English Grammar Guide (Excluding

Tenses)

Introduction
This guide provides a comprehensive overview of English grammar, covering all
essential topics except for verb tenses. Understanding these fundamental concepts is
crucial for building a strong foundation in the English language, enabling clear and
effective communication. We will explore the building blocks of sentences, the roles of
different word types, and how they combine to form coherent structures. Whether you
are a beginner or looking to reinforce your understanding, this guide aims to offer
detailed explanations and numerous examples to help you master English grammar.

Parts of Speech
The parts of speech are the basic categories of words based on their function in a
sentence. Identifying the part of speech of a word helps us understand how it works
grammatically and how it relates to other words in a sentence. There are typically eight
main parts of speech in English:

Nouns

Nouns are words that represent a person, place, thing, or idea. They can function as the
subject or object of a verb, or as the object of a preposition. Nouns can be singular or
plural, concrete or abstract, common or proper.

Examples:

• Person: teacher, student, John, Mary

• Place: city, park, London, Everest
• Thing: book, table, computer, car
• Idea: happiness, freedom, justice, love

Types of Nouns:

• Common Nouns: Refer to general names of people, places, things, or ideas (e.g.,
dog, city, book).
 • Proper Nouns: Refer to specific names of people, places, things, or ideas. They are
always capitalized (e.g., Buddy, Paris, The Great Gatsby).
• Concrete Nouns: Refer to things you can perceive with your senses (e.g., house,
smell, sound).
• Abstract Nouns: Refer to ideas, qualities, or states that cannot be perceived with
the senses (e.g., bravery, anger, peace).
• Countable Nouns: Refer to things that can be counted (e.g., apple, two apples,
many apples).
• Uncountable Nouns: Refer to things that cannot be counted and do not have a
plural form (e.g., water, information, happiness).
• Collective Nouns: Refer to a group of people, animals, or things as a single unit
(e.g., team, family, flock).

Pronouns

Pronouns are words that replace nouns to avoid repetition. They must agree with the
noun they replace (the antecedent) in number and gender.

Examples:

• She is a doctor. (She replaces a female person's name)

• The dog wagged its tail. (its replaces dog)
• They went to the park. (They replaces a group of people)

Types of Pronouns:

• Personal Pronouns: Refer to specific people or things (e.g., I, you, he, she, it, we,
they, me, him, her, us, them).
• Possessive Pronouns: Show ownership (e.g., mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours,
theirs).
• Reflexive Pronouns: Refer back to the subject of the sentence (e.g., myself,
yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves).
• Demonstrative Pronouns: Point to specific things (e.g., this, that, these, those).
• Interrogative Pronouns: Used to ask questions (e.g., who, whom, whose, which,
what).
• Relative Pronouns: Introduce relative clauses (e.g., who, whom, whose, which,
that).
• Indefinite Pronouns: Refer to unspecified people or things (e.g., everyone,
someone, nobody, anything).
Verbs

Verbs are words that describe actions, states, or occurrences. They are a crucial part of a
sentence, typically forming the predicate. While this guide excludes tenses, it's
important to understand the basic function of verbs.

Examples:

• Action: run, jump, eat, write

• State: be, seem, appear, exist
• Occurrence: happen, become, grow

Types of Verbs (excluding tenses):

• Action Verbs: Describe a physical or mental action.

• Linking Verbs: Connect the subject to a noun or adjective that renames or
describes it (e.g., be, seem, become).
• Helping Verbs (Auxiliary Verbs): Used with main verbs to form different tenses,
moods, or voices (e.g., be, have, do - though their function in forming tenses won't
be covered in detail here).
• Modal Verbs: Express possibility, ability, permission, or obligation (e.g., can, could,
may, might, must, shall, should, will, would - these will be covered in a later
section).

Adjectives

Adjectives are words that describe or modify nouns or pronouns, providing more
information about their qualities or characteristics.

Examples:

• a beautiful flower
• the tall building
• She is happy.

Types of Adjectives:

• Descriptive Adjectives: Describe the qualities of a noun (e.g., big, red, happy).
• Quantitative Adjectives: Indicate the quantity of a noun (e.g., many, few, several).
• Demonstrative Adjectives: Point to specific nouns (e.g., this, that, these, those -
also function as demonstrative pronouns).
• Possessive Adjectives: Show ownership (e.g., my, your, his, her, its, our, their - also
function as possessive pronouns).
 • Interrogative Adjectives: Used with nouns to ask questions (e.g., which, what,
whose).
• Distributive Adjectives: Refer to each individual item in a group (e.g., each, every,
either, neither).
• Articles: a, an, the (often considered a type of adjective or determiner, will be
covered in a later section).

