PCP 506

WEED SCIENCE AND

CONTROL
 WEED BIOLOGY AND ECOLOGY

What is Weed
Definition of a weed vary depending on the
effects that weeds have on food production,
recreational activities and other values of
human life.

Generally, it is the undesirability or

unwanted aspect of those plants which have
nuisance values that make them weeds
Some of the widely used definitions of weeds include:

 A plant out of place, or growing where it is not

wanted. (Blatchly, 1912)

 A useless, undesirable and often very unsightly plant

of wild growth, usually found in land which has been
cultivated, or in areas developed by man for specific
purpose other than cultivation. (Thomas, 1956).

 A generally unwanted organism that thrives in

habitats disturbed by man.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF WEEDS

1. Harmful to humans, animals and crops:

 Pod of Muccuna puriens may contain poisonous alkaloids

 Amaranthus spp contain high level of nitrates
 Striga spp are parasitic on crop

2. Persistence and resistance to control or eradication:

Weeds have diverse forms of propagules such as seed and tubers or
rhizomes e.g

 Cypreus rotundus and C. esculentus combine a well developed tuber

with moderate production of viable seeds
 Imperata cylindrica has extensive rhizome systems and still produce
large quantities of viable seeds
 Bryophylum pinnatum spread both by seed and vegetatively by leaves
bulbils.
3. Wild and rank growth:
They tend to grow rapidly, branch or tiller profusely and cover
extensive area e.g. Rottboellia cochinchinnensis Andropogon sp and
Chromolaena ordata.

4. High reproductive capacity:

Many annual weeds have the ability to produce large quantity of
seeds e.g tropical weeds such as

 Ageratum conyzoides 40,000 seeds per plant.

 Amaranthus spinosus 235,000 per plant.
 Bidens pilosa 3,000-6,000 seeds per plant.
 Digitaria horizontalis 12,000 seeds per plant
 Echinochloa colona 42,000 seeds per plant
 Striga asiatica 90,000 per plant.
 Striga hermonthica 42,000 per plant.
5. Seed dormancy:

 A condition in which a seed fails to germinate in the

presence of environmental conditions that are normally
optimal for seed germination.

 Seeds of many weed species exhibit varying forms of

dormancy. Dormancy characteristics are a survival
mechanism in weeds.

 They ensure that weed seeds do not all germinate during the
first period in which environmental conditions are
favorable. Rather a certain percentage of viable seeds
remain dormant and are able to germinate at later dates,
often in several succeeding seasons.
6. Grow in undesirable location:
 Ability to grow in undesirable location is a major
characteristics of most weeds.
 Consequently, weeds are found not only in cultivated
fields, but also in tennis courts and other recreation sites.
 Also they are known to grow through cracks in concrete
pavements.

7. Human find weeds useless, unwanted and

undesirable
 Many weeds that shows these attributes have
morphological features such as thorns etc. that make
them objectionable e.g. Amaranthus spinosus and
Acanthospomum hispidum.
8. Large populations:

 They tend to grow densely around economic crop

plants. Such weeds are adapted to overcrowding.

 Many annual weeds consist of large populations e.g.

Euphorbia heterophylla, Ageraturn conyzoides,
Aspilia Africana, Bidens pilosa, Digitaria
horozontalis and Paspalum orbicularis.

 Weeds such as these are able to compete with crops

because of the numerical superiority that the weeds
have over the crops with which they are associated.
9. Spontaneous growth, appearing without being sown:

 This is a very common feature among weeds especially many annuals

with very small or obscure seeds, that are buried in the soil.
 Examples are Amaranthus spinosus, Striga hermonthica and Talinum
triangulare.

10. Aggressiveness:

 Many weeds that are aggressive have rapid seedling growth and wide
tolerance to edaphic and environmental factors.
 Many are deep rooted, others have intra specific variations while
others exhibit great plasticity of growth e.g. Rottboellia
cochinchinnensis,
 Euphorbia heterophylla is very competitive in food legume such as
cowpea and soybeans because of its rapid growth and ability to form
canopy cover over these crops.
11. Unsightly:
They have unattractive flowers and foliage and tend to disfigure
the landscape. e.g. Pennisetum spp have this feature

 No single weed species posses all the characteristics described

above.

