TUTORIAL: FUNDAMENTALS OF THERMODYNAMICS

1. Define the following terms as applied to thermodynamics

(i) Systems
(ii) Working fluid
(iii) Property
(iv) Process
(v) Cycle

2. State the 1st law of thermodynamics

3. In the compression stroke of an internal engine, the heat rejected to the cooling water
is 50kJ/kg and the work input is 100kJ/kg. Calculate the change in specific internal
energy of the working fluid stating whether it is a gain or loss
4. A mass of gas with an internal energy of 1630kJ is contained in a perfectly thermally
insulated cylinder. The gas is allowed to expand behind a piston until its internal
energy is 1350kj. Calculate the work done by the gas.
5. A gas having a molecular weight of 32kg/kmol has an isentropic index of 1.3.
Calculate the:
(a) Specific gas constant
(b) Specific heat capacity at constant volume

6. Define the following terms as used in thermodynamics:

(a) Perfect gas
(b) Internal energy
(c) Entropy

7. Define the term irreversible process as used in thermodynamics

8. Show from first principles that a throttling process is a constant enthalpy process
9. The properties of a closed system change following the relation between pressure and
volume as PV = 3.0 where p is in bar V is in m3. Calculate the work done when the
pressure increases from 1.5bar to 7.5bar
10. A system receives 180 kJ by heat transfer at constant volume. Next it rejects 200 kJ by
heat transfer as it receives 50 kJ of work at constant pressure.
(a) If a process can be found which will restore it to the initial state without a heat
transfer to or from the system, how much work transfer is done by the system during
the process?
(b) Taking the internal energy in the initial state as zero find the corresponding
internal energies at the other two states.
11. A fixed quantity of fluid can be expanded in two different ways between the same
initial and final states.
(a) In the first expansion the heat transfer received is 42 kJ and the work done by the fluid
is 53 kJ. What is the change in in-eternal energy?
(b) In the second expansion the heat received is only 30 kJ. What is the work transfer
produced?
 TUTORIAL: NON-FLOW PROCESSES FOR PEFECT GASES

1. 3m3 of air at a pressure of 400kPa and a temperature of 30oc expands reversibly in a cylinder
to a pressure of 100kPa. The final volume is 21m3. Assume constant specific heat for this
process. Calculate the heat transferred during this process.
2. A mass of 0.1 kg of air has an initial temperature 600oC and pressure 1MPa. If the air is
expanded according to the law PV1.2 = C to a final volume of 0.1m3 determine
(a) Its initial volume
(b) Its final pressure
(c) Its final temperature
3. The air in a diesel engine cylinder has an initial temperature and pressure of 15 oC and
101kPa. The initial volume is 0.001m3 and the compression ratio is 15:1. During
compression the pressure rises to 3.4MPa. Determine
(a) The mass of air in the cylinder,
(b) The final temperature of the air.
4. A cylinder contains 0.25 m3 of air a t a temperature of 27oC and pressure 1.2bar. After
compression according to the law pV1.4 = C, the pressure has risen to 6.0 bar. Calculate
(a) The mass of the air
(b) The compressed volume
(c) The work input
5. Air of initial volume 1.5 m3 and pressure 100kPa is compressed adiabatically to a pressure
of 650kPa. It is then allowed to expand isothermally back to its origin al volume, determine
the net work done
6. A quantity of gas has a mass of 1 kg and occupies a volume of 0 .12 m3 at a pressure of 7
bar. If the gas is expanded adiabatically in a closed system to a pressure of 1.5 bar,
determine
(a) The final volume
(b) The work done
(c) The temperature change which occurs. Take γ =1.38 , c v =720 J /kgK
TUTORIAL: STEADY FLOW PROCESSES FOR PERFECT GASES

1. In the turbine of a gas turbine unit the gases flow through the turbine is 17 kg/s and the
power developed by the turbine is 14000kW. The enthalpies of the gases at inlet and outlet
are 1200kJ/kg and 360kJ/kg respectively, and the velocities of the gases at inlet and outlet
are 60 m/s and 150 m/s respectively. Calculate the rate at which the heat is rejected from
the turbine. Find also the area of the inlet pipe given that the specific volume of the gases
at inlet is 0.5m3/kg.
2. Air flows steadily at the rate of 0.4kg/s through an air compressor, entering at 6m/s with a
pressure of1 bar and a specific volume of 0.85m3/kg, and leaving at 4.5m/s with a pressure
of 6.9bar and a specific volume of 0.16m3/kg. The internal energy of air leaving is 88kJ/kg
greater than that of the air entering. Cooling water in a jacket surrounding the cylinder
absorbs heat from the air at the rate of 59kJ/s. Calculate the power required to drive the
compressor and the inlet and outlet pipe cross-sectional areas.
3. A nozzle is a device for increasing the velocity of a steadily flowing stream of fluid. At the
inlet to a certain nozzle the enthalpy of the fluid is 3025 kJ/kg and the velocity is 60 m/s.
At the exit from the nozzle the enthalpy is 2790 kJ/kg. The nozzle is horizontal and there is
negligible heat loss from it.
(i) Find the velocity at the nozzle exit.
(ii) If the inlet area is 0.1 m2 and specific volume at inlet is 0.19m3/kg, find the rate of flow
of fluid.
4. A gas flows steadily through a rotary compressor. The gas enters the compressor at a
temperature of 16°C, a pressure of 100kPa, and an enthalpy of 391.2kJ/kg. The gas leaves
the compressor at a temperature of 245°C, a pressure of 0.6MPa and an enthalpy of
534.5kJ/kg. There is no heat transfer to or from the gas as it flows through the compressor.
(i) Evaluate the external work done per unit mass of gas assuming the gas velocities at
entry and exit to be negligible.
(ii) Evaluate the external work done per unit mass of gas when the gas velocity at entry is
80 m/s and that at exit is 160 m/s.
5. A stream of gases at 7.5 bar, 800°C and 150 m/s is passed through a turbine of a jet engine.
The stream comes out of the turbine at 2.0 bar, 600°C and 300 m/s. The process may be
assumed adiabatic. The enthalpies of gas at the entry and exit of the turbine are 960 kJ/kg
and 700 kJ/kg gas respectively. Determine the capacity of the turbine if the gas flow is 4
kg/s.
TUTORIAL: USE OF THE STEAM TABLES

