Chapter 2

Methods of Proving Theorems

2.1 Introduction
Before presenting the methods of proving theorems, we need to understand
how mathematical theorems are stated. For example, The statement
If x > y, where x and y are positive real numbers, then x2 > y 2 ,
really means,
For all positive real numbers x and y, if x > y, then x2 > y 2 .


To prove a theorem of the form ∀x p(x) −→ q(x) is true, our goal is to show
that p(c) −→ q(c) is true where c is an arbitrary element of the domain and then
apply universal generalization.

In this chapter, some methods of proving theorems such as direct proof,

proof by contraposition, proof by contradiction, proof by counterex-
ample and proof by mathematical induction are presented.

2.2 The Direct Proof

A direct proof shows that a conditional statement p −→ q is true by showing
that if p is true, then q must also be true, so that the combination p true and q
false never occurs.

In a direct proof, we assume that p is true and use axioms, definitions, and
previously proven theorems, together with rules of inference, to show that q must
also be true. Before we give the first example, we need the following definition.

23
Dr. Akram Alqesmah 24

Definition 2.1. If n is an integer, then

(i) n is even ⇔ n = 2k, for some integer k.

(ii) n is odd ⇔ n = 2k + 1, for some integer k.

Example 2.1. Give a direct proof of the theorem, ( If n is an odd integer, then
n2 is odd).
Solution: Assume that n is odd integer. Then by the definition of odd integers
( Definition 2.1), n = 2k + 1 where k is an integer. Therefore,

n2 =(2k + 1)2 = 4k 2 + 4k + 1
=2(2k 2 + 2k) + 1,

since 2k 2 + 2k is also an integer, then again by definition of odd integers ( Defi-

nition 2.1), n2 is odd.

Example 2.2. Give a direct proof to show that, ( If n and m are both perfect
squares, then nm is also a perfect square).
Note that: An integer a is a perfect square if there exists an integer b
such that a = b2 .
Solution: Assume that n and m are perfect squares. Then there exist two
integers r and s such that n = r2 and m = s2 , respectively. Therefore,

nm =r2 s2 = (rs)2 ,

since rs is also an integer, then by the definition of perfect squares, nm is perfect

square.

2.3 Proof by Contraposition

The attempts at direct proofs often reach dead ends, therefore we need other


methods of proving theorems of the form ∀x p(x) −→ q(x) . Proofs of theo-
rems of this type that are not direct proofs, that is, that do not start with the
hypothesis and end with the conclusion, are called indirect proofs.

An extremely useful type of indirect proof is known as proof by contraposition.

Proofs by contraposition make use of the fact that the conditional statement
Dr. Akram Alqesmah 25

p −→ q is equivalent to its contrapositive, ∼ q −→ ∼ p. This means that the

conditional statement p −→ q can be proved by showing that its contrapositive
∼ q −→ ∼ p is true. In a proof by contraposition of p −→ q, we take ∼ q as a
hypothesis and using axioms, definitions and previously proven theorems together
with rules of inference to show that ∼ p must follow.
Example 2.3. Prove that, ( If 3n + 2 is odd, then n is odd ) where n is an
integer.
Solution: First, we try to use a direct proof, namely, we assume that 3n + 2 is
odd and we want to prove that n is also odd.
Assume that, 3n + 2 is odd. Then 3n + 2 = 2k + 1 for some integer k.
Therefore,
3n =2k + 1 − 2 = 2(k − 1) + 1.
This shows that 3n is an odd integer. But we need to prove that n is odd and
we can not guarantee that the division by 3 in the equation 3n = 2(k − 1) + 1 is
an integer. Thus we led a dead end.

Let us now use the the proof by contraposition. Assume that, the negation of
the conclusion ( n is odd ) is true, namely we assume that n is not odd ( means
n is even ) and we need to prove that the negation of the hypothesis ( 3n + 2 is
odd ) is true, namely we prove that 3n + 2 is even. Thus,
assume that, n is even. Then n = 2k for some integer k. Therefore,
3n + 2 =3(2k) + 2 = 6k + 2
=2(3k + 1).
Since 3k + 1 is an integer, then by the definition of even integers, 3n + 2 is even.
This proves that the contrapositive ( If n is even integer, then 3n + 2 is even ) of
our statement is true. Hence, our statement ( If 3n + 2 is odd, then n is odd )
is true.

Example 2.4. Prove that, ( If n = ab, where a and b are positive integers, then
√ √
a ≤ n or b ≤ n ).
√ √ √ √
Solution: Assume that, ∼ (a ≤ n ∨ b ≤ n) is true, namely a > n ∧ b > n
is true. Using the fact ( if r, s, t and u are positive integers such that r > s and
t > u, then rt > su ), it can be seen that:
√ √
ab > n · n = n ⇔ n < ab.
Dr. Akram Alqesmah 26

This means that, n 6= ab, which is the negation of the hypothesis of the original
√
statement ( If n = ab, where a and b are positive integers, then a ≤ n or
√
b ≤ n). Hence, the proof is completed.

Definition 2.2. A real number r is called rational if there exist integers p and
p
q, with q 6= 0, such that r = . A real number that is not rational is called
q
irrational.

