx Fy Fz

= (ry Fz − rz Fy )iˆ + (rz Fx − rx Fz )jˆ + (rx Fy − ry Fx )k̂

The magnitude of torque depends on the force applied and the
length of the lever arm that connects the axis to the point where the
force is applied, and the angle between the force vector and the lever
arm or it can be determined by three Factors:
1 The magnitude of the applied force.
2 The direction of the applied force.
3 The location of the applied force.
If the angle between the force applied and the line of action of force
θ = 00 or 1800 , the force will not cause any rotation on the axis
because the force passes through the line of action of force or the
pivot point.
sin 00 = sin 1800 = 0
τ = rF sin θ = 0
The most effective force vectors to produce torque is when θ = 900
which is perpendicular to the perpendicular distance.

τ = rF sin θ

τ = rF sin 900 = rF
This is the maximum possible torque that can be obtained.
Example

1. The object in Figure below is pivoted at O. Three forces act on it in

the directions shown: F1 = 10N at 3.0 m from O; F2 = 16N at 4.0
m from O; and F3 = 19N at 8.0 m from O. What is the net torque
about O?

F2 and F3 give a torque in the counterclockwise direction (positive,

usually) and F1 gives a torque in the clockwise direction (negative
torque).
τ1 = r1 F1 sin 120 = −25.9Nm, τ2 = r2 F2 sin 150 = 32Nm
τ3 = r3 F3 sin 45 = 107.4Nm
τnet = −25.9Nm + 32Nm + 107.4Nm = 113.5Nm counterclockwise
2. Find resultant torque about axis A
for the arrangement shown in figure:
The weight of the beam is neglected.

Solution: The force acting on the pivot point has no turning effect
(torque) on that point, therefore 20N force has no torque on pivot
point A.
Clockwise torque
τcw = −(30Nx6mx sin 530 ) = −(30Nx6mx0.8) = −144Nm
Counterclockwise torque τccw = 40Nx2mx = 80Nm
The netPTorque is:
P
⃗τnet = ⃗τccw + ⃗τcw = 80Nm − 144Nm = −64Nm
⃗τnet = 64Nm counterclockwise
Torque and angular acceleration
When a number of individual forces act on a rotating object, we can
calculate the net torque:

τnet = τ1 + τ2 + τ3 + · · ·
We can relate the net torque to angular acceleration fi, by analogy
with Newton’s second law of motion (F = ma). We replace m by I
and a by α.

τ = rF = rma = rmr α = mr 2 α = I α

τ = Iα
This is the Newton’s second law in the case of rotational motion.
The angular acceleration of a rotating object is proportional to the
net torque on the object.
Example
1. A circular grinding disk of radius 0.5m and mass 100kg is rotating at
500rpm. What frictional force, applied tangent to the edge, will cause the
disk to stop in 10sec?
Solution: Disk, R = 0.5m, m = 100kg ,
ω0 = 500rpm = 500x2πrad
60s = 52.33rad/s, ω = 0, t = 10s
Then angular acceleration will be:
ω − ω0 0 − 52.33rad/s
α= = = −5.233rad/s 2
t 10s
The moment of inertia is:
1
I = MR 2 = 0.5x100kgx(0.5m)2 = 12.5kgm2
2
Applying Newton’s second law:
Iα 12.5kgm2 x(−5.233rad/s 2 )
τ = FR = I α =⇒ F = =
R 0.5m
F = −130.8225N
The negative sign appears because the force must be directed opposite to
the direction of rotation of the disk.
2. When a torque of 36 Nm is applied to a wheel, the wheel acquires
an angular acceleration of 24rad/s 2 . Find the rotational inertia of
the wheel.
τ 36nm
I = = = 1.5kgm2
α 4rad/s 2
3. A motor capable of producing a constant torque 100 Nm and a
maximum rotation speed of 150rad/s is connected to a flywheel
with rotational inertia 0.1kgm2 .
a. What angular acceleration will the flywheel experience as the motor is
switched on?
b. How long will the flywheel take to reach the maximum speed if
starting from rest?
τ 100Nm
α= = = 1000rad/s 2
I 0.1kgm2
ω − ω0 150rad/s − 0
t= = = 0.15s
α 1000rad/s 2
Second Condition of Equilibrium
The Second Condition of Equilibrium says that the net torque
acting on the object must be zero.
A rotating body or system can be in equilibrium if its rate of rotation
is constant and remains unchanged by the forces acting on it.
That is: X X
τcw = τccw

If the sum of all the external torques acting on the body is zero, a
body is said to be rotationally in equilibrium.
Rotational Kinetic Energy
Consider a rigid object rotating about a fixed axis at a certain
angular velocity (ω).