1. Determine internal energy of steam if its enthalpy, pressure and specific volumes are
2849kJ/kg, 12MPa and 0.01719m3/kg.
2. Determine entropy of 1 kg of steam at 2 MPa and 300°C
3. Determine enthalpy, entropy and specific volume for following cases
(i) Steam at 4 MPa and 80% wet.
(ii) Steam at 10 MPa and 550°C.
(iii) Steam at 8 MPa and 295°C
4. Determine the temperature of steam at 20 MPa if its specific volume is 0.01815m3/kg
5. Determine the specific enthalpy of steam at 32bar, 300oc
6. Determine the specific volume of steam at 4bar, 275oc
7. Determine the specific internal energy of steam at 45bar, 425oc
8. Determine the pressure of steam with enthalpy 3316kJ/kg and entropy 6.818kJ/kgK
9.
TUTORIAL: NON-FLOW PROCESSES FOR STEAM

10. A rigid cylinder of volume 0.028 m3 contains steam at 80bar and 350 ° C. The cylinder is
cooled until the pressure is 50bar. Calculate
(i) The state of steam after cooling
(ii) The amount of heat rejected by the steam
11. 0.08 kg of dry steam is heated at a constant pressure of 2bar until the volume occupied is
0.10528 m3. Calculate
(i) Heat supplied
(ii) Work done
12. Dry saturated steam at 100bar expands isothermally and reversibly to a pressure of 10bar.
Calculate per kg of steam
(i) The heat supplied
(ii) The work done
13. In a steam engine cylinder the steam expands from 5.5 bar to 0.75 bar according to a
hyperbolic law, PV = constant. If the steam is initially dry and saturated, calculate per kg
of steam
(i) Work done
(ii) Heat flow to or from the cylinder walls
14. 1 kg of steam at 120bar and 400°C expands reversibly in a perfectly thermally insulated
cylinder behind a piston until the pressure is 40bar and the steam is then dry saturated.
Calculate the work done by the steam
15. In a steam engine the steam at the beginning of the expansion process is at 7 bar, dryness
fraction 0.98 and expansion follows the law pv1.1 = constant, down to a pressure of 0.34
bar. Calculate per kg of steam

(i) The work done during expansion

(ii) The heat flow to or from the cylinder walls during the expansion

6. 0.05 kg of steam is heated at a constant pressure of 2bar until the volume occupied is
0.0658 m3. Calculate the heat supplied and work done.
7. Steam at 7 bar and dryness fraction 0.9 expands in a cylinder behind a piston isothermally
and reversibly to a pressure of 1.5bar. Calculate the change of internal energy and the
change of enthalpy per kg of steam. The heat supplied during the process is found to be
400kJ/kg. Calculate the work done per kg of steam.

8. 1 kg of steam at 100bar and 375°C expands reversibly in a perfectly thermally insulated

cylinder behind a piston until pressure is 38bar and the steam is then saturated. Calculate
the work done by the steam.

9. Steam at 19bar is throttled to 1 bar and the temperature after throttling is found to be
150°C. Calculate the initial dryness fraction of the steam.
TUTORIAL: STEADY FLOW PROCESSES FOR STEAM

1. Steam enters a steam turbine at a pressure of 15bar and 350°C with a velocity of 60 m/s.
The steam leaves the turbine at 1.2bar and with a velocity of 180 m/s. Assuming the
process to be reversible adiabatic, determine the work done per kg of steam flow through
the turbine. Neglect the change in potential energy.

2. Steam at 10 bar and 200°C enters a convergent divergent nozzle with a velocity of 60 m/s
and leaves at 1.5 bar and with a velocity of 650m/s. Assuming that there is no heat loss,
determine the quality of the steam leaving the nozzle.

3. Steam at 18bar is throttled to 1 bar and the temperature after throttling is found to be
150°C. Calculate the initial dryness fraction of the steam

4. Steam at 10bar and 0.9 dryness fraction is throttled to a pressure of 2bar. Determine the
exit condition of steam

5. Steam enters a turbine at 20 m/s and specific enthalpy of 3000 kJ/kg and leaves the
turbine at 40 m/s and specific enthalpy of 2500 kJ/kg. Heat lost to the surroundings is 25
kJ/kg of steam as the steam passes through the turbine. If the steam flow rate is 360000
kg/h, determine the output from the turbine in MW

6. Steam at 7bar and 200°C enters an insulated convergent divergent nozzle with a velocity
of 60m/s. It leaves the nozzle at a pressure of 1.4bar and enthalpy of 2600 kJ/kg.
Determine the velocity of the steam at exit.

