SYNTAX

WHAT IS SYNTAX?
Syntax came from the Greek meaning arrange together.
It refers to the arrangement of words and phrases.
It covers topics like word order and grammar rules, such as subject-verb agreement of the correct
placement of direct and indirect objects.
1. Syntax is the proper order of words in a phrase or sentence.
2. Syntax is a tool used in writing proper grammatical sentences.
3. Native speakers of a language learn correct syntax without realizing it.

RULES OF SYNTAX
RULE #1
All sentences need a subject and a verb. Be aware, the subject is not always stated
in imperative sentences as it is implied through context.
Example: Open the door.

RULE #2
A sentence should contain one main idea.

RULE #3
Subjects come first, followed by the verb. If the sentence has an object, this comes last.
Example: Freddie baked a pie.
S V O
RULE #4
Adjectives and adverbs go in front of the words they describe.

RULE #5
Subordinate clauses must also contain a subject and a verb.
Example: She was sick, so I brought her some soup.

EIGHT PARTS OF SPEECH

1. NOUNS
A noun is a word that names something, such as a person, place, thing, or idea.
Example: dog, bicycle, Taylor Swift, New York City
Nouns can name a person
Example: Louis Tomlinson
the president
my mother
a girl
Nouns can name a place
Example: Manhattan
Disneyland
my room
Nouns can name things
This might include things, such as concepts, activities, or processes. Some might be hypothetical or imaginary things.
Example: Guitar
Faucet
Freedom
Elder wand
Basketball
TYPES OF NOUNS
1. Common nouns - are words that refer to undefined or generic people, places, or things.
They are only capitalized when they begin sentences or are used in the names or titles of
something.
Example: house, cat, girl, country
2. Proper nouns - help distinguish a specific person, place, or thing. These words should be
capitalized.
Example: Spain, Sony, Samsung
3. Plural nouns - refer to more than one of something.
Example: ( R ) houses, cats, girls, countries
( IR ) person = people
life = lives
mouse = mice
tooth = teeth
sheep = sheep
4. Concrete nouns - are something that can be perceived through the five senses.
Example: table, apple, rabbit, ear
5. Abstract nouns - intangible ideas that can’t be perceived with the five senses, such as
social concepts, political theories, and character traits.
Example: love, creativity, democracy
6. Collective nouns - nouns that functions as a singular noun while referring to a group of
people or things
Example: crowd, flocks, committee, a sum of money
7. Compound nouns - combines two or more words into one. Compound nouns can appear as a
single word, multiple words used separately, or words connected by hyphens.
Example: dry-cleaning, jack-in-the-box, toothpaste, haircut, ice cream
8. Countable nouns (also known as a count noun) is one that you can count.
Example: notebook, pen, watch, plate
9. Uncountable noun (also known as a mass noun) is one that cannot be counted.
Example: salt, luggage, cement, snow

2. PRONOUNS
A pronoun is a word that stands in for a noun, often to avoid the need to repeat the same noun over
and over.
Example: I, me, us, you, themselves, who, that

Pronouns: What is Antecedent?

In order to use a pronoun, you need to introduce the noun first.
Example:
My family tests my patience, but I love them.
The sign was too far away for Niall to read it.
Liam said he is almost finished with the application.

TYPES OF PRONOUNS

1. Personal pronouns - a short word we use as a simple substitute for the

proper name of a person.
2. Relative pronoun - typically used to refer to a speaker or to the people or things that a
speaker is referring to.

3. Possessive pronoun - that is used to express ownership or possession

4. Intensive Pronouns - almost identical to a reflexive pronoun. It is defined as
a pronoun that ends in -self or -selves and places emphasis on its antecedent by referring
back to another noun or pronoun used earlier in the sentence. This is used to add
emphasis.
Example: Himself, Herself, Yourself, Myself, Themselves, Ourselves
5. Reflexive pronouns - words ending in -self or -selves that are used when the subject and
the object of a sentence are the same (e.g., I believe in myself). They can act as either
objects or indirect objects.
Example: Himself, Herself, Yourself, Myself, Themselves, Ourselves, Itself, Oneself,
Yourselves
Mike decided to reward Phoebe with a dinner out.
Mike decided to reward himself with a dinner out.
Improper use of reflexive pronouns.
Example: If you have questions, just email Joey and myself.
If you have questions, just email Joey and me.
6. Interrogative pronouns - a pronoun that is used to introduce a question. The main English
interrogative pronouns are what, which, who, whom, and whose. Like other pronouns, interrogative
pronouns are said to have an antecedent. This is the noun or noun phrase that they stand for.
The antecedent of an interrogative pronoun is the answer to the question.

