Module 1.

Review on Proof Strategies 1

1
Proof Strategies
Proving theorems is a common practice in mathematics. Abstract Algebra, as one

of the newly developed courses in mathematics discipline, was bombarded with a lot of

theorems that requires proof. Thus, as a mathematics enthusiast it is necessary for you to

review the several proof strategies. In this section, we will try to explore common proof

strategies as we deal with our subject Abstract Algebra or otherwise known as Modern

Algebra

SELF-CHECK!!!

After finishing this module, you are expected to achieve the following intended
learning outcomes.
1. Accurately illustrated concepts of direct proof, proof by contrapositive and proof
by contradiction.
2. Correctly written solutions on problems and exercises related to proof strategies

LEARNING RESOURCES
For further readings, you may refer to the following books;
Ethan D. Bloch Proofs and Fundamentals A First Course in Abstract
Module 1. Review on Proof Strategies 2

Mathematics Second Edition, Page 47-80

Ted Sundstrom Mathematical Reasoning Writing and Proof Version 1.1, Page 82-141

EXPLORE!!!!
We will now try to build up our understanding about Abstract

Algebra. Let us start learning the basic concepts relevant to our course of

study.

PROOF STRATEGIES
Abstract Algebra was filled with a lot of conditional statements that requires

proof. These conditional statements were often expressed as theorems. Theorems served

as foundations of the building blocks of mathematics in general. Thus, it is important for

us to understand ways to prove theorems to establish the validity of formulas as well as

statements. There are ways to prove theorems with verified rules to follow. In

mathematics, these ways of proving theorems were being referred to as proof strategies.

Proof strategies were established to aid in verifying validity of statements and

formulas. It contains steps that were anchored on sound principles of logic. These

principles in logic follows a certain approach that allows verification of the results

whether it is valid or not. The validity of statements was established using a clearly

organized syntax that was scientifically acceptable. An orderly established theorems and

conditional statements forms a strong foundation for a huge collection of concepts that

comprises mathematics discipline.

Module 1. Review on Proof Strategies 3

In mathematics, conditional statements were commonly written in “if -then” form.

The “if” part of the conditional statement was termed as “antecedent” or “hypothesis”

and the “then” part of the conditional statement was called “consequent” or

“conclusion”. The conditional statement in mathematics can be proven using several

ways. The most common way of proving conditional statements includes direct proof,

proof by contrapositive or contraposition and proof by contradiction. These ways of

proving conditional statements were referred to as proof strategies. Symbolically,

conditional statement was written on this form 𝒑 → 𝒒. The first statement represented by

𝒑 was the antecedent and 𝒒 was the consequent.

DIRECT PROOF

A direct proof shows that a conditional statement 𝒑 → 𝒒 is true by showing that 𝑝

is true, then 𝑞 must also be true, thus the combination 𝑝 (true) and 𝑞 (false) never occurs.

In a direct proof, we assume that 𝑝 is true and use axioms, definitions, and previously

proven theorems, together with the rules of inference, to show that 𝑞 must also be true.

Example 1. Give a direct proof of the theorem “If 𝑛 is an odd integer, then 𝑛2 is odd”

Solution:

In the conditional statement, the antecedent is “𝑛 is an odd integer” and the consequent is

“then 𝑛2 is odd”. By definition, an integer 𝑛 is even if there exist an integer 𝑘 such that

𝑛 = 2𝑘, and 𝑛 is odd if there exist an integer 𝑘 such that 𝑛 = 2𝑘 + 1 for some 𝑘 ∈ ℤ.

𝑛 = 2𝑘 + 1, 𝑘∈ℤ

𝑛2 = (2𝑘 + 1)2 = 4𝑘 2 + 4𝑘 + 1 = (4𝑘 2 + 4𝑘) + 1

𝑛2 = 2(2𝑘 2 + 2𝑘 ) + 1 = 𝟐𝒉 + 𝟏 , ℎ = (2𝑘 2 + 2𝑘 ) ∈ ℤ
Module 1. Review on Proof Strategies 4

∴ 𝑛2 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑∎
(Note: the symbol ∎ means “end of proof”)
Example 2. Give a direct proof of the theorem “If 𝑚 and 𝑛 are both perfect squares, then

𝑚𝑛 is also a perfect square.”