7. Steam at 15bar is throttled to 1 bar and a temperature of 150°C. Calculate the initial
dryness fraction and the change of entropy

8. Steam enters a turbine at a pressure of 10bar and 300°C with a velocity of 50 m/s. The
steam leaves the turbine at 1.5 bar and with a velocity of 200 m/s. Assuming the process
to be reversible adiabatic and neglecting the change in potential energy, determine the
work done per kg of steam flow through the turbine.
9. Steam at 10 bar and 300°C passing through a convergent divergent nozzle expands
reversibly and adiabatically till the pressure falls to 2bar. If the velocity of steam entering
into the nozzle is 50 m/s, determine the exit velocity of the steam.

10.
TUTORIAL: GAS POWER CYCLES

Otto, Diesel, Dual, Brayton cycles, Calculation of mean effective pressure, and air standard
efficiency -Actual and theoretical PV diagram of four stroke and two stroke engines.
Otto Cycle:
1. Derive an expression for air standard efficiency of an Otto cycle. Obtain an expression for
mean effective pressure of an Otto cycle.
2. In an engine working on constant volume cycle, the pressure, temperature and volume at the
beginning of the cycle are 1.2 bar, 35oC and 0.5 m3 respectively. At the end of
compression stroke, the pressure is 12bar. 315 kJ of heat is added per kg of gas during
constant volume heating process. Calculate the pressure, temperature and volume at all
points. Also find the air standard efficiency of the cycle.
3. A six cylinder petrol engine has a compression ratio of 5:1. The clearance volume of each
cylinder is 110cm3. It operates on the four stroke constant volume cycle and the indicated
efficiency ratio referred to air standard efficiency is 0.56. At the speed of 2400 rpm, it
consumes 10kg of fuel per hour. The calorific value of fuel is 44000KJ/kg. Determine the
average indicated mean effective pressure.
4. An engine working on Otto cycle has a volume of 0.45m3, pressure 1 bar and temperature
30oC at the beginning of compression stroke. At the end of compression stroke, the
pressure is 11bar and 210kJ of heat is added at constant volume. Determine (i) Pressure,
temperatures and volumes at salient points in the cycle. (ii) Efficiency.
5. The compression ratio in an air-standard Otto cycle is 8. At the beginning of the compression
stroke the pressure is 0.1Mpa and the temperature is 15°C. The heat transfer to the air per
cycle is 1800 kJ/kg of air. Take Cp and Cv for air as 1.005 and 0.718kJ/kgK respectively.
Determine the following
(i) The pressure and temperature at the end of each process of the cycle.
(ii) The thermal efficiency.
(iii) The mean effective pressure.
6. An engine 20 cm bore and 30 cm stroke works on Otto cycle. The clearance volume is 1600
cm3. The initial pressure and temperature are 1bar and 60°C. If the maximum pressure is
limited to 24 bar, find the following:
(i) The air standard efficiency
 (ii) The mean effective pressure of the cycle.
7. An engine working on Otto cycle has a volume of 0.45 m3, pressure of 0.45 m3, pressure 1
bar and temperature 30oC at the beginning of compression stroke. At the end of
compression stroke, the pressure is 11 bars. 210 kJ of heat added is at constant volume.
Determine
(i) Pressures, temperatures and volumes at salient point in the cycle,
(ii) Percentage of clearance
(iii) Efficiency
(iv) Mean effective pressure
(v) Ideal power developed by the engine if the number of working cycle per minute is
210.
8. In an air standard Otto cycle the compression ratio is 6.5, and at the beginning of isentropic
compression, the temperature is 15oC and the pressure is 1 bar. Heat is added during
constant volume process so that the maximum temperature in the cycle is 14800C.
Calculate
(i) The heat supplied per kg of air,
(ii) The cycle efficiency and
(iii) The mean effective pressure

Diesel Cycle:
9. Derive an expression for mean effective pressure of a Diesel cycle in terms of pressure ratio,
cutoff ratio and compression ratio.

10. An air standard Diesel cycle has a compression ratio of 12 and cutoff takes place at 6% of the
stroke. Calculate the air standard efficiency of the cycle.

11. 1kg of air is taken through a diesel cycle. Initially the air is at 25oC and 1 bar. The
compression ratio is 14 and the heat added is 1850KJ. Calculate the ideal cycle efficiency
and the mean effective pressure.
12. Draw the theoretical and actual P.V. diagrams for 4-stroke diesel engine and explain why in
practice the actual condition differs from the ideal condition.

13. In an air standard Diesel cycle, the compression ratio is 18, and at the beginning of isentropic
compression, the temperature is 270C and the pressure is 0.1MPa. 1800 kJ of heat is
added at constant pressure. Calculate i) the cut-off ratio, ii) the heat supplied per kg of air
iii) the cycle efficiency and iv) mean effective pressure

Dual Cycle:

14. In a dual cycle the air is compressed isentropically to 1/14th of its initial volume. At the end
of compression heat is added at constant volume till its pressure increases to twice the
pressure at the end of compression. Then heat is added at constant pressure till its volume
increases to twice the volume after compression. Find the efficiency of the cycle.

15. In engine working on Dual cycle, the temperature and pressure at the beginning of cycle are
90oC and one bar. The compression ratio is 9. The maximum pressure is limited to 68bar and
total heat supplied per kg of air is 1750kJ. Determine air standard efficiency and mean
effective pressure.

16. A dual combustion air standard cycle has a compression ratio of 10. The constant pressure
part of combustion takes place at 40bar. The highest and the lowest temperatures of the cycle
are 1727° C and 27° C respectively. The pressure at the beginning of compression is 1 bar.
Calculate (i) the pressures and temperatures at key points of the cycle,(ii) the heat supplied at
constant volume, (iii) the heat supplied at constant pressure, (iv) the heat rejected, (v) the
work output, (vi) the efficiency and (vii) MEP.

