DESIGN AND COSTING OF DRAINAGE NETWORK

FOR UNILORIN LAKE SIDE DEVELOPMENT

By

Barnabas Sunday OBOT

10/30GB063

JULY, 2015
DESIGN AND COSTING OF DRAINAGE NETWORK
FOR UNILORIN LAKE SIDE DEVELOPMENT

By

Barnabas Sunday OBOT

10/30GB063

A Project Report Submitted To the Department of Civil

Engineering, University of Ilorin, In Partial Fulfillment
Of the Requirement for the Award of Bachelor of
Engineering (B.Eng) Degree in Civil Engineering

JULY 2015

ii
 CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that this study was carried out by Barnabas Sunday OBOT at the
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Ilorin and has been read and approved as
meeting the requirements of the Department of Civil Engineering, University of Ilorin for the
award of Bachelor of Engineering (B.Eng) degree in Civil Engineering.

Dr. OG. Okeola

Project Supervisor Signature Date

Dr. A. W. Salami
Head of Department Signature Date

(External Examiner) Signature Date

iii
 DEDICATION

To my beloved parent

Late Mr. Sunday Obot and

Mrs. Josephine Obot

iv
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Firstly, I give God all the glory for standing by me all through the course of study. Honour
and glory, adoration and thanksgiving, power and might, belongs to you forever. My
deepest appreciation goes to my supervisor Dr. OG. Okeola for his kindness, encouragement
and instilling positive impact specifically in areas of in-depth studying, time management
and skilled documentation. May Almighty God reward you.

My appreciation goes to Mr. Adedayo Ibitayo for his devoted time in my data acquisition
and analysis and Engr. Jimoh Olaitan from Loat Nigeria Ltd for his professional advice and
provision of the rates for my Bill of Engineering Measurement and Evaluation (BEME). To my
co-project students: Adeleye, Lateef, Adekunle, Gideon, Moore, Habeeb for their advice and
relentless effort to the success of this study.

I owe special thanks to my lovely siblings Charles, Nse, Sussana, Glory and Diana for their
guidance, supervision, prayers and financial supports during my studies. I am grateful to all
the staff and students of Civil Engineering, my esteemed classmates Haliya, Adeleye, Kunle,
Moore, Habeeb, Olaide, Lateef and other colleagues of mine not forgetting the relentless
advice and care from my beloved friend Egbe Bessem. I pray immensely that God guide our
path and make us excel in further endeavours.

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 ABSTRACT

This project basically focused on the hydrological design of proposed drainage network for
Unilorin lake side development, in University of Ilorin, Ilorin. The project methodology
entails site reconnaissance survey, slope and contour lines generation of the area. The area
was divided into three profile sections and relevant data such as length, width, depth and
rainfall intensity for the area was established. Rational method was used for the
computation of the surface runoff resulting from the area while Manning’s equation was
adopted for getting the dimension of the drains. The peak flow of the area and the
maximum flow velocity in the drain were determined to be 3.11m 3/s and 3.43m/s
respectively. The partial pipe culvert was also designed to discharge large volume of water
accumulating in section II to the downstream of the dam. A rectangular drainage channel of
dimension 1.34m x 0.67m depth, and the pipe culvert diameter of 90cm. At the end of the
study, it was deduced that the design of a rectangular drain with the incorporation of the
partial pipe culvert can mitigate the effect of potential flooding in the lake side
development.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page

Title page ii

Certification iii

Dedication iv

Acknowledgement v

Abstract vi

Table of Contents vii

List of Tables xii

List of Figures xiii

CHAPTER ONE: GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1.0 Introduction 1

1.1 Problem Statement 3

1.2 Objectives of the project 3

1.3 Justification 3

1.4 Scope of Work 4

1.5 Description of Study Area 4

1.6 Study methodology 6

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Review of earlier work 7

2.1 Types of drainage system 8

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2.2 Urbanization effect of surface runoff 9

2.3 Rainfall and channel discharge relationship 10

2.4 Factors influencing catchment area runoff 10

2.4.1 Basin characteristics 10

2.4.2 Storm characteristics 11

2.4.3 Hydrography 11

2.4.4 Meteorological Characteristics 11

2.5 Methods of design flow estimation 11

2.6 Rational Method of Estimating Peak Discharge 12

2.6.1 Runoff Coefficient 13

2.6.2 Time of Concentration 14

2.6.3 Rainfall Intensity 14

2.7 Culvert 15

2.7.1 Types of Culvert 16

2.7.2 Culvert hydraulics 17

2.7.3 Appurtenance structures 19

2.7.4 Use of Nomograph 20

2.8 Hydraulic design Principles 20

2.8.1 Velocity Limits 20

2.8.2 Effect of flow variation on velocity in a channel 21

2.8.3 Manning’s Equation 21

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2.9 Drainage maintenance practice 22

2.9.1 Consequences of Bad Drains 22

2.10 Civil Engineering Standard Method of Measurement (CESMM) 23

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY

3.0 Procedures for drainage design 24

3.1 Theory and Analysis of Design 25

3.1.1 Open Channel 26

3.1.2 Geometric Elements of Open Channel 26

3.1.3 The Best Hydraulic Section 27

3.2 The Hydraulic Design 28

3.3 Data Analysis 28

3.4 Discharge Calculation 35

3.5 Hydraulic Design Computation 37

3.5.1 Design of Rectangular Channel 37

3.6 Structural Analysis and Design 39

3.6.1 Structural Design of a Rectangular channel 39

3.7 Partial Culvert Design 43

3.7.1 Design of Pipe Culvert 43

3.8 Civil CAD Software 46

3.9 Bill of Engineering Measurement and Evaluation 47

3.9.1 Quantities of Materials for Rectangular drain 47

3.9.2 Material’s Rate 48

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 3.9.3 Bill of Engineering Measurement and Evaluation 50

For Rectangular drain

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Result 51

4.2 Discussion of Result 51

CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Conclusion 52

5.2 Recommendation 52

Reference 53

Appendix 55

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 LIST OF TABLES

Table Title Page

2.1 Typical runoff coefficient of rational formula 14

2.2 Rainfall intensity model for twelve towns in Nigeria 16

2.3 Maximum recommended flow velocities for various 19

Conduit materials.

2.4 Average values for manning’s roughness coefficient 23

3.1 The chainage and average width for each section 28

3.2 Peak flow determination using rational formula 35

3.3 Rectangular channel dimensions using best hydraulic 37

Section method

3.4 Bill of Engineering measurement and Evaluation of 50

rectangular channel

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Figures Title Page

1.1 The Study area map 5

1.3 The contour map of the study area 5

1.4 The smooth surface of the study area 6

1.5 Composite model of the study area 7

2.1 Double barrel pipe culvert 17

3.1 Rectangular channel section 26

3.2 Best hydraulic section 27

3.3 The satellite imagery of contributing areas 29

3.4 Contour map of study area 30

3.5 Road representation in the study area 31

3.6 Composite model of the study area 32

3.7 Vertical section of the road 33

3.8 Designed rectangular section 38

3.9 Rectangular channel showing forces acting 42

3.10 Rectangular channel detailing 42

3.11 Computation of rectangular channel parameters 46

3.12 Computation of partial pipe culvert parameters 47

xii
 CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Drainage is defined as the natural or artificial removal of surface and subsurface water from
an area. Drainage network is the pathway in which storm water or runoff follows a flow
path before getting to a receiving water body. Storm water drainage system is design to
collect and convey runoff generated within a catchment area during and after rainfall event
for safe discharge into a receiving watercourse. The magnitude of peak flows that have to be
accommodated depends on the intensity of rainfall, topography and soil type and land use
of the catchment. The collection and proper disposal of storm water and surface runoff is
essential for any environment as it stabilizes the state of wellbeing of occupants in that
vicinity reduces soil erosion for extensive agricultural productivity and therefore enhance
quality of life.

In storm water management, the three primary drainage tasks are urban, highway and land.
Urban storm drainage deals with the collection of excess water from the streets in cities. In
developed communities, the water collection and conveyance can be done through inlets to
buried conduits called sewers or pipes with their appurtenances. In most communities in
Nigeria however, the collection of runoff is often carried out using open concrete channels
that carry the excess water to an outfall where it can be discharged safely. Some of these
points of discharge are dams, streams, lake, reservoirs and rivers.