Adverbs

Adverbs are words that modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs, providing more
information about how, when, where, or to what extent an action is performed or a
quality exists.

Examples:

• He ran quickly. (modifies the verb ran)

• a very tall building. (modifies the adjective tall)
• She spoke very softly. (modifies the adverb softly)
• He will come tomorrow. (modifies the verb come)

Types of Adverbs:

• Adverbs of Manner: Describe how an action is done (e.g., slowly, happily,

carefully).
• Adverbs of Time: Indicate when an action happens (e.g., yesterday, now, soon).
• Adverbs of Place: Indicate where an action happens (e.g., here, there,
everywhere).
• Adverbs of Degree: Indicate the intensity or extent (e.g., very, quite, almost).
• Adverbs of Frequency: Indicate how often an action happens (e.g., always, often,
sometimes).

Prepositions

Prepositions are words that show the relationship between a noun or pronoun and
another word in the sentence, often indicating location, direction, time, or relationship.

Examples:

• The book is on the table.

• She went to the store.
• He will arrive in the morning.

Common prepositions include: in, on, at, by, for, with, about, through, over, under,
between, among, beside, near, from, of, to, with, without.
Conjunctions

Conjunctions are words that connect words, phrases, clauses, or sentences.

Examples:

• John and Mary went to the park.

• She was tired, but she kept working.
• Because it was raining, we stayed inside.

Types of Conjunctions:

• Coordinating Conjunctions: Connect words, phrases, or independent clauses of

equal rank (e.g., for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so - FANBOYS).
• Subordinating Conjunctions: Introduce dependent clauses and connect them to
independent clauses (e.g., because, although, since, while, if, unless, when, where).
• Correlative Conjunctions: Pairs of conjunctions that work together to connect
elements (e.g., both...and, either...or, neither...nor, not only...but also).

Interjections

Interjections are words or phrases that express strong emotion or surprise. They are
often followed by an exclamation mark.

Examples:

• Wow! That's amazing.

• Oh dear! I forgot my keys.
• Hey! Look at that.

Sentence Structure
A sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete thought. Understanding
sentence structure involves recognizing the different components of a sentence and how
they are arranged.

Subject and Predicate

Every complete sentence has two main parts: a subject and a predicate.

• Subject: The part of the sentence that tells who or what the sentence is about. It is
typically a noun or pronoun.
• Predicate: The part of the sentence that tells what the subject does or is. It always
contains a verb.
Examples:

• The dog (subject) barked loudly. (predicate)

• She (subject) is a student. (predicate)
• Running (subject - gerund) is good for your health. (predicate)

Phrases and Clauses

• Phrase: A group of words that functions as a single unit but does not contain both
a subject and a predicate.

◦ Examples: in the park (prepositional phrase), running quickly (participial

phrase)

• Clause: A group of words that contains both a subject and a predicate.

◦ Independent Clause: A clause that can stand alone as a complete sentence.

▪ Example: She is happy. (She = subject, is = verb)
◦ Dependent Clause (Subordinate Clause): A clause that cannot stand alone
as a complete sentence and must be connected to an independent clause. It
often begins with a subordinating conjunction or a relative pronoun.
▪ Examples: because she won the lottery (dependent clause), who lives
next door (dependent clause)

Types of Sentences (by structure)

• Simple Sentence: Contains one independent clause.

◦ Example: The cat slept.

• Compound Sentence: Contains two or more independent clauses joined by a

coordinating conjunction, a semicolon, or a conjunctive adverb.

◦ Example: The cat slept, and the dog played. (joined by coordinating
conjunction 'and')

• Complex Sentence: Contains one independent clause and at least one dependent
clause.

◦ Example: Because the cat was sleeping, the dog played. (dependent clause
'Because the cat was sleeping' + independent clause 'the dog played')
 • Compound-Complex Sentence: Contains two or more independent clauses and at
least one dependent clause.

◦ Example: Because the cat was sleeping, the dog played in the yard, and the
birds sang in the trees. (dependent clause + two independent clauses)

Types of Sentences (by purpose)

• Declarative Sentence: Makes a statement and ends with a period.

◦ Example: The sun is shining.

• Interrogative Sentence: Asks a question and ends with a question mark.

◦ Example: Is the sun shining?