17. An air standard dual cycle has a compression ratio of 16 and compression begins at1.013 bar,
50°C. The maximum pressure is 70bar. The heat transferred to air at constant pressure is
equal to that at constant volume. Estimate the temperatures at the cardinal points of the cycle
and the cycle efficiency.
18. An air-standard Dual cycle has a compression ratio of 10. The pressure and temperature at
the beginning of compression are I bar and 27°C. The maximum pressure reached is 42 bar
and the maximum temperature us 1500oC Determine
(i) The temperature at the end of constant volume heat addition
(ii) Cut-off ratio
(iii) Work done per kg of air and
(iv) Net-work output per kg
(v) Cycle efficiency

Brayton Cycle:
19. Derive an expression for air standard efficiency of a Brayton cycle in terms of pressure ratio
and compression ratio. Also prove that the pressure ratio for maximum work is a function of
limiting temperature ratio.

20. The extreme of pressure and temperature in an open circuit constant pressure gas turbine
plant are 1 bar, 5.25bar and 25oC and 560oC respectively. The isentropic efficiency of the
turbine is 88% and that of the compressor is 84%. Determine the efficiency of the plant.

21. A gas turbine works on an air standard Brayton cycle. The initial condition of the air is
25°C and 1 bar. The maximum pressure and temperature are limited to 3 bar and 650°C.
Determine the following:
(i) Cycle efficiency
(ii) Heat supplied and heat rejected/kg of air
(iii) Work output/kg of air
(iv) Exhaust temperature

22. Air enters the compressor of a gas turbine at 100kPa and 25° C. For a pressure ratio of 5 and
a maximum temperature of 850°C determine the thermal efficiency using the Brayton
cycle.
23. An air standard Limited pressure cycle has a compression ratio of 15 and compression begins
at 0.1MPa, 40°C. The maximum pressure is limited to 6MPa and the heat added is 1.675
MJ/Kg. Compute
(i) The heat supplied at constant volume per kg of air, and the heat supplied at
constant pressure per kg of air.
(ii) The work done per kg of air, the cycle efficiency, and the temperature at the end
of the constant volume heating process.
(iii) The cut-off ratio, and
(iv) The m.e.p. of the cycle.
TUTORIAL: COMBUSTION OF FUELS

1. In a boiler trial the fuel analysis was C 88%, H2 3.6%, O2 4.8%, S 0.5% by mass,
remainder ash. Determine the mass of air required per kg of fuel for chemically correct
combustion.
If the actual air supply is 50% in excess of this, estimate the percentage analysis by mass
of the dry flue gases.
2. The percentage composition by mass of the coal supplied to a boiler is C 81%, H2 6% O2
8% and the remainder ash. Calculate the theoretical mass of air required for complete
combustion of 1kg of coal. If 60% excess air be supplied, determine the total mass of the
flue gases produced per kg of coal burnt and state their analysis by mass.
3. An oil fuel consists of 84% carbon and 16% hydrogen by mass. If the air supplied for the
combustion of this oil is 20% greater than that needed for complete combustion, estimate
the volumetric analysis of the dry exhaust gases.
4. A fuel of composition C 85%, H2 4.5% remainder ash, is burned in a boiler furnace with
50% excess air. Taking R=284J/kgK for the resulting flue gas, calculate the cross-
sectional area of the chimney required if 85kg of fuel is burned per hour.
Take the velocity of the flue gas in the chimney as 3m/s, chimney pressure and
temperature as 96kN/m2 and 340oc respectively.
5. A petrol C7H16 is burned with 20% more air than that required for a theoretically correct
mixture. Determine, assuming complete combustion,
(a) The mass of air supplied per kg of fuel
(b) The mass of each of the actual exhaust products per kg of fuel burned
(c) The percentage analysis by volume of the total products of combustion.
6. A fuel which can be assumed to be CH4O is burnt with twice the theoretical minimum
quantity of dry air required for complete combustion. What proportion of the exhaust gas
will be water vapour
(a) by weight
(b) by volume
7. A fuel whose analysis by mass can be taken as 84% carbon and 16% hydrogen is burnt
with 101% excess air. What weight and volume of dry exhaust gas at 150kN/m2 and
370oc will pass through the exhaust per kg of fuel burnt.
8. Estimate the mass of air to be supplied for the combustion of a fuel containing 75%
carbon, 8% hydrogen and 3% oxygen, assuming 50% excess air to be used. What
volume of air at 15oc and 100kN/m2 does this represent per kg of fuel?
9. (a) Explain what is meant by the higher calorific value of a fuel.
(b) during a test with a bomb calorimeter the following observations were recorded:
 mass of fuel burned 0.515g
 mass of water in calorimeter 2420g
 water equivalent of calorimeter 390g
 initial temperature of water 13oc
 final temperature of water 14.9oc