Storm water collection systems are designed to provide adequate surface drainage. Traffic
safety is intimately related to surface drainage. Rapid removal of storm water from the
pavement minimizes the conditions which can result in the hazards of hydroplaning which is
the separation of vehicle tire from the roadway surface due to film of water on the roadway
surface. Hence it can be said that flows in urban drainage channels are usually open channel
flows with free water surface. However, sewer pipes, culverts and similar conduits under
high flow conditions could become surcharged and pressurized conduit flows do occur. The
flow is always unsteady i.e. changing with time. Nevertheless, in situations for rainstorm
runoff for sanitary sewers, change of flow with time is slow enough that the flow can be
regarded as approximately steady.
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There are two basic types of drainage systems: (1) Surface (2) Subsurface. Surface drainage
system is that which may be left open or partially covered with concrete slabs, and are used
to convey runoff resulting from precipitation. This form of drainage system poses a lot of
health risks if not properly managed. There are four basic types of open surface drainage
channels namely rectangular, parabolic, trapezoidal and triangular. Subsurface drainage
System is the form of drainage system found in most developed countries in which the
runoff is collected by underground pipes to the discharge points. Sub-surface drainage is
usually designed to have sufficient capacity so that they do not run full when conveying the
computed runoff. The stimulating force establishing flow in both surface and sub-surface
drainage systems is mainly the gravitational force component acting parallel with the bed
slope, but net pressure forces and inertia forces may also be present. Flow in channels may
be unsteady resulting from changes in inflow such as floods.

A complete storm drainage system design includes consideration of both the major and
minor drainage system. The minor system sometimes referred to as the “Convenience’’
consists of the components that have been historically considered as part of the “Storm
drainage system”. These components includes curbs, gutters, ditches, inlets, access holes,
pipes and other conduits, open channels, pump detention basins, water quality control
facilities. The minor system is normally designed to carry runoff from 10year frequency
storm events. The major system provides overland relief for storm water flows exceeding
the capacity of the minor system. This usually occurs during more infrequent storm events,
such as the 25, 50, and 100 year storm. The major system is composed of pathways that are
provided knowingly or unknowingly for the runoff to natural or manmade receiving
channels such as streams, creeks, rivers, and lake. The major system normally uses a 100
year event as the check storm.

One of the major problems associated with new urban development is the increased
volumes and rates of storm water runoff generated within previously natural watersheds.
Runoff volume is increased when natural previous land surfaces are covered by such
impervious structures as buildings, roadways, and parking lots and when natural
depressions are removed, which serve as storage areas for surface runoff in their natural
state. The rate of runoff including peak flow rates is significantly increased when structural

2
drainage systems such as storm sewers and ditches which greatly reduced the time of
concentration of runoff are constructed (Martin et al, 1997). Open channels can create a
safety hazard therefore relevant stringent measures (devices and signals) should be put in
place to avert accidents. The safety of the general public shall thus be an important
consideration in the selection of cross-sectional geometry of artificial drainage channels.
This study is aimed to design and cost the drainage network for designated University of
Ilorin lake side development.

1.1 PROBLEM STATEMENT

It has been identified that areas in the University where structures have not been erected
have good natural drainage and the rate of runoff and infiltration appear sufficient.
However in specific areas for example the lake side development, rainfall runoff is a
challenge that is pronounced during intense rainfall event and due to high water table in the
area. Due to this, stagnated water are scattered in the area with attendant inconveniences
to people and vehicles.

1.2 AIM AND OBJECTIVES

This study aims at providing design and cost estimation of drainage network for the
proposed Unilorin lake side development. The specific objectives are:
1. To carry out elevation profile of the drainage using total station and Google earth.
2. To carry out hydraulic and structural analysis of the drainage network.
3. To design a suitable runoff drainage system.
4. Determination of the cost implication of the drainage network.
5. Develop flood/erosion management strategies for the catchment.

1.3 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY

The importance of drainage network design for Unilorin lake side development is to
minimize the effect of potential flooding and also to manage storm water discharges. During
intense rainfall the existing earth drainage cannot accommodate the runoff and these leads
to gully erosion and difficulty emanate for people traversing the driveway.

3
1.4 SCOPE OF THE WORK
The scope of the project work is limited to the following:
1. Site reconnaissance survey.
2. The adoption of established rainfall intensity equation by Salami and Sule (2009).
3. Computation of the surface runoff resulting from the area using rational formula
method.
4. Sizing of the drainage.
5. Structural design of the drainage
6. Cost estimation of the design drainage.

1.5 DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA

University of Ilorin was established in 1975 and physical development activities commenced
on the main campus in 1979. It is located some 10km north-east of the Ilorin township
which is the capital of Kwara state. Ilorin lies between latitude 8⁰ and 10⁰ of the equator and
longitude 2⁰24’ and 6⁰15’ east of the prime meridian in the north central part of Nigeria.
University of Ilorin main campus presently has 15 faculties namely: Agriculture, Arts, Basic
Medical Sciences, Business and Social Sciences, Communication and Information Sciences,
Clinical Sciences, Education, Engineering and Technology, Environmental Sciences, Law, Life
Sciences, Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Science, Physical Sciences, Veterinary Medicine.
Each of the faculties has departments for different programmes. There are also the
postgraduate school, 7 Bank buildings, Staff quarters, Works department, Canteens, Health
Centre.

The University of Ilorin proposed lake resort is situated in University of Ilorin campus. There
are different buildings in the environs of the lake resort. These are Centre for International
Education, Centre for Ilorin Studies, Unilorin Documentation and Archives centre while
Unilorin Entrepreneural Centre and University Researchers lodge are in progress. From the
entrance of the main gate of the campus the lake side development is sited at the right side
immediately before approaching the bridge.

4
Fig 1.2 The Study area map

5
1.6 STUDY METHODOLOGY
The methodological approach for this study involves field and desk studies.
1. The field work entails reconnaissance survey, checking of the current runoff situation
of the area and topographical data capture using total station equipment so as to
generate the contour lines (lines joining places of equal height).

2. The desk study involves the use of goggle earth for the satellite imageries and the
estimation of the contributing areas that drains into each section of the drainage.
From the contour lines the position of the drainage is been determined and the
computation of the discharge is been carried out using rational method.

The rational method of runoff has been used for computation since it focuses more on
flooding that occurs at relatively short intervals and it’s applicable to large drainage areas
and its usage is limited to urban areas of up to 12km 2.

6
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 REVIEW OF EARLIER WORKS

Dagnachew (2011) carried out a study on road and urban stormwater drainage network
integration in Addis Ketema subcity, Addis Ababa to identify sites most prone to flooding
problems, to assess the existing condition and urban stormwater drainage infrastructure in
road projects provision, to examine the impact of urban stormwater integration on road
performance and related environmental issues. Exploratory and descriptive methods were
used to investigate the existing condition, coverage and level of integration between road
and urban storm water drainage infrastructures respectively. Data collection was done using
both primary and secondary sources and was analyzed and presented using Microsoft excel,
AutoCAD and ArcGIS. The findings of the study includes inadequate storm water drainage
lines followed by blockage of drains by solid waste were the major causes of erosion in the
areas. Flood prone areas were identified and management strategies by encouraging site
infiltration through permeable pavement like porous concrete and coble stone.

Ganiyu (2012) carried out reinforced concrete drainage design for Olu Daramola road in
University of Ilorin campus. Rectangular and trapezoidal channels were designed.
Trapezoidal channel was recommended being economical and having the least wetted
perimeter with the best hydraulic section for easy discharge. Rational method was used for
the computation of the surface runoff resulting from the watershed while manning’s
equation was adopted for getting the dimensions of the drain and visual urban software
adopted for optimum dimension of the drain. The rainfall intensity of the area was
98.46mm/hr and the maximum discharge is 6.39m³/s. The largest dimension of the
rectangular channel was 1.74m X 0.87m depth while trapezoidal channel was 2.15m X
1.07m X 0.82m. Adeyemi (2005) also provided a design of drainage network for Salaudeen
Abdul Baki area of Fate road in Ilorin. Rational and manning equation were adopted in
Microsoft excel package to compute the channel peak discharge and dimension
respectively. The structural detailing of the channel was carried out based on limit state
design. The total channel length was 4.2km and the rectangular channel dimensions are

7
750mm depth by 1060mm width and 300mm depth by 430mm width for trapezoidal
channel.