Example 2.5. Show that, ( For every real numbers r and s, if r and s are
rational, then r + s is also rational ).
Solution: To prove this statement we use a direct proof. Assume that, r and s
are rational real numbers. Then by Definition 2.2, there exist some integers p, q, t
p t
and u such that r = and s = , respectively, with q 6= 0 and u 6= 0. Therefore,
q u
p t
r+s= +
q u
pu + tq
= .
qu

Since pu + tq and qu are integers and qu 6= 0 ( recall that q =

6 0 and u 6= 0 ).
Hence by the definition of rational real numbers ( Definition 2.2), r + s is also
rational.

Example 2.6. Prove that, ( If n is an integer and n2 is odd, then n is odd ).

Solution: To prove this statement we use a proof by contraposition because the
direct proof is not useful.
Assume that, n is even and we need to prove that n2 is also even. Since n is
even. Then n = 2k for some integer k. Therefore,

n2 = (2k)2 = 4k 2 = 2(2k 2 ).

Since 2k 2 is integer. Hence by the definition of even integers ( Definition 2.1), n2

is even.
Dr. Akram Alqesmah 27

2.4 Proof by Contradiction

In this type of proof, we assume that the negation of the hole statement is true
and based on that we continue in the steps of the proof to reach a contradiction
statement.
√
Example 2.7. Show that, 2 is irrational by giving a proof by contradiction.
√ √
Solution: Suppose that, ∼ ( 2 is irrational) is true, namely we assume that 2
√ a
is rational. Therefore by the definition of rational real numbers, 2 = with
b
b 6= 0 and a and b are integers also consider that a and b have no common factor
a
( which means is in simplest form).
b
√ a
By placing the square power for both sides of 2 = , we get
b
a2
2 = 2 ⇐⇒ a2 = 2b2 ,
b
This means that
a2 is even ⇐⇒ a is even ⇐⇒ a = 2c,
for some integer c. Therefore,

2b2 = (2c)2 = 4c2 ⇐⇒ b2 = 2c2 .

Thus,
b2 is even ⇐⇒ b is even .
Because a is even and b is even, this implies that a and b have 2 as a common
factor which contradicts the assumption that a and b have no common factor.
√
Hence, 2 is irrational. This completes the proof.

Example 2.8. Give a proof by contradiction for the statement, ( If 3n + 2 is

odd, then n is odd ) where n is an integer.
Solution: Let p be the statement ( 3n + 2 is odd) and q be the statement ( n
is odd). Thus the statement ( If 3n + 2 is odd, then n is odd ) becomes p −→ q.
We know that,
p −→ q ≡ ∼ p ∨ q.
Thus,
∼ (p −→ q) ≡ ∼ (∼ p ∨ q) ≡ p ∧ ∼ q.
Dr. Akram Alqesmah 28

Therefore, we assume that 3n + 2 is odd and n is even.

Since n is even, then n = 2k where k ∈ Z ( Z is the set of integer numbers).
Hence,
3n + 2 =3(2k) + 2 = 6k + 2
=2(3k + 1).
Since 3k + 1 is integer, then by the definition of even integers, 3n + 2 is even.
But 3n + 2 is odd by assumption. This leads to a contradiction and completes
the proof.

2.5 Proof by Counterexample

In some proofs, we need to prove that the statement ∀x P (x) is false. So that
we need only to find a counterexample, that is, a value t for which P (t) is false.

Example 2.9. Show that the statement ”Every positive integer is the sum of
the squares of two consecutive integers” is false.
Solution: To show that this statement is false, we look for a counterexample,
which is a particular integer that is not the sum of the squares of two consecutive
integers. It can be seen that easily the number 3 cannot be written as the sum
of the squares of two integers, because the only perfect squares not exceeding 3
are 02 = 0 and 12 = 1 and

0 + 0 =0 6= 3
0 + 1 =1 + 0 = 1 6= 3
1 + 1 =2 6= 3.

This completes the proof.

2.6 Proof by Mathematical Induction

Mathematical induction can be used to prove statements that assert that P (n)
is true for all positive integers n, where P (n) is a propositional function (open
sentence). A proof by mathematical induction has two steps, as follows:

Basis step: We verify that P (1) is true.

Induction step: We assume that P (k) is true for all positive integer k, and
Dr. Akram Alqesmah 29

based on that we show that the conditional statement P (k) −→ P (k + 1) is true

for all positive integer k. The assumption that P (k) is true is called the inductive
hypothesis.

Note that: The idea in the proof by mathematical induction it comes from
the first step (proving that P (1) is true) and the last step ( proving P (k + 1)
is true), that is when we prove that P (1) is true, we know that P (2) is true,
because P (1) implies P (2). Further, we know that P (3) is true, because P (2)
implies P (3). Continuing along these lines, we see that P (n) is true for every
positive integer n.

Example 2.10. Show that if n is a positive integer, then

n(n + 1)
1 + 2 + 3 + ··· + n = .
2
Solution: Let P (n) be the proposition that the sum of the first n positive
n(n + 1)
integers is .
2
1(1 + 1)
Basis step: P (1) is true, because 1 = = 1.
2
Induction step: For the inductive hypothesis we assume that P (k) holds for
an arbitrary positive integer k. That is, we assume that

k(k + 1)
1 + 2 + 3 + ··· + k = .
2
Now, we must prove that P (k + 1) is true, namely,

(k + 1)(k + 2)
1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + (k + 1) = .
2
By adding the term k + 1 to the both sides of the equation of P (k), we obtain

k(k + 1)
1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + k + (k + 1) = + (k + 1)
2
k(k + 1) + 2(k + 1)
=
2
(k + 1)(k + 2)
= .
2
Therefore, P (k + 1) is true and the solution is done.
Dr. Akram Alqesmah 30

Example 2.11. Prove that if n is a positive integer, then

1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2n − 1) = n2 .