• Imperative Sentence: Gives a command or makes a request and usually ends with
a period or an exclamation mark.

◦ Example: Close the door. or Please close the door.

• Exclamatory Sentence: Expresses strong emotion and ends with an exclamation

mark.

◦ Example: What a beautiful day!

Articles
Articles are words that come before nouns and indicate whether the noun is specific or
general. There are three articles in English: a, an, and the.

Indefinite Articles: A and An

A and an are indefinite articles. They are used with singular, countable nouns when the
noun is general or not specifically identified.

• Use a before words that start with a consonant sound.

◦ Examples: a book, a car, a house, a university (starts with a /y/ sound)

• Use an before words that start with a vowel sound.

◦ Examples: an apple, an hour (starts with an /o/ sound), an umbrella

Examples in sentences:

• I saw a dog in the park. (Any dog, not a specific one)

• She ate an orange. (Any orange)
• He is a honest man. (Incorrect - should be an honest man because 'honest' starts
with a vowel sound)

Definite Article: The

The is the definite article. It is used with singular or plural, countable or uncountable
nouns when the noun is specific or has already been mentioned or is understood from
the context.

• Use the when referring to something specific or unique.

◦ Examples: the sun, the moon, the Eiffel Tower

• Use the when the noun has been mentioned before.

◦ Example: I saw a dog in the park. The dog was barking.

• Use the when the noun is understood from the context.

◦ Example: Please pass me the salt. (It is understood which salt is being
referred to)

• Use the with superlatives.

◦ Example: This is the best book I've ever read.

• Use the with names of rivers, oceans, seas, mountain ranges, and some countries
(plural or with 'Republic', 'Kingdom', etc.).

◦ Examples: the Nile, the Atlantic Ocean, the Alps, the United States

• Do not use the with most proper nouns, names of individual mountains, lakes, or
continents.

◦ Examples: Mount Everest, Lake Victoria, Asia

Pronouns (Intermediate Level)

Building on the basic introduction to pronouns, let's look at some more details and
types.
Subject and Object Pronouns

• Subject Pronouns: Used when the pronoun is the subject of the verb (I, you, he,
she, it, we, they).

◦ Examples: She is reading. We went to the store.

• Object Pronouns: Used when the pronoun is the object of the verb or a
preposition (me, you, him, her, it, us, them).

◦ Examples: John saw her. The gift is for them.

Possessive Pronouns and Possessive Adjectives

It's important to distinguish between possessive pronouns and possessive adjectives.

• Possessive Adjectives: Used before a noun to show possession (my, your, his, her,
its, our, their).

◦ Examples: This is my book. That is their house.

• Possessive Pronouns: Used alone to show possession and replace a noun phrase
(mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs).

◦ Examples: This book is mine. That house is theirs.

Table: Possessive Adjectives vs. Possessive Pronouns

Subject Pronoun Possessive Adjective Possessive Pronoun

I my mine

You your yours

He his his

She her hers

It its its

We our ours

They their theirs

Reflexive and Intensive Pronouns

• Reflexive Pronouns: Used when the subject and object of a verb are the same
(myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves).

◦ Example: She cut herself.

• Intensive Pronouns: Used to emphasize a noun or pronoun. They have the same
form as reflexive pronouns but function differently.

◦ Example: I built the house myself. (Emphasis on 'I')

Relative Pronouns

Relative pronouns (who, whom, whose, which, that) introduce relative clauses, which
provide more information about a noun.

• Who: Refers to people (subject).

◦ Example: This is the man who helped me.

• Whom: Refers to people (object - less common in modern English, often replaced
by 'who' or omitted).

◦ Example: This is the man whom I saw. (or This is the man I saw.)

• Whose: Shows possession for people or things.

◦ Example: This is the artist whose paintings are famous.

• Which: Refers to things or animals.

◦ Example: This is the book which I recommended.

• That: Can refer to people, things, or animals in restrictive clauses.

◦ Example: This is the book that I recommended.

Adjectives (Intermediate Level)

Let's delve deeper into the use and types of adjectives.
Order of Adjectives

When multiple adjectives modify a single noun, they usually follow a specific order:

1. Determiner: Articles and other limiters (a, an, the, my, your, this, that, some,
many)
2. Opinion: (beautiful, lovely, silly)
3. Size: (big, small, tiny)
4. Shape: (round, square, triangular)
5. Age: (old, new, ancient)
6. Color: (red, blue, black)
7. Origin: (French, American, Canadian)
8. Material: (wooden, metal, cotton)
9. Purpose: (sleeping bag, writing desk)

Example: a beautiful small round old red French wooden sleeping bag

While this order is a general guideline, it's not always strictly followed, and using too
many adjectives can sound awkward.

