rf

CHROI{ICLE
CIIROl{ICL[
Nurturing Talent 5ince 1990

) UPSC & STAIE PSC'

s0cl0l0G
2009-202! IAs Mains Topic-wise
I il I LVED PAPERS

1998-2008 Topic-wise PYQ Solved Papers n o

available on chronicleindia.in

{ffi

'q,..4&

-l
 t -*S sr/sy;

$0Gil*r(}&y IAS Mains Q&A

L998-2008 Topic-wise Previous Years' solved papers are

available on http s ://www .chronicleindia.i4/upsc-bnHne-b ook

Also useful for All state Public service Commissions,

and Other Examinations

Instant Discount Coupon

Step-l: Scan the QR Code

D I

n
Step-2: Scratch the Coupon given below

SilNtonztzfso

Step-3: Put the code at the designated place and avail Instant Discount

Edited by - N.N. Ojha

Guiding Civil, Services Asplrants Since 33 years
Solved by - Chronicle Editorial Team

Nurturing Since 1990

 socl
IAS Mains

Edition - 2024

Price: <495/'

ISBN : 978-81 -969353-4-4

\
Publisher
GHRONICLE PUBLIGATIONS (P) LTD
Corporate Office
A-27D, Sector 16, Noida-201301 (U.P)
Tel. : 012O-251 461 0 I 1 2, E-mail : info@chronicleindia.in

Technical Support: Mob. 9953007634, it@chronicleindia'in

Advertisement: Mob. 9953007 627, advt@chronicleindia.in
Subscription: Mob. 9953007629, subscription@chronicleindia.in

COpyRIGHTo Chronicle Publications Pvt.Ltd.: All rights reserved. No part of the book can be reproduced or utilised
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage
or retrieval system, without permission in writing from'the publishers'

*
 GONTENTS

1.. Sociology- The Discipline

.1\
2. Sociology as Science
J. Research Methods and Analysis..........
4. Sociological Thinkers .........
5. System of Kinship
6. Stratification and Mobility... 100-123
7. Works and Economic Life... 124-142
8. 143-161
9. Social Movements............... 162-166
10 Education System and Social Change.. 167_170
11. Religion and Society ............. 171_188
t
sr 12. Science and Technology ... r..... r. i. ;.... 189_192
I
13. Social Chqnge in Modern Society and Deve1opment.................... 193-21"0

1. Introducing Indian Society .......211-226

t
I 2. Caste System .......227-248
J. Social Class Structure in India 249-260
4. System of Kinship in India 261-274
5. Rural and Agrarian Social Structure.... .............. 275-288
6. Industrialisation and Urbanisation.......... 289-306
7. Politics and Society ............. ,...307-322
8. Religion and Sociery ............ ...323-332
9. Tribal Communities in India ...333-343
10. Population Dynamics .............
...344-356
11.. Rural and Agrarian Transformation in India
...357-370
12. Social Change in India.... ...371-384
13. Social Movements............... ...385-400
...401,-424

**t.f.
\

ABOUT THIS BOOK

I
I
i

j
t 1

t
/
I
,r

t
t
I
II
I
i
\
i
t
,}

l
T
i
l
II

I
.it
,
i
 !
t

Sociology - The Discipline

o Modernity and social Changes in Europe and Emergence of sociology
o Scope of the Subject and Comparison with Other Social Sciences
o Sociology and Common Sense
I
Sociology as Science
o Science, Scientific Method and Critique
o Major Theoretical Strands of Research Methodology I

o Positivism and its Critique i

\
o Fact, Value and Objectivity I
\
o Non- Positivist Methodologies 't

Research Methods and AnalYsis

o Qualitative and Quantitative Methods
o Techniques of Data Collection
o Variables, Sampling, Hypothesis, Reliability and Validity
Sociological Thinkers
o Karl Marx- Historical Materialism, Mode of Production, Alienatiory Class Struggle
o Emile Durkheim- Division of Labour, Social Fact, Suicide, Religion and Society
o Max Weber- Social Actiory Ideal Types, Authority, Bureaucracy, Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism.
o Talcott {arsons- Social System, Pattern Variables
o Robert K. Merton- Latent and Manifest Functions, Con{ormity and Deviance, Reference Groups
o Mead - Self and Identity
Stratification and Mobility
o Concepts- Equality, Inequality, Hierarchy, Exclusion, Poverty,and Deprivation
o Theories of Social Stratification- Structural Functionalist Theory, Marxist Theory, Weberian Theory
o Dimensions- Social Stratification of Class, Status Groups, Gender, Ethnicity and Race
o Social Mobility- Open and Closed Systems, Types of Mobility, Sources and Causes of Mobility
Works and Economic Life
o Social Organization of Work in Di{ferent Types of Society- Slave Society, Feudal society, Industrial/Capitalist
Society
o Formal and Informal Organization of Work
o Labour and Society
Politics and Socieff
{
o Sociological Theories of Power
o Power Elite, Bureaucracy, Pressure Groups, and Political Parties
o Natiory State, Citizenship, Democracy, Civil Society, Ideology
o Protest, Agitation, social Movements, Collective Action, Revolution
o Religion and Society
o Sociological Theories of Religion
o Types of Religious Practices: Animism, Monism, Pluralism, Sects, Cults
o Religion in Modern Society: Religion and Science, Secularization, Religious Revivalism, Fundamentalism.
Systems of Kinship
o Family, Household, Marriage
 o Types and Forms of Family
o Lineage and Descent
o Patriarchy and Sexual Division of Labour
. Contemporary Trends
Social Change in Modern Society
o Sociological Theories of Social Change
o Development and Dependency
o Agents of Social Change
o Education and Social Change
o Science, Technology and Social Change

A. Introducing Indian Society

(I) Perspectives on the Study of Indian Society
o Indology (GS.Ghurye)
. Structural Functionalism (M N Srinivas)
o Marxist Sociology (A R Desai)
(II) Impact of Colonial Rule on Indian Society
o Social Background of Indian Nationalism
o Modernization of Indian Tradition
o Protests and Movements During the Colonial period
o Social Reforms

B. Social Structure
(l) Rural and Agrarian Social Structure
o The Idea of Indian Village and Village Studies
o Agrarian social structure - Evolution of Land Tenure system, Land Reforms
(II) Caste System
o Perspectives on the Study of Caste Systems: GS Ghurye, M N Srinivas, Louis Dumont, Andre Beteille
o Features of Caste System
o Untouchability - Forms and Perspectives
(III) Tribal Communities in India
o Definitioneil Problems
o Geographical Spread
o Colonial Policies and Tribes
o Issues of Integration and Autonomy
(IV) Social Classes in India
o Agrarian Class Structure
o Inddstrial Class Structure
o Middle Classes in India
($ Systems of Kinship in India
o Lineage and Descent in India
o Types of Kinship Systems
o Family and Marriage in India
o Household Dimensions of the Family
 (VI) Religion and Society
o Religious Communities in India
o Problems of Religious Minorities
'. Patriarchy, Entitlements and Sexual Division of Labour
C. Social Changes in India 5
I
(I) Visions of Social Change in India ;3
ii
o Idea of development plaruring and mixed economy i
o Constitutioru law and social change
l.
I

o Education and social change

i
(II) Rural and Agrarian transformation in India
o programmes of rural development, Community Development Programme, cooperatives, poverty alleviation
schemes
o Green revolution and social change
o Changing modes of production in indian agriculture
o Problems of rural labour, bondage, migration
(III) Industrialization and Urbanisation in India
o Evolution of modern industry in India
o Growth of urban settlements in India
o Working class: structure, growth, class mobilization
o Informal sector, child labour
o Slums and deprivation in urban areas
(IV) Potitics and Society
o Nation, dl-o.rucy and citizenshiP
o Political parties, pressure SrouPS, social and political elite
o Regionalism and decentralization of power
o Secularization
.
(V) Social Movements in Modern India '

o Peasants and farmers movements '

o Women's movement

. Environmental movements
Ethnicity and Identity movements
(VI) Population Dynamics
. Population size, growth, composition and distribution
. Components of population growth: birth, death, migration
o Population policy and family planning ii
. Emerging issues: ageing, sex ratios, child and in{ant mortality, reproductive health

(VID Challenges of Social Transformation

. Ciisis of development: displacement,'environmental problems and sustainability
. Poverty, deprivation and inequalities
;i . Violence against women
. Caste conflicts
. Ethnic conflicts, communalism, religious revivalism
. Illiteracy and disparities in education
*{"t't'
 CHAPTER PAPER-I

a. Discuss the relationship between sociology . Social considerations like caste, kinships,
and political science. (CSE 2023) demography, etc. play an important role in pohtfoal
Ans: The two distinct disciplines of social science, decisions and especially elections.
sociology and politicai sciences do converge often as .
Sociological studies have also been conducted
the subject matter is men and the convergence is on the in membership of political organisations, voting
{ increase. behaviour, casteism, process of decision making
e { beginning was made with the works of Marx. in organisations, sociological reasons for support
t AccorCing to him political institutions and of political parties, the role of gender in politics,
t etc which involves a blend of political science and
behaviour are closely linked with the economic
system and social classes. sociologica I thinking.
. Provoked by this thinking, some thinkers by the
. Social policies of the government often rely on
I end of tl-re 19fh century, pursued the matter in more sociological studies. political system also affects
I detail like studies of political parties, elite, voting social institutions.
behaviour, bureaucracy and political ideoiogies as F{ence, sociology focuses on social relationships
in the political sociology of Micheis, Marx, Weber and the impact of social structures on individuals
and Par€to. and political science deals with the study of power,
governance, and political institutions
Differences in Sociology and Political Science
. Sociology has wider scope and is devoted to the a. How does the dramaturgical perspective
study of all aspects of society. Conventional political enable our understanding of everyday life?
science restricted itself rnainly to the studv of state
and power"
(csE 2023)
. Sociology is more open ended in its approach. Ans: Sociologist Erving Goffman developed the
Subject matter of political science is more dramaturgical perspective, a sociological theory that
codified. draws parallels between daily life and a theatrical
. presentation.
Sociology stresses the interrelationships between
sets of institutions including government. political
. The dramaturgicai perspective holds that people
science tends to turn attention towards the processes portray themselves to others in accoidance with
'within' the government. society conventiois, cultural ideais, and audience
. expectations.
The forces at work and the changes that are
taking place in peasant, tribal or caste societies
. Similar to distinct acts in aplay, they play diverse
belong more to the sphere of sociologists and roles in various scenarios.
anthropologists rather than to that of the political . The dramaturgical perspective sees people as
scientist. players on a stage, acting out parts in various acts
(situations), which helps us understand ordinary
Convergence in Sociolog"y and political Science life.
. Political science provides laws which affect welfare . It offers a framework for comprehending our self_
of masses, sociology provides data and basis of presentation in many social settings and how we
these laws and policies. control the impressions we make on other peo,,i
 2 ]* soctoLocY Q & A
f{ole-playing is one of the main ideas of the . Common sense also helps sociology by challenging
'
dramaturgical approach. Each of us has a variety of its conclusions and thereby eruiching the discipline.
responsibilities in life, including those of a friend, According to Anthony Giddens, sociological
parent, worker, and student. knowledge also itself becomes part of conunon sense
We make an effort to uphold the standards and knowledge sometimes. For example - sociological
' research into marital breakdown has led people to
expectations that go along with assigned roles' For
believe that marriage is a risky proposition.
instance, being a worker entails being productive,
professional, and on time. Advantages of Common Sense in Social Research
' Another key concept is impression management' . Everyone has access to common sense, which makes
trt describes the method by which people try it a convenient place to start when conducting social
to influence the perceptions that other people research. Sociologists can create research questions
have of them. For example, in order to project by expanding upon common sense knowledge.
professionalism, someone could dress professionally . Common sense observations can serve as the basis
for a job interview.
for the development of hypotheses by tesearchers,
u In addition, Goffman presents the ideas of "fronl
which can subsequently be tested using empirical
stage" and "back stage." The performance-that is,
research techniques.
how we show ourselves 'in accordance with social .
norms-takes place on the front stage. We can be
The application of common sense to social
problems is often beneficial. It aids in the creation
ourselves behind the scenes without having to
of hypotheses and study designs that are consistent
woffy about following social norms.
with actual occurrences'
The dramaturgical approach offers an insightful
. Social research findings become more accessible
window into daily life. It draws attention to how social
and comprehensible to the broader audience when
interactions are performative and how people deal with
societal expectations. We can better understand the common sense is applied.
intricacies of social interactions and human behaviour Limitations of Common Sense in Social Research
if we see daily life as a series of performances. . Due to individual prejudices, cultural standards,
\
and personal views, common sense is intrinsically *
A. Do you think that common sense is the starting
subjective. Research may become biased as a result
point of social research? What are its advantages of this subjectivity.
and-timitations? Explain. (CSE 2023)
. The intricacy of social processes may be beyond the
,dns: Common sense can be defined as 'routine scope of common sense. It frequently oversimplifies
knowledge that people have of their everydav world problems, producing flimsy or incorrect conclusions.
and activities'. The common sense explanations are . The scientific rigor of study can be compromised
generally based on what may be called'naturalistic' by relying exclusively on common sense. Instead
ind/or individualistic explanation based on taken for of methodical data collecting and analysis, it could
granted knowledge. Sociology has its tryst with corrunon result in anecdotal evidence.
sense since long time and it has been accused of being . Max Weber advised against doing sociological
1'r.o rllore than common sense right from its birth.
study with just common sense. He contended that
Common Sense can be a Starting Point of Social Research common sense may be unreliable for scientific
. Common sense provides a preliminary inqri.y since it may be based on atbltrary, subjective
experiences and ideals.
understanding of social phenomena, making it a
useful starting point for research. Researchers can
. He underlirled the significance of methodical
build upon common sense knowledge to formulate investigation and value neutrality in ensuring social
research questions and hypotheses. objectivity.
o ConcePts in sociology are framed by taking into Despite limitations, sociologists' perception towards
cbnsideration the commonsensical knowledge. common sense changed over time as the discipline
Common sense helps sociologists in hypothesis evolved. Earlier when it was close to philosophy,
it building. common sense was seen as complementary. When
u Commonsense provides raw material for sociological discipline moved closer to positivism/ common sense
investigations. Sociology tends to answer questions was almost discarded. Anti-positivist on the other
generated from common sense knowledge' For hand again tried to give importance to common sense.
example/ common sense views on gender are So, relationship between the two is dynamic and even
widely studied in sociologY. mutually reinforcing at times.
 SOCIOLOGY. THE DISCIPLINE .S 3
Q. What aspects of 'Enlightenment, do you These developments influenced society as these
think paved the way for the emergence of were products of human interaction. Thus, it helped
sociology? Elaborate (C58,2022) sociology to grow as a rational and scientific subJect
Ans: The'Enlightenmerrt', as a European intellectual
with critical analysis.
movement of the late 17tl-t and 18th centuries led by
Montesquieu and Rousseau, emphasized reason and a. How is sociology related to common sense?
individualism. It had great influence on the emergence (csE,2021)
of sociology, though an indirect one. Ans: Common sense is defined as the ,routine
Role of 'Enlightenment' for the development of knowledge that people have of their everyday world
Sociology and activities'. Sociology, on the other hand,.according
to positivists, is the scientific study of society, social
The 'Enlightenment' is important for the relationships including pattems of social communication
development of sociology because it helped in the and culture.
development of secular, scientific and humanistic
attitudes of mind during the late 17th and 18th centuries. Differences
This is because'enlightenment' positioned the human . Common sense generally takes cues from what
being as the central figure of the universe, with rational appears on surface; sociology on the other hand
thought at its core. looks for inter-connections and root causes which
. Irving Zeitlin puts it in his 'Ideology and the may not be apparent.
Development of Sociological Theory, '1.996,, . Sociology uses reason and logic, cofiunon sense uses
'Early sociology developed as a reaction to the conjectures and stereotypical beliefs.
EnJightenment'. . Common sense is based upon assumptions,
. Early sociology has been a mix of 'Enlightenment, sociology is based on evidences.
and'counter-Enlightenment' ideas. . Empirical testing has no place in common sense
. The enlightenment thesis put individuals at center knowledge, while sociological research may have
stage, on the other hand, for counter-enlightenment empirical orientation. Sociological knowledge is
proponents, societv were the most important unit objective; common sense is intuitive.
of analysis. .
t Sociological knowledge results into generalization
I . Enlightenment ideas of rationalism, empiricism, and
and even theory building. Common sense
change-grientation also affected early sociological knowledge on the other hand may be very personal
thought. and two,persons may draw different conclusion of
. Rational and critical thinking transformed human a same event based on their own common sense.
beings into both producer and user of all knowledge. . Sociological knowledge is change oriented, while
Those who did not adopt the new ways of thinking
common sense promotes status quoism.
and reasoning were deemed as deficient and
primitive. Similarities/Convergence
. According to Thomas Bottomore, main intellectual . The concepts in sociology are framed by taking
streams that particularly influenced the emergence into consideration the commonsensical knowledge.
of sociology are political philosophy given by Common sense helps sociologists in hypothesis
likes of Montesquieu, Rousseau, etc., philosophy building.
of history, theory of organic evolution glven by o Commonsense provides raw material for sociological
Darwin, movements for social and political reform investigations. Soqiology tends to answer questions
like French Revolution and development of method generated from common sense knowledge.
of social survey. o Common sense also helps sociology by challenging
. Alexis de Tocqueville, Claude Saint-Simoru Auguste its conclusions and thereby enriching the discipline.
Comte (disciple of Saint Simon), Spencer and . According to Anthony Giddens, sociological
especially Emile Durkheim became the face of French
knowledge also itself .becomes part of common
Sociology with their seminal formative work.
sense knowledge sometimes.
. Comte was the first to use the term sociology and he
Thus when sociology moved closer to positivism,
believed that study of sociology would be scientific.
corunon sense was almost discarded. Anti-positivists on
He developed his scientific view,'positivism,, or
the other hand again tried to give importance to common
'positive philosophy'. Comte developed,social
sense. Sociologists' perception towards coflunon sense
physics' initially what in 1839 he called,sociology,.
thus has changed over time as the discipline evolved.
4 ,:'t socroLocY e & A
Discuss the historical antecedents of the Sociology seeks to study the society and analyze
a. it in terms of the social relations that have a pattern.
emergence of Sociology as a discipline.
(csE,2019) Sociology seeks to explore how and why societies
emerge, persist and then change.
Ans: Sociology is a systematic study of society The scope of sociological study is extremely wide. It
i