Nasiru (2009) conducted a study on the engineering design of drainage network for
Rahamaniyah Oil and Gas tank farm at Apapa, Lagos. The design was based on American
Petroleum Institute (API) standards to direct oily water to the separator pit in the gas tank
farm. Reconnaissance and route surveys were used to obtain the relevant data to plot the
layout and cross sectional profile to determine the change in the elevation of the surface of
the ground. Rainfall intensity duration value proposed by Salami and Sule (2009) was
adopted. Surfer 8 and AutoCAD 2007 were used to plot the contour and profile generation
and visual basic for the determination of the depth and width of the channel. The maximum
peak flow of the area was determined using rational formula and the channel sizes were
obtained with manning’s equation. From the study the peak discharge was 4.13m 3/s. The
dimension of the rectangular channel is 1.19m X 0.71m depth. Mohammed (2005) carried
out a study on the engineering design of drainage network for Kulende housing estate phase
III Ilorin. He adopted two alternative conduit drainage systems. The peak discharge was
based on rational method and the hydraulic design of the channel estimated with manning’s
equation. The peak discharge obtained is 2.48m 3/s. The dimensions of the trapezoidal
channel are channel depth 0.89m, bed width 0.73m while that of rectangular channel were
obtained as depth 0.84m and bottom width of 1.2m.

2.1 TYPES OF DRAINAGE SYSTEM

The type of drainage system to be adopted varies largely on the topography of the area and
functionality. These include:
I. Storage Basin
A storage basin adopted by a city for storm drain purposes consists of an open pit which has
the capacity to receive and store surface runoff. A drainage system using a storage basin
usually has a storm drain to collect the runoffs for storage in the basin and a means of
disposing of the water to restore the capacity of the basin
II. Gravity Flow
Gravity flow method of conducting runoff is usually most economical and should be used
whenever possible. It may consist of either an underground conduit or a concrete lined

8
open channel. The underground conduit such as pipe, box or arch is usually designed to flow
full. An open channel either rectangular or trapezoidal is usually designed for uniform flow
i.e. fluid movement along its line of flow at constant speed.

III. Pumping Station

This is adopted when surface runoffs cannot drain to its outlets by gravity flow. It is
therefore collected at a common location and pumped out. The pump station may be
designed to pump peak flow which is often the choice with small drains or it may pump only
a portion of an adequate basin. The capacity of pumping and storing must be based on an
economic study due to high cost of pump stations.

2.2 Urbanization effect on Surface Runoff

Impacts of urbanization tend to affect processes of surface runoff altering the direction,
speed and sequence of free flow of water. These effects include:

I. Increase in runoff
The volume of water available for runoff increases because of the increase in impervious
cover provided by roofs of buildings, streets, paved parking lots, lined drains which reduce
the amount of infiltration. Before urbanization much of the rainfall is absorbed by the
surrounding vegetation, soil and ground cover. The runoff coefficient is a measure of the
amount of rainfall that is converted to runoff or storm runoff generation. As the percentage
of watershed imperviousness increases, the runoff coefficient increases with urbanization.

II. Decrease in time of concentration

A change in hydraulic efficiency of storm water collection systems with artificial channels
increases the velocity of flow. In an efficient manner, storm water from roofs are conveyed
to storm drains through gutters and downpipes, storm water from road surfaces are
conveyed to storm drains through curbs and gutters. Thus, drainage system convey the
runoff quickly into receiving waters compared to pre-urbanized setting, with this time of
concentration of flow is drastically reduced.

9
 III. Changes in dry weather flow
An increase in impervious surface decreases the amount of rainfall available for infiltration.
The efficient hydraulic conveyance system reduces the ponding time and thus reduces
infiltration. The groundwater recharge is therefore greatly reduced and the subsurface flow
is drastically reduced. The dry weather flow in an urbanized catchment depends not only on
the base flow but also on the contribution from waste water flows after consumptive use or
urban drainage flow.

2.3 RAINFALL AND CHANNEL DISCHARGE RELATIONSHIP

The occurrence and intensity of rainfall vary over the land surface for a number of reasons.
Such variations are important for agriculture and the prediction of rainfall amount. Rainfall
may either infiltrate the soil profile or become ground water or it may flow over the surface
as runoff. It is obvious that the surface channel will be affected directly by runoff. It is
therefore more important to evaluate peak flow discharge.

Peak flow discharge depends not only on the duration and intensity of rainfall but also on
the nature of the catchments which includes its permeability, the degree of soil saturation
before the storm begins, the catchment boundary and its gradient and shape in relation to
the prevalent direction of storm movement.

2.4 FACTORS INFLUENCING CATCHMENT AREA RUNOFF

The three main factors affecting runoff from a catchment are grouped under Basin
characteristics, storm characteristics and the hydrography.

2.4.1 Basin characteristics

The factors influencing the runoff under basin characteristics include;
1. Size
2. Shape
3. Slope
4. Land use
5. Soil type
6. Antecedent Condition

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 7. Surface filtration
8. Antecedent moisture content

2.4.2 Storm Characteristics

The factors influencing the runoff under storm characteristics are;
1. Storm Intensity
2. Storm duration
3. Spatial variation

2.4.3 Hydrography
The influences of catchment runoff under hydrography are;
1. Size
2. Shape
3. Condition of flow conveyance system

2.4.4 Meteorological Characteristics

The influences of catchment runoff under hydrography are;
1. Storm cell distribution
2. Storm direction
3. Time rate of precipitation
4. Amount of precipitation
5. Types of precipitation

2.5 METHODS OF DESIGN FLOW ESTIMATION

There are several techniques and models available for use in the determination of storm
water runoff. Selection of an appropriate method is based on the understanding of
principles and assumptions underlying the method and of the problem under consideration.
These include:
1. Soil Conservation method which was developed by U.S Soil Conservation Service for
uniform rainfall using assumptions of triangular hydrograph. The volume and the
peak of the runoff can be estimated for 24-hour design storm.

11
 2. Flood frequency analysis method of run off estimation depends upon the existence
of a number of years of record from the basin under study.
3. The Rational method is the most widely used for storm water drainage design for its
simplicity. The idea behind the rational formula is that it is required for a spatially
and temporally uniform rainfall intensity duration which continues indefinitely.
4. Modified rational method is an extension of the rational method for rainfalls lasting
longer than the time of concentration.
5. Unit hydrograph method which is used for medium sized catchments of more than
12km2.

Rational method was adopted for this study since it’s the most widely used empirical
equation for predicting instantaneous peak discharge for a small sub watershed of up to
12km2.

2.6 RATIONAL METHOD OF ESTIMATING PEAK DISCHARGE

The Rational method is a simplified method of relating the rainfall intensity and catchment
characteristics to obtain an estimate of the design flood. The runoff at the outlet of the
catchment will increase until the time of concentration when the whole catchment is
contributing flows to the outlet. The application of this method is limited to catchments up
to 12km2(FHDM part I, 2008).
The basic form of the rational equation is:
= 0.278 (2.1)
Where
= Peak runoff in m³/s
= runoff coefficient (dimensionless)
= rainfall intensity in mm/hr
= catchment area in Km²

For a catchment consisting of m sub-catchments of areas (Km²) each with different runoff
coefficients , the peak runoff at the drainage outlet is given thus:

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 = 0.278 ∑ . (2.2)
The basic assumptions used in the application of the rational formula are as follows:
1. The return period of the peak discharge is the same as that of the rainfall intensity.
2. The rainfall is uniform in space over the watershed under consideration.
3. The storm duration associated with the peak discharge is equal to the time of
concentration for the drainage area the time for the most hydraulically distant point
to contribute to the peak outflow at the point under consideration.
4. The runoff coefficient R is not influenced by the return period.
5. The runoff coefficient R is independent of the storm duration for a given watershed
and reflects any changes in infiltration rates, soil types and antecedent moisture
conditions.