Comparative and Superlative Adjectives

Adjectives can be used to compare things.

• Comparative Adjectives: Used to compare two things. Formed by adding -er to

short adjectives or using 'more' with longer adjectives.

◦ Examples: taller, happier, more beautiful

◦ Sentence Example: John is taller than Mary.

• Superlative Adjectives: Used to compare three or more things and indicate the
highest degree. Formed by adding -est to short adjectives or using 'most' with
longer adjectives. Usually preceded by 'the'.

◦ Examples: tallest, happiest, most beautiful

◦ Sentence Example: He is the tallest person in the class.

Table: Comparative and Superlative Forms

Adjective Comparative Superlative

tall taller tallest

happy happier happiest

 Adjective Comparative Superlative

beautiful more beautiful most beautiful

good better best

bad worse worst

(Note: Some adjectives have irregular comparative and superlative forms, like good/
better/best and bad/worse/worst.)

Adverbs (Intermediate Level)

Expanding on the basic understanding of adverbs, let's look at their placement and
comparison.

Placement of Adverbs

The position of an adverb in a sentence can affect the meaning or emphasis. Common
positions include:

• Before the main verb:

◦ Example: She quickly finished her homework.

• After the main verb:

◦ Example: He speaks English fluently.

• At the beginning of the sentence: (Often for emphasis)

◦ Example: Suddenly, the lights went out.

• At the end of the sentence:

◦ Example: They arrived late.

Adverbs of frequency (always, often, sometimes, never) usually come before the main
verb, but after the verb 'to be'.

• Examples: I always eat breakfast. She is always happy.

Comparative and Superlative Adverbs

Similar to adjectives, adverbs can also be used for comparison.

• Comparative Adverbs: Used to compare two actions. Formed by adding -er to

short adverbs (often those with the same form as adjectives) or using 'more' with
most adverbs.

◦ Examples: faster, earlier, more quickly

◦ Sentence Example: He runs faster than me.

• Superlative Adverbs: Used to compare three or more actions and indicate the
highest degree. Formed by adding -est to short adverbs or using 'most' with most
adverbs. Usually preceded by 'the'.

◦ Examples: fastest, earliest, most quickly

◦ Sentence Example: She finished the race the fastest.

Table: Comparative and Superlative Forms of Adverbs

Adverb Comparative Superlative

fast faster fastest

early earlier earliest

quickly more quickly most quickly

well better best

badly worse worst

(Note: Some adverbs have irregular comparative and superlative forms, like well/better/
best and badly/worse/worst.)

Conditionals
Conditional sentences express a condition and its result. They are typically formed with
an 'if' clause (the condition) and a main clause (the result). While verb tenses are
involved in conditionals, we will focus on the structure and meaning of the different
types of conditional sentences.
Zero Conditional

The zero conditional is used to talk about general truths, facts, and scientific
phenomena. The structure is if + present simple, present simple.

Structure: If + Subject + Verb (present simple), Subject + Verb (present simple)

Examples:

• If you heat ice, it melts.

• If it rains, the ground gets wet.
• If you mix blue and yellow, you get green.

In zero conditional sentences, 'if' can often be replaced by 'when' without changing the
meaning.

• When you heat ice, it melts.

First Conditional

The first conditional is used to talk about a real and possible situation in the future and
its likely result. The structure is if + present simple, will + base form of verb.

Structure: If + Subject + Verb (present simple), Subject + will + Base Form of Verb

Examples:

• If it rains tomorrow, we will stay inside.

• If she studies hard, she will pass the exam.
• If I find his phone number, I will call him.

The order of the clauses can be reversed, but if the 'if' clause comes first, it is followed by
a comma.

• We will stay inside if it rains tomorrow.

Other modal verbs like can, may, might, should can also be used in the main clause
instead of will to express different degrees of certainty or possibility.

• If it rains tomorrow, we might stay inside.

Second Conditional

The second conditional is used to talk about an unreal or hypothetical situation in the
present or future and its unlikely result. The structure is if + past simple, would + base
form of verb.
Structure: If + Subject + Verb (past simple), Subject + would + Base Form of Verb

Examples:

• If I won the lottery, I would travel the world. (It is unlikely I will win the lottery)
• If I were you, I would apologize. (Hypothetical situation - I cannot be you)
• If she studied harder, she would get better grades. (Implies she is not studying
harder)

Note that for the verb 'to be' in the 'if' clause of the second conditional, 'were' is often
used for all subjects, although 'was' is also acceptable in informal contexts for I, he, she,
it.