 Some of the weeds that appear to have combined many of these

characteristics are Cynodon dactylon, Cyperus esculentus,
Cyperus rotundus, Imperata cylindrica and Pennisetum spp.

 Batra (1981) suggested that an ideal weed should have

characteristics that include ugliness, no wildlife value,
numerous and easily dispersed seeds, unpalatablility, spininess,
allergenicity, toxicity, rapid vegetative growth.
 Economic importance of weeds
Losses caused by weed in agriculture:
(a) Direct loses caused by weeds
1. Weeds reduce crop yield by interfering with crop growth.
 This interference include competition with crop for nutrients, light
and water.
 It also include the introduction of chemicals into the soil that will
adversely affect the growth of crop plants (Allelopathy)
 Yield reduction caused by weed could be as high as 40% in maize,
90% in upland rice, 54% in low land transplanted rice, 65% in low
land direct seeded rice, 60% in cowpea, 60% in soybean and 91%
in sweet potato.
 Level of weed infestation could also depend on weed pressure,
availability of improved weed control technology, cost of weed
control etc.
2. Weeds reduce the quality of harvested agricultural
produce e.g.
 weed seeds of Rottboellia cochinchinnensis in maize or
rice, red rice in rice, Solanum nigrum in cowpea and
soybeans will reduce market quality of each of these
crops.
 The presence of weeds can also reduce the quality of
forage or make them unpalatable. Seeds of such weeds
as Acanthosperinum hispidium can also cause physical
injury to humans animals.
3. Weeds interfere with harvesting operations and
increase cost of harvesting in both small and large
scale farmers e.g. Harvesting of maize can be hampered
if the field is infested by Rottboellia cochinchinnensis.
4. Weeds may poison animals:
Some weeds can be poisonous to animals if eaten
by grazing animals e.g. Amaranthus spp because
of high nitrate content.

5. The cost of weed control is high:

Farmers spend more money controlling weed than
they do on other types of pests. Part of the higher
cost of weed control is due to the absence of
genetic resistance to weeds among crops as it exist
for most of the other pests.
7. The presence of weeds can impede water flow
in irrigation canals. It is an additional cost of
maintaining irrigation canal weed-free.

8. The presence of weeds in lakes and reservoirs

can increase loss of water by transpiration. The
presence of weeds can also reduce the economic
value of the lake by preventing or limiting
fishing activity in those lakes.
(b) Indirect losses caused by weeds
1. Weeds serve as alternative host for many plant diseases
and animal pests e.g insects, rodent, birds etc. that attack
crops.

2. The presence of weeds imposes a limit on farm size.

Farmers generally cultivate the area they know by
experience they can keep weed free. Cultivation of a
larger area will amount to a waste, hence productivity of a
framer is limited by weeds.

3. The presence of weed can reduce the economic value of

lakes preventing or limiting fishing activities.
4. Weeds such as Imperata cylindrica and Andropogon spp becomes
fire hazards in the dry season thus exposing the soil to erosion
hazards.

5. Some weeds can cause skin rashes and the flower of other weeds is
associated with allergies in humans.

6. Weeds impair visibility along roads and railway lines. The cost of
keeping telephone and power lines free from weeds is much.

7. Uncontrolled weed growth reduces the value of real estate, thus

keeping weed free around estates imposes additional cost.

8. In counties that depend heavily on human labour for weeding

children often have to miss school at peak weeding period thus
reducing the quality of education that these children can get during
their formative stage.
 Beneficial effect of weeds
The followings are some of the beneficial effects of weeds.

1. Weeds provide a vegetative cover that protects the soil.

2. Weeds play an important role in nutrient recycling. Root

of weeds tap nutrient from lower depths and return these
to the, soil surface as litter when the weeds shed their
leaves or when the entire plant dies and decays.

3. Weeds add organic matter to the soil both from the roots
and from the above ground parts.
4. Many plant designated as weeds are used as pot herbs.

 The perennial weed Talinum triangulare is a valuable

vegetable in part of western Nigeria.
 The succulent pseudo-stems of tillers of the perennial
weed Pennisetum purpureum is a very much vegetable in
part of eastern Nigeria where these tillers are considered
a delicacy.
 Many other weeds are used directly as food by humans.
The range varies from one human culture to another.