10. The following results were recorded during the determination of the calorific value of
coal gas using a gas calorimeter:
 Water collected 2500g
 Inlet temperature 14oc
 Outlet temperature 28.3oc
 Gas consumed 0.01m3
 Gas pressure 89mm of water above atmospheric
 Gas temperature 17oc
 Barometric pressure 780mm of mercury
Determine the calorific value of the gas in joules per cubic metre. (A standard cubic metre is
measured at 15oc and 760mm of mercury).
11. A gaseous fuel has the percentage analysis by volume:
Hydrogen 16, Nitrogen 50 Carbon monoxide 28, Carbon dioxide 6
Determine the minimum theoretical volume of air required for the complete combustion
of 1m3 of this fuel.
When the fuel is burned, the air supply is at the rate of 47.67m3 per cubic metre of fuel.
12. The dry exhaust gas from an oil engine had the following percentage composition by
volume:
CO2, 8.85%; CO, 1.2%; O2, 6.8%; N2, 83.15%
The fuel oil has a percentage composition by mass of
C, 84%; H2, 14% and O2, 2%
Determine the mass of air supplied per kg of fuel burnt.
Air contains 23% O2 by mass.
13. A fuel oil consists of 86% C and 14% H2 by mass. During a test on an engine using this
oil, the dry exhaust gas analysis by volume was 11.25% CO2, 1.2% O2, 2.8% CO and the
remainder N2
Estimate the air-fuel ratio by mass being supplied to the engine.
TUTORIAL: HEAT TRANSFER

1. The inner surface of a plane brick wall is at 40°C and the outer surface is at 20°C.
Calculate the rate of heat transfer per m2 of surface area of the wall, which is 250 mm
thick. The thermal conductivity of the brick is 0.52 W/mK.
2. Determine the rate of heat flow through the boiler wall made of 2 cm thick steel and
covered with an insulating material of 0.5 cm thick. The temperatures at the inner and outer
surfaces of the wall are300°C and 50°C respectively.
k (steel) = 58 W/Mk
k (insulation) = 0.116 W/mK
3. A mild steel tank of wall thickness 10 mm contains water at 90°C. Calculate the rate of
heat loss per m2 of tank surface area when the atmospheric temperature is 15°C. The
thermal conductivity of mild steel is 50W/mK, and the heat transfer coefficients for inside
and outside the tank are 2800 and 11W/m2 K, respectively. Calculate also the temperature
of the outside surface of the tank.
4. A cold storage room has walls made of 0.23 m of brick on the outside, 0.08 m of plastic
foam, and finally 15 mm of wood on the inside. The outside and inside air temperatures are
22°C and – 2°C respectively. If the inside and outside heat transfer coefficients are
respectively 29 and 12 W/m2K and the thermal conductivities of brick, foam and wood are
0.98, 0.02 and 0.17 W/mK respectively determine
(i) the rate of heat removal by refrigeration if the total wall area is 90 m2
(ii) The temperature of the inside surface of the brick.
5. A steel pipe of 100 mm bore and 7 mm wall thickness, carrying steam at 260°C, is
insulated with 40 mm of a high temperature diatomaceous earth covering. This covering is
in turn insulated with 60 mm of asbestos felt. If the atmospheric temperature is 15°C,
calculate the rate at which heat is lost by the steam per m length of the pipe. The heat
transfer coefficients for the inside and outside surfaces are 550 and 15 W/m2K, respectively
and the thermal conductivities of steel, diatomaceous earth and asbestos felt are 50, 10.09
and 0.07 W/mK respectively. Calculate also the temperature of the outside surface.
6. A steam pipe of 160 mm inside diameter and 170 mm outside diameter (k = 58 W/m K) is
covered with first layer of insulating material of 30 mm thickness (k = 0.17 W/m K) and
 second layer of insulating material of 50 mm thickness (k = 0.093 W/m K). The
temperature of steam passing through the pipe is 300°C and ambient air temperature
surrounding the pipe is 30°C. Taking inner and outer heat transfer coefficients 30 and 5.8
W/m2K respectively, find the heat lost per metre length of pipe.
7. A furnace wall consists of 200 mm layer of refractory bricks, 6 mm layer of steel plate and
a 100 mm layer of insulation bricks. The maximum temperature of the wall is 1150°C on
the furnace side and the minimum temperature is 40°C on the outermost side of the wall.
An accurate energy balance over the furnace shows that the heat loss from the wall is 400
W/m2. It is known that there is a thin layer of air between the layers of refractory bricks
and steel plate. Thermal conductivities for the three layers are 1.52, 45 and 0.138 W/m°C
respectively. Find:
(i) To how many millimeters of insulation brick is the air layer equivalent?
(ii) What is the temperature of the outer surface of the steel plate?
8. An exterior wall of a house may be approximated by a 0.1 m layer of common brick (k =
0.7 W/m°C) followed by a 0.04 m layer of gypsum plaster (k = 0.48 W/m°C).
What thickness of loosely packed rock wool insulation (k = 0.065 W/m°C) should be added
to reduce the heat loss or (gain) through the wall by 80 per cent?
TUTORIAL: HEAT EXCHANGERS

1. In a counter-flow double pipe heat exchanger, water is heated from 25°C to 65°C by an
oil with a specific heat of 1.45 kJ/kg K and mass flow rate of 0.9 kg/s. The oil is cooled
from 230°C to 160°C. If the overall heat transfer coefficient is 420 W/m2°C, calculate
the following
(i) The rate of heat transfer,
(ii) The mass flow rate of water, and
(iii) The surface area of the heat exchanger
2. The flow rates of hot and cold water streams running through a parallel-flow heat
exchanger are 0.2 kg/s and 0.5 kg/s respectively. The inlet temperatures on the hot and
cold sides are 75°C and 20°C respectively. The exit temperature of hot water is 45°C. If
the individual heat transfer coefficients on both sides are 650 W/m2°C, calculate the area
of the heat exchanger
3. Exhaust gases flowing through a tubular heat exchanger at the rate of 0.3 kg/s are cooled
from 400°C to120°C by water initially at 10°C. The specific heat of exhaust gases and
water may be taken as 1.13 and 4.19 kJ/kg K respectively, and overall heat transfer co-
efficient from gases to water is 140 W/m2 K.
Calculate the surface area required when the cooling water flow is 0.4 kg/s
(i) For parallel-flow
(ii) For counter-flow
TUTORIAL: STEAM TURBINES

1. Steam enters the blade row of an impulse turbine with a velocity of 600m/s at an angle of
25oC to the plane of rotation of blades. The mean blade speed is 200m/s. the blade angle
at the exit is 30o. The blade friction loss is 10%. Determine
(i) The blade angle at inlet
(ii) The work done per kg of steam
(iii) The diagram efficiency
(iv) The axial thrust per kg of steam per second.