• If I were you... (more formal)

• If I was you... (less formal)

Other modal verbs like could or might can also be used in the main clause instead of
would.

• If I won the lottery, I could travel the world.

Third Conditional

The third conditional is used to talk about an unreal situation in the past and its
hypothetical result in the past. It is used to express regret or talk about missed
opportunities. The structure is if + past perfect, would have + past participle.

Structure: If + Subject + Verb (past perfect), Subject + would have + Past Participle

Examples:

• If I had studied harder, I would have passed the exam. (Implies I did not study hard
and did not pass)
• If it hadn't rained, we would have gone to the park. (Implies it rained and we did
not go to the park)
• If she had known you were coming, she would have baked a cake. (Implies she
didn't know and didn't bake a cake)

Other modal verbs like could have or might have can also be used in the main clause
instead of would have.

• If I had studied harder, I could have passed the exam.

Mixed Conditionals

Mixed conditionals combine elements of different conditional types to talk about

situations where the condition and result are in different time frames.

• Past condition with a present result: If + past perfect, would + base form of verb

◦ Example: If I had studied harder (in the past), I would be a doctor now
(present result).

• Present condition with a past result: If + past simple, would have + past participle

◦ Example: If I were rich (present condition - unreal), I would have bought that
car yesterday (past result).

Passive Voice
The passive voice is a grammatical construction where the subject of the sentence
receives the action of the verb, rather than performing it. The focus is on the action and
the object that is acted upon, rather than the doer of the action.

Structure of the Passive Voice

The basic structure of the passive voice is subject + form of 'be' + past participle of the
main verb.

The form of 'be' depends on the tense (which we are not focusing on in detail here), but
the principle remains the same. The object of the active sentence becomes the subject
of the passive sentence.

Active Sentence Structure: Subject + Verb + Object

Passive Sentence Structure: Object (of active) + form of 'be' + Past Participle + (by +
Subject of active - optional)

Examples:

• Active: John wrote the book.

• Passive: The book was written by John.

• Active: The company hires new employees every year.

• Passive: New employees are hired by the company every year.

• Active: The wind blew down the tree.

 • Passive: The tree was blown down by the wind.

When to Use the Passive Voice

The passive voice is often used in the following situations:

• When the doer of the action is unknown, unimportant, or obvious from the context.

◦ Example: The window was broken last night. (We don't know who broke it)
◦ Example: The road is being repaired. (It's obvious that construction workers
are repairing it)

• When you want to emphasize the action or the object receiving the action.

◦ Example: The Mona Lisa was painted by Leonardo da Vinci. (Emphasis on the
painting)

• In scientific or technical writing, where the focus is on processes and results rather
than the person performing the action.

◦ Example: The experiment was conducted at room temperature.

• To avoid blaming someone directly.

◦ Example: Mistakes were made. (Instead of

You made a mistake.)

Passive Voice with Modals

Modal verbs can also be used in passive sentences. The structure is subject + modal verb
+ be + past participle.

Structure: Subject + Modal Verb + be + Past Participle + (by + Agent - optional)

Examples:

• The work must be finished by Friday.

• The package can be tracked online.
• The problem should be addressed immediately.

Reported Speech
Reported speech (also known as indirect speech) is used to report what someone else
said without using their exact words. When we report speech, we often need to make
changes to the original words, including pronouns, time and place expressions, and
sometimes verb tenses (though we will focus on the structural changes here).

Reporting Statements

When reporting a statement, we usually use a reporting verb like say or tell, followed by
a that clause (the that is often optional).

Direct Speech:

"I am happy."
Reported Speech: She said that she was happy. (Note: The tense changes here are
related to reporting past speech, but the focus is on the structure)

Direct Speech: "We are going to the cinema."

Reported Speech: They said that they were going to the cinema.

When the reporting verb is in the present tense (e.g., says, tells), the tense in the
reported speech usually does not change.

Direct Speech: "I like ice cream."

Reported Speech: He says that he likes ice cream.

Reporting Questions

When reporting questions, we use a reporting verb like ask, and the word order changes
from question form to statement form. We do not use a question mark in reported
questions.

• Yes/No Questions: Use if or whether after the reporting verb.