Although the basic principles of the rational method are applicable to large drainage areas
in which reported practice generally limits it use to urban areas of up to 12km². For areas
larger than this, storage and subsurface drainage flows result in an attenuation of the runoff
hydrograph so that rates of flow tend to be overestimated by the rational formula method
unless these are taken into account.
2.6.1 Runoff Coefficients
The coefficient of runoff C refers to the propensity of precipitation to contribute to the peak
runoff rate. The coefficient represents the runoff-rainfall ratio and includes many factors
such as type of cover, soil types, infiltration, evaporation, evapo-transpiration, and any
antecedent moisture condition. The rational method assumes that the storm duration is at
least as long as the time of concentration, which is the time for the most hydraulically
distant point to contribute to the flow rate at the point under consideration. According to
the rational method, the coefficient of runoff is strictly the ratio of peak runoff intensity of a
particular frequency of average rainfall rate for the same recurrence interval assuming a
hydraulic balance in the catchments. Runoff coefficient which is less than one, depends on
the type of soil, vegetative cover and slope of the area, and increases with increase in
rainfall intensity. Typical runoff coefficient is presented in Table 2.1

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Table 2.1: Typical runoff factors coefficient of rational formula

Type of surface Run-off coefficient

Concrete or asphalt pavement 0.8 − 0.9

Asphalt Macadam pavement 0.6 − 0.8
Gravel roadways or shoulders 0.4 − 0.6
Bare earth 0.2 − 0.9
Steep grassed areas 0.5 − 0.7
Turf meadows 0.1 − 0.4
Forested areas 0.1 − 0.3
Cultivated fields 0.2 − 0.4

Source: NRCS, IA (1986)

2.6.2 Time of Concentration

The time of concentration at any point in a hydraulic design is the time required for run-off
from the most remote portion of the drainage area to reach that point. The most remote
portion provides the longest time of concentration but is not necessarily the most distant
point in the drainage area. The basic assumption of the Rational Method is that all portions
are contributing run-off. The time of concentration (tc) is calculated in order to estimate the
intensity of the design storm.

Time of concentration is estimated with equation 2.3 (FHDM part 1, 2008)

.
= 0.0078 .
(2.3)

Where:
t = time of concentration in minutes
L = Length of watershed area in metres
S = Slope of watershed area in metres per metre
A minimum time of concentration of 20 minutes is recommended for design except for
inlets where a minimum time of 5 minutes should be used.

2.6.3 Rainfall Intensity

Rainfall intensity (I) is the average rainfall rate in mm/hr for a selected return period that is a
based on duration equal to the time of concentration. Once a particular return period has

14
been selected for design and a time of concentration has been calculated for the drainage
area, the rainfall intensity can be determined from rainfall intensity duration.

Rainfall intensity modeled by Salami and Sule (2009) indicate that very intense storms are of
short duration and are rare and of low probability. Storms of long duration tend to be less
intense and extremely long storms, supplying large amounts of rains are also rare. This is the
reason why there is need to quantify the relationships between intensity, duration and
frequency. A formula expressing the relationship between rainfall intensity, duration and
frequency takes the form given in equation 2.4. Rainfall intensity model equation developed
by Salami and Sule (2009) for Twelve Nigerian cities are presented in Table 2.2.

= (2.4)

Where:
i = rainfall Intensity mm/hr
T = Frequency of recurrence interval in years
t = duration in hr
a,b,c = Locality constants.

2.7 CULVERTS
Culverts are the most common cross drainage structures used on roads. They are built using
a variety of materials, in different shapes and sizes, depending on the preferred design and
construction practices. Culverts are required in order to (i) allow natural streams to cross
the road, and (ii) discharge surface water from drains and the areas adjacent to the road.
Culverts form an essential part of the drainage system on most roads.Culverts are
constructed using different materials. The most common practice of culverts is based on the
use of pre-cast concrete pipes, in-situ concrete boxes and corrugated steel pipes culverts.
The box culvert is generally built with 1 to 3 cells of width 1m to 3m and the pipe culvert is
built with 1 to 3 rows of pipes with diameters commonly ranging from 0.6m to 1m. Wing
walls and aprons of concrete or stone pitching are used to protect the culverts from water
flow erosion and scouring at upstream side. Culverts should slope enough so water will flow.
A minimum drop 15cm across the road is desirable this will keep sediment from
accumulating in the culvert and will not cause erosion at the discharge end Magdi (2014).

15
Table 2.2 Rainfall intensity model for twelve towns in Nigeria
Town Rainfall intensity Model

. .
Calabar = 16.26( / )

. .
Enugu = 31.94( / )

. .
Ibadan = 28.61( / )

. .
Ikeja = 18.50( / )

. .
Ilorin = 22.00( / )

. .
Kaduna = 3.96( / )

. .
Maiduguri = 11.17( / )

. .
Makurdi = 16.43( / )

. .
Minna = 11.97( / )

. .
Oshogbo = 19.97( / )

. .
Sokoto = 11.95( / )

. .
Yola = 8.37( / )

Source: Salami and Sule (2009)

2.7.1 Types of Culvert

Reinforced concrete culverts are used to provide passage over obstructions without closing
the gap beneath. The required passage may be for roadways, railways, pedestrian’s path or
pipeline. The obstacles to be crossed may be a river or valley. Based on the method of
construction, reinforced concrete culverts are classified as pipe and box culvert.
Pre-cast reinforced concrete pipes are often used for conducting small streams of water
under roads or embankments. The pipes are generally laid on top of a bed of concrete are
surrounded by layer of concrete of at least 150mm thickness. The pipes must be strong
enough to resist the vertical and horizontal pressures from earth and super-imposed load.

16
Box culverts are often employed where access is required under railways or roadways,
either for river or walkway. This can take the form of a single box, two- way box, and
multiple-bay box. The first two forms are the most common. A box culvert can either be
square or rectangular in section with span up to 6m. The height of the box may exceed 3m.
For this study, pre-cast reinforce concrete pipe is adopted.

Fig. 2.1: Double barrel pipe culvert

2.7.2 Culvert hydraulics

The flow hydraulics in culvert is normally either condition of full flow in closed conduit or
part full flow under uniform flow or non-uniform flow. The most important consideration in
culvert hydraulics is whether the flow is subject to inlet or outlet control. In designing
culverts, the type of control is determined by the greater of the head water depths
calculated for both inlet and outlet control. For the two types of control different factors
and formulae are used to calculate the hydraulic capacity of a culvert, under inlet control,
the cross sectional area of the culvert cell, the inlet geometry and the amount of head water
or ponding at the entrance are of primary importance. Outlet control involves the additional
consideration of the tail water in the outlet channel, slope, roughness and length of the
culvert cell.

17
The head, H or energy required to pass a given flow through a culvert operating under inlet
control is made up of three major parts. These three parts are expressed in metres of water
and include velocity head (H ), an entrance loss (H ), and a friction loss (H ). The energy
loss is expressed in equation form as (Urban storm water management manual, Penang
2004).

H=H +H +H (2.5)
Where;

H = (2.6)

H =K (2.7)

H = .
× (2.8)

By substituting and simplifying, we get

H= 1+K + . (2.9)

Where;
=Head or energy required in metres
=Entrance loss coefficient
=Manning’s friction factor
=Length of culvert cell (m)
=Mean velocity of flow in culvert cell (m/s)
=Acceleration due to gravity in m/s2
=Hydraulic radius (m)
=Area of flow for full cross section (m2)
=Wetted perimeter (m)
For pipe concrete is taken to be 0.2 (Urban storm water management manual, Penang
2004).
The required pipe size diameter can be determined using equation 2.10. The maximum
recommended flow velocities for various conduit materials can be obtained from Table 2.3

18
 = (2.10)

Where;
= Design discharge in m3/s
= Maximum recommended velocity in m/s
=Pipe diameter in m
Table 2.3: Maximum recommended flow velocities for various conduit materials (m/s)
Material Maximum V (m/s)
Precast concrete pipes 8.0
Precast box culverts 8.0
In situ concrete and hard
Packed rock (300mm min) 6.0
Beaching or boulders 5.0
(250mm min)
Stones (100 – 150mm) 2.5 – 3.0
Grass covered surfaces 1.8
Stiff, sandy clay 1.3 – 1.5
Coarse gravel 1.3 – 1.8
Coarse sand 0.5 – 0.7
Fine sand 0.2 – 0.5
Urban storm water management manual, Penang 2004

2.7.3 Appurtenant Structures

In order to integrate an improved inlet into a culvert system, several appurtenant structures
are required. These structures include headwalls, wing walls and aprons.