Solution:

In the conditional statement, the antecedent is “If 𝑚 and 𝑛 are both perfect squares” and

the consequent is “𝑚𝑛 is also a perfect square”. By definition, an integer 𝑥 is a perfect

square if there exist an integer 𝑘 such that 𝑥 = 𝑘 2 for some 𝑘 ∈ ℤ.

∃ 𝑘, 𝑡 ∈ ℤ such that 𝑚 = 𝑘 2 and 𝑛 = 𝑡 2

𝑚𝑛 = 𝑘 2 𝑡 2 = (𝑘𝑡)2 = ℎ2 ; ℎ = 𝑘𝑡 ∈ ℤ

∴ 𝑚𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒∎

PROOF BY CONTRAPOSITIVE OR CONTRAPOSITION

Proof by contraposition make use of the fact that the conditional statement 𝒑 → 𝒒

is equivalent to its contrapositive ¬𝑞 → ¬𝑝. This means that the conditional statement

𝒑 → 𝒒 can be proved by showing that its contrapositive ¬𝑞 → ¬𝑝 is true. In a proof of

contraposition, we take ¬𝑞 as antecedent and use axioms, definitions, and previously

proven theorems, together with the rules of inference, to show that ¬𝑝 must also be true.

(Note: the symbol ¬ means “negation”)

Example 3. Prove that “If 𝑛 is an integer and 𝑛2 odd, then 𝑛 is odd”

Solution:

In the conditional statement, the antecedent is “𝑛 is an integer and 𝑛2 odd” and the

consequent is “𝑛 is odd”.

Assume that 𝑛 is even integer, 𝑛 = 2𝑘; 𝑘 ∈ ℤ

Module 1. Review on Proof Strategies 5

𝑛2 = (2𝑘 )2 = 4𝑘 2 = 2(2𝑘 2 )

𝑛2 = 2(2𝑘 2 ) = 𝟐𝒉 , ℎ = (2𝑘 2 ) ∈ ℤ

∴ 𝑛2 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛∎

Example 4. Prove that “If 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑏 where 𝑎 &𝑏 are positive integers, then 𝑎 ≤ √𝑛 or 𝑏 ≤

√𝑛”

Solution:

In the conditional statement, the antecedent is “ 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑏 where 𝑎 &𝑏 are positive integers”

and the consequent is “then 𝑎 ≤ √𝑛 or 𝑏 ≤ √𝑛”.

Assume that 𝑎 > √𝑛 and 𝑏 > √𝑛

𝑎𝑏 > √𝑛 ∙ √𝑛

𝑎𝑏 > 𝑛

∴ 𝑎𝑏 ≠ 𝑛∎

PROOF BY CONTRADICTION

Proof by contradiction make use of the fact that the conditional statement 𝒑 → 𝒒

is true when 𝑝 is true and 𝑞 is true. To use proof by contradiction, we assume that 𝑝 and

¬𝑞 is true. We take ¬𝑞 as antecedent and use axioms, definitions, and previously proven

theorems, together with the rules of inference, to show that ¬𝑝 must also be true. This

leads to contradiction that 𝑝 and ¬𝑝 are both true.

Example 5. Give a proof by contradiction of the theorem “If 3𝑛 + 2 is odd, then 𝑛 is

odd.”

Solution:

In the conditional statement, the antecedent is “3𝑛 + 2 is odd” and the consequent is

“then 𝑛 is odd”.
Module 1. Review on Proof Strategies 6

Assume that 3𝑛 + 2 is odd and 𝑛 is even

𝑛 = 2𝑘; 𝑘 ∈ ℤ

3𝑛 + 2 = 3(2𝑘 ) + 2 = 6𝑘 + 2 = 2(3𝑘 + 1)

3𝑛 + 2 = 2𝑡, 𝑡 = 3𝑘 + 1 ∈ ℤ

∴ 3𝑛 + 2 ∎

Example 6. Prove that √2 is irrational using Proof by Contradiction.