7. Demonstrative pronouns - are this, that, these, and those. They are used to highlight something
that was previously mentioned or that is clear from the context.

8. Indefinite pronouns - are used to refer to someone or something in a general way, without being
specific about whom or what you’re referring to.
Singular Indefinite Pronouns
 Plural Indefinite Pronouns

Singular/Plural Indefinite Pronouns

3. VERBS
Verbs are words that describe actions, whether physical or mental. Verbs also describe a
“state of being,” like the verbs be, become, or exist.

TYPES OF VERBS
1. Action Verbs - When a person or thing is doing something, that’s an action verb.
Action verbs are split into two categories: transitive verbs and intransitive verbs.
Transitive Verbs - These are verbs that requires a direct object to indicate the person
or thing acted upon by the verb.
Example: I received a letter.
Intransitive Verbs - These are verbs that doesn’t require a direct object to indicate the
person or thing acted upon.
Example: Paul is leaving.
2. Auxiliary Verbs - also known as helper verbs or helping verbs, are minor verbs that support
the sentence’s main verb to communicate complex grammar concepts like aspects of time or
modality.
Example: I have finished the report.
3. Modal Auxiliary Verbs - or simply modal verbs, change the grammatical mood of a sentence.
Types of Modal Verbs

Logical Possibility = must (most contain), will, would, should, may, can, could, might
(least certain)
Example: The dark clouds must mean rain today
Ability =can (stronger ability), could (weaker ability), shall (suggestion)
Example: Shall we dance?
Necessity = must (obligation), should (advice)
Example: You should floss every day.
Permission = may (most formal), might, could, can (least formal)
Example: Can I go to my friend’s house?
4. Phrasal Verbs - phrase made up of two or more words that acts as an individual verb.
Example: I am going to move out next month.

