PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER

Chemistry is the study of how matter behaves-it is about the composition, structure and
properties of matter. The basic constituents of matter are atoms and molecules. So chemistry is
called the science of atoms and molecules.

MATTER

This is anything that has mass and occupies a space. It is the word used for all substances and
materials from which the physical universe is composed. For example, book, pencil, water, air,
all living things etc are composed of matter.

Three states of matter

Matter can exist in three physical states, namely solids, liquids and gases.

Solids

A solid, at a given temperature, has definite volume and shape which may be affected by
changes in temperature. Solids usually increase slightly in size when heated (expansion) and
usually decrease in size when cooled (contraction).

Kinetic particles theory in solid

In solids, the particles are held very close to each other in orderly fashion or regular manner, and
there is no much freedom of movement between them. This is as a result of very strong forces of
attraction between the particles of the solids and explains why solids form crystals. The particles
therefore vibrate about a fixed point when heated.
Liquids

Liquids, at given temperature, have fixed volume but no definite shape. They take the shape of
the container in which they are poured or placed. Like solids, liquids’ volume is slightly affected
by changes in temperature.

In liquids, the particles are close to each other but they can move around, sliding or colliding
with each other and the wall of the container. This is because of the strong forces of attraction
between the particles of liquids.

Gases

A gas, at a given temperature, has neither definite volume nor definite shape. They completely
occupy or spread out evenly within the container in which they are poured. Unlike solids and
liquids, the volume of gases is affected greatly by changes in temperature.

In gases, the particles are far apart as compared to those of solids and liquids and their movement
is easy and fast or is in random motion at very high speed because of the very weak forces of
attraction between the particles.

Effect of pressure

The volume of a solid is unaffected by applying pressure. Liquids and gases, on the other hand,
are relatively compressible. This means that their volume can be reduced by the application of
pressure. However, gases are much compressible than liquids.

Kinetic particle theory of matter

The kinetic theory of matter helps to explain the way matter behaves. It is based on the fact that
matter is up of tiny particles. This theory explains the physical properties of matter in terms of
the movement of particles from which it is made. The main points of the theory are:

 All matter is made up of tiny, moving particles, invisible to your eye. Different
substances have different types of particles (atoms, molecules or ions) of varying sizes.
 The particles move all the time. The higher the temperature, the faster they move on
average.
 Heavier particles move more slowly than lighter ones at a given temperature.
 States of matter

The three states of matter as explained using kinetic particles theory are summarized in the table
below.

Properties Solid Liquid Gases

Size Has a definite/fixed Has a fixed/definite Has no fixed volume. It
volume volume expand to fill its container
Shape Has definite/fixed shape Takes the shape of its Takes the shape of its
container container
Parking between particles Very closely packed Closely packed Loosely packed
Forces of attraction between Very strong forces of Strong forces of attraction Very weak forces of
particles. attraction attraction
Motion of particles Particles vibrate about a Particles slide over each Particles are in random
fixed position other motion
Diagrammatic representation
of the particles.

Particles only vibrate within Particles move freely and

fixed positions. Regular Particles have freedom to
at random in all the space
structure. move and they can move
available. Collide less
round each other. Collide
often than in liquids.
often.

Note: When drawing diagrammatic representation of a liquid, the particle ought to be drawn
sinking towards the bottom and not evenly spread throughout the container. This is because of
the gravitational pull.

CHANGE OF STATES OF MATTER

The kinetic theory model can be used to how substance changes from one state to another. If a
solid is heated, the particles vibrate faster as they gain kinetic energy. This makes them ‘push’
their neighbouring particles further away. This cause an increase in the volume of the solid, such
that the solid expands, and we can say that expansion has taken place. Eventually, the heat
energy causes the forces of attraction to weaken. The regular pattern of the structure breaks
down, and the particles can now move around each other (slide over each other). The solid has
melted. The temperature at which this takes place is called the melting point of the substance.
The temperature of a melting pure solid will not rise until it has all melted.
NB: Solids which have high melting points have stronger forces of attraction between their
particles than those which have low melting points.

These three states of matter are interconvertible by changing the conditions of temperature and
pressure. On heating, a solid usually changes to a liquid (melting), on further heating changes to
gas or vapour (vapourisation or evaporation).