Solution: Let P (n) be the proposition that the sum of the first n odd positive
integers is n2 .
Basis step: P (1) is true, because
2(1) − 1 =(1)2
.
1 =1
Induction step: For the inductive hypothesis we assume that P (k) is true.
That is, we assume that

1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2k − 1) = k 2 .

Now, we must prove that P (k + 1) is true, namely,

1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + 2(k + 1) − 1 =(k + 1)2
 

1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2k + 1) =(k + 1)2 .

By adding the term 2k + 1 to the both sides of the equation of P (k), we get
1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2k − 1) + (2k + 1) =k 2 + (2k + 1)
=k 2 + 2k + 1 = (k + 1)2 .
Hence, P (k + 1) is true and the statement is proven.

Example 2.12. Use mathematical induction to prove the inequality n < 2n for
all positive integers n.
Solution: Let P (n) be the proposition n < 2n , where n a positive integer.
Basis step: P (1) is true, because 1 < 21 = 2.
Induction step: For the inductive step, we assume that P (k) is true, namely
k < 2k for some positive integer k and we must prove that P (k + 1) is true, i.e.
we must prove that k + 1 < 2k+1 .
We have k < 2k . First we add 1 to both sides with taking in account 1 < 2k , for
some positive integer k. Therefore,
k + 1 < 2k + 1 < 2k + 2k = 2 · 2k = 2k+1
k + 1 < 2k+1 .
Hence, P (k + 1) is true and the statement is proven.
Dr. Akram Alqesmah 31

Example 2.13. Use mathematical induction to prove that the sum of a finite
number of terms of a geometric progression
n
X arn+1 − a
ari = a + ar + ar2 + · · · + arn = , r 6= 1,
i=0
r−1

where n is a nonnegative integer.

Solution: Let P (n) be the proposition

arn+1 − a
a + ar + ar2 + · · · + arn = , r 6= 1.
r−1
Basis step: P (0) is true, because

ar0+1 − a
ar0 =
r−1
a(r − 1)
a= = a, r 6= 1.
r−1
Induction step: For the inductive step we assume that P (k) is true. That is,
we assume that
ark+1 − a
a + ar + ar2 + · · · + ark = , r 6= 1.
r−1
Now, we must prove that P (k + 1) is true, namely,

ark+2 − a
a + ar + ar2 + · · · + ark+1 = , r 6= 1.
r−1
By adding the term ark+1 to the both sides of the equation of P (k), we obtain

ark+1 − a
a + ar + ar2 + · · · + ark + ark+1 = + ark+1
r−1
ark+1 − a + ark+1 (r − 1)
=
r−1
k+1
ar − a + ark+2 − ark+1
=
r−1
ark+2 − a
= , r 6= 1.
r−1
Therefore, P (k + 1) is true and the prove is done.
Dr. Akram Alqesmah 32

2.7 Exercises

1. Use a direct proof to show that the sum of two odd integers is even.

2. Show that the square of an even number is an even number using a direct
proof.

3. Prove that if m + n and n + p are even integers, where m, n and p are

integers, then m + p is even. What kind of proof did you use?

4. Use a direct proof to show that the product of two odd numbers is odd.

5. Use a direct proof to show that every odd integer is the difference of the
squares of two consecutive integers.

6. Prove that if n is a perfect square, then n + 2 is not a perfect square. [Use

a proof by contradiction]

7. Use a proof by contradiction to prove that the sum of an irrational number

and a rational number is irrational.

8. Use a proof by contraposition to show that if x + y ≥ 2, where x and y are

real numbers, then x ≥ 1 or y ≥ 1.
1
9. Prove that if x is rational and x 6= 0, then is rational.
x
1
10. Prove that if x is irrational, then is irrational. [Use a proof by contradic-
x
tion]

11. Prove that if m and n are integers and mn is even, then m is even or n is
even. [Use a proof by contraposition]

12. Show that if n is an integer and n3 + 5 is odd, then n is even using

(i) a proof by contraposition.

(ii) a proof by contradiction.

13. Prove that if n is a positive integer, then n is even if and only if 7n + 4 is

even.
Dr. Akram Alqesmah 33

14. Prove that if n is a positive integer, then n is odd if and only if 5n + 6 is

odd.

15. Find a counterexample to the statement that every positive integer can be
written as the sum of the squares of three integers.

Use mathematical induction in Exercises 16 − 18 to prove summation for-

mulae.

16. Use mathematical induction to show that

1 + 2 + 22 + · · · + 2n = 2n+1 − 1,

for all nonnegative integers n.

17. Let P (n) be the statement that

n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
12 + 22 + 32 + · · · + n2 =
6
for the positive integer n.

18. Prove that

(n + 1)(2n + 1)(2n + 3)
12 + 32 + 52 + · · · + (2n + 1)2 =
3
whenever n is a nonnegative integer.

19. Use mathematical induction to prove that 2n < n!, for every positive integer
n with n ≥ 4.

20. Use mathematical induction to prove that n3 − n is divisible by 3 whenever

n is a positive integer.
Chapter 3

The Concept of Sets and Their

Operations

3.1 Introduction
Definition 3.1. A set is an unordered collection of objects.

Often, the objects in a set have a common property. For instance, all the
students in this class make up a set. We denote to a set by uppercase letters like
A, B, C, .. etc.