5. Weeds play important role as a source of drugs used in

public health. Many weeds are still used straight from the
bush as components of medicinal concussions.
6. Weeds are a source of pesticides an example is Chrysanthemum
cineframilforlium which provides the insecticide Pyrethnens.

7. Weeds provide food and cover for animals. Wildlife in developing

countries depend almost entirely on weeds as a source of shelter. Our
domesticated animals such as sheep, goats, cattle and rabbits also depend on
weeds to a great extent for their survival.

8. Weeds have served as source of genetic materials for crop improvement

through the years. Crop improvement such as breeding for resistance to
many insect pests and plant diseases have been made possible by genetic
materials provided by wild species of the crops plants.

9. Weeds serve as hosts for beneficial insects, and at the same time provide
nectar for bees.

10. Many weed species help to beautify the land scape. A good cover of
Cynodon dactylon or Paspalum notatum beautify a home.
 CLASSIFICATION OF WEEDS
Weeds are classified in several ways that include life cycle,
habitat, growth habit, degree of undesirability or
noxiousness and by taxonomy or scientific classification.

Life cycle or history

1. Annual weeds:
Are those weeds that complete their life cycle (from seed
germination to seed production in one or two growing
season in a calendar year. Such weeds die off during the dry
season alter completing their life cycle. Example of annual
weeds are: Agerantum conyzoides, Acanthospernum
hispidum, Amaranthus spinosus Euphobia heterophylla,
Rottboellia cochinchinnensis etc.
Characteristics of annual weeds
 High level of prolificity

 Ability to produce large quantities of seeds for example:

Amaranthus spinosus can produce 235,000 seeds/plants.

 Tendency to occur in high density e.g. Euphorbia

heterophylla

 Efficient method of seed dispersal

 Seeds dormancy that prevents all seeds produced by the

weed in one year from germinating at once.
2. Perennial weeds
They stay alive for more than one calendar year in spite of producing
seeds in the growing season preceding a dry season. They may or
may not produce seeds at any stage of their growth cycle, but they
have the capacity to survive the dry season with the aid of specialized
perenating structures.

 Examples of perennial weeds are:

Imperata cylindrica, Cynodon dactylon, Cyperus esculentus, C.
rotundus, Panicum maximum, Talinum triangulare, Bryophylum
pinnatum.

 Many of these perennial, such as Cynodon dactylon, Imperata

cylindrica produce seeds and also have perenating propagules.
 Others such as Bryophylum pinnatum, Cyperus spp have
perenating structures that are so well developed that the weeds
now have a much reduced dependence on seed production for
maintaining genetic line

Characteristics of Perennial weeds

 They resist attempts to eradicate them by manifesting special
adaptations for weediness. e. g. longevity of tubers, corms and
bulbs (as found in Cyperus spp.)

 Longevity of rhizomes and stolons (as in Cynodon dactylon,

Imperata cylindrica.)

 Presence of deep roots that makes it difficult to destroy the weed

by tillage
 Presence of buds that can sprout from the basal
portions of the stem at or below ground level

 Succulent stems that easily root and grow

vegetatively when they are cut into segments during
hoe weeding or cultivation

 Other perennials either have leaf bulbils or are woody

root sprouters which are not killed by simply cutting
them down.
 Some perennials combine persistence qualities with
other features such as thorns.

 Some annuals may behave as perennial weed. Digitaria

horizontalis which usually roots at the lower nodes will
die off at the end of the rains, but given enough
moisture, this weed will behave as a perennial. The
same is true of other weeds such as Eleusine indica.

 Rainfall and its distributions impose severe tests on

which weeds are true annuals and which weeds behave
as perennials.
2. Classification based on Habitat
Classification of weeds on the basis of where they are found is widely used by
agriculturists. This method of classification groups weeds into:

 Upland (terrestrial) weeds. e.g Agerantum conyzoides, Tridax procumbens.

 Aquatic weeds. e.g. Cyperus diffornis, Kyllinga bullosa
 Arable crop weeds. e.g. Amaranthus spp, Digitaria ciliaris.
 Weeds of plantation crops. e.g. Chromolaena odorata, Paspalum
conjugatum.

3. Classification based on growth habit:

 Free-living (autotrophic) weeds: are those that are living as independent

organisms and manufacture their own food through photosynthesis.