Since every particle in the object is moving, every particle has

kinetic energy.
To find the total kinetic energy of the rotating rigid body about its
axis is to sum up the kinetic energy of every particle on it.
The total translational kinetic energy can be expressed as:
1 1 1 1
K .Etotal = m1 v12 + m2 v22 + m3 v32 + · · · + mn vn2
2 2 2 2
But from the previous discussion, we have v = r ω and every particle
on the rigid bod has the same angular velocity(ω).

1 1 1 1
K .Etotal = m1 r12 ω12 + m2 r22 ω22 + m3 r32 ω32 + · · · + mn rn2 ωn2
2 2 2 2

1 1 1 1
K .Etotal = m1 r12 ω 2 + m2 r22 ω 2 + m3 r32 ω 2 + · · · + mn rn2 ω 2
2 2 2 2

1
K .Etotal = (m1 r12 + m2 r22 + m3 r32 + · · · + mn rn2 )ω 2
2
1
K .Etotal = (I1 + I2 + I3 + · · · + In )ω 2
2
n
1 X
K .Etotal = ( Ii )ω 2 = K .Erot
2
i=1
The total kinetic energy for n-particles of masses in a rigid body
then can be expressed as:
1 1
K .Erot = I ω 2 similar K .Etra = mv 2
2 2
For example, for three particles the total kinetic energy of the
particles of the rotating body can be determined by:
1
K .Etotal = (m1 r12 + m2 r22 + m3 r32 )ω 2
2
1
K .Etotal = (I1 + I2 + I3 )ω 2
2
For a point mass or a single mass this equation can be reduced to:
1
K .Etotal = (mr 2 )ω 2 = K .Erot
2
Rotational Work Done
In translational motion, work is defined as the product of a
displacement and the component of the force in the direction of the
displacement. W = FS
Consider the work done in
rotating a wheel with a
tangential force, F acting at
the edge of a wheel of radius r
as shown in the Figure.
The rotational work done by a constant torque (τ ) in turning an
object through an angle θ is:
W = FS, but S = r θ, where θ is angular displacement.
W = Fr θ = τ θ, since Fr = τ

Wrot = τ θ =⇒ Rotational work done

Rotational power
The rotational power can be
determined by dividing the rotational
work done with time t required for
the torque (τ ) to turn the wheel
through an angular displacement of
θ.
Rotational power = Rotationaltime
Work done

W τθ θ
P= t = t = τ ω, since t =ω

Prot = τ ω =⇒ Rotational Power

Therefore, the power delivered to a system that is rotating about a
fixed axis is defined as the torque times the angular velocity.
Rotational Work-Energy theorem
From Newton‘s second law for rotational motion, we have the
following relation.
ω 2 −ω02
τ = I α, But, α = 2θ

ω 2 − ω02
τ = I( )
2θ
I
τ θ = (ω 2 − ω02 )
2
1 1
Wrot = I ω 2 − I ω02
2 2
Wrot = (KErot )f − (KErot )i
Wrot = ∆KErot
Rotational work done is equivalent to change in rotational kinetic
energy just like translational motion.
Example

1. A net torque of 8 Nm acts over a full revolution of a particle in

circular motion. What is the work done by the torque?
2. A merry-go-round of radius 1.5m is pushed with force of 500N
tangent to its rim, around an angle of 54000 . How much work is
done in this process?
3. A wheel of radius 0.8m has moment of inertia of 15kgm2 . A
constant force of a 45N is applied to its rim from rest.
a) What will its angular acceleration be after 5sec?
b) What average power is developed?
4. A solid disk of mass 8kg and radius of 0.8m changes its angular
velocity from 10rad/s to 40rad/s when it turns through angle
20π-radians.
a) What is the rotational work done during this time?
b) What is the magnitude of the torque that doing this work?
Rolling Motion
Let us now understand the motion of rolling body. For this type of
motion, consider a body with circular symmetry for example
cylinder, wheel, disc, sphere · · · etc.
When such kind of a body rolls on a plane surface, the motion of
the body is a combination of translational motion and rotational
motion as shown below in the figure.

Thus, we can say that the total kinetic energy of a rolling object is
the sum of the rotational kinetic energy about the center of mass
and the translational kinetic energy of the center of mass.
Total Energy = Translational Kinetic Energy + Rotational kinetic
Energy
K .Etot = KEtra + KErot
1 1
K .Etot = mv 2 + I ω 2
2 2
When the object is rolling down along an inclined plane the total
energy of the system includes the potential energy of the body at
the start.