Definition 3.2. The objects in a set are called the elements, or members, of the
set. A set is said to contain its elements.

We write a ∈ A to denote that a is an element of the set A. The notation

a∈/ A denotes that a is not an element of the set A. Note that lowercase letters
are usually used to denote elements of sets.
There are several ways to describe a set. One way is to list all the members
of a set between braces { } with comma between each two elements, when this
is possible. For example, the notation {a, b, c, d} represents the set with the four
elements a, b, c, and d.

Example 3.1.

1. The set V of all vowels in the English alphabet can be written as

V = {a, e, i, o, u}.

34
Dr. Akram Alqesmah 35

2. The set A of odd positive integers less than 10 can be expressed by

A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}.

3. B = {a, 15, Aden, T iger} is a set.

4. The set of positive integers less than 100 can be denoted by {1, 2, 3, · · · , 99}.

Another way to describe a set is to use set builder notation. In this way, we
characterize all those elements in the set by stating the property or properties
they must have to be members. For instance, the set O of all odd positive integers
less than 10 can be written as

O = {x | x is an odd positive integer less than 10},

or by using the set of positive integer Z+ as

O = {x ∈ Z+ | x is odd and x < 10}.

We often use this type of notation to describe sets when it is impossible to list
all the elements of the set.

Example 3.2.

1. The set O of all odd integers can be described as

O = {x ∈ Z | x = 2k + 1, k ∈ Z}.

2. The set E of all even integers can be described as

E = {x ∈ Z | x = 2k, k ∈ Z}.

3. The set Q of rational numbers can be described as

p
Q = {x ∈ R | x = , q 6= 0, p, q ∈ Z}.
q

4. The set of positive integers less than 100, {1, 2, 3, · · · , 99} can be described
by
{x ∈ Z+ | x < 100}.
Dr. Akram Alqesmah 36

Remark 3.1. These sets, each denoted using a boldface letter, play an important
role in discrete mathematics:

N = {0, 1, 2, 3, · · · } the set of natural numbers

Z = {· · · , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, · · · } the set of integer numbers

Z+ = {1, 2, 3, · · · } the set of positive integers
 
p
Q= p ∈ Z, q ∈ Z, q 6= 0 the set of rational numbers
q
0
R = Q ∪ Q the set of real numbers.

Definition 3.3. Two sets A and B are equal if and only if they have the same
elements, and we write A = B.

Example 3.3. The sets {1, 3, 5}, {3, 1, 5} and {1, 1, 3, 3, 3, 5, 5, 5, 5} are equal
because they have the same elements.

Sets can be represented graphically using Venn diagrams. In Venn dia-

grams the universal set U , which contains all the objects under consideration,
is represented by a rectangle. Inside this rectangle, circles or other geometrical
figures are used to represent sets. Sometimes points are used to represent the
particular elements of the set.
Venn diagrams are often used to indicate the relationships between
sets.

Example 3.4. The Venn diagram that represents V , the set of vowels in the
English alphabet is as follows.

Figure 3.1: Venn Diagram for the Set of Vowels

Dr. Akram Alqesmah 37

There is a special set that has no elements. This set is called the empty set,
or null set, and is denoted by φ. The empty set can also be denoted by { }. A
set with one element is called a singleton set.

Definition 3.4. The set A is said to be a subset of B if and only if every element
of A is also an element of B. We use the notation A ⊆ B to indicate that A is a
subset of the set B.
U

Figure 3.2: Venn digram showing A ⊆ B

Example 3.5.

1. {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} is a subset of {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}.

2. Z is a subset of Q.

3. Q is a subset of R.

4. The set of people of Yemen is a subset of the people of Yemen (that is, it
is a subset of itself).

Theorem 3.1. For every set S

(i) φ ⊆ S.

(ii) S ⊆ S.

Proof. Let S be a set. Then

Dr. Akram Alqesmah 38

(i) To show that φ ⊆ S, we need to show that ∀x (x ∈ φ −→ x ∈ S) is true.

Because the empty set contains no elements, it follows that x ∈ φ is always
false. It follows that the conditional statement x ∈ φ −→ x ∈ S is always
true, because its hypothesis is always false and a conditional statement
with a false hypothesis is true. (This type of proofs is called the Vacuous
proof).

(ii) To show that S ⊆ S, we need to show that ∀x (x ∈ S −→ x ∈ S) is

true. Because the conclusion x ∈ S is always true (by hypothesis), then the
conditional statement x ∈ S −→ x ∈ S is always true. (This type of proofs
is called the Trivial proof).

Actually, to prove that two sets A and B are equal, we must prove that A ⊆ B
and B ⊆ A.

Now, if a set A is a subset of a set B but A 6= B, we write A ⊂ B and say

that A is a proper subset of B.

Definition 3.5. Let S be a set. The cardinality of S denoted by |S| is the

number of distinct elements in S.

Example 3.6.

1. If A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}, then |A| = 5.

2. {1, 3, 3, 5, 5} = 3.

3. φ = 0.

3.2 The Power Set

Definition 3.6. Let S be a set with cardinality |S| = n. The power set of S is
the set of all subsets of the set S. The power set of S is denoted by P (S) and its
cardinality is given by |P (S)| = 2n .

Example 3.7. What is the power set of the set S = {0, 1, 2}?
Dr. Akram Alqesmah 39

Solution: By Definition 3.6, |P (S)| = 23 = 8. Therefore,

 
P (S) = φ, {0}, {1}, {2}, {0, 1}, {0, 2}, {1, 2}, S .

Example 3.8. What is the power set of the empty set? What is the power set
of the set {φ}?

Solution: |P (φ)| = 20 = 1. Therefore, P

(φ) = {φ}.

1
|P ({φ})| = 2 = 2. Therefore, P ({φ}) = φ, {φ} .

3.3 Cartesian Products

Definition 3.7. Let A and B be sets. The Cartesian product of A and B,
denoted by A × B, is the set of all ordered pairs (a, b), where a ∈ A and b ∈ B.
Hence,  
A × B = (a, b) | a ∈ A ∧ b ∈ B .

Example 3.9. What is the Cartesian product of A = {1, 2} and

B = {a, b, c}?

Solution: The Cartesian product A × B is

 
A × B = (1, a), (1, b), (1, c), (2, a), (2, b), (2, c) .

A subset R of the Cartesian product A × B is called a relation from the set

A to the set B. The elements of R are ordered pairs, where the first element

belongs to A and the second to B. For example, R = (1, a), (2, a), (1, b) is a
relation from A to B.

Example 3.10. Show that the Cartesian product B × A is not equal to the
Cartesian product A × B, where A and B are as in Example 3.9.

Solution: The Cartesian product B × A is

 
B × A = (a, 1), (a, 2), (b, 1), (b, 2), (c, 1), (c, 2) ,

which is not equal A × B in Example 3.9.

Dr. Akram Alqesmah 40

3.4 Exercises

1. List the members of these sets.

(i) {x | x is a real number such that x2 = 1}.

(ii) {x | x is a positive integer less than 12}.
(iii) {x | x is the square of an integer and x < 100}.
(iv) {x | x is an integer such that x2 = 2}.

2. Use set builder notation to give a description of each of these sets.

(i) {0, 3, 6, 9, 12}.

(ii) {−3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3}.
(iii) {m, n, o, p}.

3. Determine whether each of these pairs o f sets are equal.

(i) {1, 3, 3, 3, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5}, {5, 3, 1}.

 
(ii) {1} , 1, {1} .
(iii) φ, {φ}.

4. Suppose that A = {2, 4, 6}, B = {2, 6}, C = {4, 6} and D = {4, 6, 8}.
Determine which of these sets are subsets of which other of these sets.

5. Find two sets A and B such that A ∈ B and A ⊆ B.

6. For each of the following sets, determine whether 2 is an element of that

set.

(i) {x ∈ R | x is an integer greater than 1}.

(ii) {x ∈ R | x is the square of an integer }.

(iii) 2, {2} .
 

(iv) {2}, {2} .
 

(v) {2}, 2, {2} .
Dr. Akram Alqesmah 41
 

(vi) {2} .

7. For each of the sets in Exercise 6, determine whether {2} is an element of

that set.

8. Determine whether each of these statements is true or false.

(i) 0 ∈ φ.
(ii) {0} ⊂ φ.

(iii) φ ∈ φ .

(iv) {φ} ⊂ φ, {φ} .
 
(v) {φ} ⊂ φ, {φ} .

(vi) φ ∈ φ, {φ} .
 
(vii) {φ} = {φ}, {φ} .

9. Determine whether each of these sets is the power set of a set, where a and
b are distinct elements.

(i) φ.

(ii) φ, {a} .

(iii) φ, {a}, {φ, a} .

(iv) φ, {a}, {b}, {a, b} .

10. Let A = {a, b, c, d} and B = {y, z}. Find

(i) A × B.
(ii) B × A.

11. Let A be a set. Show that φ × A = A × φ = φ.

Dr. Akram Alqesmah 42

3.5 Set Operations

In this section, some operations on sets are presented.

3.5.1 Union of two sets

Definition 3.8. Let A and B be two sets. The union of the sets A and B,
denoted by A ∪ B, is the set that contains those elements that are either in A or
in B, or in both.

An element x belongs to the union of the sets A and B if and only if x belongs
to A or x belongs to B. Hence,
 
A ∪ B = x|x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B .

The Venn diagram shown in Figure 3.3 represents the union of two sets A
and B. The area that represents A ∪ B is the shaded area within either the circle
representing A or the circle representing B.

A B

Figure 3.3: Venn digram showing A ∪ B

Example 3.11. The union of the sets {1, 3, 5} and {1, 2, 3} is the set {1, 2, 3, 5};
that is, {1, 3, 5} ∪ {1, 2, 3} = {1, 2, 3, 5}.

3.5.2 Intersection of two sets

Definition 3.9. Let A and B be two sets. The intersection of the sets A and B,
denoted by A ∩ B, is the set containing those elements in both A and B.
Dr. Akram Alqesmah 43

An element x belongs to the intersection of the sets A and B if and only if x

belongs to A and x belongs to B. Hence,
 
A ∩ B = x|x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B .

The Venn diagram shown in Figure 3.4 represents the intersection of two sets
A and B. The shaded area that is within both the circles representing the sets
A and B is the area that represents the intersection of A and B.

A B

A∩B

Figure 3.4: Venn digram showing A ∩ B

Example 3.12. The intersection of the sets {1, 3, 5} and {1, 2, 3} is the set {1, 3};
that is, {1, 3, 5} ∩ {1, 2, 3} = {1, 3}.

Definition 3.10. Two sets are called disjoint if their intersection is the empty
set.