I. Headwalls
Headwalls and wingwalls are used to hold the toe of the embankment back from the
entrance, protecting it from erosion. The headwall is a retaining wall with an opening for the
culvert. It derives support from attachment to the culvert and is subjected to less lateral soil
pressure than a retaining wall of equal size since the culvert replaces much of the backfill.
The wingwalls are retaining walls placed at both side of the headwall usually at an angle,
they are designed as retaining walls (FHWA, 1983).

II. Aprons
These are slabs usually made of in-situ concrete cast at the culvert inlet and outlet which
serve as a covering over the soil to prevent erosion by flowing water. Apron slabs are slabs

19
on grade in front of the culvert face section and are treated as slabs on grade for design
purposes.

2.7.4 Use of Nomograph

The use of nomograph is to determine the actual headwater cause by the discharge or
runoff and it is necessarily used to provide over flooding of the culvert. It requires a trial and
error solution. The solution is quite easy and provides reliable designs for many applications.
If the selected culvert height is greater than the actual headwater from the nomograph it
indicates that the culvert will not be flooded. But if the reverse is the case, more velocity
should be selected for trial until an adequate height is provided. The nomograph used for
this study is shown in the appendix.

2.8 HYDRAULIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES

Storm water drains are designed to carry the maximum storm runoff that is likely to be
produced by the contributing catchment’s from rainfall of design frequency. The velocities
and sections should be selected such that the suspended particles contained in the runoff
should not settle down at the bottom of the drains in order to prevent blockage of the
channels. In order to avoid such clogging or silting of drains, it is necessary that the drain
channel should be of such a size and gradient to generate self-cleansing velocities at
different discharges.

2.8.1 Velocity Limits

The flow velocities in the drains should be in such that neither the suspended materials in
storm runoff get silted up nor the drainage channel surface get scoured out. The first
condition limits the minimum velocity and the second limits the maximum velocity.
I. Minimum Velocity
The velocity that would not permit the solids to settle down and even scour the deposited
particles of a given size is called a self-cleansing velocity. This minimum velocity should at
least develop once in a day so as not to allow any deposition in the drains. Otherwise, if
such deposition takes place it will obstruct free flow causing further deposition and finally
leading to complete blockage of the drain.

20
 II. Maximum Velocity
The interior surface of a channel gets scoured due to continuous abrasion caused by the
suspended solids present in storm water. This scouring and wearing of the channel is more
pronounced at higher velocity than what can be tolerated by the channel material. The wear
of the channel will reduce the lifespan and also affect their capacities.
In order to avoid this occurrence, it is necessary to limit the maximum velocity that will be
produced in the drains at any time. Thus, limiting or non- scouring velocity will mainly
depend upon the material of the channel. It would be noted that to safely prevent silting
and scouring from the choice of minimum and maximum velocity respectively, values
between a minimum of 0.6m/s and 5m/s are recommended in Nigeria Highway Design
Manuals.

2.8.2 Effect of Flow Variations on Velocity in a Channel

The discharge flowing through channels varies considerably from time to time. Hence, there
occur variation in depth of flow and thus variation in Hydraulic Mean Depth (HMD). Due to
change in hydraulic mean depth there occur changes in flow velocity. The velocity should be
checked for limiting velocity by comparing the calculated flow velocities with the minimum
and maximum velocities.

2.8.3 Manning’s Equation

This is the most popular formula used for designing drain channels. It is found to be fully
satisfied from experimental results and is given as:

Q = AR S (2.11)

Where = Discharge in m3/s

n = Roughness coefficient
= Cross sectional area in m2
= Hydraulic radius
= Energy gradient
Manning’s equation is widely used in open channel water flow computations, n which is the
Manning’s roughness factor and its value is related to the type of boundary surface. If the

21
value of n is taken to be constant regardless of depth, then it does not account for changes
in relative roughness nor does it include the effect of viscosity (Featherstone et, al 1995).
The typical values of roughness coefficient n for manning’s formula is shown in Table 2.4

2.9 DRAINAGE MAINTENANCE PRACTICE

Maintenance of the storm water drainage network includes inspection, cleaning and repair
of open and piped drains, and outfall structure. This network needs to be regularly cleaned
to maintain its performance.
Regular cleaning of the storm water drainage network provides an opportunity to remove
pollutant loads that would otherwise flow into streams and rivers after heavy rainfall. In
addition to transporting pollutants, drains with accumulated pollutants may also overflow
leading to localized flooding and erosion, as well as risks to human safety and constructed
assets.
Inspection and maintenance frequencies include:
1. Identify pollutant hot spots where relatively large quantities of pollutants of concern
regularly accumulate in the drainage system.
2. Anticipating problems and making minor modifications.
3. Focus on those parts of the network with relatively flat grades as pollutants tend to
accumulate in these areas.
4. Prepare and inspection program that assigns inspection tasks and responsibilities.

2.9.1 Consequences of bad drains

The consequences of poorly designed drains are erosion and flooding. Erosion is the gradual
wearing away of the top layer of the soil by physical action, chemical reactions and
transportation of material caused by water and related event amongst others. Flooding is
the situation that arises when a large volume of water tends to accumulate at a particular
dry area without having a means of escape. Therefore it is imperative to adopt a drainage
practice manual when designing.

22
Table 2.4: Average values for manning’s roughness coefficient (n)
Type of channel n Values
Unlined Channels

Clay –Loam 0.023

Sand 0.020

Gravel 0.030

Rock 0.040

Lined Channels

Portland cement Concrete 0.014

Air-blown mortar (Troweled) 0.012

Asphalt concrete 0.016

Sacked concrete 0.025

Pavement and Gutters

Portland cement Concrete 0.015

Asphalt Concrete 0.016

Source: NRCS, IA (1986)

2.10 CIVIL ENGINEERING STANDARD METHOD OF MEASUREMENT (CESMM)

The main purpose the Bill of Quantities is to assist the contractors to produce an accurate
tender figure efficiently and to enable post contract administration be carried out in an
efficient and cost-effective manner. Estimation is the process of pricing based on the
available information, specification, and various drawings toward arriving at total sum
known as tender sum. This is to be done within the context of form of contract and terms in
which the sum will apply or may vary (Okeola, 2012). Bill of Quantities is also appropriate to
a building contract where the General Summary contains a list of individual Bills. In civil
engineering documents the equivalent Bills are called Parts so the overall document is a Bill
of Quantities. The correct term for this task is re-measurement where the work is physically
measured on site or admeasurement where the actual quantities are calculated from
records. There are five sections in the Bill of Quantities: (i) Preamble (ii) List of principal
quantities (iii) Day work schedule (iv) Work items (divided into parts) (v) Grand summary.

23
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.0 PROCEDURES FOR THE DRAINAGE DESIGN

The design of drainage systems includes the following
1. Reconnaissance survey is done to familiarize with the area of work and identify the
scope, topology, topography including an insight that guide into proper planning.
2. The total chainage , average road width, slope and elevation profile of the area were
assessed through the use of Google earth and field work carried out using total
station instrument for road elevation.
3. Rainfall intensity formula developed by Salami and Sule (2009) for Ilorin was used in
the calculation of the rainfall intensity,
.
I = 22.00 .
(mm/hr) (3.1)

Where:

T = Return period(year)

t = Duration(hr)

A minimum time of concentration of 20 minutes and 10years return period are

recommended for the design.
4. The road was divided into three sections due to the elevation difference and the
catchment area contributing runoff to each section was estimated.
5. Time of concentration was calculated for each drainage area. Time of concentration,
.
= 0.0078 . (3.2)

Where:
t = time of concentration in minutes
L = Length of watershed area in metres
S = Slope of watershed area in metres per metre
6. Discharge in each section was calculated using the rational formula.
= 0.278 (3.3)

24
 Where:
= Peak runoff in m³/s
= runoff coefficient (dimensionless)
= rainfall intensity in mm/hr
= catchment area in Km²

7. Peak runoff in each section was computed by adding direct discharge in each section
and total flow contributed from other sections. i.e.