Direct Speech: "Are you coming?"
Reported Speech: He asked if I was coming.
Direct Speech: "Did you see the movie?"
Reported Speech: She asked whether I had seen the movie.

• Wh-Questions: Use the question word (who, what, where, when, why, how) after
the reporting verb.
Direct Speech: "Where do you live?"
Reported Speech: He asked where I lived.
Direct Speech: "What are you doing?"
Reported Speech: She asked what I was doing.
Reporting Commands and Requests

When reporting commands or requests, we usually use a reporting verb like tell, ask,
order, advise, followed by an object pronoun and an infinitive (to + base form of verb).

Direct Speech: "Close the door."

Reported Speech: He told me to close the door.

Direct Speech: "Please help me."

Reported Speech: She asked him to help her.

Direct Speech: "Don't be late."

Reported Speech: They advised us not to be late.

Modals
Modal verbs are a type of auxiliary (helping) verb that express possibility, ability,
permission, obligation, necessity, advice, and more. They are always followed by the
base form of another verb.

Common modal verbs include: can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will, would.

Ability: Can and Could

• Can: Used to express present ability.

◦ Example: I can swim.

• Could: Used to express past ability or polite requests.

◦ Examples: When I was young, I could run fast. Could you please pass the salt?

Permission: Can, Could, and May

• Can: Used for informal requests for permission.

◦ Example: Can I borrow your pen?

• Could: Used for more polite requests for permission.

◦ Example: Could I speak to the manager?

• May: Used for formal requests for permission.

◦ Example: May I come in?

Possibility: May, Might, and Could

• May: Used to express possibility.

◦ Example: It may rain tomorrow.

• Might: Used to express a weaker possibility than may.

◦ Example: She might be at home.

• Could: Can also be used to express possibility.

◦ Example: He could be telling the truth.

Obligation and Necessity: Must and Have to

• Must: Used to express strong obligation or necessity, often from the speaker's
perspective.

◦ Example: You must finish your homework.

• Have to: Used to express obligation or necessity, often imposed by an external

authority or rule.

◦ Example: We have to wear a uniform at school.

• Must not (Mustn't): Used to express prohibition.

◦ Example: You must not talk during the exam.

• Don't have to: Used to express lack of obligation or necessity.

◦ Example: You don't have to come if you don't want to.

Advice: Should and Ought to

• Should: Used to give advice or make recommendations.

◦ Example: You should see a doctor.

• Ought to: Similar to should, but slightly stronger.

◦ Example: You ought to apologize.

Expectation: Should

• Should: Can also be used to express expectation.

◦ Example: He should be here by now.

Offers and Suggestions: Shall and Should

• Shall: Used in questions with I or we to make offers or suggestions (more common

in British English).

◦ Example: Shall I open the window?

• Should: Can also be used for suggestions.

◦ Example: We should go to the cinema.

Promises and Intentions: Will and Shall

• Will: Used to express future intentions or promises.

◦ Example: I will help you. She will be here soon.

• Shall: Can be used with I or we to express future intentions or promises (more

formal or emphatic).

◦ Example: We shall overcome.

Habits and Repeated Actions in the Past: Would and Used to

• Would: Used to describe repeated actions in the past.

◦ Example: Every summer, we would go to the beach.

• Used to: Also used to describe past habits or states that no longer exist. (Note:
Used to is often considered a semi-modal verb).

◦ Example: I used to live in London.

Prepositions
Prepositions are words that connect a noun or pronoun to other words in a sentence,
showing relationships of location, direction, time, or other connections. They are
typically followed by a noun or pronoun (the object of the preposition).
Prepositions of Place

Indicate location or position.

• In: Used for enclosed spaces, cities, countries, continents.

◦ Examples: in the room, in London, in France, in Asia

• On: Used for surfaces, streets, and for being attached to something.

◦ Examples: on the table, on Oxford Street, the picture on the wall

• At: Used for specific points, addresses, and locations for activities.

◦ Examples: at the bus stop, at 10 Downing Street, at the cinema

• Under: Below something.

◦ Example: The cat is under the table.

• Over: Above something, sometimes implying movement.

◦ Example: The plane flew over the city.

• Between: In the space separating two things.

◦ Example: The shop is between the bank and the post office.

• Among: In the middle of a group of three or more things.

◦ Example: He was standing among the trees.

• Beside/Next to: At the side of something.

◦ Example: She sat beside him.

• Near: A short distance away.

◦ Example: The park is near my house.

• In front of: Directly before something.

◦ Example: The car is parked in front of the building.

• Behind: At the back of something.