Example 3.13. Let A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} and B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}. Because A ∩ B =

φ, A and B are disjoint.

We often are interested in finding the cardinality of a union of two finite sets
A and B. Note that |A| + |B| counts each element that is in A but not in B or in
B but not in A exactly once, and each element that is in both A and B exactly
twice. Thus, if the number of elements that are in both A and B is subtracted
from |A| + |B|, elements in A ∩ B will be counted only once. Hence,

|A ∪ B| = |A| + |B| − |A ∩ B|.

Dr. Akram Alqesmah 44

3.5.3 Difference of two sets

Definition 3.11. Let A and B be two sets. The difference of A and B, denoted
by A − B, is the set containing those elements that are in A but not in B. The
difference of A and B is also called the complement of B with respect to A.

An element x belongs to the difference of A and B if and only if x ∈ A and

x∈
/ B. Hence,  
A − B = x|x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ /B .

The Venn diagram shown in Figure 3.5 represents the difference of the sets A
and B. The shaded area inside the circle that represents A and outside the circle
that represents B is the area that represents A − B.

A B

A−B

Figure 3.5: Venn digram showing A − B

Example 3.14. The difference of the sets {1, 3, 5} and {1, 2, 3} is the set {5};
that is, {1, 3, 5} − {1, 2, 3} = {5}. This is different from the difference of {1, 2, 3}
and {1, 3, 5}, which is the set {2}.

3.5.4 Complement of a set

Once the universal set U has been specified, the complement of a set can be
defined.

Definition 3.12. Let U be the universal set. The complement of the set A,
denoted by A, is the complement of A with respect to U . In other words, the
complement of the set A is U − A.
Dr. Akram Alqesmah 45

An element x belongs to A if and only if x ∈

/ A. Hence,

A = x|x ∈
/A .

In Figure 3.6, the shaded area outside the circle representing A is the area
representing A.

Figure 3.6: Venn digram showing A

Example 3.15. Let The universal set U be the set of letters of the English
alphabet. Then the complement of the set of vowels A = {a, e, i, o, u} is
A = {b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w, x, y, z}.

Example 3.16. Let A be the set of positive integers greater than 10 (where the
universal set U is the set of all positive integers). Then A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}.

3.6 Set Identities

Table 3.1 lists the most important set identities. We will prove several of these
identities here, using three different methods.

To show that two sets are equal we have three ways, the first way uses the
set builder notation (as in Example 3.17) and in the second way we show that
each side is a subset of the other. Recall that to show that one set is a subset
of a second set, we can show that if an element belongs to the first set, then it
Dr. Akram Alqesmah 46

must also belong to the second set. We generally use a direct proof to do this
(see Example 3.18).

Identity Name of The Identity

A∪φ=A
A∩U =A Identity Laws
A∩φ=φ
A∪U =U Domination Laws
A∪A=A
A∩A=A Idempotent Laws

A = A, A ∪ A = U , A ∩ A = φ Complementation Law
A∪B =B∪A
A∩B =B∩A Commutative Laws



A∪ B∪C = A∪B ∪C



A∩ B∩C = A∩B ∩C Associative Laws




A∪ B∩C = A∪B ∩ A∪C




A∩ B∪C = A∩B ∪ A∩C Distributive Laws

A∪B =A∩B
A∩B =A∪B De Morgan’s Laws


A∪ A∩B =A


A∩ A∪B =A Absorption Laws

Table 3.1: The Set Identities

Finally, in the third way we can prove these identities by using a type of
tables is called a membership table. We illustrate the set builder type of proof
by establishing the second of De Morgan’s laws as follows:

Example 3.17. Use the set builder notation and logical equivalences to prove
that:
A ∩ B = A ∪ B.
Dr. Akram Alqesmah 47

Solution:  
A∩B = x x∈
/ A∩B
 


= x ∼ x∈A ∩B
 


= x ∼ x∈A∧ x∈B
 



= x ∼ x∈A ∨ ∼ x∈B
 
= x x∈
/A ∨ x∈
/B
 
= x x∈A ∨ x∈B

=A ∪ B.

Example 3.18 illustrates the second way of proving the set identities.

Example 3.18. Prove that

A∩ B∪C = A∩B ∪ A∩C .

Solution: Let



x ∈ A ∩ B ∪ C ⇒x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B ∪ C


⇒x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B ∨ x ∈ C



⇒ x∈A ∧ x∈ B ∨ x∈A ∧ x∈ C



⇒x ∈ A ∩ B ∨ x ∈ A ∩ C
 



⇒x ∈ A ∩ B ∪ A ∩ C .

Therefore,




A∩ B∪C ⊆ A∩B ∪ A∩C (1)

Now, let
Dr. Akram Alqesmah 48
 





x∈ A∩B ∪ A∩C ⇒x ∈ A ∩ B ∨ x ∈ A ∩ C



⇒ x∈A ∧ x∈ B ∨ x∈A ∧ x∈ C


⇒x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B ∨ x ∈ C


⇒x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B ∪ C


⇒x ∈ A ∩ B ∪ C

Thus,




A∩B ∪ A∩C ⊆ A∩ B∪C (2)

Hence, from (1) and (2) the proof is done.

As mentioned above, set identities can also be proved using membership

tables. We consider each combination of sets that an element can belong to and
verify that elements in the same combinations of sets belong to both the sets in
the identity. To indicate that an element is in a set, a 1 is used; to indicate that
an element is not in a set, a 0 is used.