Design Discharge, Q = Q +Q (3.4)

8. Manning’s equation was used in the sizing of the drainage channels

Q = AR S (3.5)

Where:
Q = Discharge in m3/s
n = Roughness coefficient
A = Cross sectional area in m2
R = Hydraulic radius
S = Energy gradient
9. Computation of drainage channel parameters using CivilCAD software.

3.1 THEORY AND ANALYSIS OF DRAINAGE DESIGN

The hydraulic analysis of channel determines the depth and velocity at which a given
discharge will flow in a channel of known geometry, roughness and slope. The depth and
velocity of flow are necessary for the analysis and design of channel linings and highway
drainage structures.

The flow of water in a conduit may either be open channel flow or pipe flow. The two kinds
of flow are similar in many ways but differ in one important respect. Open channel flow
must have a free surface, whereas pipe flow has none. A free surface is subjected to
atmospheric pressure, but pipe flow is subjected to hydraulic pressure only.

25
The measured velocity in an open channel will always vary across the channel section
because of the friction along the boundary. The formula involving loss of head due to
friction is expressed in terms of hydraulic radius and can be applied to any shape of channel
carrying water under pressure, while that with a free surface has a confined flow with fixed
cross section.

3.1.1 Open Channel

An open channel can be divided into classes. A channel can either be natural or artificial.
Natural channels are mainly of earth and they are not regular, their materials for
construction can also vary widely. The surface roughness will often change in time distance
and elevation therefore it becomes difficult to actually analyze and obtain accurate results.
The situation may further be complicated if the boundary is not fixed i.e. erosion and
deposition of sediments.

Artificial channels are manmade channels and are usually constructed with regular cross-
section throughout. In the field they are usually constructed with concrete, steel or earth
and it has its surface roughness reasonably defined. For this design, rectangular channel
section was used. Others include trapezoidal, parabolic among others.

3.1.2 Geometric Elements of Open Channel Section

Geometric elements are properties of the channel section that maybe defined entirely by
the geometry of the section and the depth of flow. These elements are extensively used in
flow computation. The geometry elements for simple regular channel sections can be
expressed mathematically in terms of the depth of flow and other section dimensions.

y d

b
Fig. 3.1 Rectangular channel section

26
The most important elements of cross sections together with their symbols that would be
used to represent them are as follows:
Area (A): means the cross-sectional area of the storm that the channel takes.
Wetted perimeter (P): is the length of the line of intersection of the plane of the cross-
section with wetted surface of the channel.
Hydraulic Radius: is the area divided by the wetted perimeter.
Flow depth (y): is the maximum depth of water in the cross-section of the channel.

3.1.3 The Best Hydraulic Section (BHS)

The best hydraulic section or most efficient hydraulic section is that which produces a
maximum discharge for a given area, bed slope and surface roughness. It is also a channel
section with increase in the hydraulic radius with decrease in the wetted perimeter.
The hydraulically best section for rectangular channel is given from fig. 3.2 as:

B
Fig. 3.2 Best hydraulic section

p = B + 2y
A
B=
y
A = By
A
p= + 2y
y
dp
= −Ay +2 =0
dy
A = 2y (3.1)
∴ By = 2y
or B = 2y

27
3.2 THE HYDRAULIC DESIGN
The peak discharge for the design of the drains of the open channel was determined using
the rational equation and these values serves as the design capacities for the pipes and
drains. The Manning’s equation was used to determine the size of the drains and the
minimum self-cleansing velocity required to prevent the deposition of suspended materials
is usually 0.6m/s for closed conduit drainage.

In order for cost reduction, the systems will be designed in relation to the existing ground
profile. In addition to this, for the case of open channel, the system would be designed for,
using the best hydraulic section as described above with the application of steady state flow
principles.
3.3 DATA ANALYSIS
From the vertical profile of the road, the road is been divided into three sections based on
the topographical nature of the catchment for easy collection and discharge of storm water.
The sections are 1, 2 and 3.
The data below were derived from both the use of total station equipment, goggle earth
and direct measurement.
The total chainage of the road, = 708.83m

The average road width= 8.5 , where = in metres

.
= m, = 4.25m

Table 3.1: The chainage and average width for each section

Section 1(m) Section 2(m) Section 3(m)

Chainage 0+00 to 125 125 to 625 625 to 708.83

Length 125 500 83.33

Width of
Contributing area,w 410.35 274.63 386.51

28
Fig. 3.3: The Satellite Imagery of the study area showing contributing areas

29
Fig. 3.4: The Contour map of the Study area

30
Fig. 3.5: Road representation in the study area

31
Fig 3.6: Composite model of the study area

32
33
Fig. 3.7: Vertical section of the road
Section 1
Catchment area contributing to the drainage from Fig. 3.1
(4.25m x 125m)= 531.3m2
Area of the surrounding, A= 125m x 410.35m =51293.75m2

Total catchment area = (531.3 + 51293.75)m2

= 51825.05m2

But 1km2 = 1000000m2

.
Therefore 51825.05m2 = x 1km2 = 0.05km2

The above sequence were also applied to sections 2 and 3

Section 2

Catchment area contributing to the drainage from Fig. 3.1

(4.25m x 500m)= 2125m2
Area of the surrounding, A= 500m x 274.63m =137315m2

Total catchment area = (2125 + 137315)m2

= 139440m2 = 0.14km2

Section 3

Catchment area contributing to the drainage from Fig. 3.1

(8.5m x 83.83m)= 712.6m2
Area of the surrounding, A= 83.83m x 386.51m =32401.1m2

Total catchment area = (712.6 + 32401)m2

= 33113.7m2 = 0.03km2

34
3.4 DISCHARGE CALCULATION

REFERENCES CALCULATION OUTPUT

NCRS, 1A (1986) From Table 2.1, Runoff Coefficient, C=0.6
From Table 2.2, Intensity
.
Table 2.2 T
Salami and Sule(2009) I = 22.00 .
(mm/hr)
t
Where:
T = Return period(year)
t = Duration(hr)
A minimum time of concentration of 20
minutes and 10years return period are
recommended for the design due to the
catchment area of less than 12km2.
Therefore,
10 .
i = 22.00 .
0.333
= 22.00 × 4.48
= 98.46mm/hr
Section 1
Estimated catchment Area = 0.19km2
Length of the section = 125m
Slope (S) = 2.0% = 0.02
From equation 5, time of concentration
L.
t = 0.0078 .
S
125 .
Equation 3.3 = 0.0078 × = 2.27min
0.02 .
Q = 0.278CiA
= 0.278 × 0.6 × 98.46 × 0.05 Q = 0.82m /s
= 0.82m /s

35
 REFERENCES CALCULATION OUTPUT
Section 2
Estimated catchment Area = 0.14km2
Length of the section = 500m
Slope (S) = 1.2% = 0.012
= time of concentration
L.
Equation 3.2 t = 0.0078
S .
500 .
= 0.0078 × .
0.012
= 8.53min
= 0.278 × 0.6 × 98.46 × 0.14
= 2.29m /s
Design Discharge, Q = Q +Q
= (2.29 + 0.82)m /s
= 3.11m /s

The Summary for the calculations for each section

Table 3.2: Peak flow determination using rational method

Section L Slope Area I Q
(m) (km2) (min) (min/hr) (m3/s) (m3/s) (m3/s)
1 125 0.020 0.05 2.27 98.46 0.82 − 0.82

2 500 0.012 0.14 8.53 98.46 2.29 0.82 2.29

3 83.83 0.005 0.03 3.34 98.46 0.49 − 0.49

36
3.5 HYDRAULIC DESIGN CALCULATION

3.5.1 Design of Rectangular Channel

REFERENCES CALCULATION OUTPUT

Table 2.4 NRCS n = 0.014
1A(1986) =2 , = /2
From equation 3.1 = 3.11m /s and S = 1% = 0.01

3.11 × 0.014 = 2 × × (0.01)

2
0.044 = 0.13 8/3

.
y8/3= .
= 0.34m

= √0.34 3 Depth= 0.67m

= 0.67m
b= 2 × 0.67m Width= 1.34m
= 1.34m
Provide a drain of width 1.34m and depth
of 0.67m
Area, = 2 × (0.87)2 m
= 0.90m
.
Hydraulic radius, R = m

= 0.34m
Wetted Perimeter, p = 4
= 4 × 0.67m
= 2.68m
Hydraulic depth, D=
40% of y as freeboard + y D= 0.94m

= 1.4 = 1.4 × 0.67m

= 0.94m

37
 Fig. 3.8: Designed rectangular section (All dimensions in mm)

Table 3.3: Rectangular channel dimensions using best hydraulic section method.