4.ADJECTIVES
Adjectives are words that describe the qualities or states of being
of nouns: enormous, doglike, silly, yellow, fun, fast. They can also describe the quantity of
nouns: many, few, millions, eleven.
Adjectives do not modify verbs or adverbs or other adjectives.
Examples: Sabrina wore a beautiful hat to the Eras Tour.
The scariest villain of all time is Thanos.
Furry dogs may overheat in the summertime.
Types of Adjectives
1. Comparative Adjective - These are used to compare two different people or things to each
other. Some examples of comparative adjectives include words such as smaller, faster, more
expensive, and less reasonable.
Examples: Whales are larger animals than dolphins.
We moved to a cheaper apartment.
The sequel was even more incredible than the first movie.
2. Superlative Adjective - These are used to compare more than two people or things by
indicating which one is the most supreme or extreme. Some examples of superlative
adjectives include words such as smartest, loudest, most impressive, and least valuable.
Examples: Ross is the fastest member of our team.
Out of all of my books, this one is the oldest.
We are trying to figure out the least confusing way to explain the lesson to the
new students.
3. Predicate Adjective - adjectives that appear in the predicate of a sentence as a subject
complement rather than directly next to the nouns or pronouns that they modify. Predicate
adjectives follow linking verbs in sentences and clauses.
Examples: Ahyenn is tall.
Rachel became angry.
The steak looks delicious.
4. Compound Adjective - These are adjectives that are formed from multiple words, which are
usually connected by hyphens. Some examples of compound adjectives include never-
ending, cross-eyed, and run-of-the-mill.
Examples: She had enough of the double-dealing salesman.
My happy-go-lucky daughter loved our trip to Disneyland.
The better-off members of the city live by the river.
5. Possessive Adjective - These are often used to express possession or ownership. The most
commonly used possessive adjectives are my, your, its, her, his, our, their, and whose.
Examples: My favorite food is pizza.
Alexis spent the day with her parents.
Filipinos celebrated their team’s victory at the Olympics.
6. Demonstrative Adjective - These are used to express relative positions in space and time.
The most commonly used demonstrative adjectives are this, that, these, and those.
Examples: This watch is cheaper than that one.
This weekend is going to be really fun.
Watch out for those prickly rose bushes next to you.
7. Proper Adjective - These are adjectives formed from proper nouns. In general, proper
adjectives are commonly used to say that something is related to a specific person or place.
Proper adjectives include words such as African, Napoleonic, and Shakespearian.
Examples: He was reading a Russian newspaper.
I think Haitian food is tasty.
We studied the history of Victorian England in school today.
8. Participial Adjective - These are adjectives that are based on participles, which are words
that usually end in -ed or -ing and derive from verbs. Participial adjectives include words
like amazing, impressed, and fascinating.
Examples: Travis was late for his swimming lessons.
Please hand me my reading glasses.
The silly clown cheered up the bored children.
9. Limiting Adjective - These are adjectives that restrict a noun or pronoun rather than describe
any of its characteristics or qualities. Limiting adjectives overlap with other types of adjectives
such as demonstrative adjectives and possessive adjectives. Limiting adjectives include words
such as these, your, and some.
Examples: I bought some eggs at the store.
She found three pennies under the couch cushions.
 Take a look at that house over there.
10. Descriptive Adjective - These are adjectives that describe the characteristics, traits, or
qualities of a noun or pronoun. Most adjectives are descriptive adjectives. Words such
as purple, friendly, and attractive are examples of descriptive adjectives.
Examples: A lot of interesting people visit this park.
She told a scary story.
The leaves turned orange and red.
11. Interrogative Adjective - These are adjectives that are used to ask questions. The
interrogative adjectives are what, which, and whose.
Examples: What color is your favorite?
Which button turns off the lights?
Whose turn is it to wash the cat?
12. Attributive Adjective - These are adjectives that are directly next to the noun and pronoun
that they modify. Usually, attributive adjectives come directly before nouns and pronouns but
they modify. But they can sometimes appear after them.
Examples: She has beautiful handwriting.
The hungry gorilla ate the fresh mangoes.
Keith gave his dad something special for his birthday.
13. Distributive Adjective - These are used to refer to members of a group individually. Examples
of distributive adjectives include each, every, either, and neither.
Examples: Each puppy got their own little doghouse.
Every member of the team scored a goal.
I’ll be happy if either candidate wins the election.

5. ADVERBS
An adverb is a word that can modify or describe a verb, adjective, another adverb, or
entire sentence. Adverbs can be used to show manner (how something happens), degree (to
what extent), place (where), and time (when).
Adverbs are usually formed by adding -ly to the end of an adjective (e.g., “quick”
becomes “quickly”), although there are also other adverbs that don’t have this ending. There
are also adverbial phrases, series of words that play the grammatical role of adverbs.
Example: David walked quickly.
Charlie never answers his phone.
It is an incredibly exciting film.
Actually, I’m not sure.

HOW ARE THEY USED?

Adverbs provide context in a sentence by describing how, when, where, and to what
extent something occurs. Adverbs can be used to modify verbs, adjectives, and even other adverbs.
Example: Sabrina danced slowly.
Tom is extremely talented.
I started playing golf quite recently.