 Parasitic weeds: are those that grow on living tissues of other plants and
derive their food, water and mineral needs from the plant they grow on(host
plant). e.g Striga spp and Alectra spp.
4. Classification based on degree of undesirability (Noxiousness).
 Noxiousness is a measure of both the undesirability of a weed and the
difficulties in controlling it.
 Noxious weeds normally connotes difficult to control weeds. e.g. Striga
spp, Cyperus rotundus, Imperata cylindrica.

5. Classification base on morphology.

Morphology differences exist among various weeds and this can be used to
classify them. Weeds may be classified on the basis of morphology into:
 Narrow leaf (grass) weeds (Monocolyledon),
 Broad leaf weeds (Dicotyledon)

6. Scientific Classification.
 Binomial nomenclature is the standard method of plant nomenclature in
use by scientists.
 This system was introduced by Linnaeus and uses two-part (binomial
system). The first being generic name and the second being specific
(species) name. e.g. Bidens pilosa, Ageratum conyzoides
 PRINCIPLE OF WEED ECOLOGY

 Ecology is concerned with the reciprocal relationship between an organism and its
environment.

 Weed Ecology is concerned with the growth characteristics, adaptation and survival
mechanisms of weeds that enable them to exploit neighboring plants.

 The study of weed ecology is important in order to understand weed crop interaction
and why weeds are such successful colonizer.

 A Habitat: is a place where an organism or group of organisms live. Habitat can range
from rubbish dumps to farm lands or other sites colonized by weeds.

 Weeds are just as varied in their habitat requirements as are crop plants. Some are very
site specific, others will thrive over a wide range of habitats.

 Many of the weed species closely associated with cultivated crops have requirements
very similar to those of the crop. These species quickly become minor occupants of a
particular site when humans cease to grow crops there. On the other hand, those with
broad habitat adaptation persist on the site in the absence of cropping activities.
 Persistence and survival mechanism of weeds
 Weeds are able to survive in the face of many obstacles.
These obstacles include natural selection pressures as well as
tillage and crop husbandry practices routinely used to
minimize weed competition in crops.

 Persistence as it applies to weeds is a measure of the adaptive

potential of the weed that enables it to survive in disturbed
habitat e.g. crop land, recreational sites; irrigation canals and
pastures.

 Many of the adaptive features or survival mechanisms of

annual weeds include: Ability to produce large quantities of
seeds, seed dormancy, periodicity of seed germination, short
lifespan, Deep rooting system, Dormancy characteristics of
buds rhizomes, Other modified stems of parts, crop mimicry.
 Weed- Crop Ecosystem
 Once a group of weeds has successfully established in a
site, a community of plants species together with other
organisms including animals —begin to share the natural
resources of that site.

 This community of organisms has an organizational level

and form a food chain. The energy-driven complex,
involving all the organisms together with the environment
that they share, is known as an ecosystem.

 Weed science is concerned with the study of weed crop

ecosystem. This is aimed at understanding weed-crop
interaction, as well as the nature and functions of that
ecosystem.
 This will help in understanding the impact of crop
production and husbandry practices on the shifts in weed
flora, particularly the persistence of some of weeds in a
given weed-crop ecosystem.

 It is important that weed control should therefore be

aimed at understanding the biology of weeds that
combine these agricultural discovering their survival
mechanism and relating these findings to crop production
practices imposed in the system by humans.

 In order to control weeds, humans have continued to

make adjustments in crop density, spacing, crop plant
architecture and duration of the growth period. In order to
make the most efficient use of these strategies, humans
need to understand the nature and basis of weed response
Crop mimicry

 A phenomenon in which a weed develops such close resemblance to some

phases of the life history of a crop as to be mistaken for the crop and thus
evade eradication.

 Three types may be identified-vegetative mimicry, seed mimicry and

biochemical mimicry.

 Weeds that mimic crops are more difficult to control than those that do not.