◦ Example: The garden is behind the house.

Prepositions of Time

Indicate when something happens.

• In: Used for months, seasons, years, centuries, and periods of time.

◦ Examples: in July, in summer, in 2024, in the 21st century, in the morning/

afternoon/evening

• On: Used for specific days and dates.

◦ Examples: on Sunday, on July 15th, on my birthday

• At: Used for specific times, mealtimes, and holidays.

◦ Examples: at 3 o'clock, at lunchtime, at Christmas

• Before: Earlier than.

◦ Example: Arrive before 9 am.

• After: Later than.

◦ Example: He left after the meeting.

• During: Throughout a period of time.

◦ Example: She slept during the flight.

• For: Indicates duration.

◦ Example: I have lived here for five years.

• Since: Indicates a starting point in the past.

◦ Example: I have lived here since 2019.

• Until/Till: Up to a certain point in time.

◦ Example: The shop is open until 6 pm.

• By: Not later than a specific time.

◦ Example: Please submit the report by Friday.

Prepositions of Direction

Indicate movement towards a destination.

• To: Indicates movement towards a place or person.

◦ Example: We went to the park.

• Into: Indicates movement inside something.

◦ Example: He walked into the room.

• Onto: Indicates movement onto a surface.

◦ Example: The cat jumped onto the table.

• From: Indicates the starting point of movement.

◦ Example: She came from London.

• Across: Movement from one side to the other.

◦ Example: They walked across the bridge.

• Through: Movement from one side to the other of an enclosed space.

◦ Example: We drove through the tunnel.

• Along: Movement in a line.

◦ Example: They walked along the river.

• Down: Movement to a lower position.

◦ Example: He walked down the stairs.

• Up: Movement to a higher position.

◦ Example: She walked up the hill.

Other Prepositional Uses

Prepositions are also used in many other contexts, often as part of prepositional phrases
that function as adjectives or adverbs, or in fixed expressions.

• Prepositional Phrases as Adjectives: Modify nouns.

◦ Example: The book on the table is mine. (on the table describes the book)
 • Prepositional Phrases as Adverbs: Modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.

◦ Example: He spoke with great enthusiasm. (with great enthusiasm describes

how he spoke)

• Verbs with Prepositions (Phrasal Verbs): Many verbs are followed by specific
prepositions to create phrasal verbs with different meanings.

◦ Examples: look for (search), give up (stop trying), take off (depart - for planes)

• Adjectives with Prepositions: Certain adjectives are typically followed by specific

prepositions.

◦ Examples: fond of, afraid of, interested in, good at

• Nouns with Prepositions: Certain nouns are typically followed by specific

prepositions.

◦ Examples: advantage of, cause of, need for, solution to

Conjunctions
As introduced earlier, conjunctions connect words, phrases, clauses, or sentences. Let's
look at them in more detail.

Coordinating Conjunctions

Connect elements of equal grammatical rank: words, phrases, or independent clauses.

Remember the acronym FANBOYS:

• For: Explains a reason (similar to because).

◦ Example: She must have been crying, for her eyes were red.

• And: Adds information.

◦ Example: I like tea and coffee.

• Nor: Used to introduce a second negative clause (after a negative clause).

◦ Example: He neither called nor sent a message.

• But: Shows contrast.

◦ Example: He is small, but he is strong.

 • Or: Presents an alternative.

◦ Example: Do you want tea or coffee?

• Yet: Shows contrast (similar to but).

◦ Example: It was raining, yet we went for a walk.

• So: Shows result.

◦ Example: He was tired, so he went to bed.

When coordinating conjunctions connect two independent clauses, they are usually
preceded by a comma.

Subordinating Conjunctions

Introduce dependent clauses and connect them to independent clauses. They show the
relationship between the two clauses (e.g., time, cause, condition, contrast).

Common subordinating conjunctions include: because, although, since, while, if, unless,
when, where, as, before, after, until, unless, provided that, so that, in order that.

• Cause: because, since, as

◦ Example: We stayed inside because it was raining.

• Time: when, while, before, after, until, as soon as

◦ Example: I will call you when I arrive.

• Condition: if, unless, provided that

◦ Example: You won't pass unless you study.

• Contrast: although, though, even though, while, whereas

◦ Example: Although it was cold, we went outside.

• Purpose: so that, in order that

◦ Example: He saved money so that he could buy a car.

When a dependent clause introduced by a subordinating conjunction comes before the

independent clause, it is followed by a comma.

• Because it was raining, we stayed inside.