TYPES OF ADVERBS
1. Conjunctive Adverbs - Also called linking adverbs, these connect two independent clauses
by turning the second clause into an adverbial modifier of the first. They can be used
as transition words to introduce consequence, condition, comparison, contrast, and
clarification.
Example: The wedding is scheduled for tomorrow. However, we no longer have a caterer.
Jennie’s funding application was denied; therefore, she cannot continue her
research
2. Focusing Adverbs - These are used to emphasize a particular part of a sentence. They’re
typically positioned next to the word they’re drawing attention to. Some common focusing
adverbs include: “only,” “just,” “especially,” “even,” “either,” and “neither.”
 Example: Natalia loves reading, especially fiction.
Jen had a great time at the party; she even danced.
3. Interrogative Adverbs - The interrogative adverbs “when,” “where,” “why,” and “how” are used
to introduce a question.
Example: When do you want to go shopping?
Where did you get that doughnut?
4. Relative Adverbs - “where,” “when,” and “why” are used to introduce dependent or relative
clauses (i.e., clauses that contain a subject and verb but do not express a complete thought).
Example: This is the city where the soldiers were stationed.
That was the moment when I first noticed him.
5. Adverbs of Manner - describes how an action is performed or how something happens. In
most cases, adverbs of manner occur after the main verb.
Example: Wanda read quietly.
Peter laughed loudly.
6. Adverbs of Degree - are used to qualify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs by expressing extent or
degree. Some common adverbs of degree include: “extremely,” “absolutely,” “slightly,” “quite,”
and “enough.”
Example: The medication had a very positive effect.
I’ll be ready soon; I’m almost finished.
7. Adverbs of Place - provides information about the location of an action (e.g., position,
distance, and direction). Adverbs of place typically occur after the main verb of a sentence.
Example: Go downstairs and open the door.
Confetti was thrown everywhere.
Come here!
8. Adverbs of Time - (e.g., “yesterday,” “today,” “tomorrow”) describe when something happens. They
are typically placed at the end of a sentence.
Example: I have to run, but I’ll see you tomorrow.
Phoebe has a dentist appointment, so he will be late for school today.
9. Adverbs of Duration - (e.g., “temporarily,” “forever,” “shortly”) are slightly different; they
describe the length of time something happens for.
Example: The power outage should be fixed shortly.
I played football briefly, but I didn’t enjoy it.
10. Adverbs of Frequency - Adverbs of frequency describe how often something happens. They
can be divided into two categories based on how specific they are.

a. Adverbs of indefinite frequency (e.g., “always,” “sometimes,” “never”) give an idea of

how often something occurs, but they don’t give an exact timeframe. Adverbs of indefinite
frequency are usually placed before the main verb.
Example: Pietro always works on Saturdays.
Wade never washes the dishes.
b. Adverbs of definite frequency (e.g., “hourly,” “daily,” “weekly”) give a more precise
description of how often something happens. They typically occur at the end of a sentence.
Example: I check my email hourly.
We visit France yearly.
11. Adverbs of Purpose - (also called adverbs of reason) help to explain why something is the
case. Many adverbs of purpose function as conjunctive adverbs. Other adverbs of purpose
usually take the form of adverbial phrases instead of individual words.
Example: The company made a huge profit; therefore, the employees were given raises.
Since you’re busy, I’ll call back later.

6. PREPOSITION
A preposition is a word used to connect nouns, pronouns, or phrases to other words found in a
sentence. Prepositions act to link the people, objects, time and locations of a sentence.
TYPES OF PREPOSITIONS

1. Preposition of Direction- Prepositions of movement describe how something or someone

moves from one place to another
a. TO can express movement in the direction of a physical place.
Example: I walked to the One World Trade Center from my car.
Roland ran to school because he was late.

TO and also express purpose when attached to a verb as an infinitive.

Example: They stayed after school to complete the assignment.
I exercise to stay in shape.

b. TOWARD indicates movement in the direction of a general area rather than a

specific destination and implies that a destination may not have been reached.
Example: John travelled to Dallas.
John travelled toward Dallas.
c. ONTO is used to express movement toward the outside of an object.
Example: The cat jumped onto the table.
The leaf fell onto the sidewalk.
d. INTO indicates movement toward the inside of an object, space, or volume.
Example: Mary jumped into the water.
Paul got into the shower.

2. Preposition of Time - To refer to one point in time, use the prepositions "in," "at," and "on”.
a. IN is used to refer to parts of the day (not specific times), months, years, and
seasons.
Example: He reads in the evening.
The weather is cold in December.
She was born in 1996.
We rake leaves in the fall.
b. AT is used to refer with the time of the day
Example: I go to work at 8:00.
He eats lunch at noon.
She often goes for a walk at night.
They go to bed at midnight.
c. ON is used to refer with days.
Example: I work on Saturdays.
He does laundry on Wednesdays.
d. To refer to extended time, use the prepositions "since," "for," "by," "during,"
"from…to," "from…until," "with," and "within.“
Example: I have lived in Minneapolis since 2005.
He will be in Toronto for 3 weeks.
She will finish her homework by 6:00.
He works part time during the summer.
I will collect data from January to June.
They are in school from August until May
She will graduate within 2 years.