In the reverse process, a gas on cooling changes to liquid (condensation) and the liquid on
further cooling changes to solid (freezing or fusion).

Melting

It is the change of state from solid to liquid. The temperature at which this occurs is called
melting point. This always happens at one particular temperature for each pure substance. For
instance,

 Ice changes to water at 00C when it is heated. This change is called melting while 0 0C is
its melting point.
 Naphthalene melts at 800C when it is heated.
Evaporation

It is the change of state from liquid to gas. For instance, when water is heated its changes to
vapour as the temperature rises. Also, after rain, puddles (shallow pool of water like one formed
by rainwater in123 a hollow on a road) dry up. This change is called evaporation.

 Evaporation takes place from the surface. That is, a liquid evaporates if it is left with its
surface exposed to the air.
 The larger the surface area, the faster a liquid evaporates.
 Also, the hotter a liquid is, the faster it evaporates.

Note: Heat or Energy is required for a substance to change from a solid to a liquid and then to a
gas.

Boiling

Evaporation takes place at the surface of a liquid. But at a certain temperature, the liquid
becomes hot enough for gas to form within the liquid not just at the surface. At this point,
bubbles of gas appear inside the liquid. The liquid, at this point, is said to be boiling. And it takes
place at a specific temperature known as boiling point for each pure liquid. For water, it is 100 0C
and 780C for ethanol.

Boiling Point and Atmospheric Pressure

The boiling point of a liquid can change if the surrounding pressure changes. The value given for
boiling point is usually stated at the pressure of the atmosphere at sea level (atmospheric pressure
or standard pressure).

 If the surrounding pressure falls, the boiling point falls. For example, the boiling point of
water is 1000C but on a high mountain, it is lower than 100 0C.
 If the surrounding pressure increases, the boiling point rises. For instance, in a pressure
cooker, the boiling point of water is raised to around 1200C. Food therefore cooks more
easily at this higher temperature.

Volatility

A volatile liquid is one that evaporates easily because it has a relatively low boiling point.
Volatile liquid has low boiling point therefore evaporate more easily. In other words, the lower
the b.p. of a liquid, the faster it evaporates. Ethanol (b.p. 78 0C) is a more volatile liquid than
water (b.p. 1000C).
Condensation

This is the change of state form gas to liquid. It is actually the opposite or reverse of evaporation.
For instance, steam, on cooling, changes to water.

Freezing

Freezing is the change of state from liquid to solid and the temperature at which it takes place is
called freezing point. Water on cooling, for instance, changes to ice at 0 0C. It is the opposite of
melting

Note:

 The melting point and the freezing point of any pure substance take place at the same
temperature. For example, the melting point of ice (00C) is the same as the freezing point
of water (00C).
 Heat or Energy is not required for a substance to change from a gas to a liquid and then to
a solid. This change of state takes place by a process called cooling.

Sublimation

This is a change of state from solid directly to gas and vice versa i.e. without first becoming a
liquid. Examples of substances that undergo sublimation are carbon dioxide (dry ice), iodine etc.

Temperature-Time Graph (Heating Curve)

Solid – the particles are closely packed in a purely solid state, only vibrating about fixed points
as the temperature rises.

Melting - the particles have gained sufficient energy to move further apart but there is no rise in
temperature and the temperature remains constant until the whole solid changes to liquid. Two
states, solid and liquid, exist here. This is called melting.

Liquid – the particles are in a purely liquid state, gaining more energy, sliding over each other as
the temperature rises.

Boiling – the particles of the liquid gains sufficient energy and slide over each other till they
overcome the forces of attraction between them, moving randomly, very fast and far apart. Like
melting, there is no rise in temperature at this point and the temperature remains constant until
the whole liquid has changed into a gas. This is called boiling point or evaporation.

Gas – the particles are in a purely gaseous state, gaining more energy and rising in temperature.

Note: At melting and boiling points of any substance, there is no change in temperature i.e. a
constant temperature is maintained over a period of time a substance undergoes a change in state.
This means that the melting and boiling points of a pure substance are fixed. For instance, pure
water melts and boils at 00C and 1000C respectively.