Correlative Conjunctions

Pairs of conjunctions that work together to connect elements of equal grammatical rank.

• both...and: Connects two elements that are equally true.

◦ Example: Both John and Mary are coming.

• either...or: Presents two alternatives.

◦ Example: You can either stay or leave.

• neither...nor: Connects two negative alternatives.

◦ Example: Neither the red dress nor the blue one fits me.

• not only...but also: Adds an additional element.

◦ Example: She is not only intelligent but also very kind.

• whether...or: Expresses a choice between two possibilities.

◦ Example: I don't know whether to stay or go.

Punctuation
Punctuation marks are symbols used in writing to separate sentences and parts of
sentences, and to make meaning clear. Correct punctuation is essential for effective
communication.

Period ( . )

• Used at the end of a declarative sentence.

◦ Example: The sun is shining.

• Used at the end of an imperative sentence (unless it expresses strong emotion).

◦ Example: Close the door.

• Used after abbreviations.

◦ Examples: Mr., Dr., etc.

Question Mark ( ? )

• Used at the end of an interrogative sentence.

◦ Example: Are you coming?

Exclamation Mark ( ! )

• Used at the end of an exclamatory sentence or after an interjection to express

strong emotion.
◦ Examples: What a beautiful day! Wow!

Comma ( , )

Commas have many uses to separate elements within a sentence and improve
readability.

• To separate items in a list of three or more.

◦ Example: I bought apples, bananas, and oranges. (The comma before 'and' is
called the Oxford comma and is optional but often used for clarity).

• To separate independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction.

◦ Example: It was raining, but we went for a walk.

• To set off introductory clauses or phrases.

◦ Example: Because it was raining, we stayed inside.

◦ Example: In the morning, I like to drink coffee.

• To set off non-essential clauses or phrases (providing extra information that is not
crucial to the meaning of the sentence).

◦ Example: My brother, who lives in Canada, is a doctor.

• To separate adjectives that modify the same noun (when 'and' could be placed
between them).

◦ Example: She is a kind, intelligent woman.

• To set off direct address.

◦ Example: John, can you help me?

• To set off interjections.

◦ Example: Well, I don't know.

Semicolon ( ; )

• Used to join two closely related independent clauses without a coordinating

conjunction.

◦ Example: The sun was shining; the birds were singing.

• Used to separate items in a list when the items themselves contain commas.

◦ Example: I have lived in London, England; Paris, France; and Rome, Italy.

Colon ( : )

• Used to introduce a list, an explanation, or an example.

◦ Example: I need to buy three things: milk, bread, and eggs.

◦ Example: He had one goal: to succeed.

• Used after the salutation in a formal letter.

◦ Example: Dear Mr. Smith:

Apostrophe ( ' )

• Used to show possession.

◦ Examples: the dog's tail, the children's toys

• Used in contractions to show where letters have been omitted.

◦ Examples: I'm (I am), he's (he is/has), don't (do not)

Quotation Marks ( " " or ' ' )

• Used to enclose direct speech.

◦ Example: She said, "I am happy."

• Used to indicate titles of short works (e.g., articles, poems, songs).

◦ Example: Have you read "The Raven"?

Hyphen ( - )

• Used to join two or more words to form a compound word or adjective.

◦ Examples: well-known, state-of-the-art, sister-in-law
Dash ( – or — )

• En dash (–): Used to indicate a range (e.g., dates, pages).

◦ Example: Read pages 5–10.

• Em dash (—): Used to set off a phrase or clause for emphasis or to indicate a break
in thought.

◦ Example: He was a kind man—everyone liked him.

Parentheses ( ( ) )

• Used to enclose additional information, explanations, or asides that are not

essential to the main meaning of the sentence.
◦ Example: The capital of France (Paris) is a beautiful city.

Brackets ( [ ] )

• Used to insert explanatory material or corrections into quoted material.

◦ Example: She said, "He [John] is coming tomorrow."

Ellipsis ( ... )

• Used to indicate that words have been omitted from a quotation.

◦ Example: "To be or not to be... that is the question."

Conclusion
This guide has covered essential English grammar topics excluding verb tenses,
providing a foundation for understanding sentence structure, word functions, and
punctuation. By mastering these concepts, you can improve your clarity and accuracy in
both written and spoken English. Consistent practice and attention to detail are key to
effective communication. Remember that grammar is a tool to help you express your
ideas clearly, so focus on understanding the principles and applying them in your own
language use.

Author: Manus AI