Solution:

Let 𝑝 be the statement “√2 is irrational.”

𝑎
Assume that √2 is rational. By definition, 𝑛 is rational if ∃ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ such that 𝑛 = 𝑏 and

(𝑎, 𝑏) = 1

𝑎
√2 =
𝑏

2 𝑎 2
(√2) = ( )
𝑏

𝑎2
2=
𝑏2

𝑎2 = 2𝑏2

𝑎2 is even ⟹ 2/𝑎 so 𝑎 = 2𝑘, 𝑘 ∈ ℤ

By substitution,

𝑎2 = 2𝑏2

(2𝑘)2 = 2𝑏2

4𝑘 2 = 2𝑏2

2𝑘 2 = 𝑏2
Module 1. Review on Proof Strategies 7

𝑏2 is even ⟹ 2/𝑏 so 2/𝑎 and 2/𝑏

This is a contradiction to the assumption that (𝑎, 𝑏) = 1, so 𝑝 is true.

∴ √2 is irrational ∎

DISCUSSION BOARD
We will now try to interact with each other in a two-way process

at a least possible way! I will post a question/s and try to answer it on your own.

1. How do we prove a conditional statement?

2. What are the proof strategies that we can use to prove conditional

statements/theorems?

3. How do we differentiate each proof strategies from one another?

4. Can you name some common applications of these proof strategies?

5. What pointers can you give for your fellow students studying proof strategies?

POST COMPETENCY CHECKLISTS

Let us try to determine if you learned something from our topic. Answer the following
Self-Assessment Question.

SELF – ASSESSMENT QUESTION 1

1. Illustrate the steps in proving conditional statements using symbols.
a. Direct Proof
b. Proof by Contrapositive
c. Proof by Contradiction
Module 1. Review on Proof Strategies 8

2. Use the different proof strategies to prove the following theorems.

a. Use a direct proof to show that the sum of two odd integers is even.
b. Show that the square of an even number is an even number using direct proof.
c. Use proof by contraposition to show that if 𝑥 + 𝑦 ≥ 2, where 𝑥 and 𝑦 are real
numbers, then 𝑥 ≥ 1 or 𝑦 ≥ 1 .
d. Use proof by contraposition to prove that if 𝑛 is a positive integer, then 𝑛 is even if and
only if 7𝑛 + 4 is even.
e. Use proof by contradiction to prove that the sum of an irrational number and a rational
number is irrational.
f. Show that if 𝑛 is an integer and 𝑛3 + 5 is odd, then 𝑛 is even using proof by
contradiction.

ASSIGNMENT

1. Prove the following theorems using direct proof.

a. Show that the sum of two even integers is even.

b. Show that the product of two odd numbers is odd.

c. Show that every odd integer is the difference of two squares.

d. Show that if 𝑝 is an odd prime number, then the number 4 is a divisor to 2𝑝 + 2.

e. Prove that if 𝑛 is an odd number, then 𝑛2 ≡ 1 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 4)

2. Prove the following theorems using proof by contraposition

a. If 𝑚 and 𝑛 are integers and 𝑚𝑛 is even, then 𝑚 is even or 𝑛 is even.

b. If 𝑛 is an integer and 𝑛3 + 5 is odd, then 𝑛 is even.

Module 1. Review on Proof Strategies 9

c. If 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑧 2 , ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ ℤ, then one of these numbers 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 is at least should be

even.

d. If 𝑎 is an integer where 5 ∤ 𝑎, then 5 ∤ (𝑎 + 20).

e. If 𝑛2 − 1 is odd, then 𝑛 is even.

3. Prove the following theorems using proof by contradiction

a. If 𝑛 is an integer and 3𝑛 + 2 is even, then 𝑛 is even.

b. Show that there is no rational number 𝑟 for which 𝑟 3 + 𝑟 + 1 = 0.

1
c. Prove that 𝑥 + 𝑥 ≥ 2, ∀ 𝑥 ∈ ℝ# .

d. Prove that ∄ 𝑚, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ such that 4𝑛 + 6𝑚 = 11.

e. Prove that ∄ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ+ such that 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 500 and (𝑎, 𝑏) = 7.