2. The blade speed of a single ring of an impulse turbine is 300 m/s and the nozzle angle is
20°. The isentropic heat drop is 473kJ/kg and the nozzle efficiency is 0.85. Given that the
blade velocity coefficient is 0.7 and the blades are symmetrical, draw the velocity
diagrams and calculate for a mass flow of 1 kg/s:
(i) Axial thrust on the blading.
(ii) Steam consumption per B.P. hour if the mechanical efficiency is 90 per cent.
(iii) Blade efficiency and stage efficiency
3. The data pertaining to impulse turbine is as follows:
Steam velocity = 500.mls; Blade speed = 200 m/s; Exit angle of moving blade = 25°;
Nozzle angle = 25°. Neglecting the effect of friction when passing through the blade
passages, calculate (1) inlet angle of moving blade, (2) exit velocity and direction, (3)
work done/kg of steam, (4) axial thrust and power for a steam flow rate of 5 kg/s, and
(5) diagram efficiency.

4. (i) What are the advantages and limitations of velocity compounding?

(ii) In a two stage velocity compounded steam turbine, the mean blade speed is 150 m/s
while the steam velocity as it issued from the nozzle is 675m/s. The nozzle angle is 20°.
The exit angle of first row moving blade, fixed blade and the second row moving blades
are 25°, 25° and 30° respectively. The blade friction coefficient is 0.9. Determine for a
flow rate of 4.5 kg/s (1) the power output and (2) the diagram efficiency.
5. The steam enters an impulse wheel having a nozzle angle of 20o at a velocity of
450m/sec. The exit angle of the moving blade is 20° and the relative velocity of the steam
may be assumed to remain constant over the moving blades. If the blade speed is 180
m/sec, determine (i) Blade angle at inlet (ii) Work done per kg of steam (iii) Power of the
wheel, when the turbine is supplied with 1.8 kg of steam per second.
6. (i) What are the different methods commonly used for governing steam turbines?
(ii) The following data refer to a single stage impulse turbine:
Isentropic nozzle enthalpy drop = 210 kJ/kg, Nozzle efficiency = 90%, Nozzle angle =
25°, Ratio of blade speed to whirl component of steam speed = 0.5, Blade velocity
coefficient = 0.9, the velocity of steam entering the nozzle = 30 m/sec. Find (1) the blade
angles at inlet and outlet if the steam enters the blades .without shock and leaves the
blades in an axial direction (2) blade efficiency and (3) power developed and (4) axial
thrust if the steam flow rate is 10 kg/sec.

7. A single row impulse turbine develops 132.4 kW at a blade speed of 175 m/s, using 2 kg
of steam per sec. Steam leaves the nozzle at 400 m/s. Velocity coefficient of the blades is
0.9. Steam leaves the turbine blades axially. Determine nozzle angle, blade angles at
entry and exit, assuming no shock.

8. (i) Explain pressure-velocity compounding with a neat sketch.

(ii) What is governing of turbines? Explain nozzle control and bypass governing.
9. (i) What is the need for governing the steam turbines? What are the different methods
of governing steam turbines? Describe any one method of governing with simple
sketches.
(ii) Explain the difference between the operation of impulse and reaction steam turbines

10. A single-stage impulse turbine is supplied steam at 4bar and 160°C and it is exhausted
at a condenser pressure of 0. 1 bar at the rate (if 60 kg/mm. The steam expands in a
nozzle with an efficiency of 90%. The blade speed is 250 m/s and nozzle are inclined at
20° to the plane of the wheel. The blade angle at the exit of the moving blade is 30°.
Neglecting friction losses in the moving blade, determine (i) Steam Jet Velocity (ii)
Power developed (iii) Blade efficiency (iv) Stage efficiency
TUTORIAL: GAS TURBINES

1. In an open cycle constant pressure gas turbine air enters the compressor at 1 bar and 300
K. The pressure of air after the compression is 4 bar. The isentropic efficiencies of
compressor and turbine are 78% and 85% respectively. The air-fuel ratio is 80:1.
Calculate the power developed and thermal efficiency of the cycle if the flow rate of air is
2.5 kg/s.
Take cp= 1.005 kJ/kg K and γ = 1.4 for air and cpg= 1.147 kJ/kg K and γ = 1.33 for
gases. R =0.287 kJ/kg K. Calorific value of fuel = 42000 kJ/kg.

2. A gas turbine has a pressure ratio of 6/1 and a maximum cycle temperature of 600°C. The
isentropic efficiencies of the compressor and turbine are 0.82 and 0.85 respectively.
Calculate the power output in kilowatts of an electric generator geared to the turbine
when the air enters the compressor at 15°C at the rate of 15 kg/s.
Take: cp = 1.005 kJ/kg K and γ = 1.4 for the compression process, and take cp = 1.11
kJ/kg K and γ = 1.333

3. The gas turbine has an overall pressure ratio of 5:1 and a maximum cycle temperature of
550°C. The turbine drives the compressor and an electric generator, the mechanical
efficiency of the drive being 97%. The ambient temperature is 20°C and the isentropic
efficiencies for the compressor and turbine are 0.8 and 0.83 respectively. Calculate the
power output in kilowatts for an air flow of 15 kg/s. Calculate also the thermal efficiency
and the work ratio.
Neglect changes in kinetic energy, and the loss of pressure in combustion chamber.