Example 3.19. Use the membership table method to prove that:

A∩ B∪C = A∩B ∪ A∩C .

Solution: The membership table for these combinations of sets is shown in

Table 3.2. This table has eight rows (why?).
Dr. Akram Alqesmah 49

A B C B ∪C A∩ B∪C A∩B A∩C A∩B ∪ A∩C

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1

1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0

0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0

0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Table 3.2: A Membership Table for A ∩ B ∪ C = A ∩ B ∪ A ∩ C

Additional set identities can be established using those that we have already
proved. Consider Example 3.20.

Example 3.20. Show that:

A ∪ B ∩ C = C ∪ B ∩ A.

Solution:


A ∪ B ∩ C =A ∩ B ∩ C


=A ∩ B ∪ C


=A ∩ C ∪ B


= C ∪ B ∩ A.

3.7 Generalized Unions and Intersections

The union A ∪ B ∪ C represents the set of elements that are in at least one of the
sets A, B, and C. Also, the intersection A ∩ B ∩ C represents the set of elements
that are in all of the sets A, B, and C. (see Figure 3.7 and Figure 3.8)
Dr. Akram Alqesmah 50

U
C

A B

Figure 3.7: Venn digram showing A ∪ B ∪ C

U
C

A B

Figure 3.8: Venn digram showing A ∩ B ∩ C

Example 3.21. Let A = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8}, B = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}, and C = {0, 3, 6, 9}.
What are A ∪ B ∪ C and A ∩ B ∩ C ?

Solution: The set A ∪ B ∪ C contains those elements in at least one of A, B,

and C. Hence, A ∪ B ∪ C = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9}.
The set A ∩ B ∩ C contains those elements in all three of A, B, and C. Thus,
A ∩ B ∩ C = {0}.

We can also consider unions and intersections of an arbitrary number of sets.

We use these definitions.

Definition 3.13. The union of a collection of sets is the set that contains those
Dr. Akram Alqesmah 51

elements that are members of at least one set in the collection, i.e.
n
[
A1 ∪ A2 ∪ · · · ∪ An = Ai .
i=1

Definition 3.14. The intersection of a collection of sets is the set that contains
those elements that are members of all the sets in the collection, i.e.
n
\
A1 ∩ A2 ∩ · · · ∩ An = Ai .
i=1

The following example illustrates the generalized of unions and intersections.

n
[ n
\
Example 3.22. Let Ai = {i, i + 1, i + 2, · · · }. Find Ai and Ai ?
i=1 i=1

Solution: From the definition of the sets Ai , it can be seen that:

A1 = {1, 2, 3, · · · }, A2 = {2, 3, 4, · · · }, . . . , An = {n, n + 1, n + 2, · · · }. Hence,

n
[ n
[
Ai = {i, i + 1, i + 2, · · · } = {1, 2, 3, · · · } = A1
i=1 i=1

and n n
\ \
Ai = {i, i + 1, i + 2, · · · } = {n, n + 1, n + 2, · · · } = An
i=1 i=1

We can extend the notation of generalized unions and intersection, respec-

tively, to an infinity number of sets as follows:
∞
[
A1 ∪ A2 ∪ · · · ∪ An ∪ · · · = Ai ,
i=1

and ∞
\
A1 ∩ A2 ∩ · · · ∩ An ∩ · · · = Ai .
i=1

The following example, illustrates these notations.

∞
[
Example 3.23. Suppose Ai = {1, 2, 3, · · · , i} for i = 1, 2, 3, · · · . Find Ai
i=1
∞
\
and Ai ?
i=1
Dr. Akram Alqesmah 52

Solution: From the definition of the sets Ai , it can be seen that:

A1 = {1}, A2 = {1, 2}, . . . , An = {1, 2, 3, · · · , n}. Hence,

∞
[ ∞
[
Ai = {1, 2, 3, · · · , i} = {1, 2, 3, · · · } = Z+ ,
i=1 i=1

and ∞ ∞
\ \
Ai = {1, 2, 3, · · · , i} = {1} = A1 .
i=1 i=1

3.8 Partitions of Sets

Definition 3.15. Let A be a set and S ⊆ P (A), where P (A) is the power set of
A. Then the set S is said to be a partition of the set A if and only if the following
conditions are satisfied:
 
(i) φ ∈
/ S or ∀ X ∈ S, X 6= φ .

(ii) ∀ X, Y ∈ S, X ∩ Y = φ.
n
[
(iii) Xi = A, where Xi ∈ S, ∀ i = 1, 2, · · · , n.
i=1

Example 3.24. Suppose A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. Which of the following sets repre-
sent a partition of A.  
S1 = {1, 4, 5}, {2}, {3, 6}
 
S2 = φ, {1, 2}, {3, 4, 5, 6}
 
S3 = {1, 2, 3, 4}, {4, 5, 6}
 
S4 = {1, 2}, {4, 5, 6} .

Solution: First, for S1 :

(i) The first condition is satisfied, because φ ∈

/ S1 .

(ii) The second condition is satisfied, because

{1, 4, 5} ∩ {2} = φ, {1, 4, 5} ∩ {3, 6} = φ, and {3, 6} ∩ {2} = φ.
Dr. Akram Alqesmah 53

(iii) The third condition is satisfied, because

{1, 4, 5} ∪ {2} ∪ {3, 6} = A.

Hence, S1 is a partition of A.