Heating Curve of Mixture

On the other hand, the heating curve for wax, which is a mixture of substances, shows the solid
wax melting over a range of temperature.

Temperature-Time Graph (Cooling Curve)

The reverse process can be shown if a sample of gas is allowed to cool. This produces a cooling
curve. The level portions of the curve occur where the gas condenses to a liquid and where the
liquid freezes. In other words, the temperature stays constant while the gas condenses and while
the liquid freezes.

Differences between boiling and evaporation

Boiling Evaporation

Occur at a fixed or constant temperature Occur at any temperature

Occur rapidly throughout the liquid Occur slowly at the surface of the liquid
DIFFUSION

Diffusion of a substance is the movement of particles from a region of higher concentration of

the substance to the lower concentration of the same substance down a concentration gradient.

Diffusion in Fluids

The idea that fluids (liquid and gas) are made of moving particles can help us to explain the
process involving “diffusion.”

 When a crystal of potassium manganate (VII) is dropped in a dish of water and left to
stand. At first, the water around the crystal becomes purple as the solid dissolves, and
eventually the crystal dissolves completely and the whole solution becomes purple. The
particles from the solid become evenly spread through the water. That is, their
concentration is the same throughout.

A solid food colorant dissolving in water

This spreading of the solute particles throughout the liquid is an example of diffusion..

The diffusion in solution is also important when the solute is a gas. This is especially important
in breathing, for instance

 Diffusion contributes to the movement of oxygen from the lungs and of carbon dioxide
form the blood to the lungs.
The Diffusion in Gases

All gases diffuse to fill the space available to them. Examples

 When a few drop of bromine gas is put into a jar as shown and the lid is replaced, the
bromine gas will vapourise to fill the jar after a short time. The jar becomes full of
reddish brown gas. A gas jar full of air is then placed on top of the gas jar full of bromine
vapour and the jar lid is removed. The reddish brown vapour spreads throughout the two
jars over a period of time.

This is because the bromine particles move up from the lower jar into spaces between the air
particles in the upper jar. Likewise the air particles moved downwards into the bottom jar until
the two different kinds of particles get evenly mixed up. This is evidence that gases diffuse or
spread to fill all the space available to them.

Diffusion is important for sensing the world around us. It is the way smells reach us, whether
they are pleasant or harmful. For instance:

 When perfume is sprayed in one corner of a room, the particles spread until the scent is
detected in all part of the room.

Rate of Diffusion

Gases diffuse at different rate. The rate depends on two factors:

Temperature

The higher the temperature, the faster the rate of diffusion. This is because particles at higher
temperature have more kinetic energy and hence are able to move at greater speed from region of
higher concentration to a less concentrated region.

Molecular mass of the particles

At a given or any temperature, lighter particles diffuse faster than heavier ones. The reaction
between hydrogen chloride and ammonia gas can be used as evidence as follows:

 A piece of cotton wool is soaked in concentrated hydrochloric acid and another in

concentrated ammonia solution.
 These are put at opposite ends of a dry glass tube.
 After sometimes, a white ring close to the end of the hydrochloric acid than that of
ammonia solution is formed.

Explanation

This is because the hydrogen chloride molecules have a larger molecular mass compared to those
of the ammonia molecules. Hence, the ammonia particles, being lighter, move much faster than
the hydrogen chloride particles. This means that the lower the molecular mass of a substance, the
faster it diffuses.

The two different particles meet nearer the hydrochloric acid end and reacting to form a white
solid known as ammonium chloride

Note:

 Diffusion does not take place in solids.

 Diffusion in liquids is much slower than in gases.
Brownian motion

The evidence for the movement of particles in liquids came to light in 1827 by a botanist, Robert
Brown. He observed that fine pollen grains on the surface of water were not stationary. Through
his microscope he noticed that the grains were moving about in a random fashion.

Ninety six years later, in 1923, another scientist called Norbert Wiener explained what Brown’s
observation. He said pollen grains were moving because the much smaller and faster moving
molecules were constantly colliding with them. This random motion of visible particles (pollen
grains) caused by much smaller, invisible particles (water particles) is called Brownian motion,
after the scientist who first observed this phenomenon.