3. Preposition of Place
a. To refer to a place, use the prepositions "in" (the point itself), "at" (the general
vicinity), "on" (the surface), and "inside" (something contained).
Example: They will meet in the lunchroom.
She was waiting at the corner.
He left his phone on the bed.
 Place the pen inside the drawer.

b. To refer to an object higher than a point, use the prepositions "over" and "above." To
refer to an object lower than a point, use the prepositions "below," "beneath,"
"under," and "underneath”.
Example: The bird flew over the house.
The plates were on the shelf above the cups.
Basements are dug below ground.
There is hard wood beneath the carpet.
The squirrel hid the nuts under a pile of leaves.
The cat is hiding underneath the box.
c. To refer to an object close to a point, use the prepositions "by," "near," "next to,"
"between," "among," and "opposite”.
Example: The gas station is by the grocery store.
The park is near her house.
Park your bike next to the garage.
There is a deer between the two trees.
There is a purple flower among the weeds.
The garage is opposite the house.
d. To refer to a location, use the prepositions "in" (an area or volume), "at" (a point),
and "on" (a surface).
Example: They live in the country. (an area)
She will find him at the library. (a point)
There is a lot of dirt on the window. (a surface)
e. To refer to a spatial relationship, use the prepositions "above," "across,"
"against," "ahead of," "along," "among," "around," "behind," "below,"
"beneath," "beside," "between," "from," "in front of," "inside," "near," "off,"
"out of," "through," "toward," "under," and "within”.
Example: The post office is across the street from the grocery store.
We will stop at many attractions along the way.
The kids are hiding behind the tree.

7. CONJUNCTION - Conjunctions are parts of speech that connect words, phrases,

clauses, or sentences. There are three kinds of conjunctions: coordinating, paired, and
subordinating.

TYPES OF CONJUNCTION

1. Coordinating Conjunction - allow you to join words, phrases, and clauses of equal
grammatical rank in a sentence.
For
And
Nor
But
Or
Yet
So
Example: I’d like pizza or a salad for lunch.
We needed a place to concentrate, so we packed up our things and went
to the library.
Jesse didn’t have much money, but she got by.
2. Correlative Conjunction - are pairs of conjunctions that work together. Some examples
are either/or, neither/nor, not only/but also, both/and, and whether/or.
Example: Not only am I finished studying for English, but I’m also finished writing
my history essay.
 I am finished with both my English essay and my history essay.

3. Subordinating Conjunction - join a subordinate clause to a main clause and establishes

a relationship between the two.
that
after how though
although if unless
as much as/as soon as/as long as in order to/in order that until
as though once when/whenever
Because Since where/wherever
before than whether
while
Two ways to structure a sentence using a subordinating conjunction
1. Main clause + subordinate clause
1. The teacher administered the test after giving instructions.
2. Subordinate clause + main clause
1. After giving instructions, the teacher administered the test.

8. INTERJECTION
An interjection is a word or phrase used to express a feeling or to request or demand something.
Interjections are common in everyday speech and informal writing.

TYPES OF INTERJECTION
1. Primary Interjections - a word or sound that can only be used as an interjection. Primary
interjections do not have alternative meanings and can’t function as another part of speech.
Example: Ugh! That is disgusting!
2. Secondary Interjections - a word that is typically used as another part of speech (such as
a noun, verb, or adjective) that can also be used as an interjection.
Example: Goodness! That was a close one!
3. Volitive Interjections - is used to give a command or make a request
Example: Shh! I can’t focus when you’re singing.
4. Emotive Interjections - used to express an emotion or to indicate a reaction to something.
Example: Ew! I’m not eating that.
5. Cognitive Interjections - used to express a thought or indicate a thought process.
Example: Um, can you explain it once more?
EXAMPLES OF INTERJECTIONS