Next, for S2 :

The first condition is not satisfied, because φ ∈ S2 . Therefore, S2 is not partition

of A.

Also, for S3 :

The second condition is not satisfied, because {1, 2, 3, 4} ∩ {4, 5, 6} = {4} 6= φ.

Thus, S3 is not partition of A.

Finally, for S4 :

The third condition is not satisfied, because

{1, 2} ∪ {4, 5, 6} = {1, 2, 4, 5, 6} =

6 A.

Therefore, S4 is not partition of A.

3.9 Computer Representation of Sets

Assume that the universal set U is finite (and of reasonable size so that the
number of elements of U is not larger than the memory size of the computer
being used). First, specify an arbitrary ordering of the elements of U , for instance
a1 , a2 , . . . , an . Represent a subset A of U with the bit string of length n, where
the ith bit in this string is 1 if ai belongs to A and is 0 if ai does not belong to
A. Example 3.25 illustrates this technique.

Example 3.25. Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}, and the ordering of elements

of U has the elements in increasing order; that is, ai = i. What bit strings
represent the subset of all odd integers in U , the subset of all even integers in U ,
and the subset of integers not exceeding 5 in U ?
Dr. Akram Alqesmah 54

Solution: Let A denotes to the set of all odd integers in U , B denotes to the set
of all even integers in U and C denotes to the set of integers not exceeding 5 in
U . i.e. A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}, B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} and C = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. Therefore,
A : 1010101010, B : 0101010101, and C : 1111100000

Example 3.26. In Example 3.25, Find A ∪ B, A ∪ C, B ∩ C, A − C, B − C,

C − A and C − B, using the bit strings of A, B and C ?

Solution: Using the membership table technique for the corresponding positions
in the bit strings, it can be seen that:

A ∪ B : 1010101010 ∪ 0101010101 = 1111111111 : U .

A ∪ C : 1010101010 ∪ 1111100000 = 1111101010 : {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9}.

B ∩ C : 0101010101 ∩ 1111100000 = 0101000000 : {2, 4}.

A − C = A ∩ C : 1010101010 ∩ 0000011111 = 0000001010 : {7, 9},

or directly we can find the difference A − C by doing the subtraction between

their corresponding positions with noting that the value −1 it must be 0 in the
bit string of the result set, as follows:

A − C : 1010101010 − 1111100000 = 0000001010 : {7, 9}.

B − C : 0101010101 − 1111100000 = 0000010101 : {6, 8, 10}.

Find C − A and C − B.
Dr. Akram Alqesmah 55

3.10 Exercises

1. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {0, 3, 6}. Find

(i) A ∪ B
(ii) A ∩ B
(iii) A − B
(iv) B − A

2. Assume that U be the universal set and A be a subset of U

(i) Prove that, A = A

(ii) Prove that, A ∪ φ = A and A ∩ U = A.
(iii) Prove that, A ∩ φ = φ and A ∪ U = U .
(iv) Prove that, A ∩ A = A and A ∪ A = A.
(v) Prove that, A ∪ A = U and A ∩ A = φ.
(vi) Show that, A − φ = A and φ − A = φ.

3. Find the sets A and B if A − B = {1, 5, 7, 8}, B − A = {2, 10}, and

A ∩ B = {3, 6, 9}.

4. Prove the first De Morgan law in Table 3.1 by showing that if A and B two
are sets, then A ∪ B = A ∩ B

(i) by showing each side is a subset of the other side.

(ii) using a membership table.

5. Let A and B be two sets. Show that

(i) A ∩ B ⊆ A.


(ii) A ⊆ A ∪ B .
(iii) A − B ⊆ A.


(iv) A ∩ B − A = φ.


(v) A ∪ B − A = A ∪ B.

6. Show that if A and B are two sets, then A − B = A ∩ B.

Dr. Akram Alqesmah 56

7. From Table 3.1, show that if A, B, and C are sets, then

(i) A ∪ (B ∪ C) = (A ∪ B) ∪ C
(ii) A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C
(iii) A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C).

8. Let A = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10}, B = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, and C = {4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}.

Find

(i) A ∩ B ∩ C
(ii) A ∪ B ∪ C
(iii) (A ∪ B) ∩ C
(iv) (A ∩ B) ∪ C

9. Let A and B be subsets of a universal set U . Show that A ⊆ B if and only

if B ⊆ A ?
n
[ n
\
10. Find Ai and Ai if
i=1 i=1

(i) Ai = {1, 2, 3, · · · , i} for i = 1, 2, 3, · · · .

(ii) Ai = {· · · , −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, · · · , i} for i = 1, 2, 3, · · · .
∞
[ ∞
\
11. Find Ai and Ai if for every positive integer i
i=1 i=1

(i) Ai = {i, i + 1, i + 2, · · · }.
(ii) Ai = {0, i}.
(iii) Ai = {−i, i}.
(iv) Ai = {−i, −i + 1, · · · , −1, 0, 1, · · · , i − 1, i}.

12. Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}. Express each of these sets with bit
strings

(i) A = {3, 4, 5}.

(ii) B = {1, 3, 6, 10}.
(iii) C = {2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9}.
Dr. Akram Alqesmah 57

13. In Exercise 12, find by using the bit strings of the sets

(i) A ∩ B.
(ii) A ∪ B.
(iii) B − A.
(iv) C − A.
(v) C − B.

14. Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}. Find the set specified by each of these
bit strings

(i) 1111001111.
(ii) 0101111000.
(iii) 1000000001.