4. Air is drawn in a gas turbine unit at 17°C and 1.01 bar and the pressure ratio is 8: 1. The
compressor is driven by the H.P. turbine and the L.P. turbine drives a separate power
shaft. The isentropic efficiencies of the compressor and the H.P. and L.P. turbines are 0.8,
0.85 and 0.83, respectively. Calculate the pressure and temperature of the gases entering
the power turbine, the net power developed by the unit per kg/s of mass flow, the work
ratio and the thermal efficiency of the unit. The maximum cycle temperature is 650°C.
For the compression process take cp= 1.005 kJ/kg K and γ = 1.4
for the combustion process and expansion process, take cp= 1.15 kJ/kg K and γ = 1.333
Neglect the mass of fuel.

5. In a gas turbine plant, air is compressed through a pressure ratio of 6:1 from 15°C. It is
then heated to the maximum permissible temperature of 750°C and expanded in two
stages each of expansion ratio 6, the air being reheated between the stages to 750°C. A
heat exchanger allows the heating of the compressed gases through 75 per cent of the
maximum range possible. Calculate
(i) The cycle efficiency
(ii) The work ratio
(iii) The work per kg of air

6. The isentropic efficiencies of the compressor and turbine are 0.8 and 0.85 respectively
In a marine gas turbine unit a high-pressure stage turbine drives the compressor, and a
low-pressure stage turbine drives the propeller through suitable gearing. The overall
 pressure ratio is 4:1, and the maximum temperature is 650°C. The isentropic efficiencies
of the compressor, H.P. turbine, and L.P. turbine are 0.8, 0.83, and 0.85 respectively,
and the mechanical efficiency of both shafts is 98%. Calculate the pressure between
turbine stages when the air intake conditions are 1.01 bar and 25°C. Calculate also the
thermal efficiency and the shaft power when the mass flow is 60 kg/s. Neglect kinetic
energy changes, and pressure loss in combustion.

7. In a gas turbine unit comprising L.P. and H.P. compressors, air is taken at 1.01 bar 27°C.
Compression in L.P. stage is up to 3.03 bar followed by intercooling to 30°C. The
pressure of air after H.P. compressor is 58.7bar. Loss in pressure during intercooling is
0.13 bar. Air from H.P. compressor is transferred to heat exchanger of effectiveness 0.60
where it is heated by gases from L.P. turbine. The temperature of gases supplied to H.P.
turbine is 750°C. The gases expand in H.P. turbine to 3.25bar and are then reheated to
700°C before expanding in L.P. turbine. The loss of pressure in re-heater is 0.1bar. If
isentropic efficiency of compression in both stages is 0.80 and isentropic efficiency of
expansion in turbine is 0.85, calculate
(i) Overall efficiency
(ii) Work ratio
(iii) Mass flow rate when the gas power generated is 6500 kW.
Neglect the mass of fuel.
TUTORIAL: AIR COMPRESSORS

1. (a) Derive an expression for volumetric efficiency of a reciprocating compressor.

(b) The free air delivery of a single cylinder single stage reciprocating air compressor is
2.5m3/min. The ambient air is at STP conditions and delivery pressure is 7bar. The
clearance volume is 5% of the stroke volume and law of compression and expansion is
pV1.25= C. If L=1.2D and compressor runs at 150rpm, determine the size of the cylinders.

2. A multi stage air compressor is to be designed to evaluate the pressure from 1 bar to 120bar
such that the single stage pressure ratio not to exceed 4.
Find
(i) Number of stages
(ii) Exact stage pressure ratio
(iii) Inter stage pressure.

3. Consider a single acting two stage reciprocating air compressor running at 300rpm. Air is
compressed at a rate of 4.5kg/min from 1.013bar and 288K through a pressure ratio of 9 to
1. Both the stages have same pressure ratio and the index of expansion in both stages is
1.3. Assume a complete inter-cooling, find the indicated power and the cylinder swept
volume required. Assume that the clearance volumes of both stages are 5% of their
respective swept volumes.
4. Derive an expression for the minimum work required for a two-stage reciprocating air
compressor with perfect inter-cooling and neglecting clearance.
5. A two-cylinder single-acting air compressor is to deliver 16 kg of air per minute at 7bar
from suction conditions 1 bar and 15°C. Clearance may be taken as 4% of stroke volume
and the index for both compression and re expansion as 1.3. Compressor is directly
coupled to a four-cylinder four-stroke petrol engine which runs at 2000r.p.m. with a brake
mean effective pressure of 5.5bar. Assuming a stroke-broke ratio of 1.2 for both engine and
compressor and a mechanical efficiency of 82% for compressor, calculate the required
cylinder dimensions.
6. A two stage air compressor compresses air from 1 bar and 20°C to 42bar. If the law of
compression is pv1.3= constant and the inter cooling is perfect. Find per kg of air
 (i) The work done in compression
(ii) The mass of cooling water necessary for abstracting the heat in the intercooler, if the
temperature rise of the cooling water is 25°C.
7. (i) With a neat sketch describe any one type of rotary compressor.
(ii) A single stage single acting reciprocating air compressor delivers 14 m3 of free air per
minute from 1 bar to 7bar. The speed of compressor is 310rpm.Assuming that
compression and expansion follow the law pv1.35 = constant and clearance is 5% of the
swept volume, find the diameter and stroke of the compressor. Take stroke length is
1.5 times the bore diameter.
8. (i) Explain with suitable sketches the working of two stage air compressor with actual p-v
diagram.
(ii) A single acting single stage compressor is belt driven from an electric motor at 400rpm.
The cylinder diameter is 15 cm and the stroke is 17.5 cm. The air is compressed from
1 bar to 7 bar and the law of compression PV1.3 = constant. Find the power of the
motor, if transmission efficiency is 97% and the mechanical efficiency of the
compressor is 90%. Neglect clearance effects.
9. A three-stage air-compressor delivers 5.2 m3 of free air per minute. The suction pressure
and temperature are 1 bar and 30°C. The ambient pressure and temperature are 1.03 bar
and 20°C. The air is cooled to 30°C after each stage of compression. The delivery pressure
of the compressor is 150bar. The RPM of the compressor is 300. The clearances of LP, I.P
and H.P cylinders are 5% of the respective strokes. The index of compression and re
expansion in all stages is 1.35. Neglecting pressure losses, find the B.P of the motor
required to run the compressor if the mechanical efficiency is 80%.
10. (a) Define the volumetric efficiency of a reciprocating compressor and explain why it
is less than unity.
(b) Determine the size of the cylinder of a double acting air compressor of 32 kW I.P.
in which air is drawn in at 1 bar and compressed to 16 bar according to the law pv1.25
constant. R.P.M.=300, Piston speed = 180 m/min, Volumetric efficiency = 0.8.

11. A two-stage double acting air compressor, operating at 200r.p.m, takes in air at 1.013bar and
27° C. The size of the L.P. cylinder is 350 x 380 mm, the stroke of H.P. cylinder is the
 same as that of the L.P. cylinder and the clearance of both the cylinders is 4%. The L.P.
cylinder discharges the air at a pressure of 4.052bar. The air passes through the inter-cooler
so that it enters the H.P. cylinder at 27° C and 3.850 bar, finally it is discharged from the
compressor at 15.4bar. The value of n is both cylinders is 1.3. Cp = 1.0035 kJ/kg-K and R
= 0.287 kJ/kg-K.
Calculate

(i) The heat rejected in the inter-cooler.

(ii) The diameter of H.P. cylinder and

(iii) The power required to drive H.P. cylinder.

12. (a) What are the advantages of multistage compression?

(b) A single stage single acting reciprocating air compressor takes in 17m3/min at suction
conditions of 100kPa and 25°C. The delivery pressure is 700kPa. The clearance volume is
6% of swept volume. The compression and expansion follows the law pV1.3 = Constant.
The speed of the compressor is 600 rpm. Stroke to bore ratio is 1. Find the power required
to drive the compressor and Cylinder dimensions.
13. The FAD (free air delivered) of a single cylinder single stage air compressor is 2.5 m3/min.
The ambient is at 0oC and 1.013bar and delivery pressure is 7bar. The clearance volume is
5% of the stroke volume and law of compression and expansion is PV1.25=C.
If L = 1.2 D and compressor runs at 150 rpm. Determine power required, mean effective
pressure and size of the cylinder.
14. Four cylinders, double acting air compressor is required to compress 25 m/min of air at 1bar
and 25°C to a pressure of 15 bar, Determine the size of motor required and the cylinder
dimensions if the following additional data is given: clearance volume = 5%; L / D = 1.2;
rpm = 300; mechanical efficiency 80%; polytropic index n = 1.35. Assume no pressure
changes in suction valves and that the air gets heated by 10°C during suction stroke.
15. A single-acting two stage compressor with complete inter-cooling delivers 10.5 kg/min of
air at 16bar. The suction occurs at 1 bar and 27°C. The compression and expansion
processes are reversible, polytropic index n = 1.3. The speed of the compressor is 440 rpm.
Calculate the following.
(i) The power required to drive the compressor. (ii) Isothermal efficiency
 (iii) Free air delivered (iv) The heat transferred in the intercooler.
16. A single acting two stage air compressor with complete inter-cooling delivers 10 kg of
air at16 bar pressure. The suction occurs at 1 bar and 15°C. The compression and expansion
processes are reversible polytropic with the polytropic index n = 1.25. Calculate,
(i) Indicated power. (ii)Free air delivery,(iii) Isothermal efficiency and (iv) Heat
transferred in the intercooler.
17. A single stage single acting air compressor running at 1000 rpm delivers air at 25bar. For
this purpose the induction and free air condition can be taken as 1.013 bar and 15oC and the
free air delivery as 25m3/min. The clearance volume is 3% of the swept volume and the
stroke/bore ratio is 1.2:1. Calculate the bore, stroke and the volumetric efficiency of this
machine. Take the index of compression and expansion a 1.3. Calculate also the indicated
power and the isothermal efficiency.
18. A single stage single acting air compressor, the clearance volume is 5% of stroke volume.
Air is drawn in constant pressure of 1 bar at a temperature of 37oC. Compression follows the
law pv1.2 = C and the receiver pressure is 7bar. The compressor delivers 15kg/min. Find
(i) Volumetric efficiency, (ii) Power required to drive the compressor.
19. (a) Derive an expression for the minimum work required for a two-stage reciprocating air
compressor with perfect intercooling and neglecting clearance.
(b) A two stage air compressor compresses air from 1 bar and 20°C to 42bar. If the law of
compression is pV1.35 = constant and the inter-cooling is perfect. Find per kg of air (i)
the work done in compression (ii) the mass of cooling water necessary for abstracting
the heat in the intercooler, if the temperature rise of the cooling water is 25°C.