and it studies human society as an intercorurected whole focuses its analysis on interactions between individuals
and how society and the individual interact with each such as that of a shopkeeper with a customer, between
other. two friends or family members.
Renaissance gave birth to ideology of modernism Sociology has its tryst with common sense since
and it led to dawn of modernity. Old beliefs were
long time uttt it hut been accused of being no more than
liberally questioned and rationality emerged as comrnon sense right from its birth. The problem is not
new 'religion'. In this background emerged earliest that commonsense knowledge is necessarily false, but
sociological thoughts in the minds of the likes of Hegel, that it is unexamined and taken for granted. For this
Comte ind Spencer. They were mainly western but with prime reasory sociology is distinguished from common
global consequences' Early sociology has been a mix of sense on various grounds-
Enlightenment and counter-Enlightenment ideas'
i. Common sense generally takes cues from what
Modernity and Industrial Revolution gave birth to appears on surface, sociology on the other hand
I
,i
the factory system of production, led to the emergence looks for inter-connections and root causes which
of middle class and dismantling of feudal estates' These may not be apparent. A sociologist works like a
developments not only had certain positive outcomes, skeptic, and sociology is a science of organized
they also had a number of negative fallout as well' skepticism, looking beyond what meets the eye'
In social sphere, nuclear family emerged' It led Explanations for religion, suicide by Durkheirn are
to issues of increased incidence of domestic violence, beit examples of such sociological outlook. While
breakups, etc. Middle class also emerged as a new religion says 'God created man', Durkheim said
structural class and led to new cleavages in society' 'Man creates god/religion'.
Biggest event that affected emergence of discipline ii. Sociology uses reason and logic, common
was French Revolution, which itself was in{luenced by sense uses conjectures and stereotypical beliefs.
Enlightenment philosophy. It led to replacement of old Common sense views are often based upon images
feudal system with a new one. Ideals of democracy, that get reinforced through tradition.
Iiberty and fraternity became new watch words' But,
they didn't come easily and the old system resisted
iii. Common sense is based upon assumptions,
sociology is based on evidences. Sociological
stiffly. A tussle between the old and new ensued which
knowledge is based upon research and the resulting
created a condition of great uncertainty.
outcomes may be contrary to the common sense.
Thus, modernity had an impact on social, economic
and political lives of people. Initially, modernity was
iv. Empirical testing has no place in common sense
knowledge, while sociological research may have
seen positive, but its negative fallouts soon became too
empirical orientation. Commonsense knowledge is
apparent. Modernity posed challenges which led to
often individualistic and naturalistic.
giowth of new intellectual ideas. The questions which
were posed were not answered by hitherto existing v. Sociological knowledge is change oriented, while
disciplines and a new'science of society' was sought common bense Promotes status quo.
and what emerged was known as - Sociology. vi. Common sense is unreflective since it does
not question its own origins, while sociological
Q. The focal point of sociology rests on knowledge ig subjected to unending debates and
interaction. How do you distinguish it from discourse.
common sense? (CSE,2018) vii. Sociology has a body of concepts, methods and
data, no matter how loosely coordinated, but
Ans: Sociology is a systematic study of society
corrunon sense is more or less based out of personal
and studies human society as an interconnected whole
judgments.
and how society and the individual interact with each
other. A sociologist is interested in general study of Thus, sociologists' perception towards common
social behavior of groups, large or small, and lays sense changed over time as the,discipline evolved'
special emphasis upon understanding of social life in its Earlier when it was close to philosophy, common
everyday form. 'General' study also implies that other sense was seen as complementary. When discipline
social science disciplines deal with more specific areas/ moved closer to positivism, corrunon sense was almost
while sociology takes a broad view. discarded.
 SOCIOLOGY - THE DISCIpLtNE ..:,) "s
Anti-positivist on the other hand again tried to give
The Formal School of Sociology
importance to common sense. So, relationship
betlrlen
the two is dynamic and even mutually reiniorcing The formal school believes sociology as a specific,
at
times. pure and independent social science anJthat the scope
is very narrow and limited. George Simml1,
3lsoclo]ogy
Max Weber, Tonnies, etc. belongs to this school of
a. Explain how sociology has emerged as a
thought.
distinct discipline based on rationility and
scientific temper. (CSE,2Ol7) Synthetic School of Sociology
Ans: Sociology as a discipline was a response to the the Synthetic School wanted Sociology to
. -Whereas
be the synthesis of the social sciences and thus *urlt"d
social and intellectual climate prevailing in iurope
after
the advent of the Industrial Revolutioir and the Great to widen the scope of sociology. Followers of this school
Transformation due to the Commercial and Scientific like Ginsberg, Durkheim, Comte, Sorokiry Spencer, etc.
Revolutiory the rational ideas during the Enlightenment favour a blend or synthesis of various areas of study.
period and the ideas of Equalitp Liberty andlraternity
_ Over the period of time, the Synthetic School
propagated by the French Revolution. To understand have gained much prominence due to various reasons.
the
emergence of sociology in Europe, we need to appreciate Hobhouse perceived sociology as a science which has
the relationship between society and ideas. the whole social life of man is its sphere. Its relations
The Old Europe: Old Europe was traditional. with the other social sciences are considered to be one
Land was central to its economic system. Classes of mutual exchange and mutual stimulation.
were
distinct and clearly demarcated. Religion formed the Changing Equations of sociology with other social
cornerstone of the society. The religious heads had sciences
the
overall authority to decide what was moral and what
was not. The king was believed to be divinelv ordained
. First of all, the- boundary between sociology
to rule over his people. and other social sciences is getting narrower.
Illustrations: G.E.C. Catlin remarked,,political
The Enlightenment period in Europe: It was an
Science and Sociology are two faces and aspects
intellectual and p\ilosophical movement that dominated of
the same hgure,,. Sociology depends on political
the world of ideas in Europe during the lgth century.
Science to comprehend itself.
t The Enlightenment included a range of ideas . Likewise, History is now being studied from
centered on reason as the primary source of authority
sociological angle and Sociology ilso now being
and legitimicy, and came to advance ideals like
studied from historical point oiview as Historical
liberty, progress, tolerance, fraternitp constitutional
Sociology and Sociological History respectively.
government and separation of church and state.
A.L.Kroeber considers Sociology and anthropotojy
The French Revolution: French Revolution was as twin sisters.
influenced_ by Enlightenment ideals, particularly
the . Secondly, Sociology as a field of Intellectual Enquiry
concepts of popular sovereignty and inalienable rights.
is becoming more applicable and less theoreiical
The ideas of the French Revolution, coined in the
phr:ases what it was before. It is getting closer towards otlrer
"L7berty" , "Equality', and ,,Frate
, rurity,, , triggered social sciences.
an enormous enthusiasm all over Europe. the two
revolutions embodied changes in all aspects of society . Thirdly, multi-disciplinary research is being
-,social, economic, political. The need was felt to promoted more and more in the universities and
study
these aspects of the society through a specific discipline, research institutes. Hence, the subject matter of
giving birth to sociology. sociology has to derive concepts from various social
sciences.

a. Discuss the changing equation of discipline Hence, with the changing scenario multi-disciplinary
of sociology with other social scienceq. approach is gaining popularity. Sociology is increasingly
borrowing concepts and facts from othlr social sciences
(csE,2017) to study the complexities of society thoroughly.
Ans: Sociology is considered as a science and
that it has some or the other relationships with the
other sciences- History, Anthrop ology, Fhilosophy,
a. "Sociology is pre-eminently stu{y of modern
societies." Discuss. (CSE, 2010)
Psychology, etc. There are two schools of Sociology: "
Ans: Foundation to the origin of Sociology was laid
(a) Formal School of Sociology
by the rapid social changes thit took place -during the
(b) Synthetic School of Sociology Industrial Revolution in Europe.
6 :i,t' socloLocY Q & A
as good or bad, right from wrong, etc'
Massive changes in social structure - cultural' evaluates others
social world is made, dismantled and remade
ideological, instituti,onal and technological took place in Thus,
the Euiopean society of that time' This was collectively
through common sense knowledge'
known as'EuroPean ModernitY'. Many contemporary sociologists are using their
sense and respecting common sense of
The social transformation and social progress that own common
centered around which life world of the people
was witnessed in the European society during the 20th people
century became the subject matter of Sociologists of that is constituted.
tlme. ihey studied the social continuity and change of When feminist considered that every woman is
the society. Industrialisation led to changes in the social exploited by a man, it's a
mixture of facts and common
that most conJlicts
organisation of work and rise of new social structures ,"rr". When critical theory indicates
in the societY. were d.riven by question of power than.being driven by
theory is also driven by sociological common
Sociology emerged in 18th century Europe under wealth, the
social fact.
influence o?-enlightenment. It was established as a sense and
scientific discipline by August Comte to study the Therefore, linkage between sociology and common
social structure and social change in modern industrial sense is profound ind
strong' Hence, sociological
understanding the
society . The pioneers of Sociology studied various social research 1s not possible without
phenomena of modern worid - poverty, urbanisation' significance of common sense
in the life of a human
migration, working class, industrial conflict' etc' being.
Ouikheim studied Division of labour and anomie in Another perspective is, many people mistakenly
industrial societY' believe that sociology is the study of the obvious' They-
of
Marx elaborated the class structure and various claim that sociology is nothing but the application
with simple
dimension of capitalism -a key feature of modern common sense. But equating any science
of work in could not be further from the truth!
society. Weber studied the Organisation common sense
and anlaysed not always "commory" nor "sensible'"
mod"rn society in form of Bureaucracy Common sense is
flock together" and
the impact of increasingly rationalized modern society' Statements like "Birds of a feather
based on corrunon
Parsons gave an understanding of structure of modern "Opposites atttact," while supposedly
Because coflunon sense
society alnd'studied change in family pattern towards knowledge, contradict each other.
does not-always accurately predict reality, people need
nuclearisation, and secularization of various institutions
in modern societY. something else. Not every sociological finding is
findings do appear consistent with
In the same breadth, the changing discourses of revolutionary; many
modernity in the present world gave rise to growth of corunon
sense.

.r"* probl"ms and new questions to be studied and By'systematically testing common sense beliefs
undeistood. When European modernity gave rise to the against facts, sociologists can
sort out which popular
not' To accomplish this'
origin of Sociology, social change driven by modernity in UeUefs hold true and which do
the"present Umes is the subject matter of Sociology' Thus' sociologists use a variety of social science research
it can be rightly said that Sociology is pre-eminently the designs and methods.
study of modern societies. Sociology as a discipline is more than common
sense. Sociology is a method of inquiry that^requires
a. Is sociology common sense? Give reasons in the systematic testingdetermine of beliefs against evidence'
whether specific ideas
support oi yo.r. argument. (CSE, 2016) Socioiogists, therefore,
are fact or fiction.
Ans: Common sense is knowledge and awareness
that is commonly shared by majority of people' It does
Discuss the role of Calvinist ethic in the
not depend on specialist education and in some respects a.
and development of capitalism. (CSE,2015)
states ihe obvious. Sociology is the study of society
of people and their behavior. Ans. Max Weber's The Protestant Ethic and the
relationship between
Positivists reject common sense knowledge claiming Spirit of Capitalism is a study of the
and the emergence of
that human behaviour is driven by rationality' rules the ethics of ascetic Protestantism
Weber argues that the
of law and is empirically arrestable' Thus, sociology the spirit of modern capitalism.
Calvinists played
should follow scientific method' Rejecting this' non- religious ideas of groups such as the
which profit
positivists call for scientific method be supplemented a ro'ie in creating the capitalistic spirit
sees

*ith b"harrioural approach to understand the dynamics as an end in itself, and pursuing profit as virtuous'
of social relationshiP. Calvinists believe in theory of predestination- that God
determined who is saved (or election) and
Anti-positivists give importance to human emotions has already
and state that using common sense every individual damned.
 SOCIOLOGY - THE DlSetpUruE {iri y
As Calvinism developed, a deep psychological
need for clues about whether o.r" a. How did the emergence of induskial sceiety
-u, actuallv sived
arose, and Calvinists looked to their success in worldly
change the family life in Western Europe?
activity for those clues. Thus, they came to value profit (cs8,2014,}
and material success as signs of God,s favor. Ans: Industrialization had a profound impact on the
Protestant ethic - in sociological theory _ the value family life in west that changed the traditional farnily
attached to hard work, thrift, and efficiencv in one,s life with the emergence of modern industries and sociil
worldly calling, which, especially in the Calvinist view, compulsions emerging out of it.
were deemed signs of an individual,s election, or eternal Before the Industrial Revolution, the extended
salvation. Calvinism's antipathy to the worship of the family was the norm in the Western world. The
flesh, its emphasis on the religious duty to make fruitful foundation to family life were based upon romantic love,
use of the God-given resources at each individual,s mutual appreciation and prolonged childhood.
disposal, and its orderliness and systemization of William Goode considers that in case of west,
ways of life were regarded by Weber as economically
industrialization gave rise to the migration of rurai.
significant aspects of the ethic.
population to urban centers, urban living being costly,
Weber argues that this new attitude broke down women were forced to get out from family to job marklt
the traditional economic system, paving the way for that consequently affected to the fertility role of women,
modern capitalism. However, once capitalism emerged, the size of family become small, atfluence of the farniliz
the Protestant values were no longer.r"a"rrury, ana increased and woman's status in nuclear family b*"*m*
their
ethic took on a life of its own. We are now locked into about equivalent to man.
the spirit of capitalism because it is so useful for modern
Modern nuclear family in west glorifies the values
economic activity.
of individualism and utilitarianism . Gertzadvocates
that
modern nuclear family in west is driven by the principtre
a. How had Enlightenment contributed to the of great expectation from each other wiren there is a
emergence of Sociology? (CSE,2015) gap between expectation and achievement that leads to
Sociology can be defined as the study of societies suspicion, violence, divorce, or children running away
. 1o:,
a1d their developn-ient in terms of their political decisions, from family
ethics, economic development, religion and laws. Therefore, modern nuclear family is not a paradox irr
The three major factors which influenced the this nuclear world rather it is vulneratle to disintegration
emergence of sociology as a sphere of study began in becarrse of tension coming from within.
the
late eighteenth century with the French Revolution,
the In conclusion, it can be advocated that sociologist
period known as'the Enlightenment, and the Industrial looks into social transformation of family is changiirg
Revolution.
structural and functional roles reflecting on social artd
- The Enlightenment was a significant contributing
factor to the emergence of sociology in ttre late lgth and
economic transformation.
In case of western societies today, there are
early 19th century. The Enlightenment is considered
emerging live-in relationships, single parent farniiy
to be the source of critical ideas, such as the centrality
etc., therefore, sociologist are now changing their focus
of freedom, democracy, and reason as primary values
of attention from family study to holse=hold study
of society. It was the "creation of a ,r"r.n] frurrl"-ork of
indicating that social transformation can be understood
ideas about mary society and nature, which challenged
existing conceptions rooted in a traditional world_ through changing nature of sexuality, marriage and
view, dominated by Christianity,,. The Enlightenment family.
period coincided with the increase in knowledge in i
other scientific fields such as life sciences like Darwin,s a. How is sociological approach to humam
theories of evolution which challenged old established actions different from that of psychologiea{
ideas of the church. The Enligitenment was an approach? (CSE,2014)
intellectual movement consisting of *uny philosophers Ans: Psychology deals with the mental process of
like Charles Montesquieu, Jacque, f"gtt and man considered as a social being. It studies particularly
]ean
Condorcet.
the influence of group life of the mental development
The Enlightenment was in many respects a of
an individual, the effect of the individual mind on the
renaissance of scientific thought and iignailed the group and development of the mental life of the groups
beginning of sociology as a discipline. It cianged the within themselves and in their relation with one another.
way philosophers looked at the world by giving a Sociology, on the other hand, studies the various kinds
scientific and analytical approach to their theories. of groups that compose the society.
 8 :,1:,:., socloLocY Q&A

Psychology has to depend on sociology to properly

They started studying the society empirically'
Dubois and Adams conducted a studv "the Phiiadelphia
undersiand h,iman behavior and nature, as it is sociology
that provtdes the necessary material regarding the negro" which depicted the living conditions of blacks
struciure, organization, and culture of the societies to ,rr"d". racial discrimination. As the sociologists there
which individual belongs. They recognize the importance were pained by the conditions of blacks, they started to
of psychological factors, among other things' in think about the social reformation of society which gave
underitanding the changes in social structure' impetus to sociologY in USA.
McDougall and. Freud were of the view that whole
of the social"life could be reduced finally psychological a. Compare and contrast Sociology with
forces. In that case, sociology would be reduced to a AnthiopologY. (CSE,2013)
mere branch of psychology. But this view cannot be Ans: Anthropology is a social science that is
accepted, as the causes affecting social behavior are concerned with human culture as weli as the physical
o,n"i,nu, psychological, such as economic, geographical and social characteristics that create that culture' Often
and politicai. So"iu'i life, therefore, cannot be studied it will compare one group of humans to another or even
exclusively with the methods of the psychologist' But compare hr-url, with i,-timals" It has its origin {rom
the fact of mutual dependence of psychology and physical anthropology and biology' Sociology is the study
sociology should not be interpreted to mean that one
is
the other' There are Lf society, its institutions, principles, their origin and
either iilntical with or the branch of
their consequences on the society' Anthropology studies
important points of distinction between these two related pre-industrial societies which are relatively changing
fields of investigation. and lack historical records. Sociology studies the post-
lndividual behavior has quite a different status in industrial societies' Sociology is ioaded with values and
the psychoiogical view, where to Sigmund Freud human ethical considerations whereas anthropology is neutral'
clvlitltion iJpossible only by coercing the individuals For anthropology the field is small and self contained
and repressing their natural impulses' The social is' whereas for sociology it is large scale organizations'
therefoie, explained bv the individual'
Initially, there were differences in methodology as
Anthropology used participant observation and
a. Sociology emerged in Europe and flourished fieldwoik. Giidually, sociolsgists also adopted these
to begin with on social reformist orientation along with surveys, questionnaire and interviews'
in the USR." - Comment' (CSE,2013) Willi"am White use d participant observation in sociolo gy'
Ans: Sociology emerged in Europe due to the Anthropology for long tim'e used frtnctionalism
modernization process marked by the Enlightenment' to understand the phenomena' Sociology has many
the French Revolution and the industrial revolution' other approaches aiong with functionalism which it
During Enlightenment the philosophical ideas guided borrowed from anthropology' Therefore' in spite of
by rati"onalit! rather than faith and superstition started initial differences, there is much of convergence now/
making way towards new thinking' French revolution especially after World War-II' In Third World countries
markei the arrival of political sovereignty and feudalism boih modern and traditional institutions exist so as
got replaced bY democracY. an anthropologist we have to study urbanization and
During industrial revolution the systematic industrialization and as a sociologist we have to study
application of science and technology was done to the religion and caste. So, both have become complementary
production system' Though it increased.production' it now
ih."* up many new problems as pollution, inhumane
working conditions, itrita and women exploitation in a. Interpretative Sociology. (CSE,20L2)
industrfts. Now, many thinkers thoughtthatpoverty and
Ans: From establishment of sociology' a lot of
exploitation are created by the human beings and are not
differences hasioccurred between sociologist and social
nalural. So, the solution has to be found out by us only'
scientist on what is sociology and what it should be'
a'
Therefore, they started to study society, make laws to
Earlier, positivist thinkers treated it as a pure science'
predict and improve the conditions of living' Along with
whereas u .iurt of sociologists was not agreeing on its
ihese thinke.r, ih"r" *"re conservationists such as Bonald
and Maistre who wanted to go back to the olden era' Thus' status of pure science because of its different nature from
they defined the goal that sociology should achieve' natural science.
t.i
In USA, it was the Chicago school which developed In this series, Cerman sociologist Max Weber

first. As Chicago was a rapidly growing multi-ethnic said that, "sociology is a science which attempts the
society consistin"g of blacks and whites, the sociologist there interpretive understanding of social action to arrive at
,u- u new sociil Process happening' They saw various a casual explanation of its cause and effects"' Above
immigrant cultures developing and living inghettos whose statement ofMax Weber has become base of interpretative
thoug:hts were different from American thoughts' sociology.
 SOCIOLOGY - THE DISCIPLINE ir..ilir I
Max Weber emphasizes that sociology is not satisfied influenced by society's pattern, led to development
with general meaning in social action, but it tries to give of sociology as science in the 19th century. The
meaningful understanding. Any incident or situationhas modernisation in Europe was also the period where
two meaning-first is assumed by most people of society science being applied to study the society. This was also
and second is assu- med rationally by obtaining complete the period when natural sciences blossomed in Europe.
inJormation about situation of people. Such as ]ohn Kepler established the true orbits of planets,
,i
I According to Weber, sociologists should try to S.I. Newton established the law of gravity and many
{
:
search this second meaning. For this, Weber presented intellectuals saw power in science that could be used to
verstehan. According to Weber, human is not like a understand society and human behaviour. Intellectuals
physical, chemical or biological thing but it is a creative also rejected the notion of using religion to understand
thoughtful being and due to which human society is an the world.
areaof differentmeaning. ForWeber, Sociologyis a study The French Revolution in 1.789 destioyed the
of interpretive understanding of social action. It is said dominance of nobility and gave the Idea of liberty,
Verstehan means method of understanding the subjective equality and fraternity. Industrial Revolution gave many
meaning about world given by social actor. political and economic developments. As a consequence
This interpretative sociology related thoughts of Industrial Revolution, Europe's economy shifted from
of Weber has given new direction to sociology. In agricultural one to an economy based on manufacturing,
this sequence developed'the assumption of trading, etc. Industrial revolution also gave birth to
interpretative sociology by giving importance to status numerous cities and thereby urban societies. Thus
of person. Symbolic interactionist, ethnomethdologist European Society greatly transformed where tradition
and interactionist played major role for its development" was replaced by demand for efficiency, religious values
changed by modern values. These modernising incidents
gave boost up for the emergence of sociology and finally
a. Emergence of sociology is an outcome of
sociology as discipline came into existence with the effort
modernity and social change in Europe.
of Auguste comte who coined the term 'sociology' to
(csE,2011) study human society and its behaviours.
Ans: Origin of sociology as discipline began in the
L9thcentury Europe and for the emergence of socioiogy in Q. What can Socioiogy show us about our
Europe there wefe various modernisation factors. Such as: actions? Discuss the practical significance of
t
(i) Enlightment that swept Europe in the eighteenth Sociology. (CSE,2011)
t century.
Ans: Sociology as a discipline is generic and umbrella
(ii) French.revolution which began in1789 inspired by in nature as it deals with the totality of human interactions
the enlightment, and and examir\ation" It is also a systematic study of social
(iii) Industrial Revolution in mid-eighteenth century in behaviours and hurnan groups. It delves primarily into
Europe. the influence of social relationships on people attitudes
Beginning of enlightment examined many questions and behaviours and on how societies are established
in the European society. Such as why is there inequality, and changed.
why ls poverty, etc. Before the eighteenth century the Sociology is atrso concerned about social facts in the
€u:rswers of these questions have been religious. Such as onom1r, educ ation, le gal, reli gio n, f amily, technol.o gy.
ec
God has planned the development of society, human Within the province of these subsystems both the aspects
being fell from the grace of God and it was through God's of human societSr and every type of social relationship
intervention that society had a lawful order. It was also can be examined.
explained that inequality is God's way of establishing The scientific assessment of the social facts within the
order and rewarding good people. Kings and Churches society can also serve as an avenue to curve discomfort
are God's representative on the Earth and it was their and instabiliryz in theisociety amongst the people. Flence,
efforts that things work properly. It was also held that sociology as a field can assists the member of any society
ordinary human beings have no right to question the to serve attitudinal, behavioural and social problems to
king and doing so is similar to questioning God's law. actualise a healthy gro.arth and development of such
But enlightment and modernisation in Europe altered society. Sociologists as people are serving the society in
the traditional explanation of human suffering. various a variety of capacities as teachers, lecturers, researchers,
intellectuals focussed that if the world is evil, it is because journalists, workers in industry social workers, farm
of human being. planners, criminologists, probation officers and so forth.
Various intellectuals also emphasized that society Sociology also performs several roles within the
is being created by the people and people can determine society as an indispensable impetus to enhance its
what kind of society should be. The strong belief emerged coutinuitv and stability and assists in the analysis and
through enlightment that human actions is largely clarification of different types of relationships within
10 ...rl SOCIOLOGY Q & A

the society which produce such social institutions and why is poverty, etc. Before the eighteenth century the
associations through which the behaviour of individuals answers of these questions have been religious. Such as
are organised and controlled. It is the concern of God has planned the development of society, human
sociology to identify why certain undesirable behaviours being fell from the grace of God and it was through God's
manifested in human beings and how such behaviour intervention that society had a lawful order. It was also
could be checked and reformed. explained that inequality is God's way of establishing
For instance within the society there are social order and rewarding good people. Kings and Churches
deviants who probably get initiated or apprehended into are God's representative on the Earth and it was their
such unacceptable behaviours due to ignorance and other efforts that things work properly. It was also held that
varied reasons beyond the victims explanation. Sociology ordinary human beings have no right to question the
exposes members of the society to how authority and king and doing so is similar to questioning.God's law.
power are derived within the society and why certain But enlightment and modernisation in Europe altered
values customs, beliefs and practices are held. Sociology the traditional explanation of human suffering. various
also attempts to establish the links between the different intellectuals focussed that if the world is evil, it is because
sub-systems in the society. of human being. Various intellectuals also emphasized
It also studies the relationship between the political that society is being created by the people and people
system and economic system or the relationship can determine what kind of society should be. The strong
between the educational sysfem and political system. belief emerged through enlightment thathuman actions is
Sociology intimates individuals with the changes within largely influenced by society's pattern, led to development
the society and the effects.of such changes on human of sociology as science in the 19th century.
existence. Through sociology it is revealed that the The modernisation in Europe was also the period
society is dynamic and transitory in nature. Sociology where science being applied to study the society. This :

also examines human background and various forms was also the period when natural sciences blossomed in
orientation within the society. Within the societal settings Europe. Such as ]ohn Kepler established the true orbits
there are diversifications of cultural background and of planets, S.L Newton established the law of gravity
I
upbringings. and rnany intellectuals saw power in science that could
i

The environment within which an individual is born be used to understand society and human behaviour. :

and bred has qignificant inJluence in values, beliefs, traits Intellectuals also rejected the notion of using religion to
and ideas which the person internalises conceptualises. understand the world. The French Revolution in 1789
This understanding will assist in tolerating and destroyed the dominance of nobility and gave the Idea
accommodating others with differences in cultural of liberty, equality and fraternity. Industrial Revolution
background and orientation. Sociology also operates gave many political and economic developments. As a
within the realm of human needs. In the society, there are consequence of Industrial Revolutioru Europe's economy \
basic social needs which individuals aspire to achieve for shifted frbm agricultural one to an economy based on
meaningful existence and purposefui survival. Sociology manufacturing, trading, etc.
also identify various humanneeds in society and explains Industrial revolution also gave birth to numerous
how those needs are met and satisfied. It also explains the cities and thereby urban societies. Thus European Society
danger in unwholesome approach to satisfy one's needs. greatly transformed where tradition was replaced by
Thus, sociology is a practical discipline which helps demand for efficiency, religious values changed by
in solving many human problems and their existence. modern values. These modernising incidents ga\e boost
up for the emergence of sociology and finally sociology as
Emergence of sociology is an outcome of discipline came into existence with the effort of Auguste
a. comte who coined the term'Sociology' to study human
modernity and social change in Europe.
(csE,2011)
Ir

Ans: Origin of sociology as discipline began in the Q. What can Sociology show us about our
19th century Europe and for the emergence of sociology in actions? Discuss the practical significance of
Europe there were various modernisationfactors. Such as: Sociology. (CSE,2011)
(i) Enlightment that swept Europe in the eighteenth
Ans: Sociology as a discipline is generic and umbrella
century.
in nature as it deals with'the totality of human interactions
(ii) French revolution which began in1789 inspired by
and examination. It is also a systematic study of social
the enlightment, and
behaviours and human groups. It delves primarily into
(iii) Industrial Revolution in mid-eighteenth century in the in{luence of social relationships on people attitudes
Europe. and behaviours and on how societies are established
Beginning of enlightment examined many questions and changed. Sociology is also concerned about social
in the European society. Such as why is there inequality, facts in the economy, educatioo legal, religion, family,
 SOCIOLOGY. THE DISGIPLINE :S} 11
technology. Within the province of these subsystems both Thus, sociology is a practical discipline which
the aspects of human society and every type of social helps in solving many human problems and their
relationship can be examined. existence.
The scientific assessment of the social facts within the
society can also serve as an avenue to curve discomfort a. "Sociology without history is rootless and
and instability in the society amongst the people. history without Sociology in fruitless."
Hence, sociology as a field can assists the member of Elaborate. (CSE,2010)
any society to serve attitudinal, behavioural and social
Ans: The structure of society is so vast and complex
problems to actualise a healthy growth and development
that a general science which studies it in its entirety
of such society. Sociologists as people are serving the
must be supplemented by special sciences which study
society in a variety of capacities as teachers, lecturers,
the parts.
researchers, journalists, workeis in industry social
workers, farm planners, criminologists, probation officers Accordingly, in the modern age, no sociologist
and so forth. can deny the utility of other social sciences like history,
psychology, authropology, economics and political
Sociology also performs several roles within the
science in the study of sociology. In the words cif
society as an indispensable impetus to enhance its
G.E.Howard "History is past Sociology and Sociology
coutinuity and stability and assists in the analysis and
is present History". History and SocioloW are, indeed.
clarification of different types bf relationships within
the society which produce such social institutions and very closely related. History provides the perspective
associations through which the behaviour of individuals
to locate present society on a continuum of man's past,
are organised and controlled.
present and future."
It is the concern of sociology to identify why certain History is the reconstruction of man's past. It is the
undesirable behaviours manifested in human beings and story of the experience of mankind, a systematic record
how such behaviour could be checked and reformed. of man's life and achievements from the dim past to
For instance within the society there are social deviants the present. Sociology, on the other hand, as a science
who probably get initiated or apprehended into such of society, is interested in the present. It tries to analyse
unacceptable behaviours due to ignorance and other human interactions and social relations with all their
varied reasons bpyond the victims explanation. Sociology complexity and diversity. And this is where, history
I
exposes members of the society to how authority and comes to the aid of sociology.
i.
i
I
power are derived within the society and why certain History with its record of various social events of the
values customs, beliefs and practices are he1d. Sociology past offers data and facts to sociologists to study various
I
also attempts to establish the links between the different stages of human life, mode of living, customs, manners
sub-systems in the society. and their expression in the form of social institutions and
I
i It also studies the relationship between the political associations.
system and economic system or the relationship between Further, a historian is also not satisfied, with mere
the educational system and political system. Sociology description. He seeks to learn the causes of these events
intimates individuals with the changes within the society to understand the past-not only how it has been but also
and the effects of such changes on human existence. how it came to be.
Through sociology it is revealed that the society is Robert Bierstedt's words sum up verybeautifully this
dynamic and transitory in nature. Sociology also examines symbiotic relationship-"If the past is of as a continuous
human background and various forms orientation cloth unrolling through the centuries, history is interested
within the society. Within the societal settings there are in the individual threads and strands that make it up;
diversifications of cultural background and upbringings. sociology in the patterns it exhibits."
The environment within which an individual History provides sociology a ground to trace the
is born and bred has significant influence in values, evolution of societli and man. Sociology mirrors the
beliefs, traits and ideas which the person internalises growth of and the movement of the same to its present
conceptualises. This understanding will assist in tolerating state. A sociologist is primarily concerned with the
and accommodating others with differences in cultural present day society.
background and orientation. Sociology also operates But the present day society can be better understood
within the realm of human needs. In the society, there are only with a comprehensiveknowledge of its past because
basic social needs which individuals aspire to achieve for
the two are intricately related. Present stands on the
meaningful existence and purposeful surwival. edifice of past. Further, sociology has also given a new
Sociology also identify various human needs in perspective to history. It provides the social background
society and explains how those needs are met and for the study of history. It is said that history would
satisfied. It also explains the danger in unwholesome be meaningless without the appreciation of socially
approach to satisfy one's needs. significant events. lI
 CHAPTER

Q. What is the distinctiveness of the feminist Q. What are the characteristics of scientific meth-
method of social research? Comrnent. od? Do you think that scientific method in
(csE 2023) conducting sociological research is foolproof?
Ans: A method for doing social science research that Elaborate. (CSE 2023)
emphasises the viewpoints, experiences, and interests of Ans: Scientific Method, in general, refers to any
women is called feminist research methodology. It calls systematic, rational and objective set of steps to explore
into question the conventional, male-centric research the truth or new knowledge or for investigating
approaches and emphasises how crucial gender is to phenomena or correcting and integrating previous
comprehending social processes. knowledge. It is more generally associated with natural
o The focus of this method is on gender equality, power sciences and discovery of laws, which govern behavior
dynamics, and women's subjective experiences that of matter, is at the heart of scientific rnethod.
make it distinctive. The emphasis of feminist research
The key characteristics of the scientific method include:
is on hol,r) power dynamics shape social realities. It
critically looks at the distribution and use of power
o Empirical Observation: The scientific method relies
in society, especially as it relates to gender. on objective observations of the natural world.
o Traditional Scientists use their senses or instruments to gather
research approaches frequently seek
data about phenomena or events.
objectivity, whereas feminist research recognizes and
welcomes subjectivity" Feminist researchers engage
o Formulation of a Hypothesis: A hypothesis is a
in reflexivity, which means they constantly reflect testable statement or prediction that proposes an
explanation for a speci{ic observation or phenomenon.
on their own participation in the research process.
The researcher's personai experiences, biases, and
It serves as the basis for conducting experiments or
making observations.
opinions are valued and considered essential.
o Emancipatory objectives frequently motivate feminist
o Testing and Experimentation: Scientists design
study. This indicates that the goal of the research is to
experiments or observational studies to test the
alter the world as well as to comprehend it. The goals
validity of their hypotheses. These experiments are
of feminist research are frequently to draw attention
structured to gather data and provide evidence for
to, combat, and contribute to societal change related
or against the proposed hypothesis.
to gender injustice.
o Data Collection and Analysis: During
o Feminist researchers frequently seek to identify and experimentation, scientists collect data, which
con-front gender inequity in order to contribute to
may be qualitative or quantitative. Data is then
analyzed using statistical methods or other analytical
social change.
techniques to draw meaningful conclusions.
Therefore, feminist research methodology is a
distinct approach that prioritises gender, power relations,
o Reproducibility and Verification: One of the
hallmarks of the scienti{ic method is that experiments
subjectivity, intersectionality, and emancipation. It
it helps us comprehend gender inequality and provides a and observations should be reproducible. Other
researchers should be able to replicate the study and
critical lens through which to view social phenomena. It
questions conventional research methods and promotes
obtain similar results to validatb the findings.
social change by placing a distinctive emphasis on the
o Peer lteview: Before research findings are published,

experiences and viewpoints of women. they usually undergo a peer-review process, where
other experts in the field evaluate the study's
 SOCIOLOGYAS SCIENCE W 13
methodology, results, and conclusions. This helps Challenges in Sociology
ensure the quality and credibility of scientific work. . There are two major challenges in sociology as
o Objectivity and Impartiality: Scientists strive to outcomes of sociological research are not a result of a
maintain objectivity and impartiality during their controlled experiment and a situation never remains
investigations, minimizing bias and personal beliefs the same.
that could hfluence the results. . Different ideologies also guide research methodology
r Falsifiability: Scientific hypotheses and theories and hence, different results will be produced every
must be testable and falsifiable. This means that there time.
should be the possibility of obtaining evidence that
Reliability and Ways to Improve
contradicts or refutes the proposed explanation.
. . Reliability raises many technical problems in
Theory Building: Successful and widely accepted
hypotheses, after undergoing rigorous testing and
qualitative research for sociologistS as subjects
change their mind as time passes. Reliability in
validation, may contribute to the development of
research can be improved by inculcating objectivity
scientific theories, which provide a comprehensive
explanation of natural phenomena.
in methods, approaches. Standardization of
procedures and methods also increases reliability.'
Scientific Method in Sociological Research: Is it Foolproof? . When tesearchers lneasure.a construct that they
o In sociological study, the .scientific method is a assume to be consistent across time, then the scores
useful tool, but it is not infallible. The claim that they obtain should also be consistent across time.
human behavior is too complicated and varied to Test-retest reliability is the extent to which this is
be examined in the same way as natural phenomena actually the case.
is one of the fundamental objections to using the . For example, intelligence is generally thought to
scientific method to sociology. Due to their capacity be consistent across time. A person who is highly
for free will and their ability to alter their conduct intelligent today wiil be highly intelligent next week.
in reaction to various circumstances, people can be This means that any good measure of intelligence
challenging to forecast and scientifically explain should produce roughly the same scores for this
what they will do. individual next week as it does today.
. Moreover, sociological study may damage the . Assessing test-retest reliability requires using the
scientific m6thod's neutrality. Preconceived ideas measure on a group of people at one time, using it
or prejudices may affect the observations and again on the same grotlp of people at a later time,
interpretations made by researchers. and then looking at test-retest correlation between
o Also, sociological studies can provide replicability the two sets o{ scores.
challenges. Social phenomena frequently depend on . Another kind of reliability is internal consistency,
their context, which entails that particular historical, which id the consistency of people's responses across
cultural, or geographic elements may have an the items on a multiple-item measure. In general, all
impact. It is challenging to reproduce the findings the items on such measures a,re supposed to reflect
of sociological research since what is effective in one the same underlying construct, so people's scores on
setting could not be in another. those items should be correlated with each other.
Therefore, rationale behind adopting a scientific . Many behavioral measures involve significant
methodology in sociology is to give concrete shape to judgment on the part of an observer or a rater.
sociological concepts, so that they are urrderstood similarly Inter-rater reliability is the extent to which different
by different people. Despite its many advantages, the observers are consistent in their judgments.
scientific method is not infallible, particularly when used Therefore, some methods like statistical techniques,
in social study. In order to investigate social phenomena, sampling, etc. are more reliable as compared to other
sociologists must be cognizant of these constraints and methods like partlcipant observation, open ended
employ a variety of techniques. interview and so on. Subjectivity due to style of individual
investigator and interference of values lead to lower
Q. What is reliability? Explain the different reliability of socioiogical investigations.
tests available to social science researcher to
establish reliability. (C58,20221 Q. I4/hat are the shortfalls of positivist philosophy
that gave rise to the non-positivist methods of
Ans: Reliability and validity are the two important
parameters that determine the correctness and studying social reality? (C9E,2022)
effectiveness of an observation and hence usefulness of Ans: Positivism is an approach of studying sociology
a result. Reliability leads to repetition of the same result; which aims at applving principles similar to those in
validity is the degree of meeting the desired goal. natural sciences"
 14 *r$ri soctoLocy e & A
Comte has described positivism in two ways: particular context. Gradually, it was also realized
1. Positivism as a doctrine (a philosophy) that an inductive approach is less fruitful in sociology
2. Positivism as a method (research methodology) and instead a deductive approach would be more
Durkheim has used Positivism as a research helpful as it is very difficult to collect facts about
methodology in his work'Suicide'. For him, the subject abstract phenomena.
matter of sociology is social fact and a researcher must . Positivism was also considered a fundamental
abandon all preconceived notions about them. misunderstanding of reality. Later non-positivists
approaches favored the study of phenomena in terms
Role of Positivism in Emergence of Sociology
of meanings attached by the actors.
. Sociology as a distinct discipline emerged in the . Weber talked about emphasizing on social action and
19th century as a reaction to European modernity.
not social facts. Alfred Schulz contends that humans
At that time, Science was celebrated in Europe. To
construct their world through co.mmon sense,
establish infant sociology as a serious discipline, it
ethical values, assumptions and presumptions. So,
was necessary to model it along natural sciences.
a sociologist must respect these while undertaking
Thus, Positivism helped in the very survival of
research.
sociology in its early days.
. Positivists were also criticized for overemphasize
Assumptions made by the Positivist Approach on universalism which is not always possible in
. The behavior of man can be observed and measured sociology. Positivist explanations are also difficult
objectively. to test contrary to their claim.
. With such measurements, it will be possible to Despite criticism, one big achievement of positivists
accurately predict human behavior. was that they freed social sciences from the clutches of
. Cause-effect relationship canbe inferred and theories religion and speculative philosophy and laid the solid
can be devised to explain behavior. foundation of a systematic investigation into society.
. Factors which cannot be observed, like meanings,
feelings or purposes should not be considered. For
a. Delimit the scope of Sociology in relation to
example: Marriage and procreation are observable other social sciences. (C58,20221
facts, while underlying causes of marriage are not
observablg, and hence are inconsequential. Ans: Sociology is a distinct science with its own
subject matter. It has, by now, been able to establish itself
Sociological Theory Building & Role of Positivism as a distinct science concerned with the scientific study of
society. It has accumulated a body of knowledge about
. Positivism helps in sociological theory building and society.
generalization. Through observation, a reliable body There.is no special field of sociology since its subject
of data could be collected, the methods used could matter has been parcelled out to a number of social
be standardized, and objectivity and value neutrality sciences like political science, economics, psychology,
could be achieved. anthropology, and history, etc. Another criticism against
. Thus, positivism glorified the idea that human sociology is that it borrows from other social sciences.
behavior and working of society is predictable and Today sociology is not only a distinct science with
like natural sciences, it can also be quantified in subject matter of its own but it has also acquired that
concrete terms. Thus, they tried to make Sociology high status which entitles it to be called the "mother of
a scientific discipline different from other social all social sciences".
sciences like History, Philosoph/, etc. which have
subjectivity, speculations and value elements. Scope of Sociology
Marxism is seen as a positivist approach as it sees n Scope here refers to the field of sociology or area of
human behavior as a reaction to the stimulus of the sociological ifrvestigation.
economic in{rastructure, and so is Functionalism as it sees . There is no consensus among sociologists about the
human behavior as a response to functional prerequisites. scope of sociology.
Drawbacks/Criticism of Positivist Approach
. Since the days of Comte, Spencers, Durkheim and
. However, soon it was realized that sociology cannot Giddings, sociologists have attempted to define and
be developed as a purely positivistic discipline. limit the field of sociological investigation.
q Primarily it was because sociology dealt with the George Simmel's Views
human element with a subjective conscience which . According to George Simmel, sociology in order to
cannot be deciphered totally by objective methods. develop as a'special science' of society, should deal
. Phenomenologists like Peter Berger contend that with 'forms' of human relationship and not with
facts never fall from the sky, but develop in a their content.
 SOCIOLOGYAS SCIENCE #|] 15
. He says sociology should confine its study to forms a. How does a researcher achieve objectivity in
of behaviour instead of studying actual behavior. interpretative research? (C9F.,20221
. As an independent and specific science it should
Ans: Objectivity is an approach in which the attitude
aim at description, classification, analysis and
of a scientific investigator is detached, unprejudiced,
explanation of the forms of human relationships.
. value-free and free from biases. Values are the basis
Simmel has mentioned some forms of relationships,
of biases and subjectivity and they florv from different
e.g. competition, dominatiory imitation, division of
preconceived notions like caste, gender, culture, class,
labour, subordinatiory etc.
religion, ideology and so on.
Flence, the scope of sociology includes forms of
relationships and it should not study their contents.
As per, Robert Bierstedt, 'objectivity means that
conclusions arrived at as a result of inquiry and
Relation of Sociology with Other Sciences investigation are independent of the race,.color, creed,
Form vs. Content The relation of sociology with occupatiory nationality, religion, moral preferences and
other sciences is analogous to the relation between political predisposition of the investigator'.
geometry and physical sciences. Geometry studies the
Objectivity in Social Research
special forms and relations of objects, not their content.
Synthesis of Social Sciences or a General Science: Objectivity in social research can be improved by vari-
According to synthetic school, sociology is a synthesis ous scientific methods like:
of social sciences or a general science. This conception of . 'double blind' in research,
sociology is held by the second group of sociologists, best . use of scientific methods like - Verstehen,
exemplified by Durkheim, Hobbes and Sorokin. . training the researchers to adopt a value-free
Science of Sciences: Sociology is a science of sciences
approach,
and all the social sciences are included in its scope. The . enlarging the samples, and
contention of this school is that all aspects of social life . expanding the research in both temporal and spatial
are interrelated; hence the study of one aspect of social
life is not sufficient to understand the entire fact. For this dimensions for wider acceptability, etc.
reason sociology should systematically study social life Results
as a whole. . Results should be subjected to organized skepticism
\
Sociology: Subject Matter and Viewpoint for greater acceptability.
. The subject matter of sociology and other social . Sociologists can also view their work from an
sciences is the same. But there is a difference in their outsider's perspective and it is called'reflexivity'.
viewpoint. o { reflexive sociologist documents all his or her
. Society is the subject matter of all social sciences but activities so that there is an objective evaluation.
they study it in their own perspectives. Difficulties of Objective Approach
. Sociology has its own perspective and different
Achieving an ob;'ective approach is fraught with
system of explanation of facts. In political science,
difficulties. Since sociological investigation involves
for example, authority, Government etc. are studied
multiple stages, objectivity is required in all those stages:
from the political viewpoint. But sociology explains . ChoiceofTopicandProblemDefinition:The'choice
authority and Government in terms of sociological
perspectives.
of topic and problem definition' for sociological
research should be made objectively. However,
How scope of Sbciology differs from each of the Social personal preferences play an important role here. For
Seiences example, the problem of defining scope of sociology
. The scope of sociology differs from each of the social is treated differently by different scholars. Max
sciences because it studies social relationships, but Weber tur his'Nzfethods of Social sciences' argued that
the study in this sphere necessitates a study of all values can be tolerated at this level, but there should
the social sciences. be value neutrality in the later stages of research.
. In studying any social phenomenory it is,necessary . Collection of Facts: In the 'collection of facts'
to coirtemplate upon all its aspects. stage also various methods like - primary and
Thus, the truth is that any subject studied by the secondary research pose issues of choice and many
sociological method is included within the scope of of them are highly subjective. Collection of facts
sociology. It is neither possible nor essential to delimit the also depends upon the ability of the investigator as
scope of sociology because this would be, as Sprott says well. For example, the interviewing method suffers
"A brave attempt to confine an enormous mass of slippery from problems of values of both interviewer and
material into a relatively simple system of pigeon holes". interviewee.
 16 ffi socrolocYe&A
. Representation or Interpretation of Facts: alone. For data to become informatiorL data needs
'Representation or interpretation of facts' can aiso be to be put into context.
colored by personal biases. For example, a particular Data is raw, unorganized facts that need to be
set of phenomena, say caste or class, may be viewed processed. Data can be something simple and
as functional by one scholar and dysfunctional by seemingly random and useless until it is organized.
another Marxist scholar. For example, each student's test score is one piece
. Formulation of Theories: Formulation of theories is of data.
also colored by various viewpoints and is not always
Information
supported by the facts.
. Choice of Testing Tools: The choice of testing tools
. When data is processed, organized, structured or
to validate theories is also subjective. Since social presented in a given context so as to make it useful,
research cannot be done in a confined environment in
it is called information. For example,.the average
a laboratory, there is always subjectivity in choosing
score of a class or of the entire schoof is information
an appropriate testing environment. that can be derived from the given data.

Arguments over Complete Objectivity Information and Data in Social Sciences

. Proponents of objectivity earlier argued that
. Fact-a form of Data: In social sciences, a fac[ is
sociology should refrain from indulging into regarded as an empiricaliy verifiable observation
questions of 'what ought"to be', but instead focus and it is a form of data. It has its own independent
on explaining'what is'. F{owever, given the nature existence. Facts can be perceived by our tactical and
of discipline which deals n'ith humans having audio-visual senses etc. in a similar manner by each
consciousness, a complete objectivity is not possible. one of us. Facts remain the same in every situation
. In the late 19th Century, it was argued that'complete and for all observers.
objectivity was neither desirable nor achievable'.
. Objective Facts: They constitute the subject matter
Dilthey was first to turn the nascent approach in of natural sciences.
sociology on its head. According to him, a fact based
. Social Facts: Durkheim gave the concept of 'social
approach explores only one dimension as it ignores facts'. Positivists conceptualized the new discipline
cultural, ideological dimensions. of sociology lying on the bedrock of facts and
. Weber further criticized the fact-based approach and empirical knowledge. According to Durkheim, social
he laid down the fundamentals of an interpretivist facts are the subject matter of the discipline.
approach" As there are different ideologies and Role of Factual Analysis
viewpoints in the study of sociology, absolute . To make sociology a science, attention should be
objectivity is not possible. Moreover, a particular
paid only on factual analysis and not on subjective
social problem can only be understood within a
particular cultural context and ignoring this context
, interpretations and individual perceptions.
Flowever, later itwas argued that sociology carmotbe
may lead to faulty understanding of the problem.
. based on facts alone as human consciousness is intangible
According to post-positivist Elvin Gouldner -
and cannot be measured against factual standards.
'Value neutrality is an Elusive Goal in Sociology'
Thus, "Data" and "information" are intricately tied
as investigators have to deal with multi-layered
together, whether one is recognizing them as two separate
kuths. Viewpoints and values are hence considered
words or using them interchangeably, as is common
essential.
today. Whether they are used interchangeably depends
Therefore, Objectivity is not an end in itself and it is
not a fixed principle. Meaning of objectivity today is not somewhat on the usage of "data" and its context.
the same and has undergone changes. Today, objectivity
has to be thought of as a continuous, ongoing process a. From the viewpoint of gxowing importance
rather than an already achieved end result. of multidisciplinarity, how do you relate
sociology to other social sciences? (CSE 2021)
a. The difference between information and data Ans: Social sciences concern people's relationships
in social sciences is subtle. Comment and interactions with one another. Sociology, with its
(csE,2a22) emphasis on social life, fa1ls into this category.
Ever since the inception of sociology as the discipline,
;lt Ans: There is a subtle difference between data and
information. it has had some sort of relationship with other social
sciences which kept on changing and evolving with time
Data and changing contexts. Besides, sociology draws from a
. Data are the facts or details from which information variety of other social sciences, including anthropology,
is derived. Individual pieces of data are rarely useful political science, psychology, economics and history.
 SOEIOLOGYAS SCIENCE 1S 17
Sociology and Anthropology Sociology and flistory
Classical Western notions of these two ciisciplines History and sociology have a very close
view sociology as study of industrialized society, ".nrhile relation. According to G E Howard, "F{istory is past
anthropology as study of primitive society. F{owever, sociology, sociology is present history". The historian
today the distinction between 'Industrialized' and describes unique events, while the sociologist
'Others' have blurred and this definition is also not derives generalizations.
applicable in a plural society like india w-here this'Other' But now a d.ays,history is not only concerned with
is found every next door, according to Srinir.as. "Ihe 'which and what eventsl, but also'how' of events. This
works of Talcott Parsons and 1{"K Merton are attempts emphasis on'cause and effect' has brought the two
towards an adaptation of functionaiist approach.,i,i"rich disciplines closer. The line for dernarcation between
is borrowed from anthropologists like Maiinow,ski. Thus history and sociology is becorning increasingly blurred
the disciplines are increasingly merging into each other" as history is also no longer purely descriptive.
Sociology and Political Science Thus multidisciplinary approaches are important in
The two distinct disciplines of social science, understanding and addressing sociai problems because
sociology and political sciences do converge often as in the real world, policy researches or proposals drafted.
the subject matter is men and the convergence is on the and implemented to solve social problems are not crafted
increase. Political science provides lar,r,s which affect through the use of a single discipline.
welfare of masses, sociology provides data and basis of
these laws and policies. Social considera.tions like caste Q. Is sociology a value-free science? Discuss.
play an important role in political decisir:ns, especiaily (csE 2o2o)
elections. Sociological studies have also been conducted in
Ans: Value Freedom in Socia1 l{esearch refers to the
membership of political organizations, voting betrraviour,
ability of the researcher to keep his or her own values
casteism, the role of gender in politics, etc. which involves
(personal, political and religious) from interferin$ with
a blend of political science and socioiogical thinking. Rajni
the research process.
Kothari's'Politicisation of Caste' is a good exe-mple to see
The idea that'facts' should not be influenced by the
the convergence.
researcher's own beliefs is a central aspect of 'science'
Sociology and Paychology - and so when we say that Sociology can and should
Psychology is often defined as the 'science of be value free this is essentially the same as saying that
behaviour' and sociology is the science of society" Some 'Sociology can and should be scientific'.
attempts have been made to bring them together. One of In the late 19th and early 20th centuries Positivist
the most valuable works is of Gerth and Mills. Accord,ing Sociologists such as August Comte and Emile Durkheim
to them the study of social psychology is interplay regarded Soiiology as a science and.thus thought that
between individual character and social structure as social research could and should be value-free, or
human behaviour is not purely driven by instincts. scientific. As illustrated in Durkheim's study of Suicide
Social psychology serves as a bridge between (1899) - by doing quantitaiive research and uncovering
psychology and sociology, maintains a primary interest macro-level social trends Sociologists can uncover the
in the individual but concerns itself with the way in vyhich 'laws of society'.
the individual behaves in social groups, collectirreXy with
So at one level, Positivists believe that Sociology ian
other individuals.
be value-free because they are uncovering the'objective'
Sociology and Economics laws of how social systems work - these laws exist
Economics is the study of production in societv; independently of the researchers observing them. Altr
sociology studies all aspects of society. the researcher is doing is uncovering'social facts' that
t
In recent times there are many studies like those exist 'out there' in the world - facts that would exist
of Strachey, Galbraith, Raymond Aron which are used irrespective of the person doing the observing.
in both the disciplines. A branch of sociotrogy called However, Weber believed that complete Value
'economic, sociology' deals with the sociatr aspects Freedom is not possible. Facts and values are di{ferent
of economic life like lgender budgeting', 'feminist but not disengaged to each other. Weber proposed
economies' which are concepts that have emergecl sociologists distinguish "and recognize their own
to address new social relations. Thus, scciology and qualities and beat their own predispositions while
economics meet in a number of areas of knowtredge" leading sociological research, this he named as worth
Economists increasingly use sociological research to non-partisanship.
formulate new theories and policies and sociologists on Consequently he guaranteed that an analyst can be
the other hand study the impact of such theories" objective once a theme of research has been picked.
 18 r:i' socloLoGY Q&A

Contemporary researchers give due weight to A few courses have been introduced recently on
objectivity but at the same time recognize the futility of global themes in some of the universities. They are as
trying to wish away value influence completelyfromtheir follows: ecology and society, issues of human rights,
research. Anthony Giddens says that structure, which is sociology of management human resource development,
largely seen as objective, and social action, which is seen media and society, action sociology, etc.
as value-ladery are two sides of the same coin and cannot There is also a need to start some more new courses
exist independently. like sociology of public order; peace, security and
development; security management and information
a. In the context of globalisation, has the scope of technology, etc.
sociology been changing in India? Comment. These courses are not only important for teaching but
(csE 2020) also for research in the construction of society and useful
for the modern occupation and profession.
Ans: The origin of sociology and social anthropology
in India can be traced to the days when the British officials
realized the need to understand the native society and its a. Phenomenological perspectives in sociology
culture in the interest of smooth administration. reiect many of the assumptions of positivism.
However, it was only during the twenties of the last Comment. (CSE 2020)
century that steps were taken to introduce sociology and Ans: Positivism is an approach of studying sociology
social anthropology as academic disciplines in Indian as a discipline which aims at employingprinciples similar
universities. to those in natural sciences. According to Saint Simory
Indian sociologists have made a prominent 'positivism was rooted in a science of society which is
contribution to the development of indigenous studies analogous to natural sciences' and he published a six
of Indian society and have set an enviable example before volume'Positive Philosophy, 1830-42' which enunciated
the Asian and African scholars. the principles of new disciplines for the first time.
In post-independence years, when a complex Main features associated with positivism are -
of forces, including the undertaking of planned I. They laid particular emphasis on behavior that
development by the government, the increased exposure can be 'directly observed'. Factors like feelings,
of Indian scholars to the work of their foreign colleagues, meanings which cannot be directly observed are
and the avai{ability of funds, resulted in considerable not important.
research activity. [. It emphasized upon understanding 'external
The country during the nineties of the last century realities' and rejected the study of internal aspects
was passing through radical political, economic and like - meanings, motives etc. Durkheim called for
socio-cultural changes as a result of which the scope and studying'social facts' as these are seen objectively
focus of Indian sociology has expanded. in similar manner by everyone.
Underthe influence of such developments, the krdian m. Discovery of 'cause and effect' relationship while
govemment that adored the policy of mixed economy ever studying phenomenon.
since independence and cherished the ideals of welfarism
IV. It stressed upon use of 'scientific methods' similar
proceeded to allow the market-oriented policy to
to those used in natural sciences. For example
prevail. Durkheim used statistical technique similar to
To achieve this goal, the government adopted a new natural sciences in his famous study of suiiide.
policy of economic reforms in the year 1991 with a view
to globalize its economy (Singh, 1997).Globalization is a
V. It focused upon 'empiricism' and rejected
corrunonsensical speculations.
move prompted by the leaders of the developed world.
Liberalization policy, including the freedom VI. Positivism also focused on formulation of 'theories'
accorded to the foreign companies and capital to and'univeSsality' of laws and principles.
enter into Indian market, is the hvo major steps of the However, soon it was realized that sociology cannot
government in this direction. be developed as a purely positivistic discipline.
Primarily
The impact of globalization on Indian cultural it was because sociology dealt with the human element
heritage and general iife situation of the people of with a subjective conscience which cannot be deciphered
the country has generated new areas that deserve the totally by objective methods.
attention of Indian sociologists who do seem to be Phenomenologists' like Peter Berger contend that
+r
attentive to such relevant areas as civic society (Gupta, facts never fall from sky, but develop in a particular
1997), crisis and resilience in the process of social change context. The basis of this approach is that'individual
(Singh, 1993) and secularism and national integration is having a voluntary will and his thoughts cannot be
(Joshi, 1997) but specific social implication of the new understood simply in terms of external inJluence'. Human
economic policy is yet to be analysed. beings have a consciousness whictr cannot be predicted.
 SOCIOLOGYAS SCIENCE * 19
Phenomenology refers to a group of perspectives For example - Ethnomethodology relies upon
and it is a distinctive European branch of sociology which the everyday methods used by actors and their
emerged as an alternative to positivism. it argued that narratives.
subject matter of natural sciences and social sciences . They emphasized upon using qualitative methods
are fundamentally different - man has consciousness, and not scientific methods. Earlier non-positivists
material things don't have - and hence, methods of like Weber and Mead emphasized upon using of
natural sciences cannot be applied on social sciences. scientific methods, but later non-positivists like
Meanings don't have their own independent existence. Alfred Schutz andGarfinkel outrightly rejected their
Instead, they are constructed and reconstructed by the use.
actors in the course of their social interaction. . They also suggested understanding of social reality
From a phenomenological perspective, the social and not prediction of events. They refrained from
world is a world of meanings and there is no objective formulation of generalized universal theories. Weber
reality which lies beyond the meanings of individual.
and Mead though stressed upon cause and effect
Max Weber was a big influence on the development on
relations, but Schutz eliminated such possibility.
this stream of sociology. . They also highlighted the impossibility of total
However, the non-positivist methodologies cannot
objectivity and hence wer€ accommodative of
resolve the dilemma of objectivity and subjectivity. Non-
subjectivity in research.
positivists could also not develop a single methodological
\
,$ However, Interpretativist sociologv methodologies
principle leading to wide variations in non-positivist
carrnot resolve the dilemma of objectivity and subjectivity.
research and some even stressed on using quantitative
Even Weber and Mead favored objectivity. Interpretativist
methods.
sociology could also not develop a single methodological
Non-positivist methods also depend heavily
principle leading to wide variations in non-positivist
on ability of interrogator and as a result, different
research and some even stressed on using quantitative
explanations were given for same phenomenon.
methods. Interpretativist sociology methods also
depend heavily on the abilitv of interrogator and as a
a. Discuss the importance of interpretative
result, different explanations were given for the same
understanding of social phenomena and phenomenon. They ignore independent existence of
explain its limitations. (CSE,2019) social phenomenon and overlook the fact that man is
Ans: 'Interpretativist Sociology' is an umbrella born into a pre-existing society,
term for various streams like Phenomenology, While positivist methodologies saw society as
Ethnomethodology, Symbolic Interactionism and so on. given and man as a mere part of it governed by its rules.
This approach was used for the first time by Max Non positivists on the other hand considered man as
Weber in his book'Methods of Social Science'. independent thinking being who can influence society
Weber was highly influenced by idealists like also. They rejected the over;socialized conception of man.
J
Rickert and Dilthey. According to this approach, the Non-positivist methodologies, thus, tried to gauge what
task of sociology is to interpret the meanings attached goes inside the mind of man ancl how it affects society.
by individuals to their actions in order thereby an
explanation of its cause and effect. The basis of this a. Is non-positivistic methodology scientif.ic?
approach is that'individual is having a voluntary will Illustrate. (CSE,20X8)
and his thoughts cannot be understood simply in terms of
Ans: Scientific method is the focus of positivist
external influence'. Human beings have a consciousness
research, with research generallv guided bv a tightly
which cannot be predicted. This approach also came to structured research question or hypothesis. It is assumed
be known as'voluntarist approach'.
that human behaviour and social ph.enomena can be
Weber also proposed scientific methods for scientifically studied in the same wav as inanimate objects
T
interpretative sociology. Methods used by Weber or non-human life forms. Exponent of Non-Positivism
1
included - Verstehen, ideal type and comparative is Max Weber. Non-positivists emphasized that social
rnethods. Approach of Weber later influepced the reality is viewed and interpreted by the individual
'.!'
emergence of purely non-positivist approaches like himself/herself according to the ideological positions
Phenomenology and Ethnomethodology.
he/she possess.
Various elements that run comtnon to these Therefore, knowledge is personally experienced
methodologies are: rather than acquired from or irnposed frbm outside. The
. They study the internal processes represented non-positivist believes that reality is multi layered and
through emotions, motives, aspirations and complex and a single phenomenon is having multiple
the individual's interpretation of social reality. interpretations.
 20 lliii: SOCIOLOGY Q & A
They emphasize that the verification of a phenomenon Ethnomethodological Perspective
is adopted when the level of understanding of a Ethnomethodology is an ethnographic approach to
phenomenon is such that the concern is to probe into sociological enquiry introduced by Harold Garfinkel. The
the various unexplored dimensions of a phenomenon goal of ethnomethodology is to document the methods
rather than establishing specific relationship among the and practices through which society's members make
components, as it happens in the case of positivism. sense of their world.
Non-positivism is marked by three schools of Ethnomethodologists differ in their approach than the
thought. They are phenomenology, ethnomethodology positivists in the following way
and symbolic interactlonism. Al1 these schools emphasize
Like Durkheim (a positivist), the fundamental
human interactions r,vith phenomenon in their daily
sociological phenomenon for ethnomethodologists is the
lives and sup;gest qualitative rather than quantitative
social fact. But, unlike Durkheim the social facts are not
approaches to social inquirv.
external to the individual.
Qualitative, biographical, phenomenological, The social fact is the product of the social member's
ethnographical, case stu-dy approaches are the examples
methodological activities; it is their understanding of
of non-positive approaches.
their everyday world. Members of society make sense
While positivism stand for objectivity, measurability, of and function in society by creating social facts or
predictabilitv, controllability and construct laws and rules understandings of how society works.
of human behavior, non positivist essentially emphasizes
understanding and interpretation of phenomena and
making meaning out of this process.
a. Examine the basic postulates of positivism and
Considering the metirodologies of the two, it can be
post-positivism. (CSE,20L7\
said that positivism is n-Lore closer to scientific methods Ans: Positivism: Positivism is a philosophical theory
than non-positivism. stating that certain positive knowledge is based on natural
phenomenon and their properties and relations.
Thus, in{ormation derived from sensory expeiience,
a.
l:

Examine ethnomethodological and pheno-

interpreted through reason and logic, forms the exclusive
menological perspective as critique of source of all certain knowledge.
positivism. (CSE,20L7)
Postulates of Fositivism
Ans: Positivism and irositivists: Some sociologists
have tried to adopt the methods of natural sciences, ' First is naturalism - the idea that the social and
they were known as Positivists. Positivism is based on behavioural sciences should have the same structure
an understanding of scierrre that sees science as using a and logical characteristics as the natural sciences.
mainly inductive methoci,rlogy. Secohd, is the unity of science - the idea that
'
Positivism and Methodoiogv ultimately all scientific theories shouldbe subsumable
An inductive methodolog*,r starts by collecting the under one "most fundamental" master theory. This
data. The data are then analysed and out of this analysis, assumption brings with it the idea of reductionism;
theories are developed. Once the theory has been higher-level sciences should be reducible to lower-
developed it can then be tested against other sets of data level sciences.
to see if it is confirmed c-r not (Durkheim and Commt). ' Third is an assumption about methodologp to the
Positivists mainly focus on Statistical Data, Correlatiory effect that measurement and qrrantification are
Causation, Multivariate Analysis and lar,r.s of human essential aspects of scientific knowledge.
behaviour. Fourth is an assumption about explanation,
'
Phenornen ological Perspective regularitiep, and laws. The assumption here is
Phenomenoiogy on the other hand, represents that explanation requires the discovery of law-like
generalizations about the domain of phenomena
the most radical departure from the scientific
encompassed by the scientific field.
quantitative methodology. Titchen and Hobson say
that Phenomenoiogy is the study of the lived, human ' Fifth is an assumption about causation - that
phenomenon within everyday social contexts, in which causation is a feature of statistical relationships
the phenomenon occurs from the perspective of those among variables iather than a feature involving
+,1

who experience them. causal necessity or causal mechanisms.

Unlike positivists, Phenomenologists reject the Post-positivism
possibility of producing causal explanations. According In philosophy and models of scientific inquiry, post-
to them there is no objective reality beyond these positivism is a meta-theoretical stance that critiques and
subjective meanings. amends positivism.
 SOCIOLOGY AS SCIENCE 21
While positivists emphasize independence between Max Weber and George Simmel introduced
the researcher and the researched person, post-positivists interpretive understanding into sociology, r,t here it has
accept that theories, background, knowledge and values come to mean a systematic interpretive process in which
of the researcher can influence what is observed. an outside obserrrer of a culture relates to the indigenous
Iz\4'rile positivists emphasize quantitative methods, people or sub-cultural group on their own terrns and from
post-positivists consider both quantitative and qualitative their own point of view, rather than interpreting them in
methods to be valid approaches. terms of his or her own culture.
Postulates of Post-Positivism
r Q. What is'va1ue-free sociology'? Clarify.
It is realist about causation; it affirms the scientific (csE,2016)
validity of seeking for real social mechanisms.
Ans: Assigning moral values to social.phenomena
. It is pluralistic about method; it acknowledges that is an inescapable result of being part of society. This
there are multiple rationally supportable methods inevitably renders truly value-free research inconceivable;
of inquiry in the social sciences, and multiple forms however despite this, sociologists should strive for value
that social-science knowledge can take. neutrality. According to Mar Weber, value neutraJity
. It is even-handed among quantitative, qualitative, is the duty of sociologists to strive to be impartial and
comparative, and narrative approaches to social overcome their biases as the1, conduct their research,
inquiry and social explanation. analyze their data, and publish their findings.
Weber understood that personal vaiues could distort
' It is anti-reductionist and anti-naturalistic: it does
the framework for disclosing study results. While he
not pre-suppose that various areas of the social
accepted that some aspects of research design might
sciences should be reducible to some other, more
be influenced by personal values, he declared that it
fundamental scientific theory; and it does not
was entirely inappropriate to allow them to shape the
presuppose that the social sciences should resemble
interpretation of the responses. Max trVeber's value-free
the natural sciences.
sociology says that the sociologist while carrying social
research must confine called value relevance. Thus the
a. Elaborate the main tenets of interpretative values can operate. at three levels:
perspective in sociology. (CSE,20Ln . At the level of philologicai interpretation.
Ans: Interpretative sociology is the study o{ society
that concentrates on the meanings people associate to ' At the level of ethical interpretation in assigning
their social world. Interpretative sociology strives to value to an object of enquiry.
show that reality is constructed by people themselves in . At the level of rational interpretation in which
their daily lives. the sociologists seeks,the meaningful relationship
between phenomena in terms of causal analysis. The
Main tenets of Interpretative Sociology
point of value interpretation is to establish the value
' Interpretative Methodologies position the meaning- towards which an activity is directed.
making practices of human actors at the centre of Sociologists should observe value neutrality while
scientific explanation. conducting social research. It means that he shotld
. Called as qualitative discipline in some disciplines, erclude ideological or non -scientific assumption from
it is conducted from an experience-near perspective. research.
He should not make evaluative judgment about
' Interpretative Sociology deals with meanings empirical evidence. Sociologists, Weber stated, must
attached to the behaviour of an individual.
establish value neLtrality, a practice of remaining
. Interpretative Sociology sees reality as being impartial, without bias or judgmen! during the course of
constructed by the people. a study and in publishing results. To do this, they must
. The goal of Interpretative Sociology is to unflerstand be conscious of their own personal values.
the meaning behind actions in a social context Sociologists are obligated to disclose research
through the consideration of a subject's unique point findings without omitting or distorting significant data,
t)i of view. even if results contradict personal views, predicted
outcomes, or widely accepted beliefs.
. The goal is to identi{yhuman actions and interpreting
Furthermore, and perhaps more importantly, it is
them as observable events leading us to believe that the duty of sociologists to avoid bringing their ideology
it not only provides for a good explanation for into their roles as instructors. This ultimately leads to
individual actions but also for group interactions. value-free sociology.
 22 irs Soctolocy e & A
a. Describe the basic postulates of scientific a Scientific community follows a spirit of unity
method. How far are these followed in apd integration by sharing knowledge with each
sociological research? (CSE,2016) other.
Ans: Sociologists during its formation relied
a Outcomes of scientific research are not the private
heavily on scientific method to conduct social research. property of the researcher. It is shared universally.
Sociological research is the scientific means of acquiring a Disinterested in politics, wealth etc, and researchers
in-formation about various aspects of society and social are committed to science.
behaviour. Sociologists use the scientific method. a They question to everything.
Like other scientists, they stress the accurate and
unbiased collection and analysis of social data, use a. Is Sociology a Science? Give reasons for your
systematic observation, conduct experiinents, and exhibit answer. (CSE,2015)
scepticism. They identified the following as the basic
Ans: Sociology is a science. Social sciences,likenatural
postulates of scientific method.
and biological sciences, use a vigorous methodology. This
' Rejection to existing truth; identification of new truth means that a social scientist clearly states the problems he
through research; integration of all the established or she is interested in and clearly spells out how he
truth to develop theory and law-. or she arrives at their conclusions. Generally, social
' Scientific method collects empirically verifiable data scientists ground the procedure in a body of existing
which can be subjected to scrutiny and introspection. literature.
' Scientific method gives importance on construction This is precisely how other sciences function. Study
of hypothesis and testing of this hypothesis against of society by their very nature cannot be exact like
the empirically collected data and on the basis of natural and physical sciences. The scientific character of
this analysis of the hypothesis the essential element a discipline is best known by its methodology. Sociology
of truth is explored. Therefore, scientific method is conducts many experiments indirectly and employs
known as hypothetic deductive method. scientific methods such as scales of socio meter,
. Scientific method is not a mechanical pursuit. schedules, questionnaire, interview and case history etc.
Therefqre in every step of scientific research a Comparative method is one of the important methods in
researcher must have to use his reflexive, analytical scientific investigation.
and creative mind to establish proximity with Sociologists use comparisons between groups,
researched in order to obtain authenticated, unbiased communities and societies. Certain generalizations
infdrmation. like incest taboo are possible in sociology as in natural
sciences, Social surveys and careful studies confirming
' The method is driven by a principle of scepticism.
Therefore, every researcher must be driven by ill social values are based on careful observation and
self criticism, peer group review and constructive analysis of social facts.
criticism. For example, the statement that dowry is a social
. evil is a scientific judgment. Sociology is a science which
The method gives importance on the presentation
attempts at interpretative understanding of social action
of data in tabular, graphical and through statistical
in order to arrive at a causal explanation of its causes
representation.
and effects.
These postulates of science are not fully followed in
Social scientists have discovered many significant
contemporary sociological research. Many sociologists
relationships that are sufficiently dependable to add
argue against usage of scientific method absolutely
greatly to our understanding of social behavior and
in sociology. Jaques Brazto indicates that science is a
to serve as us€ful guides in dealing with some social
form of divinity that demands complete obligation of
problems. Sociology is thus as much a social science like
man. Scientific method, he says, never provides space
psychology, economics, political science and other social
to understand human emotions, their concerns and
sciences concerning man.
their problems which necessarily affect their everyday
life. Therefore, taking a militaristic tond, Brazuo says
disciplines dealing with human emotions should a. Examine the problems of maintaining
outrightly reject scientific method. objectivity and value neutrality in Social
n
Taking an alternative view, Robert K Merton Science research. (CSE,2015)
says that sociology should give emphasis on spirit of Ans: Arguments over the degrtie to which objectivity
science than scientific method. This spirit of science is possible in sociology are too often couched in terms
he calls is CUDOS (Communalism; Universalism; and ideas already rendered obsolete by the changing
Disinterestedness; Organised scepticism). That is, consensus as to the nature of knowledge forced upon us
 SOGIOLOGYAS SCIENCE i.r, 23
byrecent developments inbiology and physics. This has Therefore, knowledge is personally experienced
necessitated the discarding of yesterday's ,,truths,, (and rather than acquired from or imposed from outside. The
therefore yesterday's concept of objectivity), as changing anti-positivists believe that realitv is multi-layered and
paradigms give new meaning to observed events, and as complex and a single phenomenon is having multiple
awareness grows of the feedback effect o{ researchers and interpretations. They emphasize that the verification of a
their theories upon the very reality which they attempt phenomenon is adopted when the level of understanding
to measure. of a phenomenon is such that the concern is to probe into
On one hand, it is the duty of sociologists to remain the various unexplored dimensions of a phenomenon
value neutral - be impartial and overcome their biases rather than establishing specific relationship among the
as they conduct their researclU and display objectivity so components, as it happens in the case of positivism.
that the claims, methods and results are not, or should Anti-positivism is marked by three schools of thought
not be influenced by particular perspectives, value in the social science research. These are phenbmenology,
commitments, community bias or personal interests. ethnomethodology and symbolic interactionism. A1l the
On the other hand, attempts to portray a completely three schools of thought emphasize human interaction
rational, value-neutral model of scientific knowledge, with phenomena in their daily lives, and suggest
whichwould have excluded all subjective factors, appears qualitative rather than quantitative approach to social
impossible. inquiry. Phenomenology' is a theoretical view point
t The history of positirrism supports this. Logical which believes that individual behaviour is determined
positivists recognized that science is indispensably by the experience gained out of one's direct interaction
influenced by social factors. It leads to the idea that with the phenomena.
science is not According to enthomethodologists, theoretical
"zalue free.
At the same time, the ciaim that values are inevitably concerns centers around the process by which common
present in the science has a particular relevance to the sense reality is constructed in everyday face-to-
problem of the objectivity of scientists, because objectivity face interaction. They are mainly interesied in the
remains among one of the key principles of science. interpretation people use to make sense of social settings.
A more detailed analysis of the values shows The school of thought for'symbolic interactionism,
that quite neutral, value-free science does not exist, was pioneered by Dewey, Cooley and Mead among
because truth itself is value, so scientists give preference others. It basically emphasizes the understanding and
to procedures that lead to the truth, and positively interpretation of interactions that take place between
evaluate such procedures. Classical science, declaring human beings. The peculiarity of this approach is that
independence from values, nevertheless involved human beings interpret and define each other's actions
cognitive values of prediction, control and domination instead of merely reacting to each other's actions.
over nature. There are two aspects in the problem of \Atrhile poSitivism stands for objectivity, measurability,
scientific objectivity. predictability, controliability and constructs laws and
One is internal to the society and concerns the rules of human behaviour, non-positivism essentially
capability to achieve an objective description of the emphasizes understanding and interpretation of
phenomena and making meaning out of this process.
subject. Another is extemal - society is a social irstitution,
and hence the work of the sociologists is influenced by
the society in which they live. a. How is objectivity different from value
.\.
Sorne researchers emphasize that even scientific neutrality? Discuss with reference to Weber,s
knowledge is strongly dependent on the social context, views on methodology. (CSE,2014)
while others think that purely cognitive rather than sociai Ans: Weber argued that the method of science,
factors play a major role in choice between theories. whether its subject matter be things or men, always
But it is clear that the generai attitude to the presence proceeds by abstraction and generalization. Against the
of values in scientific knowledge has changed from positivists, he took the stand thatmary in contrastto things,
the elimination of rralues and claims about the value could be understood not only in external manifestations,
neutrality to the need for reflection on values. that is, in behavior, but also in the underlying motivations"
Weber emphasized the value-bound problem choices
a. "Non-positivistic methodology is essential for of the investigator and the value-neutral methods of
it understanding human behavior.,, Discuss. social research.
According to Weber, differences between the natural
(csE,2015)
sciences and the social sciences arise from differences
Ans: Anti-positivism emphasizes that social reality in the cognitive intentions of the investigator, not from
is viewed and interpreted by the individual herself the alleged inapplicability of scientific and generalizing
according to the ideological positions he/she possesses. methods to the subject matter of human action.
 24 ls Soe toLocy e &A

What distinguishes the natural and social sciences traditions: positirzist and interpretirre approach. Positivist
is not an inherent di-fference in methods of investigation, work seeks to identify qualitative data with prepositions
but rather the differing interests and aims of the scientist. that can be tested or identified in other cases, while
Both types of science involve abstraction. interpretive r,vork seeks to combine those data into systems
\A/hat particular problem attracts a scholar, and what of beiief whose manifestation are specific to a case.
'[he differences in interpretive analysis and positivist
Ievel of explanation is sought, depends, Weber argues/
on the values and interests of the investigator. qualitative w-ork thus are differences in the questions one
The choice of problems is always "value relevant"" asks of the data and the types of conclusions one wishes to
"There is no absolutely'objective' scientific analysis drauz. Both forms of qualitative work look for details about
of culture or ... of 'social phenomena' independent of preferences, mofivations and actions that are not easily made
special and'one-sided' viewpoints according to which-- numeric . hr the end both are committed to general principles
expressly or tacitly, consciously or unconsciously-they or relationships, positivist work does sit by identifying
are selected, analyzed and organized fot expository general patterns, r,r,irile interpretive approach work
purposes.l' \A4rat is considered "worthy to be known" does so by sho-,ving hor,t' the general pattern looks in
depends upon the perspective of the inquiring scholar. practice.
In his essay, "/Obiectivity' in Social Science and Social Positivist work can identify the existence of cdusal
Policy" in The Methodology of The Social Sciences. The relationships that are present'in data, with some degree
central thrust of the essay is to attempt to spell out the ways of probabilitv. What it cannot do is to explain how the
that objectivity and truth relate to partisanship and values mechanisn-r implieci by a particular causal relationship I

within the course of social science research and teaching. works. Interpretive work, by contrast, can produce
Weber draws a sharp distinction between what can detailed exaitinations of causal mechanisms in the
be known and demonstrated (ernpirical facts and causal specific ca-se, exptraining how particular variables interact.
relationships) and what can be internaltry tested for Without positivist ruork, however, one does not know
consistency but not demonstrated'(fundamental value how rt idespread the existence of similar cases might be.
commitments). The theory of ideal types is an important Thus, Sociologist today, having a firm grounding
contribution to the specification of the nature of concepts in sociology requires a deep understanding of positivist
in the human and historical sciences. and interpretive from a historical and practical perspective,
Value ngutrality, refers to the normative injunction as well as an understanding of their differences.
that men of Acience should be governdd by the ethos of Sociologists who adhere too tightly to positivist theories
science in their role as scientists, but emphatically not may find that their own unique social perspectives and
in their role as citizens. Sociology being concerned with value systems have a significant bearing on their claims,
probler4 of understanding, Weber introduces Verstehen even when backed up by facts and scientific observation.
method into the fold of sociology. He divides Verstehen Interpretive socioiogists seek to correct this conflict of
method in two types interest by understanding the sut{ective nature of human
1. 'can
Direct observational verstehen where a researcher social beharrior and take into account the viewpoints of
look into the action of a body of people and others when considering various sociological facts and
predict the meaning behind their action and what obserrrations.
they are going to do next.
2. Indirect explanatory verstehen which should be used A. UsingMead's theory of symbolic interactionism,
to understand the historic situations. discuss the stages in the formation of gender
Weber is the first scholar to conceptualize that identity. (CSE,2014)
sociology is not a prescriptive discipline rather it is a Ans: Femininity and rnasculinity or one's gender
descriptive and interpretative discipline. identity refers to the degree to which persons see
A sociologist necessarily pursues a vocation he themselves as masculine or ferninine given what it
should not be guiding either social rebellion nor should means to be a firan or woman in society. Femininity and
operate as the high-priest of the society. Rather the mascuiinity are rooted in the social (one's gender) rather
concern of the sociologist is to conduct and guide research than the biological (one's sex).
in order to study the essence of the reality in a value- It is important to distinguish gender identity, from
neutrsl and rational manner. /
other gender*related concepts such as gender roles which
are shared expectations of behavior given one's gender.
lr
a.' In what way 'interpretative' method is Although society emerges from social process/
different from 'positivist' approach in the organized societ\r exists before the appearance of all new
study of social phenomena? (CSE,2014) rnernbers. Thus, the basic premise of the perspective can
Ans: The usual juxtaposition of qualitative research be rewritten: Socief shapes self shapes social interaction.
against quantitative research makes it easy to miss the fact Symbolic Interactionists argue that gender inequality
that qualitative research itself encompasses at least two persists because of thewaywe definemen and womenand
 SOGIOLOGY AS SCIENCE .::.i:..1 25
their appropriate roles in society. Language helps for the benefit of society. They believe that every society
perpetuate inequality. Feminists argue that women are has some basic needs and which must be fulfilled for
disadvantaged because society is patriarchal From a its survival. They believe that a certain degree of order
sociological perspective, gender identity involves all the and stability is necessary for the operation of the social
meanings that are applied to oneself on the basis of one's system. Therefore, they look at every phenomenon as to
gender identification. In turn, these self-meanings are a how it is integrated with other parts of society, how far
source of motivation for gender-related behavior. it meets the basic needs and how it helps to maintain the
For Mead, humans' distinctive characteristic is their order on the society.
development of "minds" and "selves" in the course of Durkheim's theory of religion is a good example of
evolution: Humans have the capacity to resolve blocks to functionalist explanation. in his explanation Durkheim
ongoing activity by internally manipulating symbols to showed how religion increases the solidarity among
review and choose among potential solutions. They also its members and regulates the conduct of its.members.
have the capacity to respond reflexively to themselves, Parsons' explanation of stratification is another example
treating themselves as objects akin to any object in their of functionalist tradition. In this, he argues that every
experience; indeed, reflexivity defines self. society has some value consensus and those who
strengthen it are placed higher on the stratification level
a. Critically examine positivistic approach in than those who don't conform to societal values. But,
sociological studies. (CSE,2013) functionalist tradition has been ciiticized for neglecting
the conflict and accounting for change.
Ans: Positivistic approach reiers to the application of
They tend to focus more on maintaining the
scientific approach in sociology. Auguste Comte was the
stability of society and thus justifv the status quo. These,
first sociologist to use positive approach in sociology. He
criticisms were answered by Merton and in this way
believed in the unity of scientific methods and thought
he accommodated conflict in the fold of functionalism.
that sociology will also follow it. He believed that social
He introduced the concept of dysfunctions. He argued
reality resembles physical and natural reality from outside
that the functional aspect of any phenomenon should
and, therefore, patterns can be discovered and theories
be looked at the level of individual, group and society.
can be developed. Comte developed the positivistic
If by overall analysis, we find that the phenomenon
approach in response to the ideas of enlightenment.
is dysfunctional or having negative consequences for
The thinkers of enlightenment portrayed ideal state
society then we must acknowledge. that there is con{lict.
of things. In this way they were neglecting the reality. Once we do that, we must look for functional altematives.
Thus, Comte wanted to study the sociology in the Thus, by replacing the dysfunctional part by another
manner of natural sciences. Later the study of suicide by functional part, functionalists acknowledge and gave a
Durkheim set the positivist tradition in sociology. way to solve the conflicts in the society.
But, positivism has an inherent shortcoming that it
neglects the motives and meanings in any social act. Neo- a. Evaluate how do civil society and democracy
Kantians believed that social reality is characterizedby mutually reinforce each other. (CSE,2013)
the presence of geist and this consciousness is manifested
Ans: Civil society is seen as a social sphere separate
in terms of meanings and motives. Based on that action
from both the state and the market. The increasingly
choice follows and social reality is created.
accepted understanding of the term civil society
They believed that as different actors interpret the organizations is that of non-state, not-for-profit, voluntary
same situation in different ways, they give different organizations formed by people in that social sphere. This
meanings. So, it becomes difficult to pattern them and term is used to describe a wide range of organizations,
a sociological theory can't be fruitful. Later on, Weber networks, associations, groups and movements that are
carried this forward by his concept of Verstehen. independent from government and that sometimes come
Thus, positivism led the foundation of sociology and together to advance their common interests through
was the dominant theme in the initial phase but today collective action.
we need different perspectives to understand the social Democracy at present is the best form of governance.
reality in its totality. Through its institutions and ideals it provides a platform
for discussion and debates. Con{iicts can be resolved in a
a. Critically examine the functionalist tradition peaceful manner. There is emphasis on equality, liberty,
in Sociology. (CSE,2013) fraternity and respect for diversity.
Ans: Functionalist tradition in sociology was Taking a positive note of the civil society as promoter
started by Durkheim, popularized by Parsons and of democratic form of governance, Scholte identifies six
then improvised by Merton. Functionalists bring areas where civil society could advance, democracy.
in the biological analogy to understand the society. (1) Public education - The civil society enhance
Functionalists assume that society is an integrated whole dernocracy through educating the public. An
made up of integrated parts. These parts work in tandem in{ormed citizenrv could sustain effective democracy.
 26 ff$* soctoLocy e & A
To accomplish this goal civil, society groups can equality, freedom etc. In this way, values are cultural or
prepare handbooks and in-formation kits, produce individual ideals of any society which work as director
audio-visual presentations, organize workshops, for conventional behavior of peoples.
attract the attention of the mass media, maintain Editing and analysis of facts by neutral and
websites on the Internet, and develop curricular unbiased examination is objectivity. In other word,
materials for schools and institutions of higher analysis of facts in the actual form without being
education. influenced by their own emotion, thoughts, beliefs,
(2) Voice to stakeholders - Civic associations can wrong or right related judgment, and expectation, is
opportune the concemed parties to relay informatiory objectivity" Objective studies of social incidents are
testimonial, and analysis to governance agencies necessary to establish sociology as a pure science.
about their needs and demands. Civil society As is clear from the meaning of objectivity, it is a base to
organisations can give voice to neglected social achieve real knowledge.
circles like the poor, women and persons with In this way, facts of sociology provide raw material
disability leading to greater participatory democracy. for the study of social incident. Before this research,
(3) Policy inputs-Government policy formulation is hypothesis is based on these facts. After real examinatiory
considerably influenced from the inputs given by testing and observation of these facts, theories are made.
the civil society not only at home but also in the In the form of science, sociology is treated as value free.
international arena. They have also constantly raised Meaning of value free science is that sociologit should
issues pertaining to ecological imbalances, made study social behavior empirically by keeping distance
qualitative assessments of poverty. from question of social value. We can empiricallv examine
(4) Transparency o-f governance-Vigilant civic facts but not value. Facts and values are two separate
mobilization can cause public transparency in things so analysis of both should be done separately
governance. Constant pressure from civil society and scientific research should be value free. On other
can help in bringing regulatory frameworks and side, without objectivity scientific researches are notonly
operations into the open, where they could be worthless but also aimless. Meaningfulness of scientific
accessed for public scrutiny. research is inherent in this matter that we can be familiar
(5) Public accountability-Civic groups can keep an with reality of facts and incidents. In this way fact, values
eye on the implementation and effects of policies and objectivity are necessary conditions for sociological
regardin| people and press for corrective measures scientific study method.
when the consequences are adverse.
(6) Legitimacy-The sum total of the preceding actions a. How did the French revolution and Industrial
by the civil society could lead to a legitimate revolution play an important role in the
democratic rule. Legitimate rule prevails when emergence of Sociology? (C9F,,20121
people concede that an authority has arightto govern Ans: In the form of separate science sociology
and that they have a duty to obey its directives. As a emerged in 19th century. During this time, Europe was
result of such consent, legitimate governance tends passing through fast changes due to French and Industrial
to be more easily, productively and nonviolently revolution.
executed than illegitimate and dictatorial authority. But before French and Industrial revolution, in
Democracy also reinforces civil society by cracking on between 14th to 19th century was the era of commercial
backward-looking institutions such as Khap panchayats. and scientific revolution i.e. renaissance had atso
In India, the traditional order characterized by caste prepared background of sociology. It is well known that
system and gender inequalities is inherently against scientific revolution emerged in era of renaissance which
the ideals o{ democracy. So, democracy through its created a new angle about the study of nature and man
institutions punish the activities which goes against its becausenatural things became subject of exarnination and
spirit and thus democratize it. testing. This initiated an era of explanation and criticism
in the field of science.
a. Fact, Value and Obiectivity. (CSE,2012) Same time in 1789, French revolution had become
Ans: Undersociology, scientific studyof social incident turning point in the history of human conflict giving rise to
is being done and this study is based on facts. In this way concepts of liberty, equality and fraternity. This revolution
that incident which occurred in real form and which canbe ended feudal system and initiated a new social system.
proved is said to be facts. It may be real or abstract or both, Changes from monarchy into democratic political system
;i
an,l its empirical testing is possible. In sociology, for making and dominance of middle class in the field of politics
theory, facts are the necessary raw material. brought about major changes. This'revolution brought
Values are those cultural or personal ideals by changes not ordy in France but in whole of Europe.
which any incident or thing is treated good or bad, or At the same time, development of industrial
behaviors are directed accordingly. For example-justice, revolution had started in Britain also. This revolution,
 SOCIOLOGYAS SCIENCE |lffi 27
firstly brought changes in economic and social life of Values enter the cultural framework within which
English people, then in other big European countries. Due all socio-political analysis takes place and this cultural
to development of science and technology, instruments framework is a necessary condition for social analysis.
and apparatus were invented which developed factory Values also supplement facts and guide behaviour.
system. In these large factories, huge production was
started. Due to these changes, a capitalist system was a. Comparison between Sociology and
established from the feudal system of production. Economics. (CSE,2009)
A new class of capitalist and industrialist emerged which
Ans: Most important among the necessities of man
gave fastness to this industrial system. Due to changes in
is the need for life. His life depends on the fulfillment of
economic aspect of society many social changes had come.
certain physical conditions such as food, shelter, sexand
Population has increased because of increase in production
security. Among them food is primary and all others are
in a industrial society. This has speeded the process of
urbanization. Tech-nology and factory system causes the secondary. Economics studies these basic needs of man
migration of people from rural to urban. So, industrial and other aspects connected with need. According to
revolution generated a new social structure and two new an economist Alfred Marshal, Economics is the study
classes in the form of capitalist and labour emerged. of activities connected with human life in general and
The new Europe which emerged as a result of French at the same time it also investigates how man earns and
and industrial revolution challenged every aspect of old spends money.
Europe. This resulted into reorganization ofnew classes. But Sociology studies all human activities like
Religion was facing challenges and its importance was social life, social organization, and institution including
reduced. Many fundamental changes occurred in family economic institutions and activities related to human
relation. Women's position had changed. Ultimately wealth and money. Thus, Economics studies only those
monarchy ended and democracy was established. activities of man which aimed at acquiring material
Every aspect of society - religion, community, authority, means for satisfying needs. In carrying out these activities
property etc. was defined from new angle. man comes into contact with other individuals, groups
Increasing industrialization, urbanization caused and so on. These individual interactions come under
new problems like poverty, hunger, prostitution, crime, preview of Sociology.
alienation and social and family disorganization among Thus, man's economic activities, to a great extent,
labour. Above afl, the incidents motivated intellectuals to are a social activity. These economic activities are also
think on this new situation and prepared the background directed by social, cultural and religious values.
for emergence of sociology Profession related to economic activities is also
instrumental in determining social status. Man is also a
a. Fact and Value. (CSE,2011) producer, consumer and distributor of material as well.
Ans: According to Goode and Hatt, 'fact' is an Man produces those material needs which are useful.
empirically veriJiable observation and are those situations The trade centers, marketing places offer the facility for
or circumstances concerning which there does not seem making various commodities available to consumers.
to be valid room or disagreement. A'fact' also refers to The money has the power to buy these things. The more
something actually happened. Example:- it is a fact that purchasing power a man has more things he can buy from
British left India in August 15, 1947.It can be subjected the markets. This capacity of man also affects social status
to empirical scrutiny and its existence cannot be denied. in economic and practical life. Thus, social and economic
Thus a'fact' is an objective reality. life influences each other economic activities often dffect
On the other hand value constitute a large share of social activities.
social science data. For example, the study of socialisation In spite of all these connectionbetween Economy and
is nothing but the study of the gradual acquisition of Sociology, both are independent discipline but scope of
values by child and the comparative historical surveys Sociology is wider than Economics. Thomas, a scholar,
measure changes in values within a cultural system. The opines that Economics is a branch of wider science of
central position of value judgements in social sciences lies Sociology. However, Sociology differs from Economics
in the fact that value judgements are merely formalised in following aspects- such as Sociology is the general
expressions of sentiments and emotions derived from and inclusive study of human life while Economics is the
culture and impelling men to action. special study of the economic aspect alone.
Thus, a value is a preference, positive or negative. . Sociology considers. man a social animal while
Values cannot be treated as facts because they are related economics considers him an economic component.
:;
to the'ought' and'nought' of the things. Values are also . Sociological analysis is multi-factorial while economic
not absolute as it could vary frompeople to people. Values analysis takes into account the ecoriomic factor alone.
are also relational as they expose relationship between the Thus, despite of similarities and differences both are
speaker and the objects of which he is speaking. Values related to each other because man is the basic uniting
are all about right and wrong not true or false. factor and also the subject matter of both. rr
 CHAPTER

Q. What are variables? How do they facilitate variables like work status, income level, or acc€ss
research? (CSE 2023) to essential services.
Ans: Variables are those "parameters whose value . Variables also make it possible to measure concepts.
varies as situation changes and they are key elements In order to test ideas or hypotheses, researchers
of an experiment. might gather data and evaluate it by describing
. Generally, there are two kinds of variables. In any variables in terms that can be measured.
research method, there are always some'dependent Variables are crucial research instruments in
variables' and there are some'independent or fixed sociology. They allow for the comparison of various
variables'. groups or categories, the operationalization and
. Value of dependent variables depends upon value quantification of abstract notions, and the creation of
o{ independent variables and otl'Ler dependent links between various phenomena. Sociologists can learn
variables. more about the social world by precisely identifying and
. quantifying variables.
Variables can also be further classified as -
experimental variables, measured variables, discreet
variables, continuous variables. Q. What are the different dimensions of the
. In any study, generally measured variable is also qualitative method? Do you think that
a dependent variable. For example - in studying qualitative method helps to gain a deeper
the educational level of an area, 'Education Level' sociological insight? Give reasons for your
is a dependent variable, which depend on other answer. (csE 2023)
variables like - parental income, schools available, Ans: Qualitative Methods refer to examination,
teachers quality, cultural values and so on. analysis and interpretation of observations for the
. Dependent variable in one situation can be purpose of discovering underlying meanings and
independent variable in another research. For patterns of relationship to gain better understanding of
example, in deterrnining the causes of unemploynnenf symbols, motives and meanings.
education can be an independent variable with o Interpretativists and non-positivists favour such
unemployment as an independent variable. methods. Weber pioneered interpretivist approach
. In any social experiment, the researcher {irst needs and used Verstehen and Ideal Types, Mead
to identify the variables and then establish which pioneered Symbolic Interactionism.
of them are dependent and which are independent. . There can be various types of Qualitative Methods
After that, inter-linkages between these variables like - Observation Method, Unstructured Interview,
have to be established.
Case Sfudies, Focus Group Discussion, etc. are some
Role of,Variables in Facilitating Research of the methods.
Variables help zoith study in a number of ways: Dimensions of the Qualitative Method
+li
. ,They support the development of connections . Data Collection: It covers a range of techniques
between various phenomena. like focus groups, interviews, and observation. For
. Abstract concepts can be operationalized with the instance, in order to learn about rural women's
use of variables. An academic researching poverty, experiences with domestic abuse in India, qualitative
for instance, may operationalize it in terms of researchers may interview them.
 RESEARCH METHODS AND ANALYSIS ::,,,,: 29
. Data Analysis: Finding themes and patterns in the Q. What are the ethical issues that a researcher
gathered data is part of this process. Qualitative faces in making use of participant observation
research concentrates on certain studies that are as a method of coliecting data? Explain.
closely associated with certain environments, (csE 2023)
civilizations, or societies. It necessitates paying
closer attention to the context of occurrences.
Ans: In social science research, participant
o obserrzation is a technique where the researcher
Rescarcher-Participant Relationship: Qualitative immerses oneself in a conrmunity or group to watch
researchers avoid making assumptions and take a
and take part in their activities. Participant observations
non-judgmental approach. They aim to extract from present a number of ethical questions in addition to
participants sincere, objective answers. The goal of facilitating a thorough comprehension of the social
the participant-researcher connection is to enable dynamics and surroundings.
the gathering of pertinent, objective data. . Getting participants' in{ormed consent is one of the
o Interpretation: This entails interpreting the primary ethical problems. Researchers might not
information and coming to conclusions. For always be able to tell every participant about the
example, analysing the in{ormation to comprehend research, its goals, and their role in it because the
the sociocultural elements influencing domestic researcher is integrating into the community. This
violence in rural India. can result in a privacy invasion and a breach of trust.
. Validity and Reliability: Qualitative researchers . Participant observation often involves observing
need to make sure that their conclusions are intimate and private aspects of people's lives.
trustworthy and legitimate. Triangulation, Preserving the participants' privacy and
which entails employing several techniques confidentiality could pose a challenge. For example,
or data sources to validate the results, can help a researcher observing household routines may
achieve this. observe personal conflicts within families.
Role of Qualitative Method in Gaining Deeper
. In certain situations, the researcher may need to hide
Sociological Insight their identity or the reason for their study in order
to be accepted by the comrnunity or organisation.
. Qualitative,methods emerged as a reaction to an Since it goes against the ethical precept of research
excessive emphasis on positivist research, which is integrity, this deceit mav raise ethical issues.
considered unsuitable for understanding of social . The cultural norms and practices of the group being
phenomenon. They help in discovering underlying studied must be taken into consideration by the
meanin$s, motives, patterns, symbols etc. researcher. Misunderstanding or misrepresenting the
. Basic assumption behind use of such approach is culture has the risk of causing hurt and contempt.
that human beings have subjective consciousness . Personal biases and -prejudices of the researcher
which is a non-measurable attribute through may affect how they observe and interpret the data.
quantitative methods. Deductivism is often used This may result in incorrect inferences and group
as the basic approach. misrepresentation.
. Qualitative method helps to understand the . The power dynamics in the group can change when
complexity of social phenomena by exploring it the researcher is present. The participant's contluct
from the perspective of tfrose experiencing it. and replies r4ay be influenced by the researcher's
. By giving participants a voice and valuing their perceived authority.
experiences and viewpoints, qualitative approaches Therefore, to counter the weaknesses associated
can empower individuals. This can be crucial in a with this Participant observations, it has been suggested
counhy like India, where marginalisation of various that more 'dialogic' formats should be adopted i.e. the
groups is commory including womery lower castes, respondents and people can be more directiy involved
and tribal people. and the work of the scholar can be translated into the
The qualitative approach is an effective means of language of the communitv, recording their responses
obtaining'a more profound understanding of society. and opinions.
It makes it possible to comprehend social phenomena
in their whole while accounting for the complexity and a. Explain the different types of non-probability
diversity of human experiences and viewpoints. This is sampling techniques. tsring out the conditions
especially important in India, a counfry with a diverse of their use with appropriate examples.
and complex society where social phenomena are (c58,20221
influenced by many different elements like caste, class, Ans: Sampling is a process of selection of a limited
gender, religion, and geography. number of items from a larger lvhole or universe of items.
 30 ffil soctoLocy e & A
Process of sampling requires defining the population sampling only a'minimum quota' is specified.
set first from which samples will be chosen. After that .For example, if a researcher knows that there
sample frame is specified and in next step, sampling are 40% of females in a given populatior; the
method is specified. researcher may keep drawing samples till the
desired quota of 40% is not reached.
It is of primarily two types -
(b) Snowball Sampling: In this method, the starting
(A) Probability Sampling, and
point is the pre-existing data of the targeted
(B) Non-probability Sampling. sample. It works on the referral principle. It
A. Probability Sampling
is useful when the target population cannot
be easily located. In this, one entity leads to
. In this sampling method, every element in the information about other entities in a chain-
sample population has equal chance of being reaction fashion. For example, in a survey of
selected. drug-addicts, one drug addict may lead to
. In a population of 1000 people, each person has a in{ormation about the other and so on.
one-in-a-thousand probability of being selected for
Conditions of the Use of Non-Probability Sampling
a sample. Random Probability Sampling restricts
population bias. . In the view of Popper, researchers should try
to disprove or falsify therr theories. This means
B. Non-Probability Sampling looking for untypical examples of a phenomenon
. In many research situations randomness or that do not fit a particular theory. For example,
probability is not possible in the sampling process biological reasons for sexual division of labour were
either due to unavailability of data, constraints refuted by the study of Mbuti Pygmies of Congo.
imposed or costs involved. . Some sociologists have argued that it is important to
. Since they are not based on random selection, they study the best-informed members of social groups
cannot claim true representativeness of the larger rather than a cross-section of a group.
population from which they are picked. In such . The interactionist Herbert Blumer suggests that one
situations, non-probability sampling is used. should seek and question the most acute observers
of a group or aspect of social life.
Some Common Techniques of Non-Probability
Sampling
l. Convenience Sampling: In Convenience Sampling a. Suggest measures to minimise the influence
or Accidental Sarnpling, sample is drawn from that
of the researcher in the process of collecting
part of the population that is closest at hand. It is data through focus group discussion.
used when there are enough controls and reasons (csE,2o22l
to believe that such samples will lead to correct Ans: Focus group discussion is mainly used for non-
inferences. positivist research. The focus group technique basically
For example, to understand the features of industrial consists of bringing together a group of people to have
classes, a researcher may go to industries that are an extensive, free flowing discussion relating to their
most nearby and select a few employees which are experiences or opinion on a particular focus issue.
known to him or easy to contact. Focus Group Discussion
2. Purposive Sampling: It is that type of sampling . In Sociology, Robert Merton popularized this
in which a purpose is already there in the mind of
method which was earlier limited to marketing
the researcher and sample characteristics are pre-
defined. For example, male population, between
exercises on1y.It is like a group interview.
40-50 years can be a target of a socio-economic
. Researchers may act like a moderator to direct the
survey. Quota sampling and Snowball sampling discussion in a desired direction of research.
are essentially subtypes of purposive sampling. . The moderator, who has a fairly standardized way
(a)'Quota Sampling: In this, people are selected of establishing a relaxed and congenial atmosphere;
non-randomly by fixing some quota to facilitate initiating the discussion and keeping it on the
it , representation of a particular group. There desired focus.
are primarily two types of quota sampling . The usual procedure is to .tape record the
- proportional quota sampling and non- conversations and later analyze them. The purpose
proportional quota sampling. In proportional of the focus group design is exploratory, seeking
quota sampling quota are defined beforehand in to get respondent opinions of experiences on a
fixed terms say 40%,60% etc., in non-proportional particular subject matter.
 RESEARGH METHODS AND ANALYSIS ffili 31
. The objectives of the focus group study are clearly o It allows studying of people in a more natural
specified, but there is no structure of the discussion manner than as in an interview. Due to its interactive
pattern. In fact, a distinct effort is made to keep the nature, any misunderstanding can be clarified and
discussion free florving. validity of research findings can be increased.
Strengths and Weaknesses

Criticism of Focus Groups Techniques a. Do you think ethnomethodology helps us in

. One pitfall in focus group discussion is that, if the getting reliable and valid data? Justify your
moderator or researcher becomes too active, he may answer. (CSE 2021)
distract the group to respond as per his likings and Ans: According to Harold Garfinkel,
expectations. ethnomethodology implies methods individuals use in
. So, observer bias is significant in focus group daily life to construct their reality, primarily through
exercise as compared to participant observation. intimate exchanges of meanings in conversation.
Ethnomethodologists conduct their research studies
Solution
through various methods such as observation
. Careful planning and skillful moderating are two (which is mostly nonparticipant observation),
crucial considerations in the effective use of focus conversations, interviews, documentary method, and
groups as a method of data collection. ethnomethodological experiments, etc.
. In some ways, focus groups require more advance The use of indexicality and reflexivity increases
planning than other qualitative methods of data the validity and reliability of the data collected through
collection such as one-on-one interviews, where a ethnomethodology. Besides, the method involves in-
researcher may be better able to control the setting depth study of the topic providing with the larger
and the dialogue, or field research, where " go1rlg picture of reality.
with the flow" and observing events as they happen As lay peoples' methods are used in conducting
in their natural setting is the primary aim and time research, there is little scope of ethnocentric and
is less limited. egocentric biases in collecting data. This too has a
. Researchers must take care to form focus groups positive bearing on the quality of data collected.
whose members will want to interact with one However, due to high subjectivity involved,
another and to conkol the timing of the event so the results of ethnographic research are regarded
that participants are not asked nor expected to by positivists as unreliable and lacking in vitidity
stay for a longer time than they've agreed to
and generalizability. Alvin Gouldner argues that
ethnomethodologists ignore the fact that interactions and
participate.
reality are shaped by differential power relations that
. The researcher should also be prepared to inform exist in a society. This hampers in collecting reliability
focus group participants of their responsibility to and validity of the method. Thus, despite limitations
maintain the confidentiality of what is said in the ethnomethodology broadened the horizons of sociology
group. and sociological research.
. Therefore, focus groups are a useful method
for researchers who wish to gather in-depth a. Discuss the challenges involved in collecting
it
information about social processes. data through census method? (CSE 2021)
. Focus groups are similar to one-on-one qualitative Ans: A census is the procedure of systematically
interviews in many ways, but they give researchers calculating, acquiring and recording information about
the opportunity to observe group dynamics that the members of a given population. The census serves
cannot be observed in one-on-one interviews. as an important tool in sociological research.
 32 irli SOCIOLOGY Q & A
However, there are various challenges in collecting 2. Facilitation: This approach involves using one
data through census method like: research method to 'assist' in the use of another
. High economic cost in collecting census data due method. For example, participant observation
to the large scale of the exercise, e.g. or interviews might be used to generate ideas
. which could be used to produce questions for a
Census 2011 cost around Rs 2200 crore to
questionnaire.
Government of India.
. Lack of trained and well informed personnel to
3. Complementarity: In this case 'two research
strategies' are employed so that the different aspects
collect the census data. Untrained professionals lead
of an investigation can be dovetailed. For example,
to various errors in data collection.
questionnaire might be used to produce 'factual,
. Chances of responder bias-as research subjects can statistical data', while a qualitative method could be
provide incorrect in{ormation, e.g. government is employed to understandthe meanings and motives.
withholding informatiolr of socio-economic caste Alan Bryman also has identified multiple ways in
census 201L due to responder bias in the census. which multi-strategy research can be used:
. Lack of depth in data due to the quantitative nature . Qualitative Research Facilitates Quantitaiive
of enquiry. As a result, it is difficult to make an Research: Qualitative research might be useful for
assessment of the personalities whose data has generating hypotheses to be tested in quantitative
been collected. research. It might also be used to aid measurement.
. Many other possibilities of errors due to non- British Households Panel Survey used discussion
response, measurement, lack of preciseness of the and interviews to clarify the concepts included in
definition of statistical units or even the personal questionnaire.
bias of the investigators. . Quantitative Research Facilitates Qualitative
Difficulty in collecting data of nomads, homeless, Research: A good example of this is when
migrants, inaccessible areas like tribal hills, leading to questionnaire is used to identify people suitable for
various problems. inclusion in a sample to be studied using qualitative
Despite various challenges the census method is a methods. This can save researchers a lot of time
reliable method of data collection and helps in coliecting which would otherwise be wasted in carrying out
intensive data of various aspects of population. research on people from whom no useful data is
likely to be obtained.
a. Ho do qualitative and quantitative rnethods . Filling in the Gaps: Sometimes research might
supplement each other in sociological employ one main method but find that this
enquiry? (CSE 2021) leaves gaps in the data which need to be filled.
For example, ethnographers doing participant
Ans: Qualitative research is typically focused on the
observation might also carry out interviews to find
micro-level of social interaction that composes everyday
out about aspects of the social group and its history.
life, whereas quantitative research typically focuses on . The Problem of Generality: Qualitative research
macro-level trends and phenomena.
usually employs a small sample for practical
Quantitative methods include measurement by reasons- It may be supplemented by quaniitative
sample surveys, statistical modeling, social networks, and
research using a larger sample to make it possible
demography, Qualitative methods include interviews,
to generalize from the findings.
focus groups, observation, and textual analysis.
In Sociological research, combining different
. Studying Different Aspects of a Phenomenon:
methods is referred to as methodological pluralism.
Different aspects of phenomenon might lend
themselves to the use of different research methods.
Mostly, researchers rely on one method, associated with
An example, discussed by Brymar; is the study of
one of the 'two research traditions', but many a time
family obligations by Janet Finch (1989). Quantitative
they 'buttress their findings' with a method associated
methods were used to find outwhat people thought
with another tradition.
family obligations were in theory, while qualitative
Martyn Hammersley has distinguished 'three methods were useil to examine how they actually
approaches' to research which uses several research
t; worked in practice.
methods;
. Solving a Pazzle: Sometimes research throws
l. Triangulation: It refers specifically to research up unexpected results which are hard to explain.
where 'quantitative and qualitative research Researchers might need to use a different method
methods' are used to cross-check the findings from that used initially to try to understand their
produced by the other methods. findings.
 RESEARGH METHoDS AND ANALYSIS :t":""'t' 33
Thus supplementing quantitative methods with Ans: A Social Survey involves obtaining information
qualitative methods and vice-versa increases the validity in a stand.ardised form from large groups of people. The
and reliability of the research. main survey methods are questionnaires and structured
interviews. Surveys are carried out by a wide range of
a. Methodology is a system of rules, principles organisations such as government departments, schools
and procedures, which forms scientific and colleges, businesses, charities, and market research
investigation. Comment. (CSE 2020) and consumer groups.
Ans: Sociologists make use of tried and true Skengths of Social Survey
methods of research, such as experiments, surveys, and . Close Contact While studying a field an instigator
field research. But humans and their social interactions has close contact with local people.and for this
are so diverse that these interactions can seem impossible purpose he studies more about the'problematic
to chart or explain. situation.
A scientific process of research establishes . Greater Objectivity: Survey method leads to
parameters that help make sure results are objective greater objectivity. Since there is close contact of
and accurate. Scienti{ic methods provide limitations and
the surveyor with people and observe the situation
boundaries that focus a study and organize its results.
himself, therefore greater objectivity is achieved in
The scientific method invblves developing and this method.
testing theories about the world based on empirical
evidence. It is defined by its commitment to systematic
. Knowledge about Social Situation: Survey
observation of the empirical world and strives to be method provides the opportunities of having full
objective, critical, skeptical, and logical. knowledge about a problem and its solution.
It involves a series of prescribed steps that have . Thorough Study of a Problem: Through study is
<l been established over centuries of scholarship. possible due to the find out of a problem causes
.i But just because socioiogical studies use scientific and its remedies. If these are found then the whole

i
methods does not make the results less human. study is possible.
Sociological topics are not reduced to right or wrong . Useful for Administrators & Policy Makers: Social
facts. In this fie\d, results of studies tend to provide survey method is very useful for adn-linistrators
people with access to knowledge they did not have and policy makers.
before-knowledge of other cultures, knowledge of In many countries, legislation was done to rernove
rituals and fueliefs, or knowledge of trends and attitudes.
the causes of problems like child labour, women
No matter what research approach they use, labour,,etc. administrators and policy when a social
I researchers want to maximize the study's reliability,
survey is conducted.
Which refers to how likely research results are to
be replicated if the study is reproduced. Reliability
. Social Change & Development: Due to Social
increases the likelihood that what happens to one person survey we find out the trends towards social change
will happen to all people in a group. and factors resisting in its way. Thus, if these trends
Researchers also strive for validity, which refers to are developed and controlled the resisting factors,
how well the study measures what it was designed to then social change and development is occurr.ing.
i
measure. Sociologists can use the scientific method not . More Information & Facts: Social survey is a rnain
)
only to collect but also to interpret and analyze the data. source of more information's collection. It leads
They deliberately apply scientific logic and objectivity. to collect facts about a problematic situation and
They are interested in-but not attached to-the results. giving information.
Therefore, with its systematic approacfu the scientific
method has proven useful in shaping sociological Disadvantages of Social Survey
studies. The scientific method provides a systematic,
. Specific Training: It is difficult to provide specific
organized series of steps that help ensure objectivity and training to the researcher as a result, a layman
consistenby in exploring a social problem. They provide cannot conduct survey because specific training is
the means for accuracy, reliability, and validity. In the required for him to study the situation deeply.
end, the scientific method provides a shared basis for . Time Consuming: Social survey method is more
discussion and analysis. time consuming. The researchers, have no interest
in collection of data due to more time taking and
a. Analyse the strengths and weaknesses of the respondents are not ready to answer because
social survey rnethod in social research. they have no time. So, long time is a negative factor
(csE 2020) in survey method.
34 ffi soctoLocye&A
. More Costly: Survey is most costly and without Therefore, probability sampling strategies can
money it is not possible. So, the higher expenditure be adopted according to the needs of the research
of the researcher is a factor for less or no survey. designs.
" Sampling Errors: Sampling method is used of vast
area is also conducted by sampling. If sampling a. Bring out the significance of Ethnography in
method is used, there must by errors in sampling. social research. (CSE,20t9)
. No Application to Historical Problems: Survey Ans: Ethnography is defined as both a social science
method is used for the current problems and research method and its final written product. As a
has no implementation on the past or historical method, ethnographic observation involves oneself in
events. a field of study in order to systematically document
. No Uniformity of Data: Data is collected from a the everyday lives, behaviors, and interactions of a
huge field and the respondents would be different. .orr*rnity of people.
So, there exists no uniformity in data collection Ethnography refers to the practice of conducting
through social survey method. a long-term, detailed study of a community. A written
Thus, social surveys are concerned with specific report based on this type of detailed observation
persons, specific places, specific problems, and situations, of a community is also refeired to as ethnography.
whereas the social researchers are inclined to make the Conducting ethnography allows researchers to obtain
more general and abstract problems as their principal a great detail of in{ormation about the $oup they are
concern. studying; however, this research method is also time
and labor-intensive.
a. Explain the probability sampling shategies The methodology of Ethnographv relies typically on
with examples. (CSE,20L9) participant observation and qualitative data collection.
Ans: Sampling is a process of selection of a limited While conducting ethnography, the anthropologists I
number of items from a larger whole or universe of generally live in a culture different from their own.
items. In probability sampling, e.very element in the They get engaged in the daily lives of populations to be
sample population has an equal chance of being selected. studied and deeply observe and record their findings.
It ensures equAl representation as each item has an equal While conducting any research in Anthropology, the
chance of being selected. researchers try not to be ethnocentric by using the tool
It is of following types: of cultural relativism.
I. Lottery or Simple Random Sampling: In this, These cultural aspects could be the social
sampling units are either mixed or assumed to be institutions: political, economic and religious, kinship
premixed and sample is selected by selecting the system arid family, marriage, etc. For example, if an
sample size. E.g. Now a days, computer algorithms anthropoiogist has to conduct an ethnography of the :
i
are used to make random sampling a truly probabili$r subsistence strategies of a tribe, her/she won't be limited
sampling which also enhances representation. to the economy but will also study other factors like
II. Systematic Random Sampling: In this, absolute power/authority, laws, status of everv indiviclual and
randomness is not there as sample is selected on the social stratification, behaviour of society, educational
basis of some pre-defined criterion. For example - qualifications, the average age of marriage, institUtions
every 10th member of a population may be picked and organisations in the area, etc. to get a complete
for sampling exercise. picture of the cultural area.
III. Stratified Sampling: It is basically a refined One of the most famous ethnography is by
technique over random sampling. It leads to Malinowski based on his six years' fieldwork among
enhanced representation as no stratum of population the native people of the Trobriand Islands in Melanesia.
is excluded. This type of sampling is used when the One advantage of ethnographic research is that it
researcher wants to highlight specific subgroups provides insight into aspects of social life, including
within the population. Some of the most common perception and values, which other research methods
strata used in stratified random sampling are are unable to capture. Ethnography can illuminate that
age, gender, religion, educational attainment, which is taken for granted and which goes unspoken
socioeconomic status, and nationality. within a community" It also allows the researcher to
IV. Cluster Sampling: Cluster sampling may be used develop a rich and valuable understanding of the
when it is either impossible or impractical to cultural mcaning of practices and inieractions.
compile an exhaustive list of the elements that make Additionally, the detailed observations conducted
up the target population. It can be multistage - State in ethnographic research can also disprove negative
> District > City. biases or stereotypes about the population in question.
 RESEARCH METHODS AND ANALYSIS .......r 35
One disadvantage of ethnographic research is that it a. Examine epistemological foundations of
can sometimes be difficult to gain access to and establish qualitative methods of social research.
trust within a desired field site. It can also be difficult (csE,2017)
for researchers to dedicate the time required to conduct
Ans: Epistemology raises many questions including
a rigorous ethnography.
how reality can be known, the relationship between
Ethnographic research also has the potential for
the knower and what is known, the characteristics,
bias on the part of the researcher, which could skew
the principles, the assumptions that guide the process
the data and insights gained from it. Additionally,
of knowing and the achievement of findings and the
due to the intimate nature of the research, there is the
possibility of that process being shared and repeated by
potential for ethical and interpersonal issues and
others in order to assess the quality of the research and
conJlicts to arise.
the reliability of those findings"
Therefore, ethnography helps sociologists to study
various aspects of society in terms of quality so that they Epistemological Foundations of Qualitative Research:
are able to understand the meanings attached by actors . Qualitative research comprises different orientations
in social actions. and approaches, various intellectual and disciplinary
traditions grounded in different philosophical
a. fllustrate with example the significance of assumptions. All these different orientations,
variable in sociological research. (CSE, 20L7) approaches and assumptions generate new data-
Ans: Variables and Research: The central purpose of gathering and analysis strategies"
research is to solve problems and improve the welfare . Qualitative research is interested, in the way in
of the society. which the world is "understood, experimented,
Variables play a very significant role in sociological or produced" by people's lives, behaviour, and
research. A variable is an object, event, idea, feeling, interactions. Qualitative research is interpretive,
time period, or any other type of category you are tryi.g hermeneutic, inductive, and heterogeneous in
to measure. There are two major types of variables- methods, is reflexive, deep, rigorous, and rejects
independent and dependent. "the natural sciences as a model".
Independent Valiable . It makes use.of flexible analysis and explanation
An independent variable is a variable that stands methods, sensitive to both the studied people's
alone and isn't changed by the other variables you are special features and the social context in which data
trying to measure. For example, someone's age might is produced.
be an independent variable. An independent variable by
. Qualitative research seeks to "discover the new
definition is one which is manipulated by the researcher. and to develop empirically grounded theories",
Dependent Variable
and it is this relation to the act of creating,
expanding, modifying and superseding the theory
A dependent variable is one which changes as a what constitutes the hallmark of Epistemological
result of the independent variable being changed. For
Foundations of Qualitative Research.
example, a test score could be a dependent variable
. It attempts at understanding, at making the
because it could change depending on several factors
such as how much you studied. individual case significant in the context of
the theory, it opens up new perspectives on
The importance of Variables
what is known. It "explains, defines, clarifies,
The importance of dependent and independent elucidates, illuminates," constructs, and discovers.
variabies is that they guide the researchers to persue
It develops valid causal descriptions analysing how
their studies with maximum curiosity. Dependent certain events have an infiuence on others, and
and independent variables are important because they
understanding cause-effect processes in a local,
drive the research process. While the variation of an
contextualized and placed way.
independent variable will influence the variation of
dependent variable, both variables give the study a
focus. a. How can one resolve the issue of reliability
Dependent and independent variables are also
and validity in the context of sociological
imporiant because they determine the cause and effects research on inequality? (C$F,,2017)
in research for example: on college performance, we Ans: Reliabilify: Reliability is aborit consistency. A
might look at the grades of students who have worked research would be reliable if, when repeated, using the
prior to starting college and the grades of students who same methods, it brings the same results. The following
did not work prior to starting college. ideas figure in making data reliable:
 36 i socloLocYe&A
. Consistency: It is important to obtain consistently interaction to embedded participant observation. In all
similar responses to the same questions in similar of theqe cases, the social scientist directly interacts with
circumstances. those whom he or she is studying.
. Precision: One has to know how systematic is The social scientist attempts to see the world
the form of data that is based on asking people from their perspective and to interpret their practices in
questions about things they know little about. a meaningful way. In fact, scholars such as Howard
Validity: Validity refers to the accuracy of data Becker and Clifford Geertz have argued that the
generated by the research instrument, whether it is ultimate test of the validity of a qualitative research
an interview or questionnaire or some other means of study is whether it produces an account of social action
research. Validity of a esearch is also about answering that would make sense to the actors themselves. As
the questions; F{ow valid is one's conception of the this would imply, the foundational lcigic underlying
situation? How generalizable are one's results? qualitative studies differs from that of variable-oriented
To resolve the issue of reliability and validity in quantitative research.
the context of sociological research on inequality, the The latter measures particular properties of social
following things should be followed while conducting phenomena and then uses statistical models to deterrhine
the research: patterns of association among these properties, or
variables. Because, these models'require a larger number
' The single method should obtain same results over
of cases to establish statistically significant associations,
and over again.
. quantitative researchers necessarily must sacrifice depth
When the researcher is on field, they should listen
for breadth.
as much as possibie and refrain from talking.
. Qualitative researchers, in contrast, are com{ortable
Field notes produced should be as exact as possible.
working with a small number of cases, or even a
. Researcher should begin to write early so that they single case. They have at their disposal ,a variety of
don't forget the little cletails that separate good assumptions, theories, and methods to produce rich
research from the ordinary. accounts of social life. In additioru qualitative research
. Presentations should be characterizedby a balance can offer unique insight into the relationship between
between the various aspects they have studied microsocial and macrosocial worlds and even global
rather thln leaning toc heavily on one or the other forces.
aspect. Qualitative methods are scientific, but are focused
. Report should be as candicl and as complete as more on the meaning of different aspects of peoples'
possi Lrle. lives, and on their accounts of how they understand
. Measurement errors ,irould- be avoicled; intentional their ow4 and others' behaviour and beliefs.
misrepresentations by respondents, and poor A major strength of qualitative approach is
research design, including poorly worded words the depth to which explorations are conducted and
should be avoided. descriptions are written, usually resulting in sufficient
details for the reader to grasp the idiosyncracies of the
a. LnaLyze the irnportance of qualitative method situation.
in social research. (CSE, 2016) Case studies (where researchers examine a
small number of specific examples) and narratives
Ans: Social scientists often want to understand how
(where researchers study respondents' stories in depth)
individuais think, feel or behave in particular situations,
are just two examples of methods used in qualitative
or in relations w*ith others that develop over time.
research.
They use in-depth interviews, participant
observation and other qualitative methods to gather
data. Researchers might rt atch a school playground to a. "Participant observation is the most effective
observe ancl record bullying behaviours, or ask young tool for collecting facts." Comment.
people about exactl), *hut they understood by being (csE,2016)
bullied, and how they thought it affected them. Ans: Sociology adopted the participant observation
Qrraiitative research methods have a long and technique from anthropology. It is one of a qualitative
:lt distinguished history rn.ithin sociology. They trace tool used by sociological researchers to collect data.
their roots back to Max lVeber's call for an interpretive The tool involves the researcher to directly observe
understanding of action. the participants in a situation. It enables the researcher
Today, qualitative sociologv encompasses a variety to gather data first hand by involving the activities of a
of specific procedures for collectin g data, ranging from group, observing the interactions of members of a group
life history interviews to direct observation of social very closely.
 RESEARCH METHODS AND ANALYS|S i. 37
The participation observation method is generally A statement containing the variabie is called a
undertaken over a long period of time, ranging from proposition. It may contain one or msre than one
several months to years. An extended research time variable. Prior to the formulation of a prolrosition the
period means that the researcher is able to obtain more researcher has to develop strong Iogical arguments
detailed and accurate in{ormation about the individuals, which could help in establishing the relationship.
community, andf or population under study. For example, age at marriage and education are the
The tool can be easily used in small and pre-literate trvo variables that could lead to a proposition: the
society but deploying it becomes difficult in large and higher the educatiory the higher the age at marriage.
complex societies. Also, it is effective when the observer If the relationship refers to an observable reality, then
cloaks his identity when he or she mixes with the the proposition can be put to test, and any testable
inmates of a social situation. At the same time, successful proposition is hypothesis.
employment of the method requires maturity on the
part of researcher by suppressing biases, prejudices and Q. Ia/hy is random sampling said to have more
preconceptions. reliability and validity in research?
Limitations of the tool (csE,2015)
The tool has certain limitations. Ans: Random santpling is one of the most popular
. The recorded observations about a group ofpeople types of random or probabrlity sampling. in this
or event is never going to be the full description. technique, each member of the population has an equal
. chance of being selected as subject. An unbiased rurdo*
Due to the selective nature of recording any
selection and a representative sample is important
type of the tool is inevitably influenced by
in drawing conclusions from the results of a studv.
researchers' personal beliefs of what is relevant
Due to the representativeness of a sample obtained
and important.
by simple random sampling, it is reasonable to make
. This is also plays out in the analysis of collected data; generalizations from the results of the sarnple back to
the researcher's worldview invariably influences the population.
how he or she interprets and evaluates the data. It is free of classification error, and it requires
Thus, it can be concluded that the participant minimum advance knowledge of the population other
observation tool has both advantages and disadvantages than the frame. its simplicity also makes it reiatively easy
and cannot be considered as the most effective tool for to interpret data collected in this lnanner.
collecting data. For these reasons, simple random sampling
best suits situations where not much information ii
Q. What are variables? Discuss their role in available about the population and data collection
experimental research. (CSE,2015) can be efficiently conducted on randomly distributed
Ans: A variable is defined as anything that has a items, or where the cost of sampling is small enough to
quantity or quality that varies. The research variables, make efficiency less important than simpiicity. If these
of any scientific experiment or research process, are conditions do not hold, stratified sampling or ciuster
factors that can be manipulated and measured. The sampling may be a better choice.
key to designing any experiment is to look at what Researchers use stratified random sampling to
research variables could influence the outcome of obtain a sample population that best represents the
experimental research. Gender, color and country are entire population being studied. Its advantages include
variables. There are many types of variable but the most minimizing sample seiection bias and ensuring certain
important, for the vast majority of research methods are segments of the population are not overrepresented or
the independent and dependent variables. underrepresented.
The dependent variable is the variable a researcher Stratified random sampling is also advantageous
is interested in. The changes to the dependent variable when it can be used accurateiy because it ensures
are what the researcher is trying to measure with all each subgroup within the population receives proper
their techniques. An independent variable is a variable representation within the sample.
believed to affect the dependent variable. This is the
variable that the researcher will manipulate to see if it a. In what way biographies could be used to
makes the dependent variable change. For example, if study social life? (CSE, 2014)
' you designed an experiment to determine how quickly Ans. Post modern research have startbd questioning
a cup of coffee cools, the manipulated independent the traditional qualitative research practices in obtainint
variable is time and the dependent measured variable social knowledge. As a part of criticism new research
is temperature. methodologies have been recently developed like auto/
 38 {:t socroLocY e & A
biographical sociology, which include personalized Sociologist does not deal with consumer behavior
account of author's experiences got greater attention by specifically rather they are more interested in dealing
sociologist to have new research practice in the study with the social context within which consumer behavior
of social li{e" takes place. Therefore, Sociology centers around groups
Biogranhical sociology encourages rethinking of and social institutions by using concepts like role theory,
terms such as validity, reliability and objectivity, offering social class, family life cycle, diffusion of innovation
a critique of representation and legitimation within process and population groups have greater implications
social science disciplines. for consumer researcher.
As C. Wright Milts insisted that unless sociology Positivists, like the classical economists, they
works at the leve1 of biography it does not and cannot operate from the belief that the consumer makes rational
work at the level o{ structure. He coined the phrase consumptive decisions after weighing alternatives.
"socioiogical Imagination" to speak to the need to The goai of the positivist is to predict consumer
understand the interplay between public issues (social behavior. The research methods of positivists were
structures) and personal troubles (biography). For Mills, borrowed mainly from the natural sciences and range
neither the history of society nor the life of an individual from experiments, survey techniques, and observation.
can be grasped without understanding both' The data collected are quantitative in nature and lend
Biographical sociology.offers a unique approach themselves to many parametric and nonparametric
to understanding individual'"society relations. Moving statistical analysis.
beyond stale structure-agency debates, it allows for a In the postmodern era, ethnography research
situated analysis of agency-in-structure, of the reflective method is used in understanding consumer behavior.
individual engaging society. In biographical sociology Ethnography is the technique in which the researcher
the researcher is firmly in the picture, in context, places himself or herself in the social setting to study
interacting with others. the consumer's various cultural practices.
Thus, as C. Wright Mills visioned "Sociological Consequently, the validity of the data gathered
Imagination" of sociologist is required in developing would depend on the interpretation of the researcher. As
unscientific method of understanding the personal such, the interpretive researcher engages in subjective,
opinion and experience in auto/biography to study qualitative research based on the assumption that there
the social structure by intertwining personal with is no objective truth, but that reality is subjective.
social reality is becoming a future sociological research The goal of the interpretive is to gain understanding
methodology in post modern era. of consumer behavior in different situations rather than
predicting his or her consumption related acts.
Q. Which research technique would be most The latest new field is the evolutionary psychology.
suitable for the study of consumer behaviour Essentially, ttte foundational paradigm of evolutionary
and its social correlates? Explain. (CSE, 2014) psychology rests on the idea that the human mind
Ans: Scholars from various disciplines ranging from is shaped by natural selection as Darwin's theory
psychology, economist, anthropolog;i to sociologist seek of evolution.
to understand the most complex consumer behavior John Tooby and Leda Cosmides, pioneered the new
through various research techniques to explain the field of evolutionary psychotogy, postulated Standard
complicated human behavior. Hence, it requires Social Science Model (SSSM), which emphasizes the
interdisciplinary approach to explore the dynamic dominant influence of experience and culture in shaping
social reality and its correlates in the study of consumer human behavior.
behavior. The importance of study of consumer behavior Hence, in conclusion it can be advocated
is for future research efforts in understanding the that the research methodology for understanding
complex nature of consumer. Various research scholars consumer behavior is still in evolving stage only, across
have proposed the use of Implicit Association Test in various disciplines of social studies to explore the social
studies of brands, consumer attitudes and behaviours' reality.
Sheppard, on the other hand, proposed Reasoned Action In the mean time, cultural anthropology, cousin
Theory for determining as to why consumers buy. of Sociology, provide the required research technique
The field of economics has researched the consumer through ethnography methodology in the study of
s'.i

behavior from the rationality perspective but it neglected consumer behavior and its social correlates.
the emotional aspect of consumer. On the other hand, The quest for generalizable explanations and
Psychology relied on internal variables of consumer in accurate predictions of consumer behavior will continue
explaining how he/she process incoming information because a truly scientific odyssey has no set destinations
and makes purchase decisions. on its long, if not infinite, journey of discovery.
 RESEARCH METHODS AND ANALYSIS S 39
a. What do you understand by gender? How questionnaires, interviews, and comparative methods.
does it shape 'male'identity? (CSE,2014) Durkheim used this method in his study of suicide.
Ans: Sociologists make a clear distinction The strength of quantitative research is that, it produces
between the terms sex and gender. Sex refers to quantifiable, reliable data that can be generalized to
one's biological identity of being male or female some larger population.
while gender refers to the socially learned expectations Quantitative analysis also allows researchers
and behaviors associated with being male or female. to test specific hypotheses, in contrast to qualitative
Sex is biologically assigned while gender is culturally research, which is more exploratory. The weakness of
learned. the quantitative approach is that it decontextualizes
Sociologists are particularly interested in gender human behavior in a way that removes the event
identity and how it determines gender roles. Gender from its real world setting and ignores the. effects of
identity appears to form very early in life and is variables that have not been included in the model. lt
most likely irreversible by age 4. Although the exact also lacks a depth and richness of data that is present
causes of gender identity remain unknown, biological, with qualitative research.
psychological, and social variables clearly inJluence the Because there are so many participar-rts using
process. quantitative methods, it is impossible to know the details
Functionalist theorists argue that men fill about each and every one. Laboratory experiments such
instrumental roles in society while women fill expressive as in natural sciences are not possible in social sciences.
roles, which works to the benefit of society. Further, it is It is because, the laboratory experiments are performed
our socialization into prescribed roles that is the driving in unnatural setting.
force behind gender inequality. If subjects are not isnformed then it leads to ethical
For example, these theorists see wage inequalities as issues and if they are informed then it will change their
the result of choices r Tomen make, which involve family behavior.
roles that compete with their work roles. Compared to quantitative data, qualitative data
Symbolic interactionists look at gender from the are seen as much richer, more vital, as having greater
micro perspective and examine gender stratification on depth and are more likely to present a true piciure of
t a day-to-day level. For example, men are more likely to the ways of life of the people, their experiences, attitudes
.t interrupt women\n conversations and their workspices and beliefs.
generally reflect greater power. These theorists also Those who belong to interpretative strand such
focus on how gender roles are internalizedby males as symbolic interactionists and the phenomenologists
and females.. prefer the qualitative methods, as reality is very
Il Conflict theorists view women as disadvantaged and no one pethod is proper to study "o-plu*
it. Thus, for a
because of power inequalities between women and men proper sociological enquiry we need to complement
that are built into the social structure. For example, from with different methods. Thus, both quantitative and
this viewpoint, wage inequalities that exist between men qualitative methods are needed for a fruitful and useful
and women result from men's historic power to devalue sociological enquiry.
women's work and benefit as a group from the services
that women's labor provides.
a. Comparative Method. (CSE,20L2)
Howe\.er, Margaret Mead believes these patterns
are not universal. One needs to investigate the variation
Ans: In sociology, for the study of concrete facts or
incident, quantitative method is used. In social sciences,
in the meanings of being masculine and feminine. Such
studies may help us understand a society,s division
comparative method is used to compare dif{erent
societies or to compare different groups, institutions etc
of labor, differential power and status structure, in
general, how society's privileges and responsibilities
of same society. Its main idea is to discover a general
theory by clarifying similarity and differentiality found
are allocated. To modify the social system may mean
first modifying individual beliefs atout masiulinity in different societies or in social structure, culture of
and femininity. Sroups.
Traditions of comparative method have been mostly
found in evolutionist sociologists and this methoi
a. Analyze the limitations of quantitative
has been accepted as a best method by sociologists
methods in social research. (CSE,2013)
and social scientists. Comparative method has been
Ans: Quantitative methods are those methods extensively used by anthropologists in the study of intra
who advocate the use of scientific and quantitative culture and tribal study. This method has been given
methods for sociological analysis. Various examples importance {irstly by Durkheim in his book,,The Rules
of data collection in quantitative research are surveys, Of Sociological Method".
 In this method, relation between incidents and their 3. Statistical method
causes are represented. If we study special incident in 4. Comparative method.
different situations and search for their cause, then those
causes which present in different situation are treated as a. Reliability and validity (CSE,2011)
cause of that special incident. In this way,by comparing Ans: The test of reliability is an important test
incidents in different situations we can search for their of sound measurement. A measuring instrument is
cause, and this is Comparative method. Durkheim has reliable if it provides consistent results. It is also fact
used comparative method in his study of religion and that a reliable measuring instrument does contribute to
social explanation of suicide. Max Weber has also used validity but a reliabie instrument need not to be a valid
this method in his study of "Protestant Ethics and Spirit instrument. Reliability is not valuable as validity but it
of Capitalism". is easier to assess reliability in comparisqn to validity.
Comparative method has some flaws. Difficulties If the quality of reliability is satisfied by an instrument
come in it when we compare societies. It is difficult then it is clear that the temporary and situational factors
to compare a w'hole society with other whole society. are not interfering.
So comparison between social institutions is easier There are two aspects of reliability viz, stability
than comparison of whole society. Since Comparative and equivalence. The stability aspect is concerned
method is based on deduction, vagueness of deduction
with securing consistent results with the repeated
may influence the study. Despite above limitations,
measurements of the same thing with the same
Comparative method keeps important place in sociology'
instrument.
One can easily determine the degree of stability by
0. Differentiate between the qualitative and comparing the results of repeated instruments.
quantitative methods in Research. (CSE,2012) The equivalence aspects consider how much
Ans: For the study of incidents in social research error may get introduced by different investigators or
there are two study methods used on the basis of nature different samples of the items being studied. A good
of content-first is qualitative method and second is way to test for ttre equivalence of measurements by
quantitative method. Somewhere both these methods two investigators is to compare their observations of
are used together for the study of a subject. the same events. .:
That rndthod used to study of abstract fact is Hovvever, the reliability of a test can be improved
known as qualitative methods. In sociology for study by following two ways:
of abstract facts e.g. sociai reiation, values, conceptiory
(i) By standardising the conditions under which the I
beliefs, customs and instincts, mainly qualitative method t:
measurement takes place. One must ensure that
is used.
external sources of variation such as boredom,
This method is based on assumption that human
fatigue, etc are minimised to the possible extent.
natures are complex. Qualitative or abstract cannot be
measured like natural science. So in such type of study
(ii) By carefully deigning directions for measurement
method, main focus is on intense analysis of an incident.
with no variation from group to group by using
\
trained and motivated persons to conduct the
Following study methods are used in qualitative research and aiso by broadening the sample of items
method- used. This will improve equivalence aspect. i
:

1. Case study
2. Inductive or deductive method Q. What is subjective method in social research?
3. Sociometry Examine Focus Group Discussion (FGD) as a
4. Scale of social distance technique for data collection, with suitable
5. Community study method examples. (CSE,2011)
Methods used for study of concrete facts or incidents Ans: The purpose of the scientific social research
are known as quantitative method. For example, for the is to establish "truths" that are evident to everybody'
study,of population growth, sex ratio, poverty, illiteracy, The method of subjective provides a basis for working
quantitative methods are used. with events that are outside the domain of the scientific
Based on natural science or positivistic approacfu method.
;i this method has assumption that social incidents are The subjective method is not able to reveal the
Like natural incident and its measurement is possible. universal truths but is able to solve problems and
The main study methods in quantitative method are- provide perspectives for individual according to his
1,. Social survey method or her abilities. The rules of logic of logic, thought and
2. Historical method perceptions are part of subjective method.
 RESEARCH METHODS AND ANALYSIS 4 41
Qualitative methodology in sociological research formulation of general principles. From sociological
also recognises that the subjectivity of the researcher perspective, application of this method entails that
is intimately involved in research. Subjectivity guides individual events are studied not for their own sake but
everything from the choice of that one studies, tcr for their significance in so far as they contribute to the
formulating hypothesis, to selecting methodologies formulation of generalization. Sociology and physical
and interpreting data. A key issue that arises with the science are regarded as nomothetic sciences because
recognition of subjectivity is how it affects objectivity. their primary goal is to abstract generalization from
The focus group discussion is a form of qualitative specific events and individual facts.
research in which a group of people are asked about their
Idiographic method, on the other hand is a
perceptions, opinions, beliefs and attitudes towards a
technique of studying human behaviour by a thorough
particular issue, produc! service, values, advertisement,
analysis of individual cases. Here the €mphasis is
etc. Here questions are asked in an interactive group
more on detailed description and in-depth study than
setting where participants are free to talk with other
on generalizations. The case study method may be
group members. In the history of social research first
considered on idiographic method where emphasis
focus groups were created at the Bureau of Applied Social
is placed upon the complete understanding of each
Research in the USA by sociologist Robert K. Merton.
individual case rather than upon deriving analytical
The focus group discussion is a rapid assessment,
generalization from the common characteristics of a large
semi-structured data gatherin$ method in which a
number of cases. History is regarded as an idiographic
purposively selected set of participants gather to discuss
discipline because it is more concerned with studying
issues and concerns based on a list of key themes drawn
particular events and configuration of events in specific
up by the researcher.
settings than with deriving general principles of laws.
This qualitative research technique was originally
developed to give marketing researchers a better
understanding of the data from qualitative consumer a. Serendipity (CSE,2010)
surveys. Ans: Serendipity refers to chance discovery of
As an indispensable tool for marketing researchers, theoretically important facts in the course of research,
the focus group discussion has become extremely leading the scientist to new discoveries he did not
popular becauserit provides a fast way to learn from anticipate. Serendipity is used as a sociological method
the target audience. Marketing and media studies have in Anselm Leonarci Strauss' and B.G. Glaser,s Grounded
shown that the focus group discussion is cost-effective Theory. It builds on ideas by sociologist Robert K. Mertory
technique for eliciting views and opinions of prospective who in Social Theory and Social Structure referred to
clients, custcimers and end-users. In agriculture, focus the "Serendipity pattern" as a fairly corunon experience
groups have been used to obtain insights into target of observing an unanticipated, anomalous and strategic
1
I
audience perceptions, needs, problems, beliefs and datum which becomes the basis for developing a new
reasons for certain practices. To keep the session of theory or for extending an existing theory.
group discussion on track while allowing respondents
to talk freely and spontaneously the facilitator uses a a. Content Analysis (CSE,2010)
discussion guide that lists the main topics or themes to
Ans: Content Analysis is a methodology in the social
be covered in the session. It serves as a road map that
sciences for studying the content of communicatibn.
guides the facilitator in covering the list of topics and
Earl Babbie defines it as "the study of recorded human
keeping the discussion on track. The number of items
communications, such as books, websites, paintings
in the guide is generally kept to a minimum to leave
and lalvs." It is most commonly used by researchers
enough time for in-depth discussion. It should focus
in the social sciences to anaTyze recorded transcripts of
only on relevant research issues.
interviews with participants.
The logistical arrangements for focussed group
This technique basically involves summarizing
discussion involves invitation of participants, group
and quantitative analysis of messages that rely on the
composition/ venue selections, seating arrangement,
scientific methods (including objectivifi intersubjectivifi
recordings, writing the focus group discussion report,
a priori design, reliability, validity, generalisability, and
analysing the content of the group discussion by
hypothesis testing) and is not limited as to the type of
reviewing the notes from the focus group, etc.
variables that may be measured on the context in which
the messages are created or presented.
a. Nomothetic and Idiographic Methods It often involves building and applying a ,,concept
(csE,2010) dictionary" or fixed vocabulary of terms on the basis
Ans: Nomothetic method is one of the research of which w,ords are extracted from the textual data for
methods in which analysis is directed towards the concording or statistical computation.
 42 :,:. SOCIOLOGY Q & A

a. