WEEDS – HARMFUL AND BENIFICIAL EFFECTS

Weeds are plants that are unwanted in a given situation and may be harmful, dangerous
or economically detrimental. Weeds are a serious threat to primary production and biodiversity.
They reduce farm and forest productivity, displace native species and contribute significantly to
land and water degradation. The costs of weeds to the natural environment are also high, with
weed invasion being ranked second only to habitat loss in causing biodiversity decline.
Despite considerable government and private sector investment, weed invasion still
represents a major threat to both the productive capacity of land and water and the integrity of
our natural ecosystems. An efficient weed control program can only be developed after the
weed has been properly identified. Weeds can be managed using many different methods. The
most effective management of weeds is usually achieved through collaboration and co-
operation, in partnerships between the community, land owners, agriculture, industry and the
various levels of government, using a combination of methods in conjunction with a thorough
follow-up campaign.
Weed management is an important component of plant protection improving the
production potential of crops. It includes management of the weeds in a way that the crop
sustains its production potential without being harmed by the weeds. Weed management is
done through the mechanical, cultural and chemical means. Use of biological control methods in
field crops is being considered, but still not much in use. Use of herbicides is an important
method in the modern concept of much in use. Use of herbicides is an important method in the
modern concept of weed-management technology. New hand-tools and implements have also
been designed to assist in wed-management programme.
Characteristics of weeds
Weeds are also like other plants but have special characteristics that tend to put them in the
category of unwanted plants.
• Most of the weeds especially annuals produce enormous quantity of seeds, e.g. wild
oats (Avena fatua), produces 250 seeds per plant, whereas wild amaranth (Amaranthus
viridis) produces nearly 11 million seeds. It has been observed that among 61 perennial
weeds, the average seed-production capacity was 26,500 per plant.
• Weeds have the capacity to withstand adverse conditions in the field, because they can
modify their seed production and growth according to the availability of moisture and
temperature. They can germinate under adverse soil-moisture conditions, have short
period of plant growth, generally grow faster rate and produce seed earlier than most of
the crops growing in association.
 • Weed seeds remain viable for longer period without losing their viability, e.g. annual
meadow grass (Poa annua) and scarlet pimpernel (Anagallis arvensis) remain viable foe
about 8 years; creeping thistle (Cirsium arvense) for 20 years and field bind weed
(Convolvulus arvensis) for about 50 years.
• Weed seeds have a tremendous capacity to disperse from one place to another through
wind, water and animals including man. Many of times, weed seeds mimic with the crop
seeds due to their size and get transported from one place to another along with them.
Harmful effects
• Weeds have serious impacts on agricultural production. It is estimated that in general
weeds cause 5% loss in agricultural production in most of developed countries, 10% loss
in less developed countries and 25% loss in least developed countries.
In India, yield losses due to weeds are more than those from pest and diseases.
Yield losses due to weeds vary with the crops. Every crop is exposed to severe
competition from weeds. Most of these weeds are self-sown and they provide
competition caused by their faster rate of growth in the initial stages of crop growth. In
some crops, the yields are reduced by more than 50% due to weed infestation. These
loses caused by weeds in some of the important crops are given in the following table.
Loss in crop yields due to weeds
Reduction in yields due to Reduction in yield
Crop Crop
weeds (%) due to weeds (%)
Rice 41.6 Groundnut 33.8
Wheat 16.0 Sugarcane 34.2
Maize 39.8 Sugar beet 70.3
Millets 29.5 Carrot 47.5
Soybean 30.5 Cotton 72.5
Gram 11.6 Onion 68.0
Pea 32.9 Potato 20.1

• Weeds compete with crops for water soil, nutrients, light, and space, and thus reduce
the crop yields. An estimate shows that weeds can deprive the crops 47% N, 42% P,
50% K, 39% Ca and 24% Mg of their nutrient uptake.
• Weeds are also act as alternate hosts that harbor insects, pests and diseases and other
micro-organisms. Alternate hosts of some of the pest and diseases
 Crop Pest Alternate host
Red gram Gram caterpillar Amaranthus, Datura
Castor Hairy caterpillar Crotalaria sp
Rice Stem Borer Echinocholoa, Panicum
Wheat Black Rust Agropyron repens
Pearl Millet Ergot Cenchrus ciliaris
Maize Downy Mildew Sacharum spontaneum

• Some weeds release into the soil inhibitors of poisonous substances that may be
harmful to the crop plants, human beings and livestock. Health problems caused by
weeds to humans,
Health problem Weed
Hay fever and Asthma Pollen of Ambrosia and Franseria
Dermotitis Parthenium, Ambrosia
Itching and Inflammation Utrica sp
African sleeping sickness Brush weeds
Malaria, encephaliltisand filaria caused by Aquatic weeds like Pistia lanceolate,
mosquito Salvinia auriculata

• Weeds reduce the quality of marketable agricultural produce. Cotamination of weed

seeds of Datura, Argemone, Brassica etc., is harmful to human health and weed seeds
present in the produce cause odd odour sometimes.
• Weeds not only reduce yield but also interfere with agricultural operations. Weeds make
mechanical sowing a difficult process and render harvesting difficult, leading to
increased expenditure on labour, equipment and chemicals for their removal.
• In aquatic environment, weeds block the flow of water in canals, water-transport system
and drainage system, rendering navigation difficult. The dense growth of aquatic weeds
pollutes water by deoxygenating it and killing the fishes.
• Weeds are also a nuisance and a fire hazard along railway lines, roads, right-of- ways,
airports, forest and industrial sites.
Beneficial Effects
In spite of all the difficulties caused by weeds, they can offer some beneficial properties,
particularly when occurring at low densities. These aspects should be utilised in the farming
system, although this may make organic management more complicated than chemical based
systems. Some of the potential benefits of weeds are listed below:
• Helping to conserve soil moisture and prevent erosion. A ground cover of weeds will
reduce the amount of bare soil exposed helping to conserve nutrients, particularly
nitrogen which could otherwise be leached away, especially on light soils.
• Food and shelter can be provided for natural enemies of pests and even alternative food
sources for crop pests. The actual presence of weed cover may be a factor in increasing
effectiveness of biological control of pests and reducing pest damage.
• Weeds can also be valuable indicators of growing conditions in a field, for example of
water levels, compaction and pH.
• Weeds can be an important source of food for wildlife, especially birds. Bird populations
have been declining on farmland over the last few decades and leaving weeds as a
resource has been shown to help revive bird populations.
 CLASSIFICATION OF WEEDS

Out of 2, 50,000 plant species, weeds constitute about 250 species, which are prominent
in agricultural and non-agricultural system. Under world conditions about 30000 species is
grouped as weeds.

I. Based on life span

Based on life span (Ontogeny), weeds are classified as Annual weeds, Biennial weeds
and Perennial weeds.
a. Annual Weeds
Weeds that live only for a season or a year and complete their life cycle in that season or
year are called as annual weeds.
These are small herbs with shallow roots and weak stem. Produces seeds in profusion
and the mode of propagation is commonly through seeds. After seeding the annuals die away
and the seeds germinate and start the next generation in the next season or year following.
Most common field weeds are annuals. The examples are
a. Monsoon annual
Commelina benghalensis, Boerhavia erecta
b. Winter annual
Chenopodium album

Commelina benghalensis Boerhavia erecta Chenopodium album

b. Biennials
It completes the vegetative growth in the first season, flower and set seeds in the
succeeding season and then dies. These are found mainly in non-cropped areas.
Eg. Alternanthera echinata, Daucus carota
(c) Perennials
Perennials live for more than two years and may live almost indefinitely. They adapted
to withstand adverse conditions. They propagate not only through seeds but also by
underground stem, root, rhizomes, tubers etc. And hence they are further classified into
i. Simple perennials: Plants propagated only by seeds. Eg. Sonchus arvensis
ii. Bulbous perennials: Plants which possess a modified stem with scales and reproduce
mainly from bulbs and seeds. Eg. Allium sp.
iii. Corm perennialsb Plants that possess a modified shoot and fleshy stem and reproduce
through corm and seeds. Eg. Timothy (Phleum pratense)

Sonchus arvensis Phleum pratense

iv. Creeping perennials: Reproduced through seeds as well as with one of the following.
a. Rhizome: Plants having underground stem – Sorghum halapense
b. Stolon: Plants having horizontal creeping stem above the ground – Cynodon dactylon

Sorghum halapense Cynodon dactylon

 c. Roots: Plants having enlarged root system with numerous buds – Convolvulus arvensis
d. Tubers: Plants having modified rhizomes adapted for storage of food – Cyperus rotundus

Convolvulus arvensis Cyperus rotundus

II. Based on ecological affinities

a. Wetland weeds
They are tender annuals with semi-aquatic habit. They can thrive as well under
waterlogged and in partially dry condition. Propagation is chiefly by seed. Eg. Ammania
baccifera, Eclipta alba

Ammania baccifera Eclipta alba

b. Garden land weeds (Irrigated lands)
These weeds neither require large quantities of water like wetland weeds nor can they
successfully withstand extreme drought as dryland weeds. Eg.Trianthema portulacastrum,
Digera arvensis

Trianthema portulacastrum Digera arvensis

c. Dry lands weeds

These are usually hardy plants with deep root system. They are adapted to withstand
drought on account of mucilaginous nature of the stem and hairiness. Eg. Tribulus terrestris,
Argemone mexicana.

Tribulus terrestris Argemone mexicana

III. Based on soil type (Edaphic)
(a) Weeds of black cotton soil: These are often closely allied to those that grow in dry
condition. Eg., Aristolochia bracteata
(b) Weeds of red soils: They are like the weeds of garden lands consisting of various classes
of plants. Eg. Commelina benghalensis
(c) Weeds of light, sandy or loamy soils: Weeds that occur in soils having good drainage. Eg.
Leucas aspera
(d) Weeds of laterite soils: Eg. Lantana camara, Spergula arvensis

Aristolochia bracteata Leucas aspera

Lantana camara Spergula arvensis

IV. Based on place of occurrence
(a) Weeds of crop lands: The majority of weeds infests the cultivated lands and cause
hindrance to the farmers for successful crop production. Eg. Phalaris minor in wheat
(b) Weeds of pasture lands: Weeds found in pasture / grazing grounds. Eg. Indigofera
enneaphylla

Indigofera enneaphylla Phalaris minor

(c) Weeds of waste places: Corners of fields, margins of channels etc., where weeds grow in
profusion. Eg. Gynandropsis pentaphylla, Calotropis gigantea

Gynandropsis pentaphylla Calotropis gigantea

(d) Weeds of playgrounds, road-sides: They are usually hardy, prostrate perennials, capable
of withstanding any amount of trampling. Eg. Alternanthera echinata, Tribulus terestris

V. Based on Origin
(a) Indigenous weeds: All the native weeds of the country are coming under this group and
most of the weeds are indigenous. Eg. Acalypha indica, Abutilon indicum

Acalypha indica Abutilon indicum

(b) Introduced or Exotic weeds: These are the weeds introduced from other countries. These
weeds are normally troublesome and control becomes difficult. Eg. Parthenium
hysterophorus, Phalaris minor, Acanthospermum hispidum

Parthenium hysterophorus Acanthospermum hispidum

VI. Based on cotyledon number
Based on number of cotyledons it possess it can be classified as dicots and monocots.
(a) Monocots Eg. Panicum flavidum, Echinochloa colona
(b) Dicots Eg. Crotalaria verucosa, Indigofera viscosa

Echinochloa colona Crotalaria verucosa

VII. Based on soil pH

Based on pH of the soil the weeds can be classified into three categories.
(a) Acidophile – Acid soil weeds eg. Rumex acetosella
(b) Basophile – Saline & alkaline soil weeds eg. Taraxacum sp.
(c) Neutrophile – Weeds of neutral soils eg Acalypha indica

Rumex acetosella Taraxacum sp.

VIII. Based on morphology
Based on the morphology of the plant, the weeds are also classified in to three
categories. This is the most widely used classification by the weed scientists.
(a) Grasses: All the weeds come under the family Poaceae are called as grasses which are
characteristically having long narrow spiny leaves. The examples are Echinocloa colonum,
Cynodon dactylon.
(b) Sedges: The weeds belonging to the family Cyperaceae come under this group. The
leaves are mostly from the base having modified stem with or without tubers. The examples
are Cyperus rotundus, Fimbrystylis miliaceae.
(c) Broad leaved weeds: This is the major group of weeds as all other family weeds come
under this except that is discussed earlier. All dicotyledon weeds are broad leaved weeds.
The examples are Flavaria australacica, Digera arvensis, Tridax procumbens

Cynodon dactylon Cyperus rotundus Tridax procumbens

IX. Based on nature of stem

Based on development of bark tissues on their stems and branches, weeds are
classified as woody, semi-woody and herbaceous species.

(a) Woody weeds: Weeds include shrubs and undershrubs and are collectively called brush
weeds. Eg. Lantana camera, Prosopis juliflora

(b) Semi-woody weeds: eg.Croton sparsiflorus

(c) Herbaceous weeds: Weeds have green, succulent stems are of most common occurrence
around us. Eg. Amaranthus viridis
 Prosopis juliflora Croton sparsiflorus Amaranthus viridis

X. Based on specificity
Besides the various classes of weeds, a few others deserve special attention due to their
specificity. They are, a. Poisonous weeds, b. Parasitic weeds and c. Aquatic weeds.

a. Poisonous weeds

The poisonous weeds cause ailment on livestock resulting in death and cause great
loss. These weeds are harvested along with fodder or grass and fed to cattle or while grazing
the cattle consume these poisonous plants. Eg. Datura fastuosa, D. stramonium and D. metal
are poisonous to animals and human beings. The berries of Withania somnifera and seeds of
Abrus precatorius are poisonous.

Datura metal Withania somnifera Abrus precatorius

b. Parasitic weeds

The parasite weeds are either total or partial which means, the weeds that depend
completely on the host plant are termed as total parasites while the weeds that partially depend
on host plant for minerals and capable of preparing its food from the green leaves are called as
partial parasites. Those parasites which attack roots are termed as root parasites and those
which attack shoot of other plants are called as stem parasites. The typical examples are;

1. Total root parasite – Orabanche cernua on Tobacco

2. Partial root parasite - Striga lutea on sugarcane and sorghum

Orabanche cernua on Tobacco

Striga lutea on sorghum

3. Total stem parasite - Cuscuta chinensis on leucerne and onion

4. Partial stem parasite - Loranthus longiflorus on mango and other trees.

Cuscuta chinensis Loranthus longiflorus on mango

c. Aquatic weeds:

Unwanted plants, which grow in water and complete at least a part of their life cycle in
water are called as aquatic weeds. They are further grouped into four categories as
submersed, emersed, marginal and floating weeds.
1. Submersed weeds: These weeds are mostly vascular plants that produce all or most of
their vegetative growth beneath the water surface, having true roots, stems and leaves. Eg.
Utricularia stellaris, Ceratophyllum demersum.

Utricularia stellaris Ceratophyllum demersum

2. Emersed weeds: These plants are rooted in the bottom mud, with aerial stems and leaves
at or above the water surface. The leaves are broad in many plants and sometimes like
grasses. These leaves do not rise and fall with water level as in the case of floating weeds.
Eg. Nelumbium speciosum, Jussieua repens.
 Nelumbium speciosum Jussieua repens
3. Marginal weeds: Most of these plants are emersed weeds that can grow in moist shoreline
areas with a depth of 60 to 90 cm water. These weeds vary in size, shape and habitat. The
important genera that comes under this group are; Typha, Polygonum, Cephalanthus,
Scirpus, etc.

Typha sp. Polygonum sp.

4. Floating weeds: These weeds have leaves that float on the water surface either singly or in
cluster. Some weeds are free floating and some rooted at the mud bottom and the leaves
rise and fall as the water level increases or decreases. Eg. Eichhornia crassipes, Pistia
stratiotes, Salvinia, Nymphaea pubescens.

Eichhornia crassipes Salvinia sp.

 PROPAGATION AND DISSEMINATION OF WEED SEEDS
PROPAGATION
Propagation is the process of multiplying or increasing the number of plants of the
same species and at the same time perpetuating their desirable characteristics. Plants may
be propagated under two general categories: sexual and asexual propagation.
Reproduction by seed
Reproduction by seed is called sexual reproduction. It requires pollination and
fertilization of an egg which results in seed that is capable of producing a new plant. Seed
production varies greatly among and within weed species in part due to environmental variability
between years, competition from neighboring plants, and genetic variability. For example, while
Canada thistle has been observed to produce as few as 680 seeds per plant, Curly dock often
produces more than 30,000 seeds per plant.
Canada thistle

Vegetative reproduction
In vegetative (asexual) reproduction, a new plant develops from a vegetative organ such
as a stem, root, or leaf. Several modifications of these organs are common in perennial weeds,
such as underground stems (rhizomes), above-ground stems (stolons), bulbs, corms, and
tubers. Although vegetative structures generally do not survive as long in the soil as do seeds,
very small structures can result in a new plant. Canada thistle, for example, can produce a new
plant from as small as a 1/4-inch section of root.
Vegetative reproduction can be as prolific as seed production. Yellow nut-sedge
(Cyperus esculentus) has been reported to produce more than 1,900 new plants and more than
6,800 tubers in 1 year.
 Cyperus esculentus - tubers

DISSEMINATION / DISPERSAL
A plant seed is a unique genetic entity, a biological individual. However, a seed is in a
diapause state, an essentially dormant condition, awaiting the ecological conditions that will
allow it to grow into an adult plant, and produce its own seeds. Seeds must therefore germinate
in a safe place, and then establish themselves as a young seedling, develop into a juvenile
plant, and finally become a sexually mature adult that can pass its genetic material on to the
next generation.
The chances of a seed developing are generally enhanced if there is a mechanism for
dispersing to an appropriate habitat some distance from the parent plant. The reason for
dispersal is that closely related organisms have similar ecological requirements. Obviously,
competition with the parent plant will be greatly reduced if its seeds have a mechanism to
disperse some distance away. Their ability to spread and remain viable in the soil for years
makes eradication nearly impossible.
Seeds have no way to move on their own, but they are excellent travelers. Plants have
evolved various mechanisms that disperse their seeds effectively. Many species of plants have
seeds with anatomical structures that make them very buoyant, so they can be dispersed over
great distances by the winds. In the absence of proper means of their dispersal, weeds could
not have moved from one country to another. An effective dispersal of weed seeds and fruits
requires two essentials a successful dispersing agent and an effective adaptation to the new
environment.
There are two ways of looking at weed seed dispersal
 the expanding range and increasing population size of an invading weed species into a
new area
 the part of the process by which an established and stabilized weed species in an area
maintains itself within that area
Dissemenation includes two separate processes. They are Dispersal (leaving mother
plant) and Post-dispersal events (subsequent movement). Dispersal of seed occurs in 4
dimensions viz.
1. Length and 2. Width: Land/habitat/soil surface area phenomena
3. Height (soil depth, in the air)
4. Time: shatters immediately after ripening (or) need harvesting activity to release seed
Common weed dispersal agents are Wind, Water, Animals, Human, Machinery, etc.
(a) Wind
Many seeds are well adapted to wind travel. Cottony coverings and parachute-like
structures allow seeds to float with the wind. Examples of wind-dispersed seeds include
common milkweed (Asclepias syriaca), common dandelion, Canada thistle, and perennial
sowthistle (Sonchus arvensis). Weed seeds and fruits that disseminate through wind possess
special organs to keep them afloat. Such organs are
1. Pappus – It is a parachute like modification of persistent calyx into hairs.
Eg. Asteraceae family weeds - Tridax procumbens

Tridax procumbens Pappus seed

2. Comose - Some weed seeds are covered with hairs, partially or fully Eg. Calotropis sp.
3. Feathery, persistent styles - Styles are persistent and feathery Eg. Anemone sp.

4. Baloon - Modified papery calyx that encloses the fruits loosely along with entrapped air. Eg.
Physalis minima
5. Wings - One or more appendages that act as wings. Eg. Acer macrophyllum

Factors that influence wind dispersal

 a. seed weight
b. seed shape
c. structures (wings or pappus)
d. height of release
e. wind speed and turbulence
(b) Water
Aquatic weeds disperse largely through water. They may drift either as whole plants,
plant fragments or as seeds with the water currents. Terrestrial weed seeds also disperse
through irrigation and drainage water.Weed seed often moves with surface water runoff into
irrigation water and ponds, where it is carried to other fields. Weeds growing in ditch banks
along irrigation canals and ponds are the major source of weed seed contamination of irrigation
water.
Weed seed often remains viable in water for several years, creating a "floating
seedbank" and allowing weeds to disperse over large areas in moving water. Field bindweed
seed, for example, remains over 50 percent viable after being submerged in water for more than
4 years. Some seeds have special adaptations that aid in water travel. The seedpod of curly
dock, for example, is equipped with pontoons that carry the floating seed.

Curly dock

Plant Seed Mature seed

(c) Animals
Several weed species produce seeds with barbs, hooks, spines, and rasps that cling to
the fur of animals or to clothing and then can be dispersed long distances. Farm animals carry
weed seeds and fruits on their skin, hair and hooves. This is aided by special appendages such
as Hooks (Xanthium strumarium), Stiff hairs (Cenchrus spp), Sharp spines (Tribulus terrestris)
and Scarious bracts (Achyranthus aspera). Even ants carry a huge number of weed seeds.
Donkeys eat Prosophis julifera pods.

Xanthium strumarium - hook Cenchrus spp - stiff hair Tribulus terrestris - spines

Weed seed often is ingested and passed through the digestive tracts of animals. Animal
droppings provide an ideal nutrient and moisture environment for weed germination. While only
a small percentage of the seed remains viable after exposure to an animal's digestive enzymes.
The ingested weed seeds are passed in viable form with animal excreta (0.2% in chicks, 9.6%
in calves, 8.7% in horses and 6.4% in sheep), which is dropped wherever the animal moves.
This mechanism of weed dispersal in called endozoochory. Eg., Lantana seeds by birds.
Loranthus seeds stick on beaks of birds. Viable weed seeds are present in the dung of farm
animals, which forms part of the FYM. Besides, addition of mature weeds to compost pit as farm
waste also act as source.
(d) Dispersal by Man
Man disperses numerous weed seeds and fruits with raw agricultural produce. Weeds
mature at the same time and height along with crop, due to their similar size and shape as that
of crop seed man unknowingly harvest the weeds also, and aids in dispersal of weed seeds.
Such weeds are called “Satellite weeds” Eg. Avena fatua, Phalaris minor.
 Avena fatua Phalaris minor

(e) Dispersal by machinery

Weed seeds often are dispersed by tillage and harvesting equipment. Seeds move from
field to field on the soil that sticks to tractor tires, and vegetative structures often travel on tillage
and cultivation equipment and latter dropping them in other fields to start new infestation. Disc-
type cultivation equipment is less likely to drag vegetative plant parts than are shovels or
sweeps.
(f) Intercontinental movement of weeds:
Introduction of weeds from one continent to another through crop seed, feed stock,
packing material and nursery stock. Eg. Parthenium hysterophorus
(g) Crop mimicry dispersal
Weed seed adaptations to look like crop seed: plant body or seed same size, shape, and
morphology as crop. Eg: barnyard grass biotype looking like rice escapes hand weeding and is
dispersed with rice, nightshade fruit ("berries") same size, shape as dry beans, harvested and
dispersed with beans.
(h) As admixtures with crop seed, animal feed, hay and straw.
Weeds probably are spread more commonly during the seeding of a new crop or in
animal feed and bedding than by any other method. Seed labels often indicate a tiny percentage
of weed seed, but consider this example. If a legume seed contains 0.001 percent dodder (a
parasitic annual; Cuscuta campestris) seed by weight, there will be eight dodder seeds per 2 kg
of legume seed. If the legume seed is sown in a field despite an extremely low dodder seed
percentage by weight, the small size of the seed, combined with rapid early-season growth,
could result in an infested legume field within a single season.
 WEED BIOLOGY AND ECOLOGY
WEED BIOLOGY
Weed biology is the study of the establishment, growth, reproduction, and life cycles of
weed species and weed societies/vegetation. Weed biology is an integrated science with the
aim of minimizing the negative effects, as well as using and developing the positive effects, of
weeds.
Life Cycle - Based on life cycle weeds are classified as annuals, biennials or perennials.
Annuals
Annuals complete their life cycle from seed in less than one year. There are two types:
summer and winter annuals. Summer annuals germinate in the spring, mature, produce flowers
and seeds and die before fall. Winter annuals germinate in the fall, overwinter in a seedling or
rosette stage, mature, produce flowers and seeds, and die in the spring or early summer.
Because of the seedling stage, annual weeds are generally easy to control. There are usually
few annual weeds present in lowbush blueberry fields.
Biennials
Biennials generally complete their life cycle over two years. The first year the seeds
germinate and form a basal cluster of leaves and a tap root. The plant overwinters in this stage.
During the second year the weed produces a flower stalk, sets seed and dies. Examples of
biennial weed are evening primrose and wild carrot.

Evening primerose Wild carrot

Perennials
Perennial weeds live for more than two years. These weeds are the most common in
blueberry fields and generally the most difficult to control. Perennial weeds may reproduce
primarily by seed (daisy); by both seed and roots (sheep sorrel); or primarily be vegetative
means (bunchberry). Many perennial weeds grow in the same manner as the blueberry plant.
Therefore, many of the production practices that promote blueberry growth (e.g. pruning) also
promote growth of these weeds. Perennials which are low growing and spread vegetatively by
interconnected underground root systems are the most difficult to control. Perennial weeds
growing above the blueberries may be controlled by wiping or spot treatments with registered
herbicides. Perennial weeds include both woody and herbaceous species.
Growth Characters
Based on growth characters weeds are classified as grasses, broadleaf weeds, ferns
and herbaceous or woody weeds.
Broadleaf
Broadleaf weeds are annual, biennial or perennial plants which generally have two
leaves (cotyledons) emerging upon germination. The leaves normally have a branching network
of veins and the flowers have distinct petals.
Grasses, Sedges and Rushes
Grasses can be annual or perennial plants. They generally have narrow, upright,
parallel-veined leaves. Grasses have jointed stems, usually hollow at the internodes and are
circular in cross section.
Sedges are a large group of perennial (rarely annual) grass-like plants which are
common in wet, poorly drained soils. Sedge stems are triangular in cross section, solid, and not
jointed.
Rushes are annual or perennial plants similar in appearance to sedges with grass-like
tufted leaves common at the plant base. Rush stems are hollow, circular in cross section, and
not jointed. Like the sedge, this plant is also common in wet areas or poorly drained soil, but is
also found in woodland and open field
Ferns
Ferns are primitive perennial plants that do not produce flowers and seeds. Ferns
consist of a leaf or frond, a stalk and an expanded blade which may then be further subdivided
several times. Ferns spread by long creeping rhizomes and/or by spores.
 Fern plant Fern spores

Reproductive Strategy
Based on reproductive strategy weeds are classified as seed, vegetative reproduction.
Reproduction by seed
Reproduction by seed is called sexual reproduction. It requires the fertilization of an egg
by sperm, usually in the form of pollen. Pollination of the egg in a flower results in seed that is
capable of producing a new plant. Seed production varies greatly among and within weed
species in part due to environmental variability between years, competition from neighboring
plants, and genetic variability.
Through sexual reproduction abundant and small seeds are produced. Annual and
biennial weeds depend on seed production, as the sole means of propagation and survival of
perennial weeds are less dependent on this mechanism. For example, while Canada thistle has
been observed to produce as few as 680 seeds per plant, curly dock often produces more than
30,000 seeds per plant.
The seed production capacity of some of the weeds is
Ontogeny Seeds/plant Name of weed/crop Seeds/plant
Perennials 16,629 Amaranthus retroflexus 1,96,405
Biennials 26,600 Solanum nigrum 1,78,000
Annuals 20,832 Chenopodium album 72,000
Trianthema portulacastrum 52,000
Wheat & Rice 90 to 100

A few weeds may produce seed through apomixis i.e without fertilization. Eg. Ferns
reproduce by spores.
Vegetative Reproduction
In vegetative (asexual) reproduction, a new plant develops from a vegetative organ such
as a stem, root, or leaf. Several modifications of these organs are common in perennial weeds,
such as underground stems (rhizomes), above-ground stems (stolons), bulbs, corms, and
tubers. Although vegetative structures generally do not survive as long in the soil as do seeds,
very small structures can result in a new plant. Vegetative reproduction can be as prolific as
seed production.
Weed Ecology
Weed ecology is the study of the interaction or relationship between a weed and its
environment (other living organisms as well as abiotic factors). Ecology is concerned with
growth characteristics and adaptations that enable weeds to survive the change in the
environment. Man plays an important role in changing the environment by altering the crop
husbandry practices and by maintaining weed free monocrop or multicrop culture. For effective
weed control, the study on both biology and ecology of a weed species are important.
The weed seedbank and seed dormancy
Not only can weed seed and vegetative tissue travel great distances to infest new fields,
but once in the soil, weed seed can remain viable for many years. In any given location, the
weed seedbank contains a vast library of weed species and ecotypes that are adapted to a
great range of environmental conditions and are ready to germinate given the proper signal. A
study reported that a square foot of soil, 6 inches deep, contained from 98 to 3,068 viable weed
seeds. This represents between 4.3 million and 133 million viable seeds per acre.
The amount of time that a seed is capable of producing a seedling, or its viability, varies
with weed species. In the extreme, lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) seeds found in a Manchurian
lakebed were viable after 1,000 years. More commonly, the annual plant jimsonweed (Datura
stramonium) has over a 90 percent germination rate after 40 years in the soil.
Additionally, many weed seeds remain dormant in the soil until the conditions for
germination and survival are appropriate for that particular seed. Dormancy is the seed's resting
stage and is the primary method of weed seed dispersal in time. Some weed seeds have seed
coats that are impermeable to water and/or oxygen or are mechanically resistant. Others
contain immature embryos or have a waiting period (called after-ripening) that must be
completed before the seed will germinate. Seed dormancy is affected by environmental
conditions, including temperature, light, oxygen, and the presence of chemical inhibitors.
Seed dormancy as survival mechanism
Weed seeds possess a variety of special germination mechanisms adapted to changes
in temperature, moisture, aeration, exposure to light, depth of burial of seeds etc., when
conditions are unfavourable for germination, they can remain dormant or delay germination.
Conditions favourable for weeds seed germination are
 Seeds of many weeds require an exposure to light for germination. This is regulated by
bluish-green protein pigment called phytochrome.
 Many weed seeds germinate under aerobic conditions while some require anaerobic
condition. Soil turnover during ploughing and other operations exposes the seeds to
light and induces germination.
 Periodicity of germination is another specialised germination mechanism. Amaranths
spp have a definite pattern of peaks of germination at regular intervals.
 Summer annuals favour higher temperature & winter annuals germinate at lower
temperatures some weeds germinate freely throughout the year.
Seed Dormancy
Dormancy is a state of seeds and buds in which they are alive but not germinated. If all
weed seeds were to germinate at one time, their seedlings could be destroyed. Dormancy
allows storage of millions of weed seeds in soil and enables them to grow in flushes over years.
In this context, the old gardeners saying “One year Seeding seven years Weeding” is very
appropriate. In fact, weed seeds have been found viable even after 20-80 years of burial in soil.
Weed seeds exhibit three types of dormancy.
PERSISTANCE OF WEEDS
Weeds are highly persistent* category of plants. They existed even before the first seed
of any crop was planted on earth and they are with us even today, probably in larger number
and with greater vigour. This speaks ample of their highly persistent nature. If a mixed growth of
a crop and weeds is left to nature, soon there will be weeds all over, with no ttrace of the crop
plants. High persistence of weeds results from their multifacet mechanisms. Important among
these are:-
(і) Prolific Seed Production
Most weeds are prolific seed producers. For instance, the per plant seed production
capacity of Cuscuta spp. Wasd found approximately 16,000; Conyza 33,992; Chenopodium
album, 72,000; and Amaranthus, 196,000. Only in few instances of some perennial weeds, the
seed production was weak. Further, the immediate viability of weed seeds has been found to
vary from 6 to 78%. Thus, one can anticipate that in majority of cases even if a few weedy
plants escaped control measures in the field, they were sufficient to produce enough seeds to
continue their progency for years to come. It is further interesting to note that weeds can set
viable seeds even when they are harvested before full maturity. Perennial sowthistle (Sonchus
arvensis) can set viable seeds even when it is cut during its flowering stage and kept in shade.
Chickweed (Stellaria media) and purslane (Portulaca oleracea) have also been found well
adapted to premature flowering and seed setting under adverse environment conditions. A wedy
plant must produce some seeds before it perishes under any stress of nature, may it be
drought, biotic pressure, disease or insect pest, etc. It is commonly observed that under
favourable conditions Chenopodium album may grow as much as 30-50 cm tall before it flowers
and sets seeds. But in the events of severe drought it may grow hardly 3 cm high, and still
produce some seeds before it withers.
Period for Full and Partial maturity of Certain Weeds When They Can Be Harvested
Without Loss of Their Seed Vitality
Period of full maturity after Minimun maturity period
Weed species
flowering (days) after flowering (days)
Anagallis arvensis 25 15
Argemone mexicana 50 35
Asphodelus tenuifolius 40 15
Lathyru aphaca 35 15
Melilotus indica 35 20
Solanum nigrum 45 15
Vicia hirsuta 30 15

(іі) Dormancy- of Weed Seeds and Other Propagules in Soil

As stated earlier, the majority of weed seeds lying below about 5 cm soil depth remain
dormant, and act as source for future flushes of weeds. Permanent experiments laid out for up
to 10 decades have shown that depending upon the weed species, the weed seeds retained
viability for 2 to 100 years, to different levels. Perhaps, the oldest seed burial experiments were
laid out in 1879 by late Dr. W. J. Beal in USA. The latest viability tests from these experiments
were reported by Kiviban and Bavdurski (1973). Thus, the soils, both agricultural and otherwise,
acted as “reserve banks” for the weed seeds and their other propagules. The phenomenon of
dormancy and consequent longevity of weeds seeds in soils is a very important tool with weeds
to ensure their everlasting existence against all odds of nature (and man). If all weed seeds
present in the soil were to germinate at one time, a single tillage operation could wipe these out
of the scene. But contrary to it, only a fraction of weed seeds present in any soil germinate at
any ine time, leaving others to germinate later. Also, a few weedy plants which escaped
attention in a field are often sufficient to recoup the seed banks in the soil. In this context, the
old gardener’s saying. “One year seeding is seven year’s weeding”, still holds good.
Within the soil, weed seeds can remain dormant for three reasons, as follows:-
(a) Enforced dormancy
Enforced dormancy in weed seeds is due to their placement deeper than 5 cm, resulting
usually from tillage of the field. Weed seeds under this kind of dormancy germinate readily
whenever these are restored to the top 3 to 5 cm layer of soil by tillage, provided adequate soil
moisture and congenial temperatures were available in this zone of the soil. Enforced dormancy
is a non-specific character of the seeds and it is caused by the absence of red light (r) under the
ground, which otherwise induces germination in seeds by activating their phytochrome system
(P), comprising a responsive chromophore blue pigment attached to the protein molecule in
seeds. Far-red light (fr) deactivates the system and thus induces dormancy in seeds.
far red
Pr <------------------- Pfr
------------------->
Red
Cultivation counters enforced dormancy by bringing the weeds to surface where they are
exposed to full sun-light spectrum, besides better aeration. Higher soil temperature and NO 3
content of surface soil may further help in breaking the enforced seed dormancy.
(b) Innate dormancy
Innate dormancy is a genetically controlled character and it is a feature of specific weed
seeds. Innate dormant seeds will fail to germinate even if they were present in the top 3 to 5 cm
soil and adequate soil moisture and temperature conditions were provided to them. Innate
doemancy usually results for reasons of either hard seed coats, like in Setaria, Ipomoea, and
Xanthium spp.,or immature embryos, as observed in Polygonum, Juncus, and Eleocharis spp.
In certain weed seeds, particularly those of xerophytic origin, the presence of specific
germination inhibitors is responsible for their innate dormancy. In nature the innate dormancy of
weed seeds is overcome with either passage of time, or under the influence of some climatic
pressure.
(c) Induced Dormancy
Induced dormancy results from some physiological change in otherwise non-dormant
weed seeds under the impact of factors like a marked rise in soil temperature, increased CO 2
content of the soil, low O 2 pressures, water logging, etc. Certain weed seeds, like those of wild
oat (Avena fatua), exhibit all the three kinds of dormancies.
(ііі) Vegetative Propagation
Many weeds are extremely persistent because of their ability to propagate by vegetative
means. When the above ground parts of such weeds are destroyed, their deeply placed
vegetative propagules put forth new shoots as soon as the external stresses are removed and
favourable conditions revive. Even if some kind of deep tillage is employed in an attempt to
destroy these, it will be a futile exercise since fragments of the weed propagules get easily
dispersed to new areas where they initiate fresh colonies.
(іv) Rapid Dispersal
Dispersal is a very important means of persistence of weeds. It exposes them to
different ecosystems so that each weed species can choose its most favourable environment
and put up a hard struggle for existence in nature. Dispersal is the key factor in developing a
persistent weed population for every possible niche in the environment. Dispersal aids
persistence of weeds in proportion to the dispersal agents and adaptations available to them.
(v) Inherent Hardiness
To be widely successful a weed species must adapt itself to diverse environmental
conditions. Weeds seem to possess some kind of built-in mechanism to survive against the
vagaries of nature, like extreme cold, heat, drought, biotic stress, and soil abnormalities. This is
inherent hardiness of weeds. It is hard to find weeds damaged under a night’s severe frost, or
destroyed because of attack by some insect pest, disease organism, or nematode. Weeds are
rarely seen to either develop chlorosis or any other mineral deficiency or toxicity symptoms,
even though the soil may be actually abnormal in its mineral composition. Also, poor quality
water declared unfit for irrigating crops, fails to injure weeds. In fact, in crop fields all abnormal
features of soil and water help weeds to grow vigorously in spaces vacated by the stunted
growth (or death) of the crop plants. The mechanisms involved in this inherent hardiness of
weeds are not much known. Further, several weeds of tropical origin, e.g. Cyperus and
Amaranthus spp., have the advantage of adopting C 4 pathway of CO 2 fixation, which is devoid
of photorespiration. Several weeds have exceptionally high transpiration efficiency, low nutrient
requirements, and slow rates of translocation of food and minerals. Such adaptations in weeds
help them to persist in adverse weather conditions. High rates of elongation in certain weeds,
particularly in the initial stages of growth, improve their competing ability and persistence. But a
common aspect of inherent hardiness of all weeds seems to be their numerous generations of
natural selection through climatic stresses in the struggle for survival of the fittest.
(vі) Evasiveness
Many a weed is capable of evading destruction by animals and man because of their
bitter taste, disagreeable odour, spiny nature, and mimicry.
(vіі) Self Regeneration
Weeds are self-sown plants. They don’t require any artificial, friable seedbeds for their
germination. Detached from the mother plants, weed seeds and other propagules germinate
profusely on undisturbed soils whenever the environment is favourable for the purpose.
(vііі) Selective Invasion
Weed species differ widely in their soil and climatic requirements. But in the first
instance, the weed flora composition depends upon the chance a particular weed had to reach a
particular site. The nature then makes a critical selection out of the lot and allows only those
weed seeds to germinate at a time which were most adapted to the environment prevailing then.
The seeds of rest of the weed species wait in soil till the environment outside changes. At this
stage, suddenly another set of weed species takes over the ground. The major environment
factors which determine the weed species composition on the ground comprise the available
soil moisture, soil pH, temperature, photoperiod, and solar energy. To cite some examples, in a
typical dry farming situation the weed flora often comprises moisture hardy species like Tribulus
terrestris, Argemone mexicana, Eragrostis cilianesis, Euphorbia hirta, Celosia argenta, and
Heliotropium eichwaldii. When such fields are brought under irrigation, soon these weed species
are replaced by the better moisture responsive weeds like Trianthema monogyna, Phalaris
minor, Asphodellus tenuifolius, Malva parviflora, Commelina benghalensis, and Brachiaria
ramose, depending upon the season. Further, if such fields are irrigated still more intensively
and turned into paddy fields by ponding the water, there shall be another shift in weed species.
In this situation weeds like Echinochloa, Caesulina, Butomus, and Eclipta spp. will dominate the
scene. Likewise, weds in sugarbeet grow on salty soils are specific to such soils, for instance,
Chenopodium murale, Salsola kali, Taraxacum officinale, Polygonum spp. and Distichalis
stricta. Weed species also get specific to soil texture. For instance, Celosia argenta and Tribulus
terrestris are dominant on sandy and light texture soils, but weeds like Trianthema monogyna
and Amaranthus viridis infest heavy and fine texture soils. Weed species also differ with the
microclimate offered by a particular crop. For instance, Coronopus didymus and Cichorium
intybus prefer closely sown and frewquently irrigated crops like Lucerne and berseem, and they
avoid open row crops like chickpea and mustard. Likewise, an early sown crop is likely to be
infested with weed flora that is quite different from a timely or late sown crop in the same place.
Climatic and seasonal changes in an environment also force rapid diversion in the weed flora
towards the most adapted species. To sum up, weeds are able to dominate in every situation by
choosing and putting forth the most befitting species. The mechanism of such an armour
available to weeds seems to be a perfect, remote sensing system, leading to their observed
persistence.
(іx) Weed Succession:
In nature, the individuals of a weed species often have chance to cross breed to variable
levels. This leads to the development of a few plants of different genetic make-up, forming new
races within a species. Such races of weeds are called agricultural ecotypes. When
herbicides (or bioagents) are used continuously to destroy the “normal” races of a weed
species, their newly developed ecotypes may sometimes prove tolerant to the herbicides used,
whence they get chance to gradually expand in numbers, each season.
Such agricultural ecotypes are then called chemotypes. The chemotypes greatly aid a
weed species to persist.
Weed succession can also occur amongst different weed species themselves in
response to long term adoption of an agricultural practice, including the use of herbicides. This
leads to the destruction of the susceptible group of weed species, leaving behind few plants of
the resistant species to gradually build up their population and finally emerge as the dominant
weed flora of the area. In India, several example3 of this kind have been recorded in recent
years. Singh et al (1993) reported that in the Punjab, in wheat fields, population of Avena fatua
‘wild oat’ was on increase because of several years’ herbicidal control of Phalaris minor.
Likewise, in paddy fields,the continuous use of butachlor has led to increase in the tolerant
weed, Ischaemum regosum, wrinkle grass’. In Tamil Nadu, the repeated use of butachlor in
paddy fields has led to increase in Cyperus rotundus, ‘nut sedge’ and some other perennial
weeds. Likewise, in West Bengal, Echinochloa spp. ‘barnyard grass’ is no more a major wed
since it is being replaced fast by weeds like Cyperus, Scirpus, Fimbristylis, Eleocharis, and
Sphenocloa spp. In Jabalpur (Madhya Pradesh), in a similar situation herbicidal control in rice
was reported to have enhanced population of Sehima nervosum,Cyperus iria, and C.
communis. Similarly, at Palampur (Himachal Pradesh) long term adoption of paddy-wheat
sequence has led to the march of weeds like Polypogon, Alopecurus, and Poa spp. In wheat
fields in North India, in general, the long term use of 2,4-D in wheat fields has led to switch over
to comparatively tolerant weeds like Lathyrus, Anagallis, Melilotus, Convolvulus, Medicagr,
Cirsium, and Rumex spp. Also, the continued use of isoproturon to control certain grasses in
wheat fields has given boost to tolerant weeds like Anagallis, Digitaria, and Medicago spp.
Thus, weed succession is a very important tool in the persistence of weeds against all hurdles
placed by the farmer. Even a long term change of a crop or cropping practice will lead to shift in
the weed flora composition.
Finally, the overall persistence of a weed depends upon its capability to adopt one or
more of the above cited features. A weed species that embodies majority of these factors is
surely a horrible weed, for instance, Sorghum halepense and Saccharum spontaneum.
 CROP-WEED ASSOCIATION, CROP-WEED COMPETITION AND ALLELOPATHY

Weeds posseses many growth characteristics and adaptations which enable them to
exploit successfully the numerous ecological niches left unocccupied by crop cultures. Weeds
compete with themselves and with crop plant. Among the more important adoptations relevent
to competitive advantage are properly synchronized germination, rapid establishment and
growth of seedlings, tolerance to shading effects by the crop or by other weeds at the time of
establishment, quick response to available soil moisture and nutrients, adaptation to the most
severe climatic situations of the habitat, adaptations to the edaphic regime, relative immunity to
post seeding soil disturbance, practices and resistance to herbicides that are used. In the nitial
stages of invasion by weeds of exposed ecological niches, only a very limited competition for
resources by the crop and weed may occur, but as establishment of the crop-weed association
is completed, competition for the available reources is more obvious.
Plant competition is a natural force whereby crop and weed plants tend to attain a
maximum combined growth and yield, with the development of each species being to some
extent at the expense of the other. It occurs when the demands of the plants for moisture,
nutrients, light, and possibly carbon dioxide exceed the available supply. Competition may
develop between crop and weed plants and also between individual plants of each. The ultimate
outcome of competition usually results in the development of a characteristic crop-weed
association. Crop plants and weeds may grow and mature in the state of mutual supression that
is often found in crops where no suitable herbicide is available to control the weeds. The weed
suppresses the crop and result in reduction of yield. The crop also suppresses the weeds, a
condition often found in row crop cultures. This is a logical sequence in a crop habitat where
both cultural and herbicide methods provide effective control.
A principle of plant competition is that the first plants to occupy an area have an
advantage over latecomers. This principle is of foremost consideration in practical weed control,
where cropping practices are always directed to the establishment of the crop ahead of the
weeds.
Competition and allelopathy are the main interactions, which are of importance between
crop and weed. Allelopathy is distinguished from competition because it depends on a chemical
compound being added to the environment while competition involves removal or reduction of
an essential factor or factors from the environment, which would have been otherwise utilized.
CROP WEED COMPETITION
Weeds appear much more adapted to agro-ecosystems than our crop plants. Without
interference by man, weeds would easily wipe out the crop plants. This is because of their
competition for nutrients, moisture, light and space which are the principle factors of production
of crop. Generally, an increase in on kilogram of weed growth will decrease one kilogram of
crop growth.
1. Competition for Nutrients
Weeds usually absorb mineral nutrients faster than many crop plants and accumulate
them in their tissues in relatively larger amounts.
 Amaranthus sp. accumulate over 3% N on dry weight basis and are termed as
“nitrophills”.
 Achyranths aspera, a ‘P’ accumulator with over 1.5% P 2 O 5
 Chenopodium sp & Portulaca sp. are ‘K’ lovers with over 1.3% K 2 O in dry matter
Mineral composition of certain common weeds on dry matter basis
S.No Species N P2O5 K2O
1. Achyranthus aspera 2.21 1.63 1.32
2. Amaranthus viridis 3.16 0.06 4.51
3. Chenapodium album 2.59 0.37 4.34
4. Cynodon dactylan 1.72 0.25 1.75
5. Cyperus rotundus 2.17 0.26 2.73
Crop plants
1. Rice 1.13 0.34 1.10
2. Sugarcane 0.33 0.19 0.67
3. Wheat 1.33 0.59 1.44

 The associated weed is responsive to nitrogen and it utilizes more of the applied ‘N’ than the
crop. Eg. The ‘N’ uptake by Echinochloa crusgalli is more than rice.
 Nutrient removal by weeds leads to huge loss of nutrients in each crop season, which is
often twice that of crop plants. For instance at early stages of maize cultivation, the weeds
found to remove 9 times more of N, 10 times more of P and 7 times more of K.
2. Competition for moisture
 In general, for producing equal amounts of dry matter, weeds transpire more water than
do most of our crop plants. It becomes increasingly critical with increasing soil moisture
stress, as found in arid and semi-arid areas.
  As a rule, C 4 plants utilize water more efficiently resulting in more biomass per unit of
water. Cynodon dactylon had almost twice as high transpiration rate as pearl millet.
 In weedy fields soil moisture may be exhausted by the time the crop reaches the fruiting
stage, i.e. the peak consumptive use period of the crop, causing significant loss in crop
yields.
3. Competition for light
 It may commence very early in the cop season if a dense weed growth smothers the crop
seedlings.
 It becomes important element of crop-weed competition when moisture and nutrients are
plentiful.
 In dry land agriculture in years of normal rainfall the crop-weed competition is limited to
nitrogen and light.
 Unlike competition for nutrients and moisture once weeds shade a crop plant, increased
light intensity cannot benefit it.
4. Competition for space (CO 2 )
Crop-weed competition for space is the requirement for CO 2 and the competition may
occur under extremely crowded plant community condition. A more efficient utilization of CO 2
by C 4 type weeds may contribute to their rapid growth over C 3 type of crops.
ALLELOPATHY
Allelopathy is the detrimental effects of chemicals or exudates produced by one (living)
plant species on the germination, growth or development of another plant species (or even
microorganisms) sharing the same habitat.
Allelopathy does not form any aspect of crop-weed competition, rather, it causes Crop-
Weed interference, it includes competition as well as possible allelopathy.
Allelo chemicals are produced by plants as end products, by-products and metabolites
liberalised from the plants; they belong to phenolic acids, flavanoides, and other aromatic
compounds viz., terpenoids, steroids, alkaloids and organic cyanides.
Allelopathic Effect of Weeds on Crops
(1) Maize
• Leaves & inflorescence of Parthenium sp. affect the germination and seedling growth
• Tubers of Cyperus esculentus affect the dry matter production
(2) Sorghum
• Stem of Solanum affects germination and seedling growth
• Leaves and inflorescence of Parthenium affect germination and seedling growth
(3) Wheat
• Seeds of wild oat affect germination and early seedling growth
• Leaves of Parthenium affects general growth
• Tubers of C. rotundus affect dry matter production
• Green and dried leaves of Argemone mexicana affect germination & seedling growth
(4) Sunflower
• Seeds of Datura affect germination & growth
Allelopathic Effect of crop plants on weeds
(i) Root exudation of maize inhibits the growth of Chenopodium album
(ii) The cold water extracts of wheat straw when applied to weeds reduce germination and
growth of Abutilon sp.
Allelopathic effect of weeds on weeds
• Extract of leaf leachate of decaying leaves of Polygonum contains flavonoides which are
toxic to germination, root and hypocotyls growth of weeds like Amaranthus spinosus
• Inhibitor secreted by decaying rhizomes of Sorghum halepense affect the growth of Digitaria
sanguinalis and Amaranthus sp.
Factors influencing allelopathy
a. Plant factors
i. Plant density: Higher the crop density the lesser will be the allelo chemicals it encounters
ii. Life cycle: If weed emerges later there will be less problem of allelochemicals
iii. Plant age: The release of allelochemicals occurs only at critical stage. For eg. in case of
Parthenium, allelopathy occurs during its rosette & flowering stage.
iv. Plant habit: The allelopathic interference is higher in perennial weeds.
v. Plant habitat: Cultivated soil has higher values of allelopathy than uncultivated soil.
b. Climatic factors: The soil & air temperature as well as soil moisture influence the allelo
chemicals potential
c. Soil factors: Physico-chemical and biological properties influence the presence of
allelochemicals.
d. Stress factors: Abiotic and Biotic stresses may also influence the activity of allelochemcals
Mechanism of action of allelochemicals
 Interfere with cell elongation
 Interfere with photosynthesis
 Interfere with respiration
 Interfere with mineral ion uptake
  Interfere with protein and nucleic acid metabolism
Use of Allelopathy in biological control of weeds:
1. Use of cover crop for biological control
2. Use of alleopathic chemicals as bio-herbicides
Effect of weed competition on crop growth and yield
1. Crop growth and yield is affected
2. Crop suffers from nutritional deficiency
3. Leaf area development is reduced
4. Yield attributes will be lowered
5. Reduce the water use by the crop
6. Affect the dry matter production
7. Lowers the input response
8. Causes yield reduction
9. Pest and disease incidence will be more
Losses Caused by Weeds
A. Reduction in crop yield
Weeds compete with crop plants for nutrients, soil moisture, space and sunlight. In
general an increase in one kilogram weed growth corresponds to reduction in one kilogram of
crop growth. Depending on type of weed, intensity of infestation, period of infestation, the ability
of crop to compete and climatic conditions the loss varies. The table below depicts the
percentage range of yield loss due to weeds in some important field crops.
Table1.1.Yield losses due to weeds in some important crops
Crop Yield loss range (%) Crop Yield loss range (%)
Rice 9.1 – 51.4 Sugarcane 14.1 – 71.7
Wheat 6.3 – 34.8 Linseed 30.9 – 39.1
Maize 29.5 – 74.0 Cotton 20.7 – 61.0
Millets 6.2 – 81.9 Carrot 70.2 – 78.0
Groundnut 29.7 – 32.9 Peas 25.3 – 35.5

Among the pests weeds account for 45 % reduction in yield while the insects 30%,
diseases 20% and other pests 5%.
B. Loss in crop quality
If a crop contains weed seeds it is to be rejected, especially when the crop is grown for
seed. For example, the wild oat weed seeds are similar in size and shape of the crops like
barley, wheat, and its admixture may lead to rejection for seed purpose. Contamination by
poisonous weed seeds is unacceptable and increases costs of crop cleaning. The leafy
vegetables much suffers due to weed problem as the leafy weed mixture spoil the economic
value.
C. Weeds as reservoirs of pests and diseases
Weeds form a part of community of organisms in a given area. Consequently, they are
food sources for some animals, and are themselves susceptible to many pests and diseases.
However, because of their close association with crop they may serve as important reservoirs or
alternate host of pests and diseases.
D. Interference in crop handling
Some weeds can make the operation of agricultural machinery more difficult, more
costly and even impossible. Heavy infestation of Cynadon dactylon causes poor ploughing
performance.
E. Reduction in land value
Heavy infestation by perennial weeds could make the land unsuitable are less suitable
for cultivation resulting in loss in its monetary value. Thousands of hectare of cultivable area in
rice growing regions of India have been abandoned or not being regularly cultivated due to
severe infestation of nutgrass (Cyperus rotundus) and other perennial grasses.
F. Limitation of crop choice
When certain weeds are heavily infested, it will limit the growth of a particular crop. The
high infestation of parasitic weeds such as Striga lutea may limit the growing of sorghum or
sugarcane.
G. Loss of human efficiency
Weeds reduce human efficiency through physical discomfort caused by allergies and
poisoning. Weeds such as congress weed (Parthenium hysterophorus) causes itching. Thorny
weeds like Solanum spp. restrict moment of farm workers in carrying out farm practices such as
fertilizer application, insect and disease control measures, irrigation, harvesting etc.
H. Problems due to aquatic weeds
The aquatic weeds that grow along the irrigation canals, channels and streams restricts
the flow of water. Weed obstruction cause reduction in velocity of flow and increases stagnation
of water and may lead to high siltation and reduced carrying capacity. Aquatic weeds form
breeding grounds for obnoxious insects like mosquitoes. They reduce recreational value by
interfering with fishing, swimming, boating, hunting and navigation on streams and canals.
I. Other problems
Weeds are troublesome not only in crop plants but also in play grounds and road sides
etc. Alternanthera echinata and Tribulus terrestris occurs in many of the playgrounds causing
annoyance to players and spectators.
Factors affecting the competitive ability of crops against weeds
a. Density of weeds
Increase in density of weed decrease in yield is a normal phenomena. However, it is not
linear as few weeds do not affect the yields so much as other weed does and hence, it is a
sigmoidal relationship.

b. Crop density
Increase in plant population decreases weed growth and reduce competition until they
are self competitive. Crop density and rectangularity are very important in determining the
quantum and quality of crop environment available for the growth of weeds. Wide row spacing
with simultaneous high, intra-row crop plant population may induce dense weed growth. In this
respect, square planting of crops in which there are equal row and plant spacing should be ideal
in reducing intra-crop plant competition.
c. Type of weeds species
The type of weeds that occur in a particular crop influences the competition. Occurrence
of a particular species of weed greatly influences the competition between the crop & weed. For
eg. E. crusgalli in rice, Setaria viridis in corn and Xanthium sp. in soybean affects the crop yield.
Flavaria australasica offers more competition than the grasses
d. Type of crop species and their varieties
Crops and their varieties differ in their competing ability with weeds e.g., the decreasing
order of weed competing ability is as: barley, rye, wheat and oat. High tolerance of barley to
competition from weeds is assigned to its ability to develop more roots that are extensive during
initial three weeks growth period than the others.
Fast canopy forming and tall crops suffer less from weed competition than the slow
growing and short stature & crops. Dwarf and semi-dwarf varieties of crops are usually more
susceptible to competition from weeds than the tall varieties became they grow slowly and initial
stage. In addition, their short stature covers the weeds less effectively. When we compare the
crop-weed competition between two varieties of groundnut TMV 2 (Bunch) and TMV 3
(Spreading), TMV 2 incurred a loss of over 30% pod yield under uncontrolled weed - crop
competition while TMV 3 lost only about 15% in its yield. The main reason is due to the
spreading nature of TMV 3, which smothered weeds. Longer duration cultivars of rice have
been found more competitive to weeds than the short duration ones.
e. Soil factors
Soil type, soil fertility, soil moisture and soil reaction influences the crop weed
competition. Elevated soil fertility usually stimulates weeds more than the crop, reducing thus
crop yields. Fertilizer application of weedy crop could increase crop yields to a much lower level
than the yield increase obtained when a weed free crop is applied with fertilizer.
Weeds are adapted to grow well and compete with crops, in both moisture stress and
ample moisture conditions. Removal of an intense moisture stress may thus benefit crops more
than the weeds leading to increased yields. If the weeds were already present at the time of
irrigation, they would grow so luxuriantly as to completely over power the crops. If the crop in
irrigated after it has grown 15 cm or more in a weed free environment irrigation could hasten
closing in of crop rows, thus suppressing weeds.
Abnormal soil reactions often aggravate weed competition. It is therefore specific weed
species suited to different soil reactions exist with us, our crops grow best only in a specified
range of soil pH. Weeds would offer more intense competition to crops on normal pH soils than
on normal pH soils.
f. Climate
Adverse weather condition, Eg. drought, excessive rains, extremes of temperature, will
favour weeds since most of our crop plants are susceptible to climatic stresses. It is further
intensified when crop cultivation is stratified over marginal lands. All such stresses weaken
crops inherent capacity to fight weeds.
g. Time of germination
In general, when the time of germination of crop coincides with the emergence of first
flush of weeds, it leads to intense Crop-Weed interference. Sugarcane takes about one month
to complete its germination phase while weeds require very less time to complete its
germination.
Weed seeds germinate most readily from 1.25 cm of soil and few weeds can germinate
even from 15cm depth. Therefore, planting method that dries the top 3 to 5 cm of soil rapidly
enough to deny weed seeds opportunity to absorb moisture for their germination usually
postpones weed emergence until the first irrigation. By this time the crop plants are well
established to compete with late germinating weeds.
h. Cropping practices
 Cropping practices, such as method of planting crops, crop density and geometry and
crop species and varieties have pronounced effects on Crop-Weed interference.
i. Crop maturity
Maturity of the crop is yet another factor which affects competition between weeds &
crop. As the age of the crop increases, the competition for weeds decreases due to its good
establishment. Timely weeding in the early growth stages of the crop enhances the yield
significantly.
Critical period of weed competition
Critical period of weed competition is defined as the shortest time span during the crop
growth when weeding results in highest Economic returns.
The critical period of crop-weed competition is the period from the time of sowing up to,
which the crop is to be maintained in a weed free environment to get the highest economical
yield. The weed competition in crop field is invariably severe in early stages of crop than at later
stages. Generally in a crop of 100 days duration, the first 35 days after sowing should be
maintained in a weed free condition. There is no need to attempt for a weed free condition
throughout the life period of the crop, as it will entail unnecessary additional expenditure without
proportionate increase in yield. Critical period of weed competition for important crops ae as
follows
Days from Days from
S.No. Crops S.No.
sowing sowing
1. Rice (Lowland) 35 7. Cotton 35
2. Rice (upland) 60 8. Sugarcane 90
3. Sorghum 30 9. Groundnut 45
4. Finger millet 15 10. Soybean 45
5. Pearl millet 35 11. Onion 60
6. Maize 30 12. Tomato 30

It becomes clear that weed free condition for 2-8 weeks in general are required for
different crops and emphasizes the need for timely weed control without which the crop yield
gets drastically reduced.
 METHODS OF WEED CONTROL – PHYSICAL & CULTURAL

For designing any weed control programme in a given area, one must know the nature &
habitat of the weeds in that area, how they react to environmental changes & how they respond
to herbicides. Before selecting a method of weed control one, much have information on the
number of viable seeds nature of dispersal of seeds, dormancy of seeds, longevity of buried
seeds & ability to survive under adverse conditions, life span of the weed, soil textures moisture
and (In case of soil applied volatile herbicides the herbicide will be successful only in sandy
loam soil but not in clayey soil. Flooding as a method of weed control will be successful only in
heavy soil & net in sandy soil) the area to be controlled.
Principles of weed control are;
a) Prevention
b) Eradication
c) Control
d) Management
Preventive weed control
It encompasses all measures taken to prevent the introduction and/or establishment and
spread of weeds. Such areas may be local, regional or national in size. No weed control
programme is successful if adequate preventive measures are not taken to reduce weed
infestation. It is a long term planning so that the weeds could be controlled or managed more
effectively and economically than is possible where these are allowed to disperse freely.
Following preventive control measures are suggested for adoption wherever possible &
practicable.
1. Avoid using crop that are infested with weed seeds for sowing
2. Avoid feeding screenings and other material containing weed seeds to the farm animals.
3. Avoid adding weeds to the manure pits.
4. Clean the farm machinery thoroughly before moving it from one field to another. This is
particularly important for seed drills
5. Avoid the use of gravel sand and soil from weed-infested
6. Inspect nursery stock for the presence of weed seedlings, tubers, rhizomes, etc.
7. Keep irrigation channels, fence-lines, and un-cropped areas clean
8. Use vigilance. Inspect your farm frequently for any strange looking weed seedlings. Destroy
such patches of a new weed by digging deep and burning the weed along with its roots.
Sterilize the spot with suitable chemical.
9. Quarantine regulations are available in almost all countries to deny the entry of weed seeds
and other propagules into a country through airports and shipyards.
Weed free crop seeds
It may be produced by following the pre-cautionary measures.
i. Separating crop seeds from admixture of crop & weed seeds using physical differences
like size, shape, colour, weight / texture & electrical properties.
ii. Using air-screen cleaners & specific gravity separators, which differentiate seeds based on
seed size, shape, surface area & specific gravity.
iii. Through means of Seed certification we can get certified seeds and can be used safely
because the certified seeds contain no contaminant weed seeds
iv. Weed laws are helpful in reducing the spread of weed species & in the use of well adapted
high quality seeds. They help in protecting the farmers from using mislabeled or
contaminated seed and legally prohibiting seeds of noxious weeds from entering the
country.
v. Quarantine laws enforce isolation of an area in which a severe weed has become
established & prevent the movement of the weed into an uninfected area.
vi. Use of pre-emergence herbicides also helpful in prevention because herbicides will not
allow the germination of weeds.
b. Eradication: (ideal weed control rarely achieved)
It infers that a given weed species, its seed & vegetative part has been killed or
completely removed from a given area & that weed will not reappear unless reintroduced to the
area. Because of its difficulty & high cost, eradication is usually attempted only in smaller areas
such as few hectares or few thousand m2 or less. Eradication is often used in high value areas
such as green houses, ornamental plant beds & containers. This may be desirable and
economical when the weed species is extremely noxious and persistent as to make cropping
difficult and economical.
c. Control
It encompasses those processes where by weed infestations are reduced but not
necessarily eliminated. It is a matter of degree ranging from poor to excellent. In control
methods, the weeds are seldom killed but their growth is severely restricted, the crop makes a
normal yield. In general, the degree of weed control obtained is dependent on the characters of
weeds involved and the effectiveness of the control method used.
d. Weed management
 Weed control aims at only putting down the weeds present by some kind of physical or
chemical means while weed management is a system approach whereby whole land use
planning is done in advance to minimize the very invasion of weeds in aggressive forms and
give crop plants a strongly competitive advantage over the weeds.
Weed control methods are grouped into cultural, physical, chemical and biological. Every
method of weed control has its own advantages and disadvantages. No single method is
successful under all weed situations. Many a time, a combination of these methods gives
effective and economic control than a single method.
MECHANICAL WEED CONTROL
Mechanical or physical methods of weed control are being employed ever since man
began to grow crops. The mechanical methods include tillage, hoeing, hand weeding, digging
cheeling, sickling, mowing, burning, flooding, mulching etc.
1. Tillage
Tillage removes weeds from the soil resulting in
their death. It may weaken plants through injury of root and
stem pruning, reducing their competitiveness or
regenerative capacity. Tillage also buries weeds. Tillage
operation includes ploughing, discing, harrowing and
leveling which is used to promote the germination of
weeds through soil turnover and exposure of seeds to
sunlight, which can be destroyed effectively later. In case
of perennials, both top and underground growth is injured
and destroyed by tillage.
2. Hoeing
Hoe has been the most appropriate and widely used weeding tool for centuries. It is
however, still a very useful implement to obtain results effectively and cheaply. It supplements
the cultivator in row crops. Hoeing is particularly more effective on annuals and biennials as
weed growth can be completely destroyed. In case of perennials, it destroyed the top growth
with little effect on underground plant parts resulting in re-growth.
3. Hand weeding
It is done by physical removal or pulling out of weeds by hand or removal by implements
called khurpi, which resembles sickle. It is probably the oldest method of controlling weeds and
it is still a practical and efficient method of eliminating weeds in cropped and non-cropped lands.
It is very effective against annuals, biennials and controls only upper portions of perennials.

4. Digging
Digging is very useful in the case of perennial weeds to remove the underground
propagating parts of weeds from the deeper layer of the soil.

5. Sickling and mowing

Sickling is also done by hand with the help of sickle to remove the top growth of weeds
to prevent seed production and to starve the underground parts. It is popular in sloppy areas
where only the tall weed growth is sickled leaving the root system to hold the soil in place to
prevent soil erosion. Mowing is a machine-operated practice mostly done on roadsides and in
lawns.
6. Burning
Burning or fire is often an economical and practical means of controlling weeds. It is
used to (a) dispose of vegetation (b) destroy dry tops of weeds that have matured (c) kill green
weed growth in situations where cultivations and other common methods are impracticable.

8. Flooding
Flooding is successful against weed species sensitive to longer periods of submergence
in water. Flooding kills plants by reducing oxygen availability for plant growth. The success of
flooding depends upon complete submergence of weeds for longer periods.

Merits of Mechanical Method

1) Oldest, effective and economical method
2) Large area can be covered in shorter time
3) Safe method for environment
4) Does not involve any skill
5) Weeding is possible in between plants
6) Deep rooted weeds can be controlled effectively
Demerits of Mechanical Method
1) Labour consuming
2) Possibility of damaging crop
3) Requires ideal and optimum specific condition
Mechanical weeders
Dry Land Weeder
It is used for weeding in row crops for removing shallow rooted weeds. It has been
designed ergonomically for easy operation. Useful in dryland and gardenland crops and is ideal
at a soil moisture content of 8 to 10 per cent.

At the extreme end of the arm 120 mm diameter star wheel is fixed. A cutting blade is
fitted to the arm 200mm to the back of the star wheel the star wheel facilitates easy movement
of the tool. The operating width of the blade is 120 mm. Ideal to remove shallow rooted weeds.
The workable moisture content has to be 8 to 10 %
Power rotary weeder
 For mechanical control of weeds in crops such as sugarcane, tapioca, cotton, tomato and
pulses whose rows spacing is more than 45 cm.
 The rotary weeder consists of three rows of discs mounted with 6 numbers of curved
blades in opposite directions alternatively in each disc. These blades when rotating enable
cutting and mulching the soil. The width of coverage of the rotary tiller is 500 mm and the depth
of operation can be adjusted to weed and mulch the soil in the cropped field.
Tractor drawn weeding cum earthing up equipment
 For weeding and intercultural operations in between row crops in a single pass

An inter cultivator cum earthing up equipment was developed and fitted to a

standard tractor drawn ridger. Three number of sweep type blades are affixed to the ridger
frame for accomplishing the weeding operation in between standing rows of crops. Three ridger
bottom fitted behind the sweep blade, work on the loosened soil mass and aid in earthing up by
forming ridges and furrows. Weeding efficiency is 61 per cent.
Tractor operated multi row rotary weeder
 For weeding and intercultural operations in between row crops like sugarcane, cotton,
maize, etc. in a single pass


The multi row rotary weeder consists of a set of cutting blades, which penetrate in to the
soil, removing the weeds in the crop rows. The cutting blade has also been used as an inclined
plane for elevating and converging the soil. The rotating blades are used to cut the weeds and
pulverizing the soil. Weeding efficiency is 71 per cent.
Cono weeder
 For weeding between rows of paddy crop

The cono weeder has two conical rotors mounted in tandem with opposite orientation.
Smooth and serrated blades mounted alternately on the rotor uproot and burry weeds because
the rotors create a back and forth movement in the top 3 cm of soil, the cono weeder can
satisfactorily weed in a single forward pass without a push pull movement. It is easy to operate
by a single operator. The weeder does not sink in puddled soil. Field capacity 0.18 ha/day. Star,
Peg type and Twin hoe wheel weeding.
CULTURAL WEED CONTROL
Several cultural practices like tillage, planting, fertiliser application, irrigation etc., are
employed for creating favourable condition for the crop. These practices if used properly, help
in controlling weeds. Cultural methods, alone cannot control weeds, but help in reducing weed
population. They should, therefore, be used in combination with other methods. In cultural
methods, tillage, fertiliser application. and irrigation are important. In addition, aspects like
selection of variety, time of sowing, cropping system, cleanliness of the farm etc., are also
useful in controlling weeds.
1. Field preparation
The field has to be kept weed free. Flowering of weeds should not be allowed. This
helps in prevention of build up of weed seed population.
2. Summer tillage
The practice of summer tillage or off-season tillage is one of the effective cultural
methods to check the growth of perennial weed population in crop cultivation. Initial tillage
before cropping should encourage clod formation. These clods, which have the weed
propagules, upon drying desiccate the same. Subsequent tillage operations should break the
clods into small units to further expose the shriveled weeds to the hot sun.
3. Maintenance of optimum plant population
Lack of adequate plant population is prone to heavy weed infestation, which becomes,
difficult to control later. Therefore practices like selection of proper seed, right method of
sowing, adequate seed rate protection of seed from soil borne pests and diseases etc. are very
important to obtain proper and uniform crop stand capable of offering competition to the weeds.
4. Crop rotation
The possibility of a certain weed species or group of species occurring is greater if the
same crop is grown year after year. In many instances, crop rotation can eliminate atleast
reduce difficult weed problems. The obnoxious weeds like Cyperus rotundus can be controlled
effectively by including low land rice in crop rotation.
5. Growing of intercrops
Inter cropping suppresses weeds better than sole cropping and thus provides an
opportunity to utilize crops themselves as tools of weed management. Many short duration
pulses viz., green gram and soybean effectively smother weeds without causing reduction in the
yield of main crop.
6. Mulching
Mulch is a protective covering of material maintained on soil surface. Mulching has
smothering effect on weed control by excluding light from the photosynthetic portions of a plant
and thus inhibiting the top growth. It is very effective against annual weeds and some perennial
weeds like Cynodon dactylon. Mulching is done by dry or green crop residues, plastic sheet or
polythene film. To be effective the mulch should be thick enough to prevent light transmission
and eliminate photosynthesis.
7. Solarisation
This is another method of utilisation of solar energy for the desiccation of weeds. In this
method, the soil temperature is further raised by 5 – 10 ºC by covering a pre-soaked fallow field
with thin transparent plastic sheet. The plastic sheet checks the long wave back radiation from
the soil and prevents loss of energy by hindering moisture evaporation.

8. Stale seedbed
A stale seedbed is one where initial one or two flushes of weeds are destroyed before
planting of a crop. This is achieved by soaking a well prepared field with either irrigation or rain
and allowing the weeds to germinate. At this stage a shallow tillage or non- residual herbicide
like paraquat may be used to destroy the dense flush of young weed seedlings. This may be
followed immediately by sowing. This technique allows the crop to germinate in almost weed-
free environment.
9. Blind tillage
The tillage of the soil after sowing a crop before the crop plants emerge is known as
blind tillage. It is extensively employed to minimise weed intensity in drill sowing crops where
emergence of crop seedling is hindered by soil crust formed on receipt of rain or irrigation
immediately after sowing.
10. Crop management practices
Good crop management practices that play an important role in weed control are
a. Vigorous and fast growing crop varieties are better competitors with weeds.
b. Proper placement of fertilizers ensures greater availability of nutrients to crop plants,
thus keeping the weeds at a disadvantage.
c. Better irrigation practices to have a good head start over the weeds
d. Proper crop rotation programme
 e. Higher plant population per unit area results in smothering effect on weed growth
Merits of Cultural Method
1. Low cost for weed control
2. Easy to adopt
3. No residual Problem
4. Technical skill is not involved
5. No damage to crops
6. Effective weed control
7. Crop-weed ecosystem is maintained
Demerits of Cultural Method
1. Immediate and quick weed control is not possible
2. Weeds are kept under suppressed condition
3. Perennial and problematic weeds cannot be controlled
4. Practical difficulty in adoption
 METHODS OF WEED CONTROL - CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL METHODS
HERBICIDAL CONTROL OF WEEDS
Herbicides are chemicals capable of killing or inhibiting the growth of plants. In the last
40 years or so, man has greatly improved upon his weeding efficiency by supplementing the
conventional weeding methods with herbicides. It has saved farmers of undue, repeated inter-
cultivations and hoeing, and has helped him in obtaining satisfactory weed control where
physical methods often fail. Today, we have over 1501 herbicides in common use for selective
and non-selective weed control in different areas. These chemicals vary greatly in their (a)
molecular structures, (b) mobility within plants, (c) selectivity, (d) fate in soils, and (e) response
to environment. Important properties and uses of some common herbicides in use today are
discussed later in Chapter 13.
Many chemicals have shown high codes of selectivity to certain crops, killing the weeds
effectively. But proper selection of the herbicide, its rate, time, and method of application are
very important to obtain the desire degree of weed control and crop selectivity.
Herbicides are tools, and tool must be used with care. Many developing nations have
made a good beginning in the use of herbicides in agriculture, but more comprehensive
research needs to be done before extending it to new situations.
Benefits of Herbicides
Herbicides were developed in the western world primarily to overcome the shortage of
farm labour for weeding crops. However, during the past four decades, slowly the utility of
herbicides has also been realized in the labour-rich tropical world, for varied reasons. Given
adequate labour and money to remove weeds manually, still many advantages accrue from the
judicious use of herbicides. Important among these are the following:-
1. In monsoon season incessant rainfall may make physical weeding infeasible. Herbicides can
be used to ensure freedom of crops from weeds under such a condition. Also, during the early
crop growth period when many fields need weeding simultaneously, even in labour-rich
countries like India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Nigeria, and Sudan, there is certainly a
weeding bottleneck in crop production. The soil applied herbicides can be of great help in these
regions in boosting crop production.
2. Herbicides can be employed to control weeds as they emerge from the soli to eliminate weed
crop interference even at a very early stage of crop growth. But by physical methods weeds are
removed after they have offered considerable competition to the crops, and rarely at the critical
time. Thus, herbicides provide benefits of timely weed control.
3. Herbicides can kill many weeds that survive by mimicry, for example, wildoat (Avena spp.) in
wheat and barnyardgrass (Echinochola spp.) in rice. Weeds that resemble crop plants usually
escape physical weeding.
4. Herbicidal control does not dictate strict row spacing’s. In physical weed control, on the other
hand, the crop rows have to be sufficiently wide to accommodate weeding implements, else
hand weeding and hand-pulling of weeds has to be resorted to.
5. Herbicides bring about longer lasting control of perennial weeds and brushes than is possible
with any physical control method. Many modern herbicides can translocate considerably deep in
the underground system of weeds and damage them.
6. Herbicides are convenient to use on spiny weeds which cannot be reached manually.
When cultivators or hoes are worked hard in an attempt to uproot the established weeds,
they may cut many feeding roots of a crop like maize, which are appreciable in the first 10 cm
depth of the soil. Their lateral growth fully occupies the inter-row spaces.\
7. Herbicides are safe on erodible lands where tillage may accelerate soil and water erosion.
Excessive tillage, in any case, spoils soil structure, reduces organic matter content, and
depletes moisture status of the soil.
8. Herbicides kill weeds in situ without permitting their dissemination. Tillage on the other hand,
may fragment the vegetative propagules of the weeds and drag them to new sites.
9. Herbicide sprays easily reach the weeds growing in obstructed situations, such as utility-right-
of-way, under fruit trees, and on undulating lands.
Some other benefits of using herbicides include (a) fewer labour problems, (b) greater
possibility of farm mechanization, (c) easier crop harvesting and (d) lower cost of farm produce.
In dry land agriculture, effective herbicidal control ensures higher water use by crops and less
crop failures due to drought.
Limitations of Herbicides
Like any other method of weed control, herbicides have their own limitations. But with
proper precautions these limitations can be overcome, markedly. Important limitations in the use
of herbicides are as follows.
1. In herbicidal control there is no automatic signal to stop a farmer who may be applying the
chemical inaccurately till he sees the results in the crops sprayed or in the rotation crops that
follow.
2. Even when herbicides are applied accurately, these may interact with environment to produce
un-intended results. Herbicide drifts, wash-of, and run-off can cause considerable damage to
the neighbouring crops, leading to unwarranted quarrels.
3. Depending upon the diversity in farming, a variety of herbicides must be stocked on a farm to
control weeds in different fields. On the contrary, for physical control of weeds a farmer has to
possess only one or two kinds of weeding implements for his entire farm.
4. Above all, herbicidal control requires considerable skill on the part of the user. He must be
able to identify his weeds and possess considerable knowledge about herbicides and their
proper usages. Sometimes, an error in the use of herbicides can be very costly.
5. In herbicide treated soils, usually, crop failures cannot be made up by planning a different
crop of choice. The selection of the replacement crop has to be based on its tolerance to the
herbicide already applied.
6. Military use of herbicides is the greatest misfortune of their discovery. In Vietnam, 2,4-D and
2,4,5-T, for example, were used for defoliating forests and crops, leading to miseries to the
innocent civilians. In future, the chemical warfare with residual herbicides may be even more
devastating, which must be avoided at all costs.
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL
Use of living organism’s viz., insects, disease organisms, herbivorous fish, snails or even
competitive plants for the control of weeds is called biological control. In biological control
method, it is not possible to eradicate weeds but weed population can be reduced. This method
is not useful to control all types of weeds. Introduced weeds are best targets for biological
control.
Qualities of bio-agent
1. The bio-agent must feed or affect only one host and not other useful plants
2. It must be free of predators or parasites.
3. It must readily adapt to environment conditions.
4. The bio-agent must be capable of seeking out itself to the host.
5. It must be able to kill the weed or atleast prevent its reproduction in some direct or
indirect way.
6. It must possess reproductive capacity sufficient to overtake the increase of its host
species, without too much delay.
Merits
1) Least harm to the environment
2) No residual effect
3) Relatively cheaper and comparatively long lasting effect
4) Will not affect non-targeted plants and safer in usage
Demerits
 1) Multiplication is costlier
2) Control is very slow
3) Success of control is very limited
4) Very few host specific bio-agents are available at present
Mode of action
a. Differential growth habits, competitive ability of crops and varieties prevent weed
establishment Eg. Groundnut, cowpea fast growing and so good weed suppresser.
b. Insects kill the plants by exhausting plant food reserves, defoliation, boring and
weakening structure of the plant.
c. Pathogenic organisms damage the host plants through enzymatic degradation of cell
constituents, production of toxins, disturbance of harmone systems, obstruction in the
translocation of food materials and minerals and malfunctioning of physiological
processes.
Outstanding and feasible examples of biological weed control
a. Larvae of Coctoblastis cactorum, a moth borer, control prickly pear Opuntia sp. The
larvae tunnel through the plants and destroy it. In India it is controlled by cochinial
insects Dactylopius indicus and D. tomentosus

b. Lantana camara is controlled by larvae of Crocidosema lantana, a moth bores into the
flower, stems, eat flowers and fruits.
c. Cuscuta spp. is controlled by Melanagromyza cuscutae
d. Cyperus rotundus - Bactra verutana a moth borer
e. Ludiwigia parviflora is completely denuded by Altica cynanea (steel blue beetle)
 f. Herbivorous fish Tilapia controls algae. Common carp, a non-herbivorous fish controls
sub-mersed aquatic weeds. It is apparently due to uprooting of plants while in search of
food. Snails prefer submersed weeds.
Bio-Herbicides/ Mycoherbicides
Defn: The use of plant pathogen which are expected to kill the targeted weeds.
These are native pathogen, cultured artificially and sprayed just like post-emergence
herbicides each season on target weed, particularly in crop areas. Fungal pathogens of weed
have been used to a larger extent than bacterial, viral or nematode pathogens, because,
bacteria and virus are unable to actively penetrate the host and require natural opening or
vectors to initiate disease in plants.
Here the specific fungal spores or their fermentation product is sprayed against the
target weed. Some registered mycoherbicides in western countries are tabulated below.
No Product Content Target weed
Devine A liquid suspension of fungal spores of Strangle vine (Morrenia
1.
Phytophthora palmivora causes root rot. odorata) in citrus
Collego Wettable powder containing fungal Joint vetch (Aeschyomone
spores of Colletotrichum virginica) in rice, soybean
2.
gloeosporoides causes stem and leaf
blight
Bipolaris A suspension of fungal spores of Jhonson grass (Sorghum
3.
Bipolaris sorghicola halepense)
Biolophos A microbial toxin produced as Non-specific, general
4. fermentation product of Steptomyces vegetation
hygroscopicus
 INTEGRATED WEED MANAGEMENT
An integrated weed management may be defined as the combination of two or more
weed-control methods at low input levels to reduce weed competition in a given cropping
system below the economical threshold level. It has proved to be a valuable concept in a few
cases, though much is still to be done to extend it to the small farmers’ level.
Integrated Weed Management (IWM) approach aims at minimizing the residue problem
in plant, soil, air and water. An IWM involves the utilization of a combination of mechanical,
chemical and cultural practices of weed management in a planned sequence, so designed as
not to affect the ecosystem. The nature and intensity of the species to be controlled, the
sequence of crops that are raised in the rotation, the standard of crop husbandry, and the ready
and timely availability of any method and the economics of different weed-management
techniques are some of the potent considerations that determine the success for the exploitation
of the IWM approach.
Why IWM
1. One method of weed control may be effective and economical in a situation and it may not
be so in other situation.
2. No single herbicide is effective in controlling wide range of weed flora
3. Continuous use of same herbicide creates resistance in escaped weed flora or causes shift
in the flora.
4. Continuous use of only one practice may result in some undesirable effects. Eg. Rice –
wheat cropping system – Philaris minor
5. Only one method of weed control may lead to increase in population of particular weed.
6. Indiscriminate herbicide use and its effects on the environment and human health.
Concept
• Uses a variety of technologies in a single weed management with the objective to produce
optimum crop yield at a minimum cost taking in to consideration ecological and socio-
economic constraints under a given agro-ecosystem.
• A system in which two or more methods are used to control a weed. These methods may
include cultural practices, natural enemies and selective herbicides.
FAO Definition
It is a method whereby all economically, ecologically and toxicologically justifiable
methods are employed to keep the harmful organisms below the threshold level of economic
damage, keeping in the foreground the conscious employment of natural limiting factors.
 IWM is the rational use of direct and indirect control methods to provide cost-effective
weed control. Such an approach is the most attractive alternative from agronomic, economic
and ecological point of view.
Among the commonly suggested indirect methods are land preparation, water
management, plant spacing, seed rate, cultivar use, and fertilizer application. Direct methods
include manual, cultural, mechanical and chemical methods of weed control.
The essential factor in any IWM programme is the number of indirect and direct methods
that can be combined economically in a given situation. For example, increased frequency of
ploughing and harrowing does not eliminate the need for direct weed control. It is, therefore,
more cost-effective to use fewer pre-planting harrowing and combine them with direct weed
control methods.
There is experimental evidence that illustrates that better weed control is achieved if
different weed control practices are used in combination rather than if they are applied
separately.
Good IWM should be
a. Flexible enough to incorporate innovations and practical experiences of local farmers.
b. Developed for the whole farm and not for just one or two fields and hence it should be
extended to irrigation channels, road sides and other non-crop surroundings on the farm
from where most weeds find their way in to the crop fields.
c. Economically viable and practically feasible.
Advantages of IWM
• It shifts the crop-weed competition in favour of crop
• Prevents weed shift towards perennial nature
• Prevents resistance in weeds to herbicides
• No danger of herbicide residue in soil or plant
• No environmental pollution
• Gives higher net return
• Suitable for high cropping intensity
IWM of Cuscuta in Lucerne
1. In fields with history of Cuscuta (dodder), adopt crop raotations with non-susceptible
crops. Grow lucerne only once in three years in such fields.
2. Do not move animals and machinery from the dodder infested fields to the new ones.
3. Treat densely infested patches of lucerne with a non-residue herbicide like paraquat.
4. Do not feed the cuscuta infested crop to the animals.
5. Do not collect the lucerne seeds from the crop infested with dodder.
 HERBICIDES – ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATION OF HERBICIDE USAGE IN INDIA
In the past 50 years much has been learned about the use of herbicides and about their
strengths and weaknesses. After 50 years, it is an appropriate time to re-evaluate their role in
agriculture. The use of herbicides is increasing day by day. This is because the other alternative
control measures do not provide an effective and economic substitute for herbicides in many
situations. The efficacy and safety of herbicides are greatly influenced by soil and climate.
These vary greatly between countries as does the legislation controlling their use.
Advantages of herbicides
On weed control
• They kill unwanted plants.
• They are easy to use
• Herbicides can be used on closely planted crops where other methods cannot be used.
• Most of the time one application of the herbicide is enough whereas other methods have
to be continually used.
• They work fast. They can be removed quickly in critical situations.
• Herbicides are relatively cheap, and most of the time cheaper than manual weeding.
On crop growth
• They can destroy plants bearing diseases.
• They help the crops grow by destroying the weed that causes harmful effects which
include competition for water, nutrients and light; interference of weeds with crop growth
by the release of toxins; modification of soil and air temperatures and the harbouring of
pests.
• They can be safely used as the manual and mechanical removing of weeds can destroy
the crop.
Others
• They are relatively safe on lands which may erode.
• Non-selective herbicides can effectively clear fields, where houses and roads can then
be built.
Disadvantages of herbicides
Effects of Herbicides on environment
Herbicides vary greatly in chemical composition and in the degree of threat they pose to
the environment. Many of the herbicides are highly persistant. It is widely recognised that the
main reason accounting for residues of certain herbicides like simazine and other triazines in
ground and surface water was the widespread use of these herbicides at high doses on hard
surfaces.
 Soil: Some herbicides are non-biodegradable and are harmful for a long period of time.
Heavy dose of herbicides affect microbial population of the soil. With herbicides targeting
amino acid synthesis in both plants and microbes, there is a possibility that N2 fixation
may be inhibited by the application of certain herbicides.
 Water: The improper use of pesticides and herbicides may also cause the storm water
infiltration into groundwater. When these pesticides and herbicides contaminants
dissolve in storm water they infiltrate the groundwater and then the surface waters, such
as ponds, streams, rivers and lakes. These chemicals may also find their way into the
soil and deeper groundwater units polluting them.
 Living organisms: Most herbicides are specifically plant poisons, and are not very toxic
to animals. However, by changing the vegetation of treated sites, herbicide use also
changes the habitat of birds, mammals, insects, and other animals through changes in
the nature of their habitat. Herbivores may eat the plants treated with herbicides and
then carnivores eat the herbivores. The toxic herbicide would be passed up the food
chain increasing in concentration each time resulting in cancers and even deaths.
Anxiety about chemical residues in the environment has increased greatly in the last
decade. These fears and concern about possible litigation have led many land managers to
reappraise their weed control strategies. Change has also been forced on them by the decrease
in the number of approved herbicides as a result of the high cost of registration. In addition,
approval has been withdrawn from more toxic and persistent herbicides.
Effects of Herbicides on Humans
Among the many effects of pesticides and herbicides, perhaps the most alarming is the
danger they pose to human health. People are directly affected by toxicity of some herbicides,
during the course of their occupation (i.e., when spraying pesticides), or indirectly affected when
exposed through drift or residues on food, and wildlife.
 Pesticides and herbicides can cause a number of health problems such as heart
congestion, lung and kidney damage, low blood pressure, muscle damage, weight loss
and adrenal glands damage.
 Arbitrary and indiscriminate usage of herbicides and pesticides can result in
endometriosis, a common cause of infertility in women.
  Herbicides and pesticides have been suspected by the National Cancer Research
Institute as a probable cause of certain cancers (i.e., cancers of the brain, prostrate,
stomach and lip, as well as leukemia, skin melanomas, etc.) especially among farmers.
 The National Academy of Sciences reported that infants and children, because of their
developing physiology, are susceptible to the negative effects of herbicides and
pesticides in comparison to adults.
Effect of herbicides on crop plant
An important problem with broadcast applications is that they are non-selective. They
are toxic to a wide variety of plant species, and not just the weeds. If herbicides are not used
properly, damage may be caused to crop plants, especially if too large dose is used, or if
spraying occurs during a time when the crop species is sensitive to the herbicide. Unintended
but economically important damage to crop plants is sometimes a consequence of the
inappropriate use of herbicides.
Build-up of resistant biotypes
Apart from their effect on the environment, another major problem with herbicides has
been the build-up of herbicide-resistant biotypes where the same herbicide has been used
repeatedly for a number of years. This problem was not clearly foreseen at the start of the
herbicide revolution but, since the early 1980s, triazine resistance has developed in most
countries where these herbicides have been used. The usefulness of a number of other
herbicides, including paraquat, dichlofopmethyl and sulfonylurea types has been affected by the
development of resistant biotypes.
Methods of dealing with this problem include prevention of weed seed shedding, crop
rotation, herbicide rotation, control of weed escapes and tillage practices. Crop rotation is not
relevant in an amenity situation where the ‘crops’ are usually perennial but other control
measures may be appropriate in certain situations. If weeds are prevented from setting seed,
resistant biotypes cannot develop.
This could be achieved if land managers were made more aware of the threat of
resistant biotypes and made greater efforts in intensively managed areas to prevent weeds from
shedding seeds by the use of a rotation of herbicides supplemented by physical means such as
mulching, hand hoeing and hand weeding.
Modern, intensively managed agricultural and forestry systems have an intrinsic reliance
on the use of herbicides and other pesticides. Unfortunately, the use of herbicides and other
pesticides carries risks to humans through exposure to these potentially toxic chemicals, and to
ecosystems through direct toxicity caused to non-target species, and through changes in
habitat. Nevertheless, until newer and more pest-specific solutions to weed-management
problems are developed, there will be a continued reliance on herbicides in agriculture, forestry,
and for other purposes, such as lawn care.
HERBICIDE CLASSIFICATION, FORMULATIONS AND METHODS OF APPLICATION
Herbicide: It is a chemical used to kill some targeted plants.
Principles of chemical weed control
The selectivity exhibited by certain chemicals to cultivated crops in controlling its
associated weeds without affecting the crops forms basis for the chemical weed control. Such
selectivity may be due to differences in the morphology, differential absorption, differential
translocation, differential deactivation etc.
CLASSIFICATION OF HERBICIDES
1) Based on Method of application
i) Soil applied herbicides: Herbicide act through root and other underground parts of
weeds. Eg. Fluchloralin
ii) Foliage applied herbicides: Herbicide primarily active on the plant foliage
Eg.Glyphosate, Paraquat
2) Based on Mode of action
i) Selective herbicide: A herbicide is considered as selective when in a mixed growth of
plant species, it kills some species without injuring the others. Eg. Atrazine
ii) Non-selective herbicide: It destroys majority of treated vegetation Eg. Paraquat
3 Based on mobility
i) Contact herbicide: A contact herbicide kills those plant parts with which it comes in
direct contact Eg. Paraquat
ii) Translocated herbicide: Herbicide which tends to move from treated part to untreated
areas through xylem / phloem depending on the nature of its molecule. Eg. Glyphosate
4) Based on Time of application
i) Pre - plant application (PPI)
Application of herbicides before the crop is planted or sown. Soil application as well
as foliar application is done here. For example, fluchloralin can be applied to soil and
incorporated before sowing rainfed groundnut while glyphosate can be applied on the
foliage of perennial weeds like Cyperus rotundus before planting of any crop.

Weed Weed

ii) Pre – emergence

 Application of herbicides before a crop or weed has emerged. In case of annual
crops application is done after the sowing of the crop but before the emergence of
weeds and this is referred as pre-emergence to the crop while in the case perennial
crops it can be said as pre-emergence to weeds. For example soil application by
spraying of atrazine on 3rd DAT to sugarcane can be termed as pre-emergence to cane
crop while soil application by spraying the same immediately after a rain to control a new
flush of weeds in a inter-cultivated orchard can be specified as pre-emergence to weed.
Eg. Atrazine, Pendimethalin, Butachlor, Thiobencarb, Pretilachlor

Crop
Weed Weed
Crop seed
iii) Post – emergence
Herbicide application after the emergence of crop or weed is referred as post-
emergence application. When the weeds grow before the crop plants have emerged
through the soil and are killed with a herbicide then it is called as early post-
emergence. For example spraying 2,4-D Na salt to control parasitic weed striga in
sugarcane is called as post-emergence while spraying of paraquat to control
emerged weeds after 10-15 days after planting potato can be called as early post-
emergence. Eg. Glyphosate, Paraquat, 2,4-D Na Salt.

Weed seed Weed

Crop seedling

iv) Early post emergence: Another application of herbicide in the slow growing crops like
potato, sugarcane, 2-3 week after sowing is classified as early post emergence.
5) Based on molecular structure
a. Inorganic compounds
b. Organic compounds
FORMULATIONS
Herbicides in their natural state may be solid, liquid, volatile, non-volatile, soluble or
insoluble. Hence these have to be made in forms suitable and safe for their field use. An
herbicide formulation is prepared by the manufacturer by blending the active ingredient with
substances like solvents, inert carriers, surfactants, stickers, stabilizers etc
Objectives in herbicide formulations are;
 Ease of handling
 High controlled activity on the target plants
Need for preparing herbicide formulation
 To have a product with physical properties suitable for use in a variety of types of
application equipment and conditions.
 To prepare a product which is effective and economically feasible to use
 To prepare a product which is suitable for storage under local conditions?
Types of formulation
I. Emulsifiable concentrates (EC): A concentrated herbicide formulation containing organic
solvent and adjuvants to facilitate emulsification with water eg., Butachlor
ii. Wettable powders (WP): A herbicide is absorbed by an inert carrier together with an added
surface acting agent. The material is finely ground so that it may form a suspension when
agitated with a required volume of water eg., Atrazine
iii. Granules (G): The inert material (carrier) is given a granular shape and the herbicide (active
ingredient) is mixed with sand, clay, vermiculite, finely ground plant parts (ground corn cobs)
as carrier material. eg. Alachlor granules.
iv. Water soluble concentrates (WSC): eg. paraquat
METHODS OF APPLICATION
1. Spraying
2. Broadcasting
Factors influencing the methods of application are
a. Weed-crop situation
b. Type of herbicides
c. Mode of action and selectivity
d. Environmental factors
e. Cost and convenience of application
Depending on the target site, the herbicides are classified in to
a. Soil applied herbicides
b. Foliage applied or foliar herbicides
Different methods by which these herbicides are applied is tabulated below
Soil application Foliar application
a. Surface i. Blanket spray
b. Sub surface ii. Directed spray
c. Band iii. Protected spray
d. Fumigation iv. Spot treatment
e. Herbigation

Soil appication of herbicides

a. Surface application
Soil active herbicides are applied uniformly on the surface of the soil either by spraying
or by broadcasting. The applied herbicides are either left undisturbed or incorporated in to the
soil. Incorporation is done to prevent the volatilization and photo-decomposition of the
herbicides.
Eg. Fluchoralin – Left undisturbed under irrigated condition
- Incorporated under rainfed condition
b. Subsurface application
It is the application of herbicides in a concentrated band, about 7-10 cm below the soil
surface for controlling perennial weeds. For this special type of nozzle is introduced below the
soil under the cover of a sweep hood.
Eg. Carbamate herbicides to control Cyperus rotundus
Nitralin herbicides to control Convolvulus arvensis
c. Band application
Application to a restricted band along the crop rows leaving an untreated band in the
inter-rows. Later inter-rows are cultivated to remove the weeds. Saving in cost is possible here.
For example when a 30 cm wide band of a herbicide applied over a croprows that were spaced
90 cm apart, then two-third cost is saved.
d. Fumigation
Application of volatile chemicals in to confined spaces or in to the soil to produce gas
that will destroy weed seeds is called fumigation. Herbicides used for fumigation are called as
fumigants. These are good for killing perennial weeds and as well for eliminating weed seeds.
Eg. Methyl bromide, Metham
f. Herbigation
 It is the application of herbicides with irigation water both by surface and sprinkler
systems. In India farmers apply fluchloralin for chillies and tomato, while in western countries
application of EPTC with sprinkler irrigation water is very common in Lucerne.
Foliar application
i. Blanket spray
It is the uniform application of herbicides to standing crops without considering the
location of the crop. Only highly selective herbicides are used here. Eg. Spraying 2,4-Ethyl Ester
to rice three weeks after transplanting
ii. Directed spray
It is the application of herbicides on weeds in between rows of crops by directing the
spray only on weeds avoiding the crop. This could be possible by use of protective shield or
hood. For example, spraying glyphosate in between rows of tapioca using hood to control
Cyperus rotundus.
iii. Protected spray
It is a method of applying non-selective herbicides on weeds by covering the crops
which are wide spaced with polyethylene covers etc. This is expensive and laborious. However,
farmers are using this technique for spraying glyphosate to control weeds in jasmine, cassava,
banana.
iv. Spot treatment
It is usually done on small areas having serious weed infestation to kill it and to prevent
its spread. Rope wick applicator and Herbicide glove are useful here.
Crop Herbicide Dose Trade name and Time of
(kg ai/ha) formulation application
1. Rice Butachlor 1.25 Machete 50% EC Pre-emergence
Delchlor 50% EC
Thiobencarb 1.25 Thunder 50% EC Pre-emergence
Saturn 50% EC
Anilophos 0.40 Arozin 30% EC Pre-emergence
Aniloguard 30% EC
Fluchloralin 0.90 Basalin 45% EC Pre-emergence
Pendimethalin 0.90 Stomp 30% EC Pre-emergence
2,4-D Na salt 1.00 Fernoxone 80% SS Post-emergence
Pretilachlor+S Sofit Pre-emergence
2. Rice (Upland Thiobencarb 1.25 Saturn 50% EC Pre-emergence
direct sown) (8 DAS)
Pretilachlor 0.45 Refit 50% EC Pre-emergence
3. Sorghum Atrazine 0.25 Atrataf 50% WDP Pre-emergence
4. Ragi Butachlor 1.25 Machete 50% EC Pre-emergence
(Transplanted)
Pendimethalin 0.75 Stomp 30% EC Pre-emergence
5. Maize Atrazine 0.25 Atrataf 50% WDP Pre-emergence
6. Cumbu Atrazine 0.25 Atrataf 50% WDP Pre-emergence
7. Cotton Metolachlor 1.00 Dual 50% EC Pre-emergence
Fluchloralin 1.00 Basalin 45% EC Pre-emergence
Pendimethalin 1.00 Stomp 30% EC Pre-emergence
Diuron 0.40 Karmex 50% WP Pre-emergence
8. Groundnut Metolachlor 1.00 Dual 50% EC Pre-emergence
Fluchloralin 0.90 Basalin 45% EC Pre-emergence
9. Sunflower Fluchloralin 0.90 Basalin 45% EC Pre-emergence
Pendimethalin 0.90 Stomp 30% EC Pre-emergence
10.Vegetables Fluchloralin 1.00 Basalin 45% EC Pre-emergence
Pendimethalin 1.00 Stomp 30% EC Pre-emergence
11. Sugarcane Atrazine 1.00 Atrataf 50% WDP Pre-emergence
12. Pulses Fluchloralin 0.70 Basalin 45% EC Pre-emergence
Pendimethalin 0.60 Stomp 30% EC Pre-emergence
13. Wheat Isoproturon 0.60 Arelon 75% WP Pre-emergence
Cropping Systems
1. Sorghum + Pendimethalin 0.90 Stomp 30% EC Pre-emergence
Cowpea
2. Sugarcane + Thiobencarb 1.25 Saturn 50% EC Pre-emergence
Pulses
3. Maize + Pendimethalin 1.00 Stomp 30% EC Pre-emergence
Soybean
Alachlor 2.00 Lasso 50% EC Pre-emergence
 NOMENCLATURE OF COMMONLY AVAILABLE HERBICIDES IN INDIA

Prior to the widespread use of chemical herbicides, mechanical control and cultural
controls, such as altering soil pH, salinity, or fertility levels were used to control weeds.
The first widely used herbicide was 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid, often abbreviated
2,4-D which kills many broadleaf plants while leaving grasses largely unaffected (high doses of
2,4-D at crucial growth periods can harm grass crops such as maize or cereals). The low cost of
2,4-D has led to continued usage today and it remains one of the most commonly used
herbicides in the world.
In 1950s triazine family of herbicides, which includes atrazine was introduced. Atrazine
does not break down readily (within a few weeks) after being applied to soils of above neutral
pH. Atrazine is said to have carryover, a generally undesirable property for herbicides.
Glyphosate, frequently sold under the brand name Roundup, was introduced in 1974 for non-
selective weed control. It is now a major herbicide in selective weed control in growing crop
plants due to the development of crop plants that are resistant to it.
Many modern chemical herbicides for agriculture are specifically formulated to
decompose within a short period after application. This is desirable as it allows crops which may
be affected by the herbicide to be grown on the land in future seasons. However, herbicides
with low residual activity (i.e., that decompose quickly) often do not provide season-long weed
control.
List of herbicides with their common name and chemical name

S.No Common Name Trade Name Chemical Name

Aliphatic carboxylic

1 Acrolein Aqualin 2-propenal

2 Allyl alcohol Allyl alcohol 2-propen-1-ol
3 TCA TCA
4 Dalapon Dalapon, Dowpan
Phenoxy Carboxylic
1 2,4,D 2,4,D; Fernoxone 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid
2 2,4,5 T Weedar; Weedone 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxy acetic acid
Phenyl acetic acid
1 Fenac Fenac 2,3,6-trichlorophenyl acetic acid
Benzoic acid
1 Dicamba Banvel 2-methoxy - 3,6-dichloro benzoic acid
2 2,3,6 - TBA Trysben; Benzac 2,3,6-trichlorobenzoic acid
Phthalic acid
1 Naptalam Alanap; Peach thin N-1-naphthylphthalamic acid
322
2 Endothol Aquathal; Hydrothal
Phenol
1 PCP Premerge; DNBP Pentachlorophenol
2 Dinoseb Basanite 2-sec-butyl-4,6-dinitrophenol
Dinitroaniline
1 Fluchloralin Basalin N-propyl -N(2-chloroethyl)- 4-
(trifluoromethyl) - 2,6 dinitro-aniline
2 Isopropalin Paarlon N,N-dipropyl- 4-isopropyl -2,6-dinitro
aniline
3 Pendimethalin Prowl; Herbadex; N-(1-ethylpropyl)-3,4-dimethyl-2,6-
Stomp dinitroaniline
4 Trifluralin Treflan N,N-dipropyl-4-(trifluoromethyl) - 2,6-
dinitroaniline
Benzonitrile
1 Dichlobenil Casoron 2,6, - dinitrobenzonitrile
2 Bromoxynil Brominol; Butril 3,5-dibromo-4-hydroxybenzonitrile
Triazines
1 Atrazine Aatres; Gesprim 2-chloro-4-ethylamino-6-isopropylamino-S
-triazine
2 Simazine Princep; gesatop; 2-chloro-4,6-bis(ethylamino) -S -triazine
Tapazine
Urea
1 Diuron Karmex 3-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-1,1-dimethylurea
2 Monuron Telvar 3-(4-chlorophenyl)-1,1-dimethylurea
3 Isoproturon Tolkan; Arelon 3-(4-isopropylphenyl)-1,1-dimethylurea
Phenyl Carbamate
1 Phenmedipham Betanol 3-(methoxycarbonyl)amino]phenyl (3-
 methylphenyl)carbamate
2 Propham Chem -hoe Isopropyl phenylcarbamate
Thiocarbamate
1 Butylate Bolero; Saturn S-ethyl diisobutyl thiocarbamate
2 Thiobencarb Odram; Saturn S-4-chlorobenzyl diethyl(thiocarbamate)
3 Metham Vepam; VPM Sodium methyl dithiocarbomate
Acid amide
1 Alachlor Lasso 2-chloro-2′,6′-diethyl-N-
methoxymethylacetanilide
2 Butachlor Machete; Delchlor N-butoxymethyl-2-chloro-2′,6′-
diethylacetanilide
Organic arsenical
1 Cacodylic acid Phyto 138; Eras Dimethyl arsonic acid
2 MAA Ansar Methane arsonic acid
Uracil
1 Bromacil Hyvar-X; Krovar -1 5-bromo-3-sec-butyl-6-methyluracil
Diphenyl ether
1 Nitrofen TOK E 25 2,4-dichlorophenyl p-nitrophenyl ether
2 Oxyfluoren Goal 2- choloro – 1-(3-ethoxy-4nitrophenoxy) -
4-(trifluoro methyl) benzene
Bipyridilium
1 Diquat Reglone 6,7-dihydrodipyrido[1,2-a:2′,1′-
a]pyrazinediium
2 Paraquat Gramaxone 1,1′-dimethyl-4,4′-bipyridinium
Unclassified
1 Glyphosate Round up; Glycel N-(phosphanomethyl) glycine
2 Picloram Tordon 4-amino 3,5,6 –trichloro picolinic acid
Inorganic herbicides
1 Ammoniumsulpha
mate
2 Sodium arsenite
LOW VOLUME HERBICIDES – ADJUVANTS AND THEIR USE IN HERBICIDES – MODE OF
ACTION OF HERBICIDES – EFFECT OF SUB LETHAL DOSAGE
LOW VOLUME HERBICIDES
Herbicides play an important role in weed control on agricultural and non agricultural
surfaces. They are mainly applied by sprayers (foliar application) that consist of a herbicide
tank, a pressure generator, spray nozzles, pipes and connectors. Foliar application of herbicides
entails spraying the leaves of target plants during the growing season with a low concentration
of herbicide in a water carrier.
Among all possible weed control methods, the use of herbicides is principally associated
with risks for human health and the environment. Because of this there is much discussion
about the use of herbicides. Reduction in use of herbicides will reduce associated risks. It is
expected that herbicide use can be much reduced when herbicides are applied according to
best possible practices i.e. application of minimal doses of herbicide adjusted to weed, weather,
herbicide and sprayer conditions.
Low volume herbicide application has many benefits. Besides its cost-effectiveness for
the landowner, the low volume solution is also environmentally friendly. The spray can be
applied with a hand-powered, backpack sprayer or larger, motorized sprayers.
This type of application method has numerous advantages:
1. With low volume foliar, only the targeted species are treated.
2. Low volume foliar application is also extremely low profile. No large trucks, no noisy
spray devices, only professional employees with backpacks.
3. Low volume foliar also allows for a lower application cost due to the lower volume of mix
being applied and is extremely effective due to the higher concentration of herbicide
being applied to each individual plant.
HERBICIDE MIXTURES
It involves mixing of two or more herbicides used for effective and economical weed
control.
Advantages of Mixture
1. A mixture will broaden the spectrum of herbicidal action and kill a variety of weeds
2. It may increase the effectiveness;
3. In a mixture one herbicide may prevent rapid degradation of the other and increase its
efficacy
4. A mixture offers the possibility of reducing the dose of each of the herbicide necessary
for weed control leading to low residue
Two types of mixtures
1. Tank mixtures made with the desired herbicides and rates before application eg.,
Anilophos + 2,4-D EE – rice
2. Ready mix – formulated by the manufacturer. Ready mix available in the world market
eg., 2,4-D+Glyphosate, Paraquat+2,4,-D, Atrazine+metolachlor, paraquat+oxyfluorfen.
HERBICIDE ROTATION
The practice of following a systematic, rotational sequence of herbicide used in the same
field to prevent or control formation of herbicide resistant weeds.
In a rotational programme a soil-applied or foliage applied herbicide or both are used in
a sequence to take care of annual as well as perennial weeds. The choice of herbicide
depends on the tolerance of crops to particular herbicides, type of weed spectrum, intensity of
weed infestation, soil and climatic factors etc.,
The best rotational programme will aim at maximum cumulative cost benefit ratio and
least residual problems and least build-up of tolerant weeds.
Advantages
(i) Helps in preventing emergence of tolerant weed species (Herbicide is captured in vacuole
and inactivated excluding the herbicide from site of action).
(ii) Reduces the quantities of herbicide required for optimum weed control over the years.
(iii) Provides most effective weed control for the duration of crop growth.
(iv) Reduces the building up of herbicide residue problems.
(v) It offers high cumulative cost-benefit ratio over the years
Weed survey and mapping may be done every year and if any shift in weed flora,
appropriate changes in herbicide rotation should be made.
HERBICIDE TOLERANCE AND RESISTANCE
Herbicide Resistance: Naturally occurring inheritable ability of some weed biotypes within a
population to survive a herbicide treatment that would, under conditions of use effectively
control the weed population (Rubin, 1991)
• Senecio vulgaris resistance to triazine group of herbicide was noticed during 1970
• Worldwide 183 weeds have developed resistance to herbicides till 1997
• In India the most common example is Philaris minor
• The highest resistance in 61 weed species was recorded for atrazine
• USA alone found to have 49 herbicide resistant weeds, the highest in the world
Tolerance: The term tolerance refers to the partial resistance and presently the usage of the
term is discouraged due to inconsistency in quantifying the degree of tolerance.
Gross Resistance: When a weed biotype exhibits resistant to two or more herbicides due to
the presence of a single herbicide mechanism.
Multiple resistance: It is a situation where resistant plants posses two or more distinct resistant
mechanism to a single herbicide or groups of herbicides.
Basic principles of herbicide resistance
1. Time, dose and method of application of herbicide variation
2. Variation in phenotypes of a population
3. Genetic variation by mutation or activation of pre existing genes
Conditions favourable for development of Herbicide resistance
a. Repeated use of same herbicide or use of herbicide with same mode of action due to the
practices of monoculture
b. Areas where minimum/zero tillage is followed
c. Fields where farmers rely on only herbicides for high degree/level of weed control
including nurseries, orchards
d. Non-crop situations like road sides, railway tracks etc. where herbicides are repeated
used may be at higher doses than cropped situation
Resistance was exhibited in crop is due to
1. Herbicide metabolism by crops making them inactive
2. Absence of certain metabolic process in crops compared to weeds and thus tolerating the
herbicides
3. Crops couples the herbicide molecule
ANTIDOTES
Chemicals which are used to inactivate the applied herbicides are called as antidotes.
Eg. Paraquat spray can be inactivated by spraying 1% ferric chloride
SAFENERS / PROTECTANTS
Substances used for protecting crop plants, which are otherwise susceptible or less
tolerant to some herbicides at doses required for good weed control.
eg., Naphthalic anhydride (NA) – 0.5g / kg of seed for rice to protect against molinate and
alachlor
R – 27788 – soil application protects maize from alachlor and metolachlor

Mode of Action: Safeners enter the target plants and compete there with herbicide molecules
for a binding site on some native enzyme.
ADJUVANTS
Adjuvants are chemicals employed to improve the herbicidal effects, sometimes making
a difference between satisfactory and unsatisfactory weed control.
Mode of Action: Adjuvants aid the herbicide availability at the action site in plants. Some
important kinds of adjuvants are
1. Surfactant ( Surface active agents)
(a) Aid in wetting the waxy leaf surface with aqueous herbicide sprays (wetting agents)
(b) In spreading the hydrophilic herbicides uniformly over the foliage (spreaders)
(c) In the penetration of herbicide into the target leaves and stems (penetrates)
A water drop is held as a ball on a waxy leaf surface. (Take water in a beaker, if you dip
a leaf of Cynodon dactylon and pull it back, you can see the leaf without wetting. But if you add
a drop of surfactant you can readily wet the foliage.). With the addition of surfactant, the water
drop flattens down to wet the leaf surface and let the herbicide act properly.
2. Stabilizing agents
These include
(i) Emulsifiers: A substance which stabilizes (reduces the tendency to separate) a suspension
of droplets of one liquid which otherwise would not mix with the first one. It substitutes for
constant agitation of spray liquids during field operation.
Eg., ABS, Solvaid, 15-5-3, 15-5-9.
(ii) Dispersing agents: They stabilize suspensions. They keep fine parricides of wettable
powder in suspension in water even after initial vigorous agitation has been withdrawn. They
act by increasing the hydration of fine particles of WP laden with the herbicides.
3. Coupling agents (Solvents and co-solvents)
Chemical that is used to solubalize a herbicide in a concentrated form; the resulting
solution is soluble with water in all proportions. Eg., 2,4-D is insoluble in water, but it can be
dissolved in polyethylene glycol to make it water soluble.
Common solvents: Benzene, acetone, petroleum ether, carbon tetrachloride
4. Humicants (Hygroscopic agents)
Humicants prevent rapid drying of herbicide sprays on the foliage, thus providing an
extended opportunity of herbicide absorption Eg. glycerol.
5. Deposit builders (Stickers or filming agents)
Chemicals added to herbicide concentrates to hold the toxicant in intimate contact with
the plant surface. They also reduce washing off of the toxicant from the treated foliage by rain.
Eg., Several petroleum oils, Du pont spreader sticker, Citowett.
6. Compatibility agents
 Used to intimately mix fertilizers and pesticides in spray liquids Eg. Compex
7. Activators (Synergists)
These are the chemicals having cooperative action with herbicides. The resultant
phytotoxicity is more than the effect of the two working independently.
Eg., Paraffinic oils, Ammonium thiocyanate, Urea and Ammonium chloride to enhance 2,4 –D
phytotoxicity
8. Drift control agents
Herbicide spray drifts may pose serious hazards to non-target plants. Eg., 2,4-D on
cotton. Solution is to spray herbicide liquids in large droplets.
Thickening agents eg., (Decagin, Sodium alginate)
MANAGEMIENT OF HERBICIDE RESIDUES IN SOIL
An ideal soil applied herbicide should persist long-enough to give an acceptable period
of weed control but not so long that soil residues after crop harvest limit the nature of
subsequent crops which can be grown. Various management techniques have been developed
which can help to minimise the residue hazards in soil.
A. Use of Optimum dose of herbicide
Hazards from residues of herbicides can be minimised by the application of chemicals at
the lowest dosage by which the desired weed control is achieved. Besides, applying herbicides
in bands rather as broadcast will reduce the total amount of herbicide to be applied. This will be
practicable in line sown crops or crops raised along ridges, such as cotton, sugarcane,
sorghum, maize etc.
B. Application of farm yard manure
Farmyard manure application is an effective method to mitigate the residual toxicity of
herbicides. The herbicide molecules get adsorbed in their colloidal fraction and make them
unavailable for crops and weeds. Besides, FYM enhances the microbial activity, which in turn
degrades the herbicide at a faster rate.
C. Ploughing/cultivating the Land
Ploughing with disc plough or intercultivators reduces the herbicide toxicity, as the
applied herbicide is mixed to a large volume of soil and gets diluted. In case of deep ploughing
the herbicide layer is inverted and buried in deeper layers and thereby the residual toxicity got
reduced
D. Crop rotation
Ragi – Cotton – Sorghum is the common crop rotation under irrigated field conditions of
Coimbatore district. Fluchloralin 0.9 kg or butachlor 0.75 kg/ha + Hand weeding at 35 DAT for
ragi + sunflower (border crop), pendimethalin 1.0 kg/ha + hand weeding on 35 DAS for cotton
intercropped with onion and two manual weeding at 15 and 35 DAS for sorghum inter cropped
with cowpea is the recommended weed control practice. The above weed management
schedule did not show any residual effect in the cropping system because the herbicides are
changed for every crop.
E. Use of non phyto-toxic oil
Atrazine residual hazard could be reduced by mixing non phyto-toxic oil which would
also enhance the weed killing potency
F. Use of activated carbon
Activated carbon has a high adsorptive capacity because of its tremendous surface area
which vary from 600 - 1200 m2/g. Incorporation of 50 kg/ha of activated charcoal inactivated
completely chlorsulfuron applied at 1.25 and 2.50 kg/ha and did not affect the yield of maize
compared to untreated control. Application of charcoal at 5.0 kg/ha along the seed line reduced
the residual toxicity of atrazine in soybean crop.
G. Use of safeners and antidotes
A new development in herbicide usage is the use of safeners and antidotes in order to
protect the crop plant from possible damage by a herbicide. This means that it may be possible
to use certain herbicides on crops that would normally be affected by herbicide. NA (1,8-
naphthalic anhydride) has been used as a seed dressing on rice to protect the crop against
molinate and alachlor. Another herbicide safener cyometrinil is used along with metolachlor in
grain sorghum and other crop species.
H. Leaching the soil
Leaching the herbicide by frequent irrigation is possible especially in case of water
soluble herbicides. In this case, the herbicides are leached down to lower layers i.e. beyond the
reach of the crop roots.
 SELECTIVITY AND MODE OF ACTION OF HERBICIDE
Selective herbicides have been used extensively since the introduction of 2,4-D in the
late '40s. They have been one of the miracles of modem agriculture, releasing thousands of
people from the drudgery of hand weeding. A selective herbicide is one that kills or retards the
growth of an unwanted plant or "weed" while causing little or no injury to desirable species. 2,4-
D used in turf will kill many of the broadleaf weeds that infest turf while not significantly injuring
the turfgrass. But selectivity is a fickle, dynamic process. Excessive rates of 2,4-D applied to
stressed turfgrass may injure the turf. Selectivity has always depended on proper herbicide
application. Normally herbicides work selectively within a given rate of application. Too little
herbicide and no weed control, too much and crop injury may occur. But selectivity is more
complex than this. It is a dynamic process that involves the interaction of the plant, the
herbicide, and the environment.
I. The Plant
Factors that involve plant response include: genetic inheritance, age, growth rate,
morphology, physiology, and biochemistry. The genetic make-up of a plant determines how that
plant responds to herbicides and its environment. The age of the plant often determines how
well an herbicide works, older plants are generally much more difficult to control than seedlings.
Preemergence herbicides often work only on plants during the germination process and
will have little effect on older plants. Plants which are growing rapidly are usually more
susceptible to herbicides. The morphology of a plant can help to determine its susceptibility to
herbicides. Annual weeds in a deep rooted crop can be controlled because the herbicide is
concentrated in the first inch of soil where the weeds and weed seeds are. Weeds with exposed
growing points may be killed by contact sprays, while grasses with protected growing points
may be burned back, but escape permanent injury. Certain leaf properties can allow better
spray retention and thus better kill (broadleaf species vs. grasses or hairy vs. smooth leaves).
Sprays tend to be retained on pigweed and mustard leaves and bounce off of onion or grass
species.
The physiology of a plant can determine how much of an herbicide will be absorbed onto
the plant and the speed with which it is transported to its site of action. Plants with thick waxy
cuticles or hairy leaf surfaces may not absorb sufficient herbicide to be injured. Wetting agents
in herbicide formulations are used to combat these leaf characteristics and increase absorption.
The transport rate of herbicides in plants varies. Usually susceptible plants transport herbicide
more readily than resistant ones. Some plants can adsorb herbicides along the transport
pathway, preventing them from reaching their site of action.
 Biochemical reactions also account for selectivity. Most herbicides have a biochemical
reaction within susceptible plants which accounts for their herbicidal activity. They may bind to
critical enzymes within susceptible plants and block important metabolic processes
(glyphosate), they may block photosynthesis (diuron) or respiration, or they may affect cell
division (trifluralin). Herbicides may be absorbed as relatively innocuous chemicals (2,4-DB) and
activated to deadly compounds (2,4-D) within susceptible plants. Other herbicides (atrazine)
may be detoxified within some plants (com) while killing weeds which fail to metabolize the
herbicide.
II. The Herbicide
Herbicides are quite specific in their structures as to whether or not herbicidal activity is
possible. Slight changes in conformation or structure will alter herbicidal activity. Trifluralin and
benefin differ in only a methyl group moved from one side of the molecule to the other, yet
trifluralin is about twice as active as benefin. Esters of phenoxy (MCPP etc.) acids are usually
much more active than are amines. The manner of formulation of an herbicide can affect its
selectivity. The most extreme case of this might be granular formulations which bounce off
desirable plants to reach the soil where they then limit germinating weeds. Other substances
known as adjuvants or surfactants are often added to improve the application properties of a
liquid formulation and increase activity. The manner in which an herbicide is applied can affect
its selectivity.
When a broad-spectrum postemergence herbicide like glyphosate is applied as a
shielded, directed, or wicked application within a susceptible crop, susceptible foliage is avoided
and selectivity is achieved with this normally non-selective herbicide. Herbicides can be grouped
into families based on the type of action that they have within affected plants (their mode of
action).
III. The Environment
There are many ways that the environment interacts with herbicide selectivity. The soil
determines how much of soil applied herbicides are available for activity. Sandy soils, with low
organic content, are much more active and conversely less selective than clay soils with high
organic content at a given rate of herbicide application.
Irrigation or rainfall amount and timing influence the depth to which herbicides may move
in the soil and plant growth and stress, all of which can increase or decrease herbicide
selectivity. Temperature affects the rate of herbicide transport, the rate of biochemical reactions,
plant growth, plant stress, and ultimately herbicide selectivity. Wind, relative humidity, insects,
plant p athogens, and nutritional status also affect plant growth and stress which can increase
or decrease herbicide selectivity.
MODE OF ACTION
The term mode of action refers to the sequence of events from absorption into plants to
plant death. The mode of action of the herbicide influences how the herbicide is applied. For
example, contact herbicides that disrupt cell membranes, such as acifluorfen (Blazer) or
paraquat (Gramoxone Extra), need to be applied postemergence to leaf tissue in order to be
effective. Seedling growth inhibitors, such as trifluralin (Treflan) and alachlor (Lasso), need to be
applied to the soil to effectively control newly germinated seedlings.
To be effective, herbicides must 1) adequately contact plants; 2) be absorbed by plants;
3) move within the plants to the site of action, without being deactivated; and 4) reach toxic
levels at the site of action. The application method used, whether preplant incorporated,
preemergence, or postemergence, determines whether the herbicide will contact germinating
seedlings, roots, shoots, or leaves of plants.
The herbicide families listed below are grouped on the basis of how they affect plants
(THEIR MODE OF ACTION)
1. The Growth Regulator Herbicides (2,4-D, MCPP, dicamba, and triclopyr). These are mostly
foliar applied herbicides which are systemic and translocate in both the xylem and phloem of the
plant. They mimic natural plant auxins, causing abnormal growth and disruption of the
conductive tissues of the plant. The injury from this family of herbicides consists of twisted,
malformed leaves and stems.
2. The inhibitors of amino acid synthesis (glyphosate, halosulfuron, imazethapyr, and
sulfometuron). Both foliar and soil applied herbicides are in this family. Glyphosate translocates
in the phloem with photosynthate produced in the leaves. Others in this family move readily after
root or foliar absorption. These herbicides inhibit certain enzymes critical to the production of
amino acids. Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. Once protein production stops,
growth stops. Symptoms are stunting and symptoms associated with lack of critical proteins.
3. Cell membrane disrupters - with soil activity (oxyfluorfen, lactofen, and acifluorfen). Soil and
foliar applied with limited movement in soil. These herbicides enter the plant through leaves,
stems, and roots, but are limited in their movement once they enter the plant. Membrane
damage is due to lipid peroxidation. Symptoms are necrosis of leaves and stem.
4. Lipid biosynthesis inhibitors (diclofop, fluazifop, sethoxydim, and clethodim). Foliar applied
Diclofop has both soil and foliar activity. Herbicides in this family move in both the xylem and
phloem of the plant and inhibit enzymes critical in the production of lipids. Lipids are necessary
to form plant membranes which are essential to growth and metabolic processes. Symptoms
include stunting and death of tissue within the growing points of plants.
5. Pigment inhibitors (norflurazon, fluridone, and amitrol). Soil applied and move in the xylem
except amitrol, which moves in both phloem and xylem. These herbicides inhibit carotinoid
biosyntehsis, leaving chlorophyll unprotected from photooxidation. This results in foliage which
lacks color. Symptoms include albino or bleached appearance of foliage.
6. Growth inhibitors of shoots (thiocarbamate herbicides including: EPTC, cycloate, pebulate,
and molinate). Soil applied and somewhat volatile, requiring incorporation. Enter the plant
through the roots and translocated through the xylem with the transpiration stream to the
growing points in the shoot. Mode of action is unclear, but affects developing leaves in growing
points of susceptible plants. Symptoms include stunting and distortion of seedling leaves.
7. Herbicides which disrupt cell division (trifluralin, DCPA, dithiopyr, oryzalin, pronamide,
pendimethalin, and napropamide). All are soil applied, with limited movement in the soil.
Absorbed through roots or emerging shoot tips. Once absorption takes place, movement is
limited (site of action is near the site of absorption). These herbicides inhibit cell division or
mitosis, except pronamide and napropamide which stop cell division before mitosis. Symptoms
include stunting and swollen root tips.
8. Cell membrane disrupters - no soil activity (paraquat, diquat, glufosinate, acids, oils,
soaps). These herbicides are foliar applied with no soil activity. They enter the plant through the
leaves and stems and do not move significantly within the plant once absorbed. These
herbicides either act directly on cell membranes (acids, soaps. oils) or react with a plant process
to form destructive compounds which result in membrane damage. Symptoms include rapid
necrosis of the leaves and stem.
9. Inhibitors of photosynthesis (atrazine, simazine, metribuzin, cyanazine, prometryn, diuron,
linuron, tebuthiuron, and bromacil). These are soil applied herbicides, however, all except
simazine also have foliar activity. They move readily in the plant in the xylem with the
transpiration stream where they concentrate in the leaves at the site of photosynthesis. Once
there they block the electron transport system of photosynthesis, causing a build up of
destructive high energy products which destroy chlorophyll and ultimately the leaf tissues.
Symptoms include chlorotic (yellowed ) leaves which become necrotic.
Herbicide Resistance
Herbicide resistance probably develops through the selection of naturally occurring
biotypes of weeds exposed to a particular family of herbicides over a period of years. A biotype
is a population of plants within the same species that has specific traits in common. Resistant
plants survive, go to seed, and create new generations of herbicide resistant weeds.
Mechanisms for resistance vary depending on herbicide family. Resistant biotypes may
have slight biochemical differences from their susceptible counterparts that eliminates sensitivity
to certain herbicides. Also, while photosynthesis is inhibited in triazine herbicide susceptible
biotypes, because of a slight change in a chloroplast protein, triazine resistant biotypes are able
to continue normal photosynthesis upon exposure to triazine herbicides. The potential for
developing herbicide resistant biotypes is greatest when an herbicide has a single site of action.
Regardless of the mechanism for resistance, becoming familiar with the herbicide mode
of action can help design programs that prevent the introduction and spread of herbicide
resistant weeds. Management programs for herbicide resistance should emphasize an
integrated approach that stresses prevention. Dependence on a single strategy or herbicide
family for managing weeds will surely increase the likelihood of additional herbicide resistance
problems in the future. Some guidelines for an integrated approach to managing herbicide
resistant weeds are given below.
Strategies for preventing or managing herbicide resistance
• Practice crop rotation.
• Rotate herbicide families and use herbicides with different modes of action.
• Use herbicide mixtures with different modes of action.
• Control weedy escapes and practice good sanitation to prevent the spread of resistant
weeds.
• Integrate cultural, mechanical, and chemical weed control methods.
Effect of sub lethal dosage
When herbicides are applied on the soil, neighbouring fields may be affected by drift.
The high doses of herbicides applied to previous crop may be harmful to the succeeding crop.
However, these sub lethal doses may be occassionally helpful based on crop and the herbicide
used.
Herbicides show stimulatory effects on crops and toxic effects on sensitive crops even at
sub lethal doses. Which show stimulatory effects are phenoxys, triazines, ureas and uracils. In
fact, 2, 4-D was first used for its hormonal effect before its herbicidal properties were
discovered.
Phenoxy herbicides have grtowth promoting activities at lower doses similar to
indolacetic acid (IAA). They are active at the meristamatic tissues causing increased metabolic
activities and cosequently higher grain protein content and yield. Protein content of wheat is
increased by dusting 5g/ha of 2,4-D mixed with micronutrients like iron and copper. Even higher
dose, say 0.5 to 1.3 kg/ha applied to the soil as herbicide before sowing increases the protein
content of wheat. The other crops which show stimulatory effect due to herbicide application are
beans, potato, sugarcane, soybean etc.
Among triazines, simazine and atrazine produce favourable effects at sub lethal doses.
They increase nutrient absorption, chlorophyll and protein content. Simazine at 0.06 ppm
increased nutrient uptake and yield of maize, but at 0.3 ppm concentration the yield decreased.
The sub lethal effects caused by drifts are rarely toxic except to sensitive crops. Spray drift of
2,4 D causes epinasty on cotton plants.
Amitrole at 10 to 100 ppm sprayed on tobacco or wheat causes chlorosis due to
chloroplast malformation and reduction in chlorophyll and carotenoids. Soil residues of
herbicides appilied to the previous crops may affect germination of sensitive crops.
 COMPATIBILITY OF HERBICIDES WITH OTHER AGRO CHEMICALS
Simultaneous or sequential application of herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, antidotes,
fertilizers etc., is followed in a single cropping season. These chemicals may undergo a change
in physical and chemical characters, which could lead to enhancement or reduction in the
efficacy of one or more compounds. The interaction effects were seen much later in the
growing season or in the next season due to build up of persistent chemicals or their residues in
the soil. Knowledge on the interactions of various chemicals can be helpful in the formulation
and adoption of a sound and effective plant protection programme. It can also help to exploit
the synergistic and antagonistic interactions between various pesticides for an effective
eradication of weed and other pest problems.
When two or more chemicals accumulate in the plant, they may interact and bring out
responses. These responses are classified as additive, synergistic, antagonistic, independent
and enhancement effects.
i) Additive effect: It is the total effect of a combination, which is equal to the sum of the effects
of the components taken independently.
ii) Synergistic effect: The total effect of a combination is greater or more prolonged than the
sum of the effects of the two taken independently. Eg. The mixture of 2,4-D and chlorpropham is
synergistic on monocot species generally resistant to 2,4-D. Similarly, low rates of 2,4-D and
picloram have synergistic response on Convolvulus arvensis. Atrazine and alachlor
combination, which shows synergism is widely used for an effective control in corn.
iii) Antagonistic effect: The total effect of a combination is smaller than the effect of the most
active component applied alone. Eg. Combination of EPTC with 2,4-D, 2,4,5-T or dicamba have
antagonistic responses in sorghum and giant foxtail. Similarly, chlorpropham and 2,4-D have
antagonism. When simazine or atrazine is added to glyphosate solution and sprayed the
glyphosate activity is reduced. This is due to the physical binding within the spray solution
rather than from biological interactions within the plant.
iv) Independent effect: The total effect of a combination is equal to the effect of the most active
component applied alone.
v) Enhancement effect: The effect of a herbicide and non-toxic adjuvant applied in
combination on a plant is said to have an enhancement effect if the response is greater than
that obtained when the herbicide is used at the same rates without the adjuvant. Eg. Mixing
Ammonium sulphate with glyphosate.
Herbicide-moisture interaction
Soil applied herbicides fail when there is a dry spell of 10-15 days after their application.
Pre-emergence herbicides may be lost by photo-decomposition, volatilization and wind blowing
while some amount of water is desirable to activate the soil applied herbicides, excess of it may
leach the herbicide to the crop seed and root zone. This may injure the crops and on other side,
results in poor weed control. Heavy showers may wash down herbicides from the foliage.
Continuous wet weather may induce herbicide injury in certain crops by turning them
highly succulent. Eg. Maize plants are normally tolerant to Atrazine but they become susceptible
in wet weather, particularly when air temperature is low. Extra succulence has been found to
increase atrazine absorption and low temperature decreases its metabolism inside the plants.
Quality of water used may also determine herbicide action. Dusty water reduces action of
paraquat. Calcium chloride rich water reduces glyphoste phytotoxicity.
Herbicide-insecticide interaction
These chemicals are usually not harmful at recommended rates. The tolerance of plants
to a herbicide may be altered in the presence of an insecticide and vice versa. The phyto-
toxicity of monuron and diuron on cotton and oats is increased when applied with phorate.
Phorate interacts antagonistically with trifluralin to increase cotton yield, by stimulating
secondary roots in the zone of pesticide incorporation.
Propanil interacts with certain carbamate and phosphate insecticides used as seed
treatments on rice. But chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides as seed treatment have not
interacted with propanil. When propanil is applied at intervals between 7 and 56 days after
carbofuron treatment, it results in greater injury to rice vegetatively.
Herbicide-pathogens / fungicides interaction
Herbicides interact with fungicides also. Dinoseb reduces the severity of stem rot in
groundnut. In sterilized soil, chloroxuron is not causing any apparent injury to pea plants, while
in the presence of Rhizoctonia solani in unsterilized soil it causes injury. Oxadiazon reduces the
incidence of stem rot caused by the soil borne pathogen Sclerotium rolfsii L. in groundnut.
Diuron and triazine which inhibit photosynthesis may make the plants more susceptible to
tobacco mosaic virus. On the other hand, diuron may decrease the incidence of root rot in
wheat.
Herbicide-fertilizer interaction
Herbicides have been found to interact with fertilizers in fields. E.g., fast growing weeds
that are getting ample nitrogen show great susceptibility to 2,4-D, glyphosate than slow growing
weeds on poor fertility lands. The activity of glyphosate is increased when ammonium sulphate
is tank mixed. Nitrogen invigorate (put life and energy in to) the meristamatic activity in crops so
much that they susceptible to herbicides. High rates of atrazine are more toxic to maize and
sorghum when appled with high rates of phosphorus.
Herbicide-microbes interaction
Microorganisms play a major role in the persistence behaviour of herbicides in the soil.
The soil microorganisms have the capacity to detoxify and inactivate the herbicides present in
the soil. Some groups of herbicides more easily degrade through microbes than others. The
difference lies in the molecular configuration of the herbicide. The microorganisms involved in
herbicide degradation include bacteria, fungi, algae, moulds etc. Of these, bacteria
predominates and include the members of the genera Agrobacterium, Arthrobacter,
Achromobacterium. Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Streptomyces, Flavobacterium, Rhizobium etc.
The fungi include those of the genera Fusarium, Penicillium etc.
 WEED MANAGEMENT IN MAJOR FIELD CROPS
RICE
Nursery
Apply any one of the Pre-emergence herbicides viz., Butachlor 2 l/ha, Thiobencarb 2/ha,
Pendimethalin 2.5 l/ha, Anilofos 1.25 l/ha on 8th day after sowing to control weeds in the lowland
nursery. Keep a thin film of water and allow it to disappear. Avoid drainage of water. This will
control germinating weeds.
Transplanted
Pre-emergence
a) Use Butachlor 2.5 l/ha or Thiobencarb 2.5 l/ha or Fluchoralin 2 l/ha or Pendimethalin 3 l/ha
or Anilofos 1.25 l/ha as pre-emergence application. Alternatively, pre-emergence application
of herbicide mixture viz., Butachlor 1.2 l + 2,4-DEE 1.5 l/ha or Thiobencarb 1.2 l + 2,4-DEE
1.5 l/ha or Fluchoralin 1.0 l + 2,4-DEE 1.5 l/ha or Pendimethalin 1.5 l + 2,4-DEE 1.5 l/ha or
Anilofos + 2,4-DEE ready mix at 1.25 l/ha followed by one hand weeding on 30-35 days
after transplanting will have a broad spectrum of weed control in transplanted rice.
b) Any herbicide has to be mixed with 50 kg of sand on the day of application (3-4 days after
transplanting) and applied uniformly to the field in 2.5 cm depth of water. Water should not
be drained for 2 days from the field or fresh irrigation should not be given.
c) Wherever there is possibility of heavy weed infestation, herbicides can also be applied with
neem coated urea which could serve as carrier, three to four days after transplanting instead
basal application of N at last puddling.
Post-emergence
If pre-emergence herbicides are not used, hand weed on 15th day after transplanting.
2,4-D sodium salt (Fernoxone 80% WP) 1250 g dissolved in 625 l/ha of water is sprayed with a
high volume sprayer, three weeks after transplanting or when the weeds are in 3-4 leaf stage.
Late hand weeding
Hand weed a second time, 80-85 days after transplanting, if necessary.
Wet seeded rice
In wet seeded rice apply Thiobencarb at 2.5 l/ha or Pretilachlor 0.9 l/ha on
4DAS/6DAS/8DAS followed by one hand weeding for effecrtive control of weeds OR Pre-
emergence application of Pretilachlor + safener at 0.6 l/ha on 4DAS followed by one hand
weeding on 40 DAS effectively control weeds.
Rainfed rice
1. First weeding should be done between 15th and 20th day and second weeding may be done
45 days after first weeding. or
2. Use Thiobencarb 2.5 l/ha or Pendimethalin 3 l/ha 8 days after sowing if adequate moisture
is available, followed by one hand weeding on 30 to 35 days after sowing.
Direct seeded rice
Thiobencarb/Butachlor at 2.5 l/ha as pre-emergence application one day after wetting /
soaking can be applied and it should be followed by hand weeding on 30th day. Sufficient soil
moisture should be available for herbicidal use
Semi dry rice
Use Thiobencarb 3 l/ha or Pendimethalin 4 l/ha on 8th day after sowing as sand mix if
adequate moisture is available, followed by one hand weeding on 30-35 days after sowing.
Or
Pre-emergence application of pretilachlor 0.6 l/ha followed by post emergence application of
2,4-D Na salt 1.25 kg/ha + one hand weeding on 45DAS.

SORGHUM
1. Apply the pre-emergence herbicide Atrazine 50% WP 500 g/ha on 3 days after sowing as
spray on the soil surface, using Backpack/knapsack/Rocker sprayer fitted with a flat fan
nozzle using 900 lit of water/ha
2. Sorghum is slow growing in early stages and is adversely affected by weed competition.
Therefore keep the field free of weeds upto 45days. For this, after pre-emergence herbicide
application, one hand weeding on 30-35 days after sowing may be given.
3. If pulse crop is to be raised as an intercrop in sorghum do not use Atrazine.
4. Hoe and hand weed on the 10th day of transplanting if herbicides are not used. Hoe and
weed between 30-35 days after transplanting and between 35-40 days for direct sown crop,
if necessary.
Ratoon sorghum
1. Remove the weeds immediately after harvest of the main crop
2. Hoe and weed twice on 15th and 30th day after cutting
Rainfed sorghum
Keep sorghum field free of weeds from second week after germination till 5th week. If
sufficient moisture is available spray Atrazine @ 500 g/ha as pre-emergence application within
3 days after the soaking rainfall for sole sorghum while for sorghum based inter-cropping
system with pulses, use Pendimethalin 3 l/ha.
 CUMBU
Transplanted crop
Spray Atrazine 50 WP 500 g/ha on 3rd day of sowing. Then, one hand weeding on 30-35
days after transplanting may be given. If herbicide is not used, hand weed on 15th day and again
between 30-35 days after transplanting.
Direct sown crop
1. Apply the pre-emergence herbicide Atrazine at 500 g/ha, 3 days after sowing as spray on
the soil surface using Back-pack/Knapsack/Rocker sprayer fitted with flat type nozzle using
900 lit of water/ha.
2. Apply herbicide when there is sufficient moisture in the soil.
3. Hand weed on 30-35 days after sowing if pre-emergence herbicide is applied.
4. If pre-emergence herbicide is not applied hand weed twice on 15 and 30 days after sowing.

RAGI
1. Apply Butachlor 2.5 l/ha or Fluchloralin 2 l/ha or Pendimethalin 2.5 l/ha, using Back-
pack/Knapsack/Rocker sprayer fitted with flat fan type of nozzle with 900 lit of water/ha.
2. Apply herbicide when there is sufficient moisture in the soil or irrigate immediately after the
application of herbicide.
3. If pre-emergence herbicide is not applied hand weed twice on 10th and 20th day after
transplanting.
4. For rainfed direct seeded crop, apply post emergence herbicide; 2,4-DEE or 2,4-D Na salt at
0.5kg/ha on 10th day after sowing depending on the moisture availability.

MAIZE
1. Apply the pre-emergence herbicide Atrazine 50 at 500 g/ha (900 lit of water), 3 days after
sowing as spray on the soil surface using Back-pack/Knapsack/Rocker sprayer fitted with
flat fan or deflector type nozzle followed by one hand weeding 40-45 days after sowing. For
maize + Soybean intercropping system, apply pre-emergence Alachlor at 4.0 l/ha or
Pendimethalin 3.3 l/ha on 3rd after sowing as spray.
2. Apply herbicide when there is sufficient moisture in the soil
3. Do not disturb the soil after the herbicide application
4. Hoe and Hand weed on 17th or 18th day of sowing if herbicide is not applied.
Note: If pulse crop is to be raised as intercrop, do not use Atrazine.
 WHEAT
1. Spray Isoproturon 800 g/ha as pre-emergence spraying 3 days after sowing followed by on
hand weeding on 35th day after sowing.
2. If herbicide is not applied, give two hand weeding on 20th and 35th day after sowing.

REDGRAM, BLACKGRAM, GREENGRAM, COWPEA, BENGALGRAM

1. Spray Fluchloralin 1.5 l/ha or Pendimethalin 2 l/ha 3 days after sowing mixed with 900 l of
water using Back-pack/Knapsack/Rocker sprayer fitted with flat fan type nozzle. Then
irrigate the field. Following this one hand weeding may be given 30-35 days after sowing.
2. If herbicide is not given, give two hand weeding on 15 and 35 days after sowing.

SOYBEAN
1. Fluchloralin may be applied to the irrigated crop at 2.0 l/ha or Pendimethalin 3.3 l/ha after
sowing followed by one hand weeding 30 days after sowing.
2. If herbicide is not used, give two hand weeding on 20 and 35 days after sowing.
3. Pre-emergence application of Fluchloralin at 2.0 l/ha or Alachlor 4.0 l/ha may be used in
soybean wherever labour availability for timely weeding is restricted.

SOYBEAN - RAINFED
1. If sufficient moisture is available, spray Fluchloralin at 2.0 l/ha as pre-emergence within 3
days after sowing.
2. If herbicide is not given, give two hand weeding on 20 and 35 days after sowing.

GROUNDNUT
1. Pre-sowing: Fluchloralin at 2.0 l/ha may be applied and incorporated.
2. Pre-emergence: Fluchloralin 2.0 l/ha applied through flat fan nozzle with 900 lit of water/ha
followed by irrigation. After 35-40 days one hand weeding may be given.
3. Pre-emergence application of metolachlor (2.0 l/ha) plus one hand weeding on 30 days after
sowing is more profitable.
4. In case no herbicide is applied two hand hoeing and weeding are given 20th and 40th day
after sowing.
 GINGELLY
Weed and hoe on the 15th and 35th day of sowing. Apply Alachlor at 2.5 l/ha on 3 days
after sowing and irrigate the crop immediately.

SUNFLOWER
1. Apply Fluchloralin at 2.0 l/ha before sowing and incorporate or apply as pre-emergence
spray on 3 days after sowing followed by irrigation or apply Pendimethalin (3.0 l/ha) as pre-
emergence spray on 3 days after sowing. The spray of these herbicides has to be
accomplished with Back-pack/Knapsack/Rocker sprayer fitted with flat fan nozzle using 900
lit of water/ha as spray fluid. All the herbicide application is to be followed by one late hand
weeding 30-35 days after sowing
2. Hoe and hand weed on the 15th and 30th day of sowing and remove the weeds. Allow the
weeds to dry for 2-3 days in the case of irrigated crop and then give irrigation
COTTON
1. Apply pre-emergence herbicides Fluchloralin 2.2 l/ha or Pendimethalin 3.3 l/ha three days
after sowing, using a hand operated sprayer fitted with deflecting or fan type nozzle.
Sufficient moisture should be present in the soil at the time of herbicide application or
irrigate immediately after application. Then hand weed on 35-40 days after sowing.
Note : Do not use Diuron (Karmex) in sandy soil. Heavy rains after application of Karmex may
adversely affect germination of cotton seeds.
2. Hoe and hand weed between 18th to 20th day of sowing, if herbicide is not applied at the time
of sowing followed by second hand weeding on 35 to 45 DAS.
RICE FALLOW COTTON
1. Pre-emergence application of Fluchloralin 2.2 l/ha or Pendimethalin 3.3 l/ha ensures weed
free condition for 40-45 days. This should be followed by one hand weeding and earthing up
during 40-45 days. Fluchloralin need incorporation.
2. Take up hoeing and weeding 20 days after sowing.
3. Take up this operation when the top soil dries up comes to proper condition.
RAINFED COTTON
1. Application of Fluchloralin 2.0 l/ha or Pendimethalin 3.3 l/ha or Thiobencarb 3.0 l/ha followed
by hand weeding 40 days after crop emergence. At the time of herbicide application
sufficient soil moisture must be there. Fluchloralin needs soil incorporation.
2. If sufficient soil moisture is not available for applying herbicides hand weeding may be given
at 15-20 days after crop emergence.
 SUGARCANE - Pure crop
1. Spray Atrazine 2 kg or Oxyfluurofen 750 ml/ha mixed in 900 lit of water as pre-emergence
herbicide on 3rd day of planting, using deflector or fan type nozzle.
2. If pre-emergence spray is not carried out, go for post-emergence spray of gramaxone 2.5lit
+ 2,4-d sodium salt 2.5 kg/ha in 900 lit of water on 21st day of planting or apply 10%
Ammonium sulphate on 45th, 75th and 105th day after planting as directed spray.
3. If the parasitic weed Striga is a problem, Post-emergence application of 2,4-D sodium salt
1.75 kg/ha in 650 lit of water/ha has to be sprayed. 2,4-D spraying should be avoided when
neighbouring crop is cotton or bhendi or apply 20% urea for the control of Striga as directed
spray.
4. If herbicide is not applied work the Junior-hoe along the ridges 25, 55, and 85 days after
planting for removal of weeds and proper stirring. Remove the weeds along the furrows with
hand hoe.

SUGARCANE - INTERCROP
Pre-emergence application of Thiobencarb 2.5 l/ha under cropping system in sugarcane
with soybean, black gram or ground nut gives effective weed control. Raising intercrops is not
found to affect the cane yield and quality.
TOBACCO
First hand weeding taken up three weeks after planting. A spade digging is followed on
45 DAT which makes the ridges flat and then reformed one week later to have good weed
control.
Control of Orobanche
Remove as and when the shoot appears above the ground level before flowering and
seed set. The removed shoots are to be buried or burnt. Trap cropping of greengram or gingelly
or sorghum reduces the infestation.
Chemical weed control of Orobanche
Pre-emergence application of Fluchloralin at 1.0 lit/ha or Oxyfluorfen at 0.5 lit/ha one
week prior to planting controls most of the weeds.
 WEED MANAGEMENT IN HORTICULTURAL CROPS

Traditional vegetable-growing areas are usually situated adjacent to waterways, flood

plains, river deltas, marsh zones, and, if herbicides are used, their environmental impact and
usage conditions must be taken into account. Another aspect related to the complexity of
herbicide use is its soil persistence that can seriously affect the next crops in the rotation as a
result of soil residues or carryover. Vegetable rotations are very fast and intensive in many
places, and herbicide toxicity can affect the next crop if the cycle of the previous crop is short
enough.
We have to consider all these aspects, as well as consumer concerns on the probable
presence of pesticide residues in fruit, leaves and roots of these crops and the strict limitations
for marketing and export that can invalidate the hard labour and endurance of many workers.
Therefore, a careful use of herbicide is compulsory, and good field practices must be followed,
especially when recognition of a labelled production is desired. There is a great interest in the
integration of tilling practices with chemical control because of the reduction of the herbicide
impact and the cost of hand-labour.
SEED BEDS
Many vegetables are grown in seed beds to develop suitable seedlings for transplanting
in the field. Soils dedicated to seed beds are usually light, with good tilth, and fertilized to obtain
a good plant emergence. Seed beds are usually flood-irrigated and plastic-protected. Here we
add some possibilities for weed management.
STALE SEED BEDS
Stale (‘false’) seed beds are sometimes used for vegetables when other selective weed-
control practices are limited or unavailable. Basically, this technique consists of the following:
1. Preparation of a seedbed 2-3 weeks before planting to achieve maximum weed-seed
germination near the soil surface.
2. Planting the crop with minimum soil disturbance to avoid exposing new weed seed to
favourable germination conditions.
3. Treating the field with a non-residual herbicide to kill all germinated weeds just before or after
planting, but before crop emergence.
SOLARIZATION
Soil solarization is a broad-spectrum control method, simple, economically feasible and
environmentally friendly. It is an effective method for the control of many weeds. It does not
affect soil properties and usually produces higher yields (Campiglia et al. 2000). There are also
some disadvantages in its implementation. For example, previous irrigation is a requirement, (or
frequent and abundant rain) and the soil must be kept solarized (non-producing) for a period of
at least one month. Results are often variable, depending on weather conditions. Cold (high
latitude) or cloudy places are usually not suitable for implementing solarization. Some species
can tolerate solarization (e.g. deep rooted perennials: Sorghum halepense, Cyperus rotundus,
Equisetum spp. and also some big weed seeds such as legumes).
The soil must be clean, surface-levelled and wet, previously to being covered with a thin
(0,1-0,2 mm) transparent plastic sheet and very well sealed. The soil must be kept covered
during the warmer and sunnier months (30-45 days). Soil temperatures must reach above 40° C
to exert a good effect on weed seeds.
After solarization the plastic must be recovered, and the use of deep or mouldboard
tillage must be avoided. This system is more suitable for small areas of vegetables, but it has
been mechanized for extensive areas of tomatoes. Soil solarization is widely used under plastic
greenhouse conditions.
CHEMICAL CONTROL IN SEED BEDS
There are even less registered herbicides for seed beds than for planting crops.
Herbicide treatments under plastic cover are always hazardous and careful application should
be carried out. Under plastic, high levels of moisture and elevated temperature are common and
plants grow very gently. Selectivity could be easily lost and phytotoxicity symptoms may occur,
while sometimes they are just temporary. The effects are often erratic. The best way to deal with
it is to be prudent and make some trials before a general treatment.
Selective pre-emergence and early post-emergence herbicides for vegetable seedbeds
a) Pre-emergence
Herbicide Dose (kg a.i./ ha) Crop
Clomazone 0.18 - 0.27 Pepper, cucumber
DCPA 6.0 - 7.5 Onion, cole crops, lettuce
Metribuzin 0.15 - 0.5 Tomato
Napropamide 1.0 - 2.0 Tomato, pepper, eggplant
Pendimethalin 1.0 - 1.6 1.0 - 2.5 Onion, garlic Lettuce
Propachlor 5.2 - 6.5 Onion, cole crops
b) Post-emergence (crops with at least 3 leaves)
Clomazone 0.27 -0.36 Pepper
Ioxinil 0.36 Onion, garlic, leek
 Linuron 0.5 - 1.0 Asparagus, carrots
Metribuzin 0.075 - 0.150 Tomato
Oxifluorfen 0.18 - 0.24 Onion, garlic
Rimsulfuron 0.0075 -0.015 Tomato

DIRECT-SEEDED AND TRANSPLANTED CROPS

WEED IDENTIFICATION
Dicotyledons (most broad-leaf weeds) and monocotyledons (e.g. grasses) are the two
main plant types. Weed grouping has a significant impact on the potential for management. The
more closely related a weed is to the host crop, the harder it will be to manage.
Weed and crop family groupings (monocotyledons - 'M')

Family Weed examples Related crops

Apiaceae slender celery (Ciclospermum leptophyllum) celery, carrot, parsley
Australian carrot (Daucus glochidiatus)
Amaranthaceae amaranths (Amaranthus spp.) Chinese amaranthus
Asteraceae billygoat weed (Ageratum spp.) lettuce, artichokes
sowthistle (Sonchus oleraceus)
cobbler's pegs (Bidens pilosa)
fleabanes (Conyza spp.)
parthenium (Parthenium hysterophorus)
potato weed (Galinsoga parviflora)
Brassicaceae wild turnip (Brassica tournefortii) cabbage, cauliflower,
wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum) broccoli, brussels
turnip weed (Rapistrum rugosum) sprouts, Chinese
shepherd's purse (Capsella bursa-pastoris) cabbage
peppercress (Lepidium spp.)
lesser swinecress (Coronopus didymus)
Chenopodiaceae fat hen (Chenopodium spp.) beetroot
Convulvulaceae bell vine (Ipomoea plebia) sweetpotato
bindweed (Convolvulus erubescens)
Euphorbiaceae caster oil plant (Riccinus communis) cassava
caustic creeper (Euphorbia drummondii)
 Fabaceae rattlepod (Crotalaria spp.) peas, beans
vetch (Vicia monantha)
medics (Medicago spp.)
Liliaceae (M) onion weed (Nothoscordum gracile) onion, garlic
Malvaceae small-flowered mallow (Malva parviflora) okra, rosella, cotton
sida (Sida spp.)
bladder ketmia (Hibiscus trionum)
anoda weed (Anoda cristata)
Solanaceae apple of Peru (Nicandra physalodes) tomato, potato,
nightshades (Solanum spp.) capsicum, eggplant
thornapples (Datura spp.)

CROP ROTATION
Crop rotation is the programmed succession of different crops during a period of time in
the same plot or field. It is a key control method to reduce weed infestation in vegetables. Crop
rotation was considered for a long time to be a basic practice for obtaining healthy crops and
good yields. At present, however, crop rotation is gaining interest and is of value in the context
of integrated crop management. Classically, crop rotations are applied as follows:
 Alternating crops with a different type of vegetation: leaf crops (lettuce, spinach, cole), root
crops (carrots, potatoes, radish), bulb crops (leeks, onion, garlic), fruit crops (squash,
pepper, melon).
 Alternating grass and dicots, such as maize and vegetables.
 Alternating different crop cycles: winter cereals and summer vegetables.
 Avoiding succeeding crops of the same family: Apiaceae (celery, carrots), Solanaceae
(potato, tomato).
 Alternating poor- (carrot, onion) and high-weed competitors (maize, potato).
 Avoiding problematic weeds in specific crops (e.g. Malvaceae in celery or carrots, parasitic
and perennials in general).
Examples of crop rotations are as follow (Zaragoza et al. 1994):
In temperate regions: Pepper - onion - winter cereal
Melon - beans - spinach - tomato
Tomato - cereal - fallow
Lettuce - tomato - cauliflower
 Potato - beans - cole - tomato- carrots
Melon - artichoke (x 2) - beans - red beet - wheat - cole
In tropical regions: Tomato - okra - green bean
Sweet potato - maize - mung bean
Introducing a fallow in the rotation is essential for the control difficult weeds (e.g. perennials),
cleaning the field with appropriate tillage or using a broad-spectrum herbicide. It is also
important to avoid the emission of weed seeds or other propagules.
Mixed cropping
Growing two or more crops at the same time and adjacent to one another is called mixed
cropping, or intercropping. The advantages are a better use of space, light and other resources,
a physical protection, a favourable thermal balance, better plant defence against some pests
and fewer weed problems because the soil is better covered. Sometimes the results are less
productive than cultivating just one crop alone. Some examples are:
In temperate regions
• lettuce + carrots;
• cole crops + leeks, onion, celery, tomato;
• maize + beans, soya.
In tropical regions
This technique is very well adapted to the traditional agricultural system:
• maize + beans + squash,
• tomato + pigeon pea,
• sugar cane + onion, tomato.
PREVENTIVE MEASURES
It is necessary to avoid the invasion of new species through the use of clean planting
material and to prevent seed dispersal on the irrigation water, implements and machines. A
written record of the weed situation in the fields is very useful. Another aspect is to impede
perennial weed dispersal (or parasitic weeds) through the opportune use of treatments and
tillage and the use of drainage tillage to prevent propagation of some species that need high
moisture levels. (Phragmites spp., Equisetum spp., Juncus spp.) It is also necessary to scout
the field edges to prevent invasions.
LAND PREPARATION AND TILLAGE
Suitable land preparation depends on a good knowledge of the weed species prevalent
in the field. When annual weeds are predominant (Crucifers, Solanum, grass weeds) the
objectives are unearthing and fragmentation. This must be achieved through shallow cultivation.
If weeds have no dormant seeds (Bromus spp.), deep ploughing to bury the seeds will be
advisable. If the seeds produced are dormant, this is not a good practice, because they will be
viable again when they return to the soil surface after further cultivation.
When perennial weeds are present, adequate tools will depend on the types of rooting.
Pivot roots (Rumex spp.) or bourgeon roots (Cirsium spp.) require fragmentation and this can be
achieved by using a rotovator or cultivator. Fragile rhizomes (Sorghum halepense) require
dragging and exposure at the soil surface for their depletion, but flexible rhizomes (Cynodon
dactylon) require dragging and removal from the field. This can be done with a cultivator or
harrow.
Tubers (Cyperus rotundus) or bulbs (Oxalis spp.) require cutting when rhizomes are
present and need to be dug up for exposure to adverse conditions (frost or drought). This can
done with mouldboard or disk ploughing. Chisel ploughing is useful for draining wet fields and
reducing the infestation of deep-rooted hygrophilous perennials (Phragmites, Equisetum,
Juncus).
MULCHING MATERIAL
The use of plastic mulching is very popular in many vegetable-growing areas. A non-
transparent plastic is used to impede the transmission of photosynthetic radiation through the
plastic to the weeds so that the development of weeds is then arrested.
CHEMICAL WEED CONTROL
The best approach to minimize inputs and to avoid any environmental problems is to
apply herbicides in the crop row to a width of 10-30 cm. Many herbicides are effective in the
control of perennial weeds. Sometimes a combination of two herbicides having a different weed-
control spectrum may be used. Mixtures of different herbicide are possible to achieve better
efficacy, but previous trials are necessary. Their foliar activity is enhanced by adding a non-ionic
surfactant or adjuvant. The use of any herbicide in vegetables requires previous tests to verify
its effectiveness in local conditions and selectivity to available crop cultivars.
In general pendimethalin 3.3 l/ha or Fluchloralin at 2 lit/ha or metolachlor 2 l/ha as pre-
emergence herbicide is recommended for most of the vegetable crops, followed by one hand
weeding 30 days after transplanting.
Selective herbicides for weed control in vegetable crops

Herbicide Dose Treatment moment Crops

kg a.i./ha
Alachlor 2.4 Post emergence Brassica crops, onion
Ethalfluralin 0.8-1.7 Pre Plantation Tomato, pepper, beans, squash
Linuron 0.50-1.25 Pre emergence Carrot, artichoke, asparagus, faba bean
Metribuzin 0.10-0.35 Pre/Post emergence D.s. tomato, carrots, peas
Oxifluorfen 0.36-0.48 Pre/Post emergence Onion, garlic, cole crops
Oxifluorfen 0.24-0.48 Pre Plantation Tomato, pepper
Pendimethalin 1.32-1.65 Pre Plantation / pre- Artichoke, cole, lettuce, leek, pepper,
plant incorporated tomato, onion, green peas
Rimsulfuron 7.5-15(g) Post emergence Tomato
Trifluralin 0.59-1.44 pre-plant incorporated Beans, carrots, celery, cole crops,
artichoke, onion, pepper, tomato

HAND WEEDING
Apart from chemical weeding, one hand weeding is done 30 days after transplanting.
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL
Myco-herbicides are a preparation containing pathogenic spores applied as a spray with
standard herbicide application equipment. Eg: a weevil for the aquatic weed salvinia, rust for
skeleton weed, and a caterpillar (Cactoblastis sp.) to control prickly pear.
 SHIFT OF WEED FLORA IN CROPPING SYSTEMS

Shifts in weeds are not new. Weed shifts have happened as long as humans have
cultivated crops. Weedy and invasive species can easily adapt to changes in production
practices in order to take advantage of the available niches. Weeds are well equipped to flourish
in disturbed agricultural systems. Weeds are genetically diverse and can readily take advantage
of the variety of conditions created by any crop production system. Therefore, one key to
reducing the predominance of any given weed species isto increase the diversity of crops within
the cropping system, or at least the diversity of weed management practices within the cropping
system.
A change from conventional tillage to a conservation tillage system can lead to shifts in
weed species composition. Weed shifts can also occur both within a population of a certain
species (e.g., surviving mutants), or within a plant community (e.g., certain species). A weed
species shift can result in the emergence of weeds tolerant of existing weed management
practices. A need to recognise and understand shifts in weed populations in various cropping
systems is important. An understanding of crop production effects on weed species shifts can
lead to development of improved weed management strategies.
WEED SHIFT
A weed shift is the change in the composition or relative frequencies of weeds in a weed
population (all individuals of a single species in a defined area) or community (all plant
populations in a defined area) in response to natural or human-made environmental changes in
an agricultural system.
Weed shifts occur when weed management practices do not control an entire weed
community or population. The management practice could be herbicide use or any other
practice such as tillage, manure application, or harvest schedule that brings about a change in
weed species composition.
Some species or biotypes are killed by (or susceptible to) the weed management
practice, others are not affected by the management practice (tolerant or resistant), and still
others do not encounter the management practice (dormant at application). Those species that
are not controlled can grow, reproduce, and increase in the community; resulting in a weed shift.
Any cultural, physiological, biological, or chemical practice that modifies the growing
environment without controlling all species equally can result in a weed shift.
In the case of chemical weed control, no single herbicide controls all weeds, as weeds
differ in their susceptibility to an herbicide. Susceptible weeds are largely eliminated over time
with continued use of the same herbicide. This allows inherently tolerant weed species to
remain, which often thrive and proliferate with the reduced competition. As a result, there is a
gradual shift to tolerant weed species when practices are continuously used that are not
effective against those species. A weed shift does not necessarily have to be a shift to a
different species. For example, with a foliar herbicide without residual activity like glyphosate,
there could also be a shift within a weed species to a late emerging biotype that emerges after
application.
WEED RESISTANCE
In contrast to weed shift, weed resistance is a change in the population of weeds that
were previously susceptible to an herbicide, turning them into a population of the same species
that is no longer controlled by that herbicide. While weed shifts occur with any agronomic
practice (crop rotation, tillage, frequent harvest or use of particular herbicide), the evolution of
weed resistance is only the result of continued herbicide appplication. The use of a single class
herbicide application continuously over time creates selection pressure so that resistant
individuals of a species survive and reproduce, while susceptible ones are killed.
A weed shift is far more common than weed resistance, and ordinarily take less time to
develop. If an herbicide does not control all the weeds, the tendency is to quickly jump to the
conclusion that resistance has occurred.
A common misconception is that weed resistance is instrinsically linked to genetically
engineered crops. However, this is not correct. The occurrence of weed shifts and weed
resistance is not unique to genetically engineered crops. Weed shifts and resistance are caused
by the practices (for example repeated use of single herbicide) that may accompany a
genetically engineered crop and not the GE crop itself. Similarly, tere is another belive that
resistance is transferred from Ge crop to weed species. However, unless the crop is genetically
very closely related to naturally occuring weed, weed resiatnce cannot be transferred from crop
to weed.
Transgenic herbicide resistance crops have greater potential to foester weed shifts and
resistant weeds since a grower is more likely to use single herbicide in transgenic herbicide
resistance crops. The increase in acrege of these crops could increase the potential for weed
shifts and weed resistance in the cropping systems utilising transgenic herbicide resistance
crops.
WEED MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES TO REDUCE WEED SHIFTS AND RESISTANCE
WEED IDENTIFICATION
 Effective weed management practices begin with proper identification to assess the
competiveness of the weeds present and to select the proper herbicide if one is needed. A
weed management strategy to prevent weed shifts and weed resistancce requires knowledge of
the composition of weeds present. Identification of young seedlings is particularly important
because seedling weeds are easier to control.
FREQUENT MONITORING FOR ESCAPES
It is difficult to detect an emerging weed shift or weed resistance problem if fields are not
frequently monitored for weeds that escapes current weed management practices. Identification
and frequent monitoring can detect problem weeds early and guide management practices,
including herbicide selection, ratre and timing.
HERBICIDE RATE AND TIMING
In weed management programme the grower must be sure to use the proper herbicide
rate for the particular weeds species as they may sometimes tolerant to lower doses. And also
the time of application of the herbicide dose is important i.e it treat the weeds when they are
small, because after crossing certain stgage they may be tolerant to that particular herbicide or
dosage.
CROP ROTATION
One of the most effective practices for preventing weed shifts and weed resistance is
crop rotation, which allows growers to modify selection pressure imposed on weeds. Crops
differ in their ability to compete with weeds; some weeds are a problem in some crops, while
they are less problematic in others. Rotation therefore would not favor any particular weed
spectrum. Crop rotation also allows the use of different weed control practices, such as
cultivation and application of herbicides with different sites of action. As a result, no single weed
spices or biotype should become dominant.
AGRONOMIC PRACTICES
In addition to crop rotation, several management practices may have an impact on the
selection of problem weed populations. If problem weeds germinate at a specific time of year,
crop seeding date can be shifted to avoid these weed populations. Delaying irrigation after can
reduce germination of certain summer annual weeds. However, this practice only works on
some soil types and water stress resistant cropsonly. Harvest management can, assist in
eliminating or suppressing problem weed populations in some cases, but harvest must occur
before weed seed production to prevent weed proliferation.
ROTATION OF HERBICIDES
 Weed shifts occur because herbicides are not equally effective against all weed species
and herbicides differ greatly in the weed spectrum they control. A weed species that is not
controlled will survive and increase in density following repeated use of one herbicide.
Therefore, rotating herbicides is recommended. Rotation of herbicides reduces weed shifts,
provided the rotation herbicide reduces weed shifts, provided the rotational herbicide is highly
effective against the weed species that is not controlled with the primary herbicide. The grower
should rotate to an herbicide with a complimentary spectrum of weed control, along with a
different mechanism of action and therefore a different herbicide binding site. Weed
susceptibility charts are useful to help develop an effective herbicide binding site and herbicide
rotation scheme. In addition, publications on herbicide chemical families are available to assist
growers in choosing herbicides with different mechanisms of action.
Rotating herbicides is also an effective strategy for resistance management. Within a
weed species there are different biotypes, each with its own genetic makeup, enabling some of
them to survive a particular herbicide application. The susceptible weeds in a population are
killed, while the resistant ones survives, set seed, and increase over time. Using an effective
herbicide with a different mode of action from the one to which the weeds are resistant,
however, controls both the susceptible and resistant biotypes. This prevents reproduction and
slows the spread of the resistant biotype.
Frequency of Rotation depends on weed species and escapes. There is no definitive
rule on how often herbicides should be rotated. It is better to rotate at least once on the middle
years or more often for perrenial crop. It can also be modified depending upon actual
observations of evolving weed problems. The key point, which cannot be overemphasized, is
the importance of thorough monitoring for weed escapes. Producers should stay alert to the
appearance of weed species shifts and evolution of resistant weeds. Weed resistance should be
confirmed by controlled studies conducted by a weed scientist. However in these situations, it is
imperative to prevent reproduction of a potentially resistant biotype. Treat weed escapes with
alternative herbicides or other effective control measure.

AQUATIC AND PROBLAMATIC WEEDS AND THEIR MANAGEMENT

AQUATIC WEEDS
Almost all the water bodies have plants growing in them. Presence of plants in water
bodies is essential for the conversion of solar energy into chemical energy for the development
of aquatic fauna like fish, prawns etc. and for the continuous addition of oxygen to water during
photosynthesis. If the water plants due to overgrowth make such water bodies unfit and take the
shape of noxious aquatic vegetation, these may be referred as aquatic weeds. Aquatic weeds
are the greatest problem in fishing, irrigation and efficient water supply. Because of scarce
water supply and high population it has almost become imperative in every country to save
water from the ravages of aquatic weeds. Since the beginning of this century, greater efforts are
being made using the variety of implements, chemicals and bio-agents. Of the 800,000 ha of
fresh water available in India for pisciculture, about 40% rendered unsuitable for fish production
because of invasion by aquatic weeds. Some major aquatic weeds are;
WATER HYACINTH
Origin and Distribution
Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) which is native to the Amazon basin, Brazil,
became widespread throughout the world, also due to its attractive appearance. It is
commercially available as an ornamental for ponds. At present it occurs as a weed throughout
tropical and subtropical regions of the world, including North and South America, Africa, Asia,
Australia and New Zealand. It is considered the worst aquatic weed in the world.

Morphology and Biology

This perennial herbaceous plant is a floating freshwater hydrophyte. It belongs to the
Family Pontederiaceae. The flowers are bluish purple, large and self-fertile. The seeds are
produced in large numbers and are contained in capsules, each capsule containing up to 300
seeds. The seeds can remain viable for 5-20 years. The plant can also
WATER LETTUCE
Origin and Distribution
 The area of origin of Water Lettuce (Pistia stratiotes L.), is most probably South America.
The plant spread widely and at present occurs in all continents, except Europe and Antarctica.
Probably the initial spread took place through ballast water in ships from South America.

Morphology and Biology

This perennial freshwater hydrophyte is a herbaceous floating plant belonging to the
Family Araceae. It consists of a rosette of pale green leaves, prominently veined and it
resembles a small lettuce plant. Water Lettuce has velvety-hairy, erect leaf blades, a very short
stem and long feathery roots suspended in water. The flowers are bisexual. The plant
reproduces and spreads rapidly by means of stolons and seeds. The seeds are easily carried by
water for long distances, since they float during the first two days after they reach maturity. Both
Water Lettuce and Water Hyacinth can bioaccumulate heavy metals.
WATER FERN
Origin and Distribution
Water Fern (Salvinia molesta) is native of South America. The plant was introduced to
Sri Lanka in the 1930s and has rapidly spread since then, now occurring in tropical and
subtropical regions worldwide. The species is commercially available for aquariums and ponds
and thus it was initially introduced and may still contribute to its spread.
Morphology and Biology
Water Fern is a free-floating fern belonging to the Family Salviniaceae that lives in
freshwater systems. Stagnant or slowly moving waters are the habitats most favourable to its
growth. It consists of a horizontal rhizome that floats just below the water surface and produces
at each node three leaves. The plant does not have roots. The submerged leaf serves as roots
by absorbing water and nutrients. Hairs on the aerial leaves allow the plant to float. Individual
plants are up to 30 cm long. Their growth is extremely fast, allowing the population to double
within about one week. Water Fern readily reproduces vegetatively, by fragmentation of the
rhizome, small fragments allowing the development of new infestations.
Problems
All these weeds develop dense mats on the surface of the water and becoming a major
weed problem. The main problems arising from the growth of these weeds are
 an enormous water loss through evapotranspiration, that alters the water balance of
entire regions
 clogging rivers and canals and related problems
 the impediment to water flow, that increases sedimentation, causing flooding and soil
erosion
 hampering fishing and dramatically reducing the catch and the source of food and
income for local populations
 a drastic change in the physical and chemical properties of water and in the environment
in the water bodies invaded, with detrimental effects on plants and animals;
 interfering with the activity of hydroelectric power stations
  a serious threaten to agricultural production, following the blockage of irrigation canals
and drainage systems.
 hampering fishing
 hampering navigation
 indirectly affects human health, since it provides a suitable breeding habitat for pests
and vectors of diseases.
Management
An integrated and to the extent possible an environment-friendly approach is to be
employed for management of aquatic weeds. Aquatic weed-control measures can broadly be
grouped into the following categories.
Preventive
The success of preventive weed-management programmes varies with the weed
species, its means of dissemination and the amount of efforts applied. Preventive weed-
management programmes usually require community action through the enactment and
enforcement of appropriate laws and regulations.
Mechanical
This has both, advantages and limitations. Advantages include utilization of available
man-power; is environment friendly, yields immediate results, is non-selective with fewer
chances of permitting ecological shifts in aquatic flora; lessens mass nutrient load of eutrophic
water bodies, helping indirectly in diminishing the future weed populations; reduces dependence
on import of herbicides; harvested weeds may have various utilities as feed, manure, energy
source etc; and most importantly can be exercised in any localized areas of water bodies. The
limitations include limited effectiveness as in some cases the weeds re-grow from their
rootstocks, rhizomes and the like spreading weeds new areas; labour-intensive and expensive
and sometime removal of weeds may deplete water bodies of their nutrients limiting growth of
planktons. The methods include, netting, erecting barriers, chaining, dredging, draining, use of
water-weed cutters, submergence, shading, cleaning of irrigation waters etc.
Biological
Biological methods of management require the use of organisms that have been used
for biological control, are diverse and include various types of animals and plants like insects,
fishes, pathogens, nematodes etc. Biological management is more complex than chemical
weed control because it requires (a) long-term planning, (b) multiple tactics, and (c)
manipulation of cropping system and direct interaction with the environment.
 Use of several species of herbivorous fishes which feed on submerged aquatic weeds
include Tilapa sp., Ctenopharyngodon idella, and other species. Observations are also available
for rodents, snails etc. The use of insects like Neochetina bruchi and N. eichhorniae for control
of water-hyacinth, and Cyrtobagous salviniae for control of Salvinia molesta has been found
effective in India.
Problamatic weeds
Weed control practices often have an effect on the weeds, on a year by year basis.
Before the development of herbicides, growers relied heavily on tillage as a tool for controlling
and suppressing weeds. Once herbicides became a valuable tool, some of the problem weeds
found in predominantly tillage based management practices began to fade and new problematic
weeds began to fill the gap. As our habits change, specific weeds will exploit the new niches we
create and become the more dominant species.
Some of the weeds like Cyperus rotundus, Cynodon dactylon, Eleusine indica etc., are
listed as world’s worst weeds. Cyperus rotundus is the most problamatic weed present in 92
countries, followed by Cynodon dactylon in 80 countries. Both weeds are perennial, mainly
propagated by vegetative means and also by seeds. Cyperus rotundus is a problem weed in 52
crops while Eleusine indica in 46 crops. Some of the world’s worst weeds are listed below,
Weed Common Name Botanical Name Occurrence in no. of
Ranking Crops Countries
1 Nut grass Cyperus rotundus 52 92
2 Bermuda grass Cynodon dactylon 40 80
3 Banyard grass Echinochloa colonum 36 61
4 Jungle grass Echinochloa crusgalli 35 60
5 Goose grass Eleusine indica 46 60
6 Jhonson grass Sorghum halapense 30 53
7 - Imperata cylindica 35 73
8 Water hyacyinth Eichornia crassipes - -
9 - Portulaca oleracea 45 81
10 Fat hen Chenopodium album 40 47
11 Large crab grass Digitaria saugunialis 33 56
12 Field bund weed Convolvulus arvensis 32 44
Pictures
Cyperus rotundus Cynodon dactylon Echinochloa colonum

Echinochloa crusgalli Eleusine indica Sorghum halapense

Imperata cylindica Eichornia crassipes Portulaca oleracea

 Chenopodium album Digitaria sauguinalis Convolvulus arvensis

PERENNIAL WEED MANAGEMENT

Prevention
The most basic and effective of all methods to control perennial weeds is prevention. As
discussed earlier, there are several means of weed seed dispersal, most of which can be
prevented. Ensuring clean crop seed, animal feed, and hay is the most important measure in
preventing seed dispersal. Other methods of prevention include cleaning field machinery and
harvest equipment when moving between fields, proper long-term manure storage to reduce
seed viability after passing through animals' digestive tracts, and maintenance of weed-free
irrigation water.
Crop rotation can be another effective method to prevent the establishment of perennial
weeds. The most effective crop rotations for this purpose include not only crops that compete
well with perennial weeds, but also those that allow the use of herbicides to control perennial
seedlings.
MECHANICAL WEED CONTROL
Cultivation, when combined with other management tactics, can be used to control
seedlings before energy-storing vegetative tissue has accumulated. Mechanical control no
longer is effective after energy has been stored in underground vegetative tissue. In fact,
cultivation of established perennials can spread weeds by cutting roots and moving them to new
areas.
Perennial weeds are more common in reduced-tillage fields, where there is little soil
disturbance to disrupt the development of below-ground storage organs. Once perennial weeds
are established in reduced-tillage fields, cultivation is ineffective and might increase the spread
of vegetative roots.
 In pasture and forage crops, frequent mowing or cutting can prevent weed seed
production and reduce the amount of energy stored in below-ground structures. Most important,
maintenance of a vigorous crop stand through proper fertility and water management, seeding
density, and variety selection will allow the competitive ability of the crop to suppress perennial
weed growth. This simple "hands-off" approach requires little additional input or management,
but can greatly reduce weed seed production and root growth.
CHEMICAL WEED CONTROL
Perennial weed control with herbicides must be repeated for 2 to 3 years and combined
with other management tactics such as mowing. The key is to get the herbicide into the roots.
Herbicide activity relies on foliar absorption and transport from the leaves to the root system.
Young leaves move nutrients from the root in an upward, above-ground direction, while more
mature leaves transport photosynthetic products to the root system for storage. Thus, the most
effective herbicide activity occurs as the product is transported to the roots with the products of
photosynthesis.
Herbicides are most effective on perennial weeds in the early fall, when weeds are transporting
energy to the roots before winter dormancy. Treatment just before and during flower bud
initiation also is effective, as the herbicide will be carried with photosynthetic products to the
roots. To ensure the presence of sufficient mature foliage, apply postemergent herbicides either
1 to 2 weeks before cultivation or mowing, or after weed regrowth is at least 8 inches tall.
BIOLOGICAL WEED CONTROL
Biological control is a slow process, and results are not guaranteed. Therefore, it is used
most appropriately as a component of an integrated weed management system that relies on
multiple tactics for perennial weed control. For example, the fungus Concholiobolus lunatus kills
barnyardgrass seedlings with fewer than two leaves, but growth of larger plants is only slowed
and plants recover. However, when the fungus is combined with a sublethal dose of atrazine (a
dose that injures but does not kill the barnyardgrass), larger barnyardgrass plants can be
controlled better than when atrazine is used alone.
INTEGRATED WEED MANAGEMENT
Management of perennial weeds is most successful when multiple tactics are employed,
such as the combination of chemical, mechanical, and cultural control. Integrated weed
management, when combined with prevention and control of weeds outside of crop production
areas, provides the best long-term management of perennial weeds.