Section L(m) Qd(m3/s) Slope n y(m) b(m) A(m2) R(m) P(m) V(m/s)

1 125 0.82 0.032 0.014 0.36 0.72 0.26 0.18 1.44 3.22

2 500 2.29 0.012 0.014 0.58 0.16 0.67 0.29 2.32 3.43

3 83.33 0.49 0.005 0.014 0.38 0.76 0.29 0.19 1.52 1.67

38
3.6 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

3.6.1 Structural Design of a Rectangular Channel

REFERENCES CALCULATION OUTPUT

Drainage dimensions (Rectangular)
Width = 1340mm
Depth = 670mm
Wall and base thickness = 150mm
Length = 708.83m
Design Assumptions for Channel walls
Walls are considered as earth retaining
structures
Angle of internal friction, ∅ = 35°
Specific weight of soil,γ = 18KN/m
Factor of safety= 1.4
Acceleration due to gravity g = 9.81m/s
1 − sin∅
k =
1 + sin∅
1 − sin35
=
1 + sin35
= 0.271
/
Surcharge depth, h = /

= 0.278m
Total height H= 0.15 + 0.67 + 0.278 = 1.098m
Horizontal force, Fh= 0.5γk H
= 2.94KN/m
Ultimate force, F= 1.4f
= 1.4 × 2.94 = 4.116KN F= 4.116KN
. × .
Ultimate design moment, M= =

= 1.506KN/m M= 1.506KN/m

39
REFERENCES CALCULATION OUTPUT
Reinforcement
Fcu= 20N/mm2
Fy = 250N/mm2
Thickness, h= 150mm
Concrete cover, C= 30mm
Diameter ∅ = 10mm
Effective depth, deff= h−C−∅/2
=150−30−10/2 =115mm
BS8110 M
k=
Part 1 bd f
(1997)
1.506 × 10
= = 0.0042 < 0.156
1340 × 115 × 20
Lever arm factor (Z)

Z = 0.5 + 0.25 − .
d

.
Z = 0.5 + 0.25 − .
× 115

= 114.46mm
M
A =
0.95f z
1.506 × 10
=
0.95 × 250 × 114.46
A = 55.40mm
BS8110 ASmin= 0.15%bd
Part 1 0.15 × 1340 × 115
(1997) =
100
= 231.15mm
Provide Y12@ 300mm C/C (377mm ) as main and
Y10@300mm C/C as distribution bars

40
 REFERENCES CALCULATION OUTPUT
BS8110 Deflection Check
(1997)
M 1.506 × 10
Table 3.3.1 = = 0.114
bd 1000 × 115
( )
Service stress,F = F
( )

= 128.42N/mm
.
Modification factor (M.F)= ≤2
( . )

. .
= .
( . )
×

= 3.78 > 2
Span
d =
M. F × span effective depth ratio
1000
= = 25mm (d
2 × 20
<d Deflection ok)

41
 Fig. 3.9: Rectangular channel showing forces acting

Fig. 3.10: Rectangular channel detailing (All dimensions in mm)

42
3.7 PARTIAL CULVERT DESIGN

From the road vertical section and discharge calculation being made in Table 3.2. It can be
noted that discharge rate in section 2 of the drainage channel needs to be reduced and the
runoff needs to be conducted across the carriage way by the use of a partial pipe culvert.

3.7.1 Design of pipe culvert

REFERENCES CALCULATION OUTPUT

Entrance head loss
From equation 7
V
H =K
2g
8
H = 0.2
2(9.81)
H = 0.2 × 3.26
H = 0.652m/s
H = 0.652m/s
Required pipe size
From equation 10

4
=

From Table 2.5, V= 8m/s and Q= 3.11m3/s

4 × 3.11
D= D = 0.7m
3.142 × 8

Assuming 0.9m since it is more durable and

possesses more compressive strength, readily
available pipe size and more suitable for
discharging surface water from drains crossing
D = 0.9m
the carriage way than lesser diameters which
are normally used for access culverts.

43
REFERENCES CALCULATION OUTPUT
Head or Energy required to pass a given flow
through a culvert
From equation 9
2 × 9.81 × 0.015 × 9 8
H = 1 + 0.2 + .
0.45 2 × 9.81
H = [1.2 + 0.1149] × 3.262
H = 4.3m/s H = 4.3m/s
Actual head water
Q = 0.278CiA
I For Ilorin is of the form
.
T
I = 22.00 .
(mm/hr)
t
For a recurrence period of T=50 years
And t= 1 hour duration,
50 .
I = 22.00 ; = 133.03mm/hr
1 .
Q = 0.278 × 0.6 × 133.03 × 0.14
= 3.11m /s
Q = 3.11m /s
For t= 2 hour duration,
50 .
I = 22.00 ; = 100.82mm/hr
2 .
Q = 0.278 × 0.6 × 100.82 × 0.14
Q = 2.35m /s
= 2.35m /s
For t= 3 hour duration,
50 .
I = 22.00 ; = 85.7mm/hr
3 .
Q = 0.278 × 0.6 × 85.7 × 0.14
= 2m /s Q = 2m /s

44
REFERENCES CALCULATION OUTPUT
For t= 4 hour duration,
50 .
I = 22.00 ; = 76.41mm/hr
4 .
Q = 0.278 × 0.6 × 76.41 × 0.14
= 1.78m /s Q = 1.78m /s
For t= 5 hour duration,
50 .
I = 22.00 ; = 69.88mm/hr
5 .
Q = 0.278 × 0.6 × 69.88 × 0.14
= 1.63m /s
Q = 1.63m /s
Utilizing the discharge Q for 2 hour period as the worst
flood
Q = 2.35m /s
From the nomograph by connecting the length scale for
the inlet condition and taking my culvert diameter
(0.9m) scale with a straight line then pivoting on the
turning line and drawing a straight line from the design
discharge through the turning point to the head loss
scale.
At = 0.9 ,

= 2.8m /s,

(Head water depth in terms of height) = 3.2m Hw= 2.88m

Headwater, Hw= 3.2 × 0.9 = 2.88m

45
3.8 CIVIL CAD SOFTWARE

This is an engineering software for road and drainage designs and for survey professionals
to complete cadastral and topographical surveys, terrain modelling and volume calculations.
The software is used for the design of open channel hydraulics and partial pipe culvert for
this study. The interface consist of : ground level, design level, manhole details. The
expected outputs computed are the depth of flow, wall thickness and they are all in S.I
units. Figure 3.4 and 3.5 shows the computation of rectangular channel parameters and
partial pipe culvert parameters respectively for the drainage system.