 Examples, of vegetative mimicry are seedlings of perennial wild rice

(Oryza longistaminata) in cultivated rice and wild sorghum (Sorghum
halepense) seedlings in cultivated sorghum, wild cane (Saccharium
spontaneum) sugarcane (Saccharium officinarum) and rice mimicry in bam
grass (Echinochloa ciusgalli)

 seed mimicry is exhibited by seeds of itch grass (Rottboellia

cochinchinnensis) in rice.
Factors affecting weed persistence
Weed persistence will be affected by:
 Climate: The major climatic factors are Light, temperature
water, wind
 Soil (edaphic)
 Biotic factors
 Light
• Intensity, quality and duration affect growth, reproduction and
distribution of weeds.
• Photo period governs flowering and consequently affects the
latitudinal distribution of weeds and the evolution of ecotype
of a given specie.
• Light exclusion favours shade tolerant weed species e in
plantation crops.
 Temperature
Soil and air- temperatures affect seed germination and dormancy.
 Water
Seasonal distribution of water affects weed species distribution and a
shortage of water at a critical time in life cycle of weeds may affect seed
production. If the water shortage becomes a recurrent event, the survival
of some weed species may be threatened.
 Wind
Wind velocity, frequency and direction restricts the occurrence of all
plants including weeds. In addition, wind stabilizes oxygen and carbon
dioxide distribution and also affects transpiration losses,

 Edaphic factors (soil water, aeration, pH temperature, Fertility.)

Some weed species such as Cynodon spp can tolerate alkaline soils,
others such as Axonopus compressors can tolerate water logging.
Hydromorphic soils -support aquatic weeds.

 Biotic factors
Plants and animals e.g. browsing animals and feeding by birds, insects
e.g. termites.
 REPRODUCTION IN WEEDS
There are four processes in weed reproduction namely
 Seed production
 Seed dissemination
 Seed germination
 Vegetative reproduction

Importance of Weed seed production

 Weeds survive seasons of adverse weather through seed production.

 Most seeds particularly annuals, maintain their genetically heritable
traits through seed production. The long-lived species tend to
produce fewer seeds than the short lived species that face more
environmental hazards
 Weed seed production enhances the spread of the weed species
(dispersal)
 Weed seed provides temporary source of food for the
embryo and
 Serves as protection during conditions that are
unfavourable for germination (dormancy).

 The seed therefore plays important roles in the

survival and multiplication of weeds. Weed seed are
continuously added to agricultural land during each
cropping cycle.
 The quantity of seeds produced by a given weed
species in a growing season influences the richness of
that species in a given habitat. It also affects the
competitiveness of the weed in crops grown in that
location.
Seed rain
 Mature weed shed their seeds on agricultural lands and thus adds to
the population of weed seeds in the soil. This new and periodic weed
seed supply is described as the seed rain.

Seed bank
 This consists of seeds produced in a given area plus weed seeds that have
migrated to the area as a result of the action of various agents of seed
dissemination.

 Seed in the seed bank always exceed those that germinate because of
difference in the dormancy characteristics of all weed seeds in a seed bank.

 Annual weed generally produce larger quantities of seeds.

 various studies in the tropics show that seed production by annual weeds
ranges from 3000 seeds per plant in such species as Bidens pilosa to over
200,000 in Amaranthus spinosus.
Seed dispersal
 weed seeds are dispersal in space and in time.
 Seeds dispersal in space involves the physical movement of seeds from one
place to another.
 While dispersal in time refers to the capacity of many weed to remain in a
dormancy stage for a period of time.

a) Dispersal in space
 Seeds have special adaptations that predisposes them to dispersal by particular
agents.
 Natural agents of dispersal of weeds seed are
 Water (surface run- off, stream, drainage and irrigation water.)
 Wind , animals, humans, agricultural implement

b) Dispersal in time
 weed seeds exhibit periodicity in germination. Periodicity implies tendency of
weed seed to have germination flushes e.g. grasses normally germinate early
while broad leaf germinate later in the season in the Nigerian
3. Seed Germination
 Several stages are involved in weed seed germination as follows
 Germination include all the bio-c and physiological process that culminate in
the emergence of the ridicule and plumule.
 Underground elongation
 Emergence
 Independent growth

Factors affecting weed seed germination

 Temperature
 Soil moisture
 Alternate melting and drying of soil
 Depth of seed buries
 Disturbance of the soil surface
 Aeration
 Light
 Soil nitrate level.
Vegetative reproduction
 Many perennial weeds reproduce vegetatively through the following

1. Stolon or runners
 These slender stems developed from shoots that run along the soil
surface.
 The mature portions of these stems usually root at the nodes and may
produce shoots intermittently at the nodes e.g. Cynodon dactylon,
Digitaria horizontalis.
 Weeds that have stolon are difficult to control mechanically.

2. Rhizomes:
 These are underground stems that grow more or less horizontally
below the soil surface. e.g. Imperata cylindrica, Sorghum halepense.
 Weeds with rhizomes are difficult to control by any known method.
3. Tubers:
These are specialized stems where the based internodes have
become compressed to serve as food storage organs e.g. Cyperus
escu1entus and C. rotundus.
4. Bulbs:
These are short specialized underground stems usually very small
and is surrounded by fleshy modified leaf bases that serve as food
storage organs e.g. Oxalis latifolia.
5. Bulbils:
These are auxiliary bulb stem found on leaf margins and other parts
of the shoot e.g. Bryophylum pinnatum.
6. Stem:
some weeds have succulent stem that serve as perenating structures.
Fragmentation of these stems during hand or mechanical weeding
helps to spread the weeds e.g. Talinum triangulare, Commelina
bengalensis, Portulaca oleracea
 AQUATIC WEEDS
 Aquatic weeds are plants that grow in free water or at least tolerate
water condition for substantial period of their growth
Classification
Aquatic weeds are commonly classified according to their growth habits.

1. Floating spp.
 Many aquatic weeds float on water surface either singly or in rosette.
 They are not attached to soil.
 Most common examples are Eichornia crassipes.

2. Emergent spp.
 They are rooted in soil
 They grow in situation where water level is about 1/2 maximum height
of the plant.
 They are generally large or erect plant
 Most have narrow leaves.
 Others are similar to broadleaf plant.
 Most common examples are water plantain and water lilies.

3. Submerged spp.
 They are rooted in soil with their tops entirely or mostly under
water.
 Examples are bond weed

4. Algae
 Commonly found on stagnant water drainages, canals and ponds..
 Most common examples are green algae, blue-green algae.
 They form uniform layers in water and may be called blanket
weed.
 Algae may be single celled or multi celled.
Problems of aquatic weeds

1. Aquatic weeds in ponds.

 Algae are the major problem in village ponds.
 Sometime the algae become so thick that it renders the water
undrinkable.
 Some of the algae are poisonous.
 It may also form a breeding space for mosquitoes and other disease
organisms.

2. Aquatic weeds in lakes and dams.

 Weeds increase the rate of siltation and reduce the capacity of the
reservoir
 Also electricity supply may be affected
 Weeds in lakes and dams cause increase in water loss through
transpiration
 Weeds in lakes and dams interfere with recreational activities.
e.g. fishing boating, sailing may be disturbed.
 Weeds may depict oxygen content in the night and may cause
toxicity to fishes thereby causing the death of some fishes
resulting in an unpalatable odour.
 Weeds in lakes provide breeding space for mosquitoes and
other disease agents.

3 Weeds in streams.
 Sometimes aquatic weeds in rivers or streams cause diversion
of river with the result that more land in the basin may be
eroded.
 Weeds in streams broaden river banks and streams. (iii)
Obstruct navigation activity.
4. Weeds in irrigation system.
 In unlined canals weeds cause over flooding
 Weeds reduce irrigation efficiency.
 Bank weeds drop their seeds in water and thereby form potential
source of weed infestation on irrigated land
 Weeds may serve as alterative hosts of many disease organisms.
 Weeds cause health hazards.

5. Weeds in drainage systems.

 Weeds increase siltation and thereby reduce the efficiency and
life of drainage.
 Weeds destroy wild life and habitats.
 Weeds lowers estate value of lands.
 Weeds may cause undesirable odour and cause health hazards.
 Economic importance of aquatic weeds
Aquatic weeds have important effects on the utilization of
water both for agriculture and recreation purposes.

 They increase the cost of crop production directly by

competing with wetland and indirectly by increasing
cost of irrigation.

 They cause loss of water from reservoirs and dams

through transpiration by these aquatic weeds.

 They interfere with flow of water in irrigation, canal and

drainage systems. When weed infestation becomes so
heavy, these system may be completely blocked.
 Aquatic weeds may completely cover lakes, rivers and
canals and thus interfere with the use of these water
ways for irrigation.

 Aquatic weeds particularly algae, impact odour, colour

and taste to water and thus increase cost of portable
purification.

 Recreational use of water may be hampered by the

presence of large quantities of aquatic weeds.

 Aquatic weeds provide shelter for mosquitoes, snails

and other vectors that transmit diseases such as malaria,
schistosomiasis, onchocerciasis and filariasis
 Uncontrolled growth of aquatic weeds is unsightly and
reduces the aesthetic value of lakes other water ways.

 Aquatic weeds interfere with navigation and fishing

activities.

 Aquatic weeds reduce the availability of drinking water

to wild life and livestock.

 They are capable of entrapping sediments and thus

promote silting in lakes and reservoir.

 Aquatic weeds provide shelter for undesirable animals

such as snakes.
 USES OF AQUATIC WEEDS
 They serve as source of food and shelter for fish and other
beneficial marine organisms.

 Aquatic weeds provide oxygen which is important for marine

lives.

 They are used as soil additives and could supplement fertilizer

needs of many developing countries, many of which already
have problems from these weeds.

 They can serve as source of raw materials to support local

industries such as pulp and paper, fibre for making chair, mats
and baskets. It should be noted that the first paper-like writing
material used in Africa is papyrus from the aquatic weed Cyperus
papyrus.
 Aquatic plants such as water lettuce are used in waste treatment
because of their ability to extract mineral elements from water. These
weeds are then harvested and used as source of ornament.

 Aquatic weeds are excellent source of animal feed especially after

water has been extracted from them.

METHODS OF AQUATIC WEEDS CONTROL

 An aquatic ecosystem is a dynamic one. Therefore any action taken

against any component of this ecosystem will have consequences on
the other components of the system.

 Thus while a complete removal of weeds from a body of water may

have the desirable effect on ridding the site of offending vegetation, it
could cause undesirable changes in the ecosystem. For example
• If the vegetation is removed completely and suddenly
the level of oxygen drops, this could adversely affects
fish life.

• A sudden clearing up of a water surface will increase

light penetration and favour the presence of undesirable
algae.

• Furthermore, if the weeds are not removed they will

decay and affect water quality. It is often advised that
some aquatic weeds should be left in place during
weeding to provide food and shelter to marine
organisms.
Methods used for controlling aquatic weeds. They include
Preventive control.
In weed control programs is the adage ‘a stitch in time save nine’
more applicable than in the management of aquatic weeds.

 In almost all known cases of major aquatic weed problems the

infestation starts as pockets of aquatic weeds that can be pulled
off by hand.

 Such small invasions of aquatic weeds change to extensive

infestations that are often beyond the financial resources of
many developing countries to cope with aquatic weeds are
spread by humans, animals, wind and water.

 A primary control method is by preventing the introduction of

these weeds into new ecologies.
 Another preventive method widely used on terrestrial
weeds and which is applicable to waterways is to
prevent aquatic weeds from flowering or going to seed.

 Management of water level is a good preventive weed

control method because many aquatic weeds are
sensitive to changes in water level at certain periods of
the year.

 Preventive control should be made an integral part of all

good aquatic weed management systems.
Hand weeding
Hand weeding is effective in controlling aquatic weeds where the level of
infestation is high e.g. in irrigation ditches and small canals.

Mechanical control.
This is an effective control method for many aquatic weeds especially surface
floating macrophytes using tractor with rotary cutters or harvesters mounted on
boats.

Biological control.

 Many animals have been used for biological control of aquatic weeds. These
include grass tilapia and other herbivorous fishes.

 Nematodes duck geese and other herbivorous animals and insects e.g Allinator
weed flea beetle which grows, excellent control where the weed is entirely
aquatic; the alligator weed moth.

 The combined action of all three has been effective in controlling this weed in all
wet land conditions where these organisms have been exposed to the weed.
Chemical weed control.
 Many herbicides can be safely used to control aquatic weeds.

 The most widely used herbicide is the amine formulation of

2,4-D.

 Many herbicides used for aquatic weed control requires

restrictions on water use for a period of time necessary for
the herbicide to be degraded or inactivated.

Integrated control.
 Integrated weed control is more likely to have a broad basis
of application than any other method of weed control used
atone.
 e.g. use of preventive + biological control.