Total Energy = Translational Kinetic Energy + Rotational kinetic

Energy + potential Energy
K .Etot = KEtra + KErot + PE
1 1
K .Etot = mv 2 + I ω 2 + mgh
2 2
Example
1. A bowling ball is rolling without slipping at constant speed toward
the pins on a lane. What percentage of the ball‘s total kinetic
energy is translational kinetic energy?
Solution bowling ball is hollow sphere I = 32 MR 2
1 1 2 1
KErot = I ω 2 = ( MR 2 )ω 2 = MR 2 ω 2
2 2 3 3
1 1
KEtra = Mv 2 = MR 2 ω 2
2 2
1 1 5
KEtot = KErot + KEtra = MR 2 ω 2 + MR 2 ω 2 = MR 2 ω 2
3 2 6
Fraction of translational kinetic energy is:
1
KEtra MR 2 ω 2 6
%KEtra = x100% = 25 2 2
x100% = x100% = 60%
KEtot 6 MR ω
10
2. What is the acceleration of a solid sphere rolling down without
slipping a plane inclined at an angle with the horizontal as shown
below? Assume that the sphere starts from rest.
Solution
From energy conservation principle,
the potential energy of the solid
sphere at the top is converted to
rotational and translational kinetic
energy at the bottom. That is: 7
gh = v 2
10
PETOP = KErot + KEtra
h = S sin θ and v 2 = u 2 +2aS
1 2 1
Mgh = I ω + Mv 2 7
2 2 gS sin θ = 2aS
2 10
1 2 2 v 1 2
Mgh = ( MR )( 2 ) + Mv 7
2 5 R 2 g sin θ = a
5
1 2 1 2
gh = v + v 5
5 2 a = g sin θ
7
Angular Momentum
Angular momentum is momentum of a body due to its angular
velocity; its the measure of how hard it is to stop rotating body.
Angular momentum is denoted by L and measured in kgm2 /s.
Its vector quantity, has both magnitude and direction.
In translational motion, the linear momentum is defined as the
product of mass and linear velocity (p = mv ).
Angular momentum is the vector product of linear momentum (p)
and perpendicular distance (r) from the axis of rotation.
⃗L = ⃗r × p⃗ = rp sin θn̂

Similarly, the angular momentum (L) of a body rotating about a

fixed axis is defend as the product of the body‘s moment of inertia
and its angular velocity with respect to that axis:
Angular momentum = (moment of inertia)(Angular velocity)
⃗L = I ω
⃗
Angular momentum is a vector quantity. The direction of angular
velocity and angular momentum are perpendicular to the plane of
rotation.
Using the right hand rule, the direction of both angular velocity and
angular momentum is defined as the direction in which the thumb of
your right hand points when you curl your fingers in the direction of
rotation.
If the torque applied to a rotating body, it causes the angular
momentum of the body to be changed.

∆⃗L = ∆(I ω
⃗)
∆⃗L = I ∆⃗
ω
Divide both sides by ∆t

∆⃗L ∆⃗
ω
=I = Iα
⃗ = ⃗τ
∆t ∆t
∆⃗
ω
The quantity ∆t is angular acceleration α
⃗ and I α
⃗ = ⃗τ (torque).

∆⃗L
⃗τ =
∆t
The generalized form of Newton’s second law in rotation.
Rearrange the above equation:

⃗τ ∆t = ∆⃗L

The quantity ⃗τ ∆t is called angular impulse (J⃗ )

J⃗ = ⃗τ ∆t = ∆⃗L
Angular Impulse is the change in angular momentum of a rotating
body caused by a torque acting over a certain time

J⃗ = ⃗τ ∆t = ∆⃗L
∆⃗L = I ω
⃗ − I0 ω⃗0
The quantities I ω is final angular momentum (L⃗f ), I0 ω⃗0 is initial
angular momentum (L⃗i ).

J⃗ = ⃗τ ∆t = ∆⃗L = L⃗f − L⃗i = I ω

⃗ − I0 ω⃗0
Law of Conservation of angular momentum: If the sum of the
external torques acting on a body or system of bodies is zero, the
angular momentum remains unchanged.
Note: This statement holds true even if the rotating boy is not rigid
but is altered so that its moment of inertia (I) changes. In this case,
the angular speed (ω) also changes so that the product (I ω) always
remain constant.
From the equation
τ ∆t = ∆L = Lf − Li
if torque is zero (τ = 0)

0 = ∆L =⇒ 0 = Lf − Li =⇒ Lf = Li =⇒ If ωf = I0 ω0

If ωf = I0 ω0 =⇒ I2 ω2 = I1 ω1
Example

1 A thin uniform rod is 1m long and has mass of 6kg . The rod set
into rotation with angular speed of 15rad/s. Compute its angular
momentum if the rod is pivoted at its
a) center, b) end point.
2 A wheel of moment of inertia 1kgm2 is rotating at a speed of
40rad/s . Due to friction on the axis, the wheel comes to rest in 10
minutes. Calculate the angular momentum of the wheel, two
minutes before it comes to rest.
3 No external torque acts on a skater. Her moment of inertia is
initially 60kgm2 . Her angular velocity is 0.2rads −1 at the beginning
of a spin. She brings in her arms and her angular velocity increases
so that her moment of inertia decreases to 50kgm2 . Find her final
angular velocity.
4. A flywheel rotates without friction at an angular velocity of
600rev /min on friction-less, vertical shaft of neglecting rotational
inertia. A second flywheel, which is at rest and has a moment of
inertia three times that of the rotating flywheel, is dropped onto it
and due to friction existing between the surfaces, the flywheels spin
together and quickly reach at the same rotational velocity.
a. Use the law of conservation of angular momentum to determine the
angular velocity of the combination.
b. What fraction of the initial kinetic energy is lost in the coupling of
the flywheels?
2.3 Universal Gravitation

The universe is everything. It includes all of space, and all the

matter and energy that space contains. It consist of, stars, comets,
asteroids, all planets and their moons.
The sun is one among hundreds of billions of stars in the Milky Way
galaxy, and most of those stars have their own planets. The Milky
Way is one of billions of galaxies in the observable universe.
The universe is very wide that nobody knows how wide it is.
Scientist believes that it is still expanding. Let us see some of the
facts that scientist discovered about the universe.
People have observed the movements of the planets, stars, and
other celestial bodies for thousands of years.
The planets orbit the Sun. They maintain their respective distances
from the Sun. They do not cross each other as they revolve around
the Sun. Kepler’s laws describe how planetary bodies orbit around
the Sun.
Humans have observed the movements of the planets, stars, and
other celestial objects for thousands of years.
In early history, these observations led scientists to regard Earth as
the center of the Universe. This geocentric model was elaborated
and formalized by the Greek astronomer Claudius Ptolemy
(c.100–c.170) in the second century and was accepted for the next
1400 years.
In 1543, Polish astronomer Nicolas Copernicus (1473–1543)
suggested that Earth and the other planets revolved in circular orbits
around the Sun (the heliocentric model).
Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe (1546–1601) wanted to determine
how the universe was constructed and pursued a project to
determine the positions of both stars and planets. His observations
of the planets and stars visible from Earth were carried out using
only a large sextant and a compass. (The telescope had not yet
been invented.)
German astronomer Johannes Kepler was Brahe’s assistant for a
short while before Brahe’s death, where upon he acquired his
mentor’s astronomical data. Kepler spent 16 years trying to deduce
a mathematical model for the motion of the planets. Such data are
difficult to sort out because the moving planets are observed from a
moving Earth.
After many lengthy calculations, Kepler found that Brahe’s data on
the revolution of Mars around the Sun led to a successful model.
Kepler’s complete analysis of planetary motion is summarized in
three statements known as Kepler’s laws
Planetary motion and Kepler’s laws
Kepler’s first law
Kepler’s first law is sometimes referred to as the law of ellipses. It
states that the orbit of a planet around the Sun is an ellipse (near
circular, oval) with the Sun at one focus (Figure a).
The planet follows the ellipse in its orbit, meaning that the
planet-to-Sun distance is constantly changing as the planet goes
around its orbit. An ellipse is a closed curve such that the sum of
the distances from a point on the curve (r1 + r2 ) to the two foci, f1
and f2 is constant, as shown in Figure b.
Kepler’s second law
Kepler’s second law is sometimes referred to as the law of equal
areas. It describes the speed at which any given planet will move
while orbiting the Sun. Basically, it states that planets do not move
with constant speed along their orbits.
Instead, their speed varies so that the line joining the centers of the
Sun and the planet sweeps out equal area in equal times. The point
at which a planet is nearest the Sun is called perihelion. The point
of greatest separation is aphelion.
Hence Kepler’s second Law, a planet is moving fastest when it is at
perihelion and slowest at aphelion.
Kepler’s second law states that each planet moves so that an
imaginary line drawn from the sun to the planet sweeps out
equal areas in equal times interval.
Consider Figure below. The time it takes a planet to move from
position A to B, sweeping out area A1 ,is exactly the time taken to
move from position C to D, sweeping area A2 and to move from E
to F, sweeping out area A3 . These areas are the same:
A1 = A2 = A3
Comparing the areas in the Figure below and the distance traveled
along the ellipse in each case, we can see that in order for the areas
to be equal, the planet must speed up as it gets closer to the Sun
and slow down as it moves away.
Kepler’s Third law
Kepler’s third law compares the orbital period and the average
radius of orbit of a planet to those of other planets. Unlike Kepler’s
first and second laws that describe the motion characteristics of a
single planet, the third law makes a comparison between the motion
characteristics of different planets. The period (T) of a planet is the
time for one complete revolution around the Sun.
Kepler’s third law implies that the period for a planet to orbit the
Sun increases rapidly with the radius of its orbit. Thus we find that
Mercury, the innermost planet, takes only 88 days to orbit the Sun.
Earth takes 365 days, while Saturn requires 10,759 days to do the
same.
Kepler’s third law states that, the squares of the periods (T) of
revolution of the planets are directly proportional to the cubes
of their mean distances(r) from the Sun.

T2 ∝ r3
 2
The ratio Tr 3 , where T is the time period and r is the average
distance from the sun is the same for all planets.

T2
= K constant
r3
K is a proportionality constant which is nearly the same for all
planets. Kepler’s third law equation is valid for both circular and
elliptical orbits. Notice that the constant of proportionality is
independent of the mass of the planet. Therefore, the equation is
valid for any planet.
As an illustration, consider the orbital period and average distance
from Sun (orbital radius) for Earth and Mars as given in table below.
Table, The orbital period and average distance from the Sun for
Earth and Mars.

Observe that the T 2 /r 3 ratio is the same for Earth as it is for Mars.
In fact, the T 2 /r 3 ratio is the same for the other planets.
For example for two planets, we have the following relationship and
so on.
T12 T22
= K =
r13 r23
 2  3
T12 T22 T12 r13 T1 r1
3
= 3 or 2 = 3 or =
r1 r2 T2 r2 T2 r2
Example
1. Find the period of revolution of Venus if its mean distance from the
sun is about 0.72times that of the earth. The period for the Earth is
1year.

Given: TE = 1year = 365.25 days, RV = 0.72RE

Required: TV = ?
From the relation:
T12 R13 TE2 RE3 2 TE2 RV3
= =⇒ = =⇒ T V =
T22 R23 TV2 RV3 RE3
(1year )2 (0.72)3 RE3
TV2 = = (1year )2 (0.72)3
RE3
√
TV = 1year 0.373248 = 365.25daysx0.611 = 224days
2. Earth has an orbital period of 365 days and its mean distance from
the Sun is 1.495 × 108 km. The planet Pluto’s mean distance from
the Sun is 5.896 × 109 km. Using Kepler’s third law, calculate
Pluto’s orbital period in Earth days?
Solution:
The given quantities are: TE = 365days, rE = 1.495 × 108 km
rP = 5.896 × 109 km
We use Kepler’s third law to calculate Pluto’s orbital period.
s 
TE2 3
rE rp 3
= 3 =⇒ Tp = TE
Tp2 rp rE
s
5.896 × 109 km 3

Tp = (365days) = 90, 399.8 days
1.495 × 108 km
3. If Saturn is on average 9 times farther from the Sun than Earth is,
what is this distance in Earth years?
Solution TE = 1 year , rS = 9rE
Applying Kepler’s third law
s 3
TE2 rE3 rs
= =⇒ Ts = TE
Ts2 rs3 rE
s
9rE 3

Ts = (1year ) = 27 years
rE
Newton’s law of universal Gravitation
Planets orbit the Sun. If we look more closely at the Solar System,
we see almost unimaginable numbers of stars, galaxies, and other
celestial objects orbiting one another and interacting through
gravity. All these motions are governed by gravitational force.
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) pointed out that heavy and light objects
fall toward Earth at the same rate (so long as air resistance is the
same for each). But it took Sir Isaac Newton (in 1666) to realize
that this force of attraction between masses is universal.
Newton proved that the force that causes, for example, an apple to
fall toward the ground is the same force that causes the Moon to fall
around, or orbit, Earth. This universal force also acts between the
Earth and the Sun, or any other star and its satellites. Each attracts
the other.
Newton defined this attraction mathematically. The force of
attraction between two masses is directly proportional to the
product of their masses and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between their centers, along a line
joining the centers of mass of the two bodies.
m1 m2
Fg = G
r2

Where G is a constant, called the universal gravitational

constant, m1 is the first mass, m2 is the second mass, and r is the
distance between the two masses.
G is a universal constant, meaning that it is thought to be the same
everywhere in the Universe. The value G in SI units is:

G = 6.67 × 10−11 Nm2 /kg 2

The gravitational force is always attractive, and it depends only on
the masses involved and the distance between them.
The force is directed along the line joining the two masses, as shown
in Figure above.
The magnitude of the force on each body is the same but the
direction is opposite, consistent with Newton’s third law,
action-reaction (F12 = −F21 .)
Example

1. A 10 kg mass and a 100 kg mass are 1 meter apart. What is the

force of attraction between them?

10kg × 100kg
Fg = 6.673Nm2 /kg 2 = 6.67 × 10−8 N
(1m)2
2. If a person has a mass of 60.0 kg, what would be the force of
gravitational attraction on him at Earth’s surface?

(60kg )(5.97 × 1024 kg )

Fg = 6.673Nm2 /kg 2 = 584N
(6.38 × 106 m)2

We can check this result with the relationship:

Fg = mg = 60kg × 8.9m/s 2 = 588N

3. Find the gravitational force between the
Earth and the Moon. The mass of the
Moon is 7.35x1022 kg , the mass of the
Earth is 5.98x1024 kg and the distance
between them is approximately 3x109 m.
Given:
ME = 5.98x1024 kg , Mm = 7.35x1022 kg
2
r = 3x109 m, G = 6.67x10−11 Nm
kg 2

ME Mm 2 24 22
−11 Nm 5.98x10 kgx7.35x10 kg
F =G = 6.67x10
r2 kg 2 (3x109 m)2

2.93x1037
F = N = 3.257x1018 N
9x1018
Gravitational field strength around the Earth
The gravitational field strength is the acceleration due to gravity.
The gravitational field strength varies as we go away from the
surface of the Earth.
It gets smaller as we go further away from the center of the Earth.
It can be determined from Newton‘s Law of universal gravitation.
The law of universal gravitation tells us that the force on a body
acted upon by Earth’s gravity is given by:
ME m
F =G
r2
This force is equivalent to the weight of the object.

F = mg

Equating the above two equations. g = G Mr 2E

The r in the equation g = G Mr 2E is r = RE + h
Where:
RE = 6.4x106 m: is the radius of the Earth
h: is height above the surface of the earth.
As shown in the figure below

ME ME
gh = G =G
r2 (RE + h)2
On the surface of the Earth, where h = 0 the value of g is given as:

ME ME
g =G =G 2
(RE + h)2 RE
5.98x1024 kg
= 6.67x10−11 Nm2 /kg 2 = 9.8N/kg = 9.8m/s 2
(6.38x106 m)2
From the equation:

ME
g =G =⇒ gRE2 = GME
RE2
Therefore the gravitational strength (gh ) at any point h above the Earth
surface is given as:

2 2
R2
 
ME RE RE
gh = G 2 = g 2E = 9.81m/s 2 = 9.81m/s 2
r r r RE + h
Example
1. Find the value of g at a distance of 20 km above the surface of the
Earth.
solution: h = 20km = 2x104 m

2 2
6.38 × 106 m
 
RE 2
gh = g = 9.81m/s
RE + h (6.38 × 106 m + 2 × 104 m)
= 9.8m/s 2 (0.9937) = 9.74m/s 2
2. What is the gravitational field strength at a point 50km away from
the surface of the Earth?
solution: h = 50km = 5x104 m

2 2
6.38 × 106 m
 
RE 2
gh = g = 9.81m/s
RE + h (6.38 × 106 m + 5x104 m)
= 9.8m/s 2 × 0.9845 = 9.65m/s 2
Orbital Period and Orbital Speed of Planets
It is possible to derive Kepler’s third law from Newton’s law of
universal gravitation.
A force that pulls an object towards the centre of a circle is called
centripetal force as shown in Figure below. The source for the
centripetal force in the Solar System is the gravitational force of the
Sun.

Without the centripetal force from the Sun the planets would travel
in a straight line. The velocity of the planets is high enough so that
they continuously accelerate towards the Sun without ever leaving
their orbits.
It is for this reason that the planets do not fall into the sun from its
strong gravitational force of attraction. Applying Newton’s second
law of motion to circular motion gives an expression for centripetal
force.

mv 2
Fc =
r
where v is the tangential speed and r is the radius of the orbit and
m is mass of the planet.
The gravitational attraction of the Sun provides the centripetal force
needed to keep planets in orbit around the Sun. Earth’s gravity
keeps the Moon and all types of satellite in orbit around Earth.
Because the gravitational force provides the centripetal acceleration
of the planet, it follows that:

mp v 2 m p Ms
=G
r r2
mp is mass of the planet, Ms is mass of the sun
(Ms = 1.989 × 1030 kg ) and v is the speed of the plane about the
sun.

Ms
v2 = G
r
The orbital speed of the planet also written as:
2πr
v=
T
where T is the period of the planet about the Sun.
Thus
(2πr )2 Ms
2
=G
T r

T2 4π 2
= = 2.97 × 10−19 s 2 /m3
r3 GMs
This equation is Kepler’s third law: the square of the period is
proportional to the cube of the distance of the planet from the Sun.
The proportionality constant K takes the value:

4π 2
K= ≈ 2.97 × 10−19 s 2 /m3
GMs
The above equation is therefore valid for any planet.
If we were to consider the orbit of a satellite such as the Moon
about the Earth, the constant would have a different value, with the
Sun’s mass replaced by the Earth’s mass; that is

4π 2
K= ≈ 9.28 × 10−14 s 2 /m3
GME
Satellite
A satellite is any smaller body that orbits around another larger body in
space.

There are two different types of satellites – natural and man-made.

Examples of natural satellites are the Earth and Moon.

The Earth rotates around the Sun and the Moon rotates around the
Earth.

Therefore, the moon is the natural satellite of the Earth whereas the
Earth is the natural satellite of the Sun.

A man-made or artificial satellite is a machine that is launched into space

and orbits around a body in space.

Examples of man-made satellites include the Hubble Space Telescope

and the International Space Station.
Man-made satellites come in many shapes and size and have different
pieces of instruments on them to perform different functions while in
space.
Satellites are built by engineers and take months sometimes even years to
build.
The satellites have to endure many tests to make sure the satellite can
withstand the launch and the harsh environment of space.
On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union successfully launched the earth’s
first man-made satellite called Sputnik I and placed in orbit around the
Earth.
This successful launch came as a shock to experts and citizens in the
United States, who had hoped that the United States would accomplish
this scientific advancement first.
Finally, on January 31, 1958, the US made it into space with the
successful launch of satellite called Explorer I.
Ethiopia has launched its first observatory satellite (ETRSS - 1) into
space with China‘s help on Friday, Dec. 20, 2019 according to local
reports.

The 70 kilogram remote sensing satellite is to be used for agricultural,

climate, mining and environmental observations, allowing the Horn of
Africa to collect data and improve its ability to plan for changing weather
patterns for example.

Satellites must be designed specifically to fulfill their role.

They can be classified by their function since they are launched into
space to do specific job.

The first types are Geostationary satellites.

Geostationary (Geosynchronous ) satellites
These satellites are placed (parked) into orbit around the equator at a
distance of around 35,800 km from the earth‘s surface.
These satellites revolve together with the Earth.
That means, they rotate in the same direction as the earth and one
revolution of such satellites is the same as one day on earth or 24 hours.

T = 24hr = 86, 400s

So the period of revolution of Geostationary Satellite is 24hours.

Geostationary Satellites orbit above the equator with the same angular
velocity as the Earth.
These satellites are used as communication satellites and to forecast
weather condition.
How can we determine the height of Geostationary satellites above the
Earth‘s surface? It can be determined from Newton‘s Law of gravitation.
Consider the circular orbit of the satellite and using m as mass of the
satellite and M as mass of the Earth.
The centripetal force that provided by the gravitational force between t
hem keeps these satellites in a circular orbit of distance r .

Centripetal force = Gravitational force

v2 Mm M
m = G 2 =⇒ v 2 = G
r r r
2πr 4π 2 r 2
For one complete revolution we know that, v = T =⇒ v 2 = T2
Therefore;

4π 2 r 2 M GM 2
=G =⇒ r 3 = T
T2 r 4π 2
6.67x10−11 Nm2 /kg 2 x5.98x1024 kgx
r3 = (86, 400s)2
4x(3.14)2
r 3 = 7, 549, 795, 973.87x1013 m3
p
r= 3
7, 549, 795, 973.87x1013 m3 = 4226.476x104 m = 42, 264.76km
This is the distance of the Geostationary satellite from the center of the
Earth.
Subtracting the radius of the Earth from this value, we get the height or
altitude of the satellite from the surface of the Earth. That is:

h = r − R = 4226.476x104 m − 6.4x106 m

h = 35, 864, 760m = 35, 864.76km

The velocity of this satellite also can be determined from:

2πr 2x3.14x4226.476x104 m
v= = = 3072m/s = 3.072km/s
T 86, 400s
Orbital Velocity of satellites

All Earth‘s satellites are launched from sites as close to the equator as
possible and positioned at the required distance from the earth.
Each satellite moves at a particular velocity in its orbit.
This velocity is called Orbital velocity of satellites. It can be calculated
simply from the equation:
2πr
v=
T
Consider a very nearly circular motion of a satellite that moves around
the Earth with a constant speed, example the Moon.
The centripetal force that keeps it to follow a circular motion is given by:

mv 2
Fc =
r
From Newton’s law of universal gravitation the force of attraction
between Earth and Satellite:
Mm
F =G 2
r
where: M mass of Earth, m mass of satellite, r distance from Earth’s
center to satellite.
Equating the above two equations
Fc = F
mv 2 Mm M
= G 2 =⇒ v 2 = G
r r r
Therefore;
r
M
v= G
r
This equation is the orbital velocity of a satellite and it can be applied to
all satellites. But we know that r = R + h
s
GM
v=
(R + h)

Also GM = gh r 2
r r
M gh r 2 √ p
v= G = = gh r = gh (R + h)
r r

√
q q
G Mr = (R+h)
GM
p
v= or v = gh r = gh (R + h)
Critical velocity(vc )
Critical velocity of a satellite is the constant horizontal velocity given to
the satellite to keep it in a stable circular orbit.
Keep in mind that critical velocity is the minimum velocity required to
put a satellite into an orbit.
This is calculated as:
s
GM p
vc = = gh (R + h)
(R + h)

Assuming that h << R =⇒ r = R + h = R

r
GM p
vc = = gR
R
We can see that the critical velocity depends on the radius of the earth,
mass of the earth and gravitational constant, so we can say that critical
velocity is constant for the given planet because G, R, M and g are
constant.
For Earth, g = 9.81m/s 2 , M = 5.98x1024 kg , R = 6.4x106 m,
G = 6.67x10−11 Nm2 /kg 2
r
GM p
vc = = gR
R
q
= 8.91m/s 2 x6.4x106 m
= 7, 923.6m/s = 7.9236km/s
Orbital Period of a satellite

This is the time taken by the satellite to complete one revolution around
the planet or Earth is known as the period of revolution of the satellite.
It is denoted by “T”.
Let us consider a satellite of mass ‘m’ orbiting around the Earth at a
height ‘h’ from the surface of the Earth with orbital velocity given by:
r
GM
v=
r
We know that, for one full cycle velocity can also be given by:
2πr
v=
T
Equating this two equations
r
GM 2πr
=
r T
Squaring both sides
GM 4π 2 r 2
=
r T2
Crossing the equation
GMT 2 = 4π 2 r 3

(4π 2 ) 3
T2 = GM r
For the given planet or heavenly body in the space the quantity in the
bracket is constant, hence we can conclude that:

(4π 2 ) 3
T2 = r
GM
(4π 2 )
= k : constant
GM
T 2 = Kr 3
T2 ∝ r3 Kepler ′ s 3rd law
Thus the square of the period of a satellite is directly proportional to the
cube of the radius of its orbit. This is Kepler‘s third law, with K is:

4π 2
K= ≈ 9.28 × 10−14 s 2 /m3
GME
Now let us express ‘T’ in terms of acceleration due to gravity. Take
GM = r 2 gh and r = R + h.
(4π 2 ) 3 (4π 2 ) 2 r2
T2 = r = 2 r r = 4π 2 r 2
GM r gh r gh
s
4π 2 r
r
2 r (R + h)
T = =⇒ T = 2π = 2π
gh gh gh
where gh is acceleration due to gravity at a height h
This is an expression for the period of a satellite orbiting around the
Earth at a height h in terms of gh .
For satellite orbiting very close to surface of the earth,
(h << R =⇒ r = R + h = R), gh = g
s
R
T = 2π
g
where g is acceleration due to gravity on the surface of the Earth. This is
an expression for the period of a satellite orbiting very close to the
Earth‘s surface,(i.e when h << R and gh = g ).
Escape Velocity

You have seen that rockets leaving the earth to go into space.
We know satellites require a very huge kick-start in order to leave the
surface of the earth or the strong gravitational field.
Thus, this is where escape velocity comes in.
Escape Velocity is referred to as the minimum velocity needed by
anybody or object to be projected or launched to overcome the
gravitational pull of the earth.
In other words, the minimum velocity that one requires to escape the
gravitational field is called escape velocity because it‘s just enough speed
to escape the gravitational pull of the Earth or other planets.
Therefore, any object or body having escape velocity on the surface of
the earth can totally escape the gravitational field of the earth or
escaping the land without any chance of falling back.
Escaped satellites have unbounded orbits as shown in the figure.
Escape velocity equation can be obtained by equating the kinetic energy
of an object with mass m and traveling with a velocity of v and
gravitational potential energy of the same object.
For a planet (Earth) of mass M and radius R, the potential energy of a
satellite of mass m at the planet’s (Earth‘s) surface is:

Mm
U=G
R
If the satellite is launched with a speed of v upwards, it will have an
amount of kinetic energy given by:
1
Ek = mv 2
2
If this kinetic energy is enough to supply what is needed, it can escape.
That is for a satellite to escape, all of its potential energy must be
converted into kinetic energy,

Ek = U
1 2 Mm
mv = G
2 R
1 2 M
v =G
2 R
r
M 2GM
v 2 = 2G =⇒ ve = escape velocity
R R
But we know GM is constant and expressed as GM = gR 2 , previously
derived. Then escape velocity will be:
r r
2GM 2gR 2 p
ve = = = 2gR
R R
Therefore;

q
2GM √
ve = R = 2gR

Notice
The above equation is the escape velocity of the rocket - the
minimum velocity required to escape the gravitational pull of Earth.
Note that the escape velocity is independent of the mass of the
rocket m.
The mass is reflected in both the potential energy provided by
Earth’s gravity as well as the kinetic energy provided by the
movement of the rocket.
Example

Find the escape velocity for a satellite that leaving the Earth. The radius
of the Earth is R = 6.4x106 m and take g = 9.81m/s 2 .
p
ve = 2gR
q
= 2x9.81m/s 2 x6.4x106 m
q
= 125, 568, 000m2 /s 2 = 11, 205.71m/s = 11.2km/s
Escape velocity depends on the mass and radius of the celestial body.
From the above relation, it is obvious that escape velocities for larger
planets (or celestial bodies) is greater since it will have a larger mass
compared to smaller planets with a lower mass (having less gravity in
comparison).

In our solar system, Jupiter has the highest escape velocity while Mercury
has the lowest escape velocity.

The difference between orbital velocity and escape velocity is that escape
velocity is the speed that is required to reach the orbit of a planet or star
whereas orbital velocity is the speed that is required to stay on the orbit.
Escape Velocity of some celestial bodies
Celestial Body Escape Velocity (Approximately)
Sun 618km/s
Moon 2.38km/s
Mercury 4.25km/s
Earth 11.2km/s
Jupiter 59.5km/s or 60.2km/s
Ceres
(largest asteroid in 0.64km/s
the asteroid belt)
 The End

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