Fig.3.11: Computation of rectangular channel parameters

46
 Fig.3.12: Computation of partial pipe culvert parameters

3.9 BILL OF ENGINEERING MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION (BEME)

3.9.1 Quantity of Materials for Rectangular Channel

Drain (1 side)

Total length of drainage = 708.83m

Wall thickness = 0.15m

Base thickness = 0.15m

Blinding = 0.05m

Width of base and blinding = 1.34m + 0.15m = 1.49m

Height of drainage wall = 0.82m

Excavation

Depth of excavation = (0.82 + 0.15)m = 0.97m

47
Width of excavation = 1.64m

Volume of excavation

Total volume of excavation = 708.83m x 1.64m x 0.97m

= 1127.61m3

Volume of concrete

Drainage wall = 2(708.83m x 0.15m x 0.82m) = 174.37m3

Drainage base = 708.83m x 0.15m x 1.64m = 174.37m 3

Drainage wall and base are in concrete mix (1: 2: 4)

Total volume of concrete for wall and base = 348.74m 3

Blinding is in concrete mix (1: 3: 6)

Blinding = 708.83m x 0.05m x 1.64m = 58.12m3

Total Volume of concrete mix ( 1: 2: 4) = 348.74m 3

Total volume of concrete mix (1: 3: 6) = 58.12m 3

Formwork

Area of external wall = 2(708.83 x 0.82)m = 1162.48m 2

Area of internal wall = 2(708.83 x 0.67)m = 949.83m 2

Area for a side drain = (1162.48 + 949.83)m2= 2112.31m2

3.9.2 Rate of Materials

Market survey was carried out in Ilorin, the project location to determine the price of
reinforcement and concrete materials. The Bill of Engineering Measurement and Evaluation
for the rectangular drain is presented in Table 3.9

48
The following price quotations were given by Loat Nigeria Ltd (2015):

Excavation - N500/m3

Concrete mix (1: 2: 4) - N30,000/m3

Concrete mix (1: 3: 6) - N26,000/m3

Reinforcement - N250/kg

Formwork - N1,400/m2

49
3.9.3 Bill of Engineering Measurement and Evaluation for Rectangular Channel

Table 3.4: BEME of rectangular channel

S/N Description Qty Unit Rate (N) Amount (N)

1.0 Provisional
1.1 Allow for preliminaries to be disposed LOT 250,000 250,000.00
as directed
2.0 Excavation
2.1 Excavation for drainage not exceeding 1130 m3 500 565,000.00
1.0m
3.0 Concrete
3.1 Provide plane in-situ concrete 58.12 m3 26,000 1,511,120.00
blinding
(1: 3: 6), 50mm thick
3.2 Provide plane in-situ concrete for 348.74 m3 30,000 10,462,200.00
drainage wall and base (1: 2: 4)
4.0 Reinforcement
4.1 Provide reinforcement for base and 2364 kg 250 590,940.00
walls of drains according to
specification
5.0 Formwork
5.1 Fair finished formwork to vertical 2115 m2 1400 2,961,000.00
surface of drainage

6.0 Sub Total 16,340,260.00

6.1 Add 5% contigencies 817,013.00

6.2 Grand Total 17,157,273.00

50
 CHAPTER 4

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 RESULT

Rectangular channel with the incorporation of a partial pipe culvert at chainage 0 + 125 −
0 + 625 in Fig. 3.7 were designed for the Drainage Network for the proposed Unilorin Lake
resort. The results obtained from the hydrological analysis were shown in Table 3.2 and 3.3
for the rectangular channel.

4.2 DISCUSSION OF RESULT

The hydrological analysis carried out indicates that the rainfall intensity for the area is
98.46mm/hr and the maximum discharge of 3.11m 3/s occurred at chainage 0 + 125 − 0 +
625 in Fig. 3.7. The hydraulic analysis also showed that the largest dimension of the
rectangular channelis 1.34m × 0.67m depth. Flow velocity in each section for rectangular
channel was calculated as was shown in Table 3.4. It was shown that the velocity ranged
between 1.67m/s and 3.43m/s. The values of velocity calculated were compared with the
minimum and maximum self cleansing velocities 0.6m/s and 5m/s respectively) in the
drainage channel and this indicates that the flow in the channels will be conducted at self-
cleansing velocities. This implies that the flow of water will occur in the channel such that
there will be no silting up of the drainage channel or scouring of the drainage materials
during storm runoff.

The designed of the concrete pipe culvert was calculated and the entrance head loss was
estimated to be 0.652m/s. The required pipe size is 0.7m, but the recommendation of 0.9m
cause of it is readily available and more suitable for discharging surface water from drains
crossing the carriage way. The head required to pass a given flow through a culvert was
calculated to be 4.3m/s. The actual headwater estimated from a recurrence period of
50years and a duration of 2hour rainfall from the inlet control nomograph of concrete pipe
culvert is 2.88m. Having completed all the design work, the material cost estimates
including costs of labour was carried out and the Bill of Engineering measurement and
Evaluation (BEME) was prepared for the execution of the whole project. For the rectangular
channel a grand sum of N17,157,273 was calculated.

51
 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 CONCLUSION

It was noted that the objectives of this work as set out in section 1.2 have been satisfied.
The design of the drainage was based on rational method . The rainfall intensity was
estimated and this was used in computing the discharge for the catchments.

The results were used to obtain the rectangular drain sizes for the surface drainage system
and also the rainfall intensity parameters and discharge was also used in calculating for the
concrete pipe culvert.

In any analysis and design of structures, serviceabilty, safety and economic consideration
should be considered and met. It follows that the designed of the rectangular channel with
the incorporation of concrete pipe culvert will enable efficient conveyance of the storm
water runoff and will eliminate the occurrence of potential flooding during rainfall event
and a higher level of service delivery will be attained.

5.2 RECOMMENDATION

The following were recommended for the purpose of design, construction and
maintenanace:

1. The provision of stone pitching along the sides of the drain in order to retain the soil
and to prevent further widening of the drain sides.
2. Screen should be provided at the culvert inlet to trap debris and prevent blockage.
3. Regular maintenance checks should be carried out on the channel and culvert to
increase its durability.
4. Inspection program should be prepare that assigns tasks and responsibilities.

52
REFERENCES:
Adeyemi, A. (2005) The design of drainage network for Salaudeen Abdulbaki area off Fate
road G.R.A, Ilorin, Final year project, Civil Engineering Department, University of Ilorin,
Nigeria.

BS 8110: (1997) Structural Use of Concrete

Dagnachew, A. (2011) Road and urban stormwater drainage network integration in Addis
Ababa: Addis Ketema subcity journal of engineering and technology research volume, 39(7),
pp. 217-225.

Featherstone, R., Nalluri C. (1995) Civil Engineering Hydraulics, essential theory with worked
examples. 3rd Edition, Blackwell science United kingdom.

Ganiyu, H. (2012) Hydraulic design of reinforced concrete drainage for Olu Daramola road,
University of Ilorin. Final year project, Civil Engineering Department, University of Ilorin,
Nigeria.

Magdi, Z. (2014) Impact of Poor drainage on Road performance in Khartoum: International

journal of multidisciplinary and scientific emerging research, Vol. 3, No. 1 pg. 903-904.

Muhammed, I. (2005) Engineering design of drainage facilities for Kulende housing estate
phase III, Ilorin. Final year project, Civil Engineering Department, University of Ilorin, Nigeria.

Martin, W., Robert, K., and Row, E. (1997) Hydrology: Water quantity and quality
Control.2nd Edition, John wiley and sons, Inc.

Nasiru, T. (2009) Engineering Design of Drainage Network for Rahamaniyah Oil and Gas Tank
farm, Apapa lagos state. Final year project, Civil Engineering Department, University of
Ilorin, Nigeria.

Okeola, O. (2012) Civil Engineering Practice. A monograph on the basic Civil Engineering
practice. Dept. of Civil Engineering. University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria.

Priyanka, D., Khasiya, R., and Agnihotri, P. (2013) Analysis of Rainfall Data and Design of
Stormwater Drainage system in an Urban area. International Research Analysis, vol 2, No 4.
Pgs 1-4.
Ray, K.L., Joseph B.F., David L.F. and George T. (1992) Water resources engineering Fourth
Edition Published by McGraw-Hill international editions, Singapore.

53
Salami, A. W and Sule, B.F. (2009) Establishment of rainfall intensity model for selected
towns in Nigeria based on Sherman equation. 1st Annual Civil Engineering Conference.
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Ilorin, Nigeria.

United State Environmental protection Agency (USEPA 2001) National menu of Best
Management Practices for Storm water phase II.

Urban storm water Management Manual, Penang Malaysia (2004), Chapter 27 culvert
design (http://jps.Penang.gov.my; accessed on 5th June, 2015).

54
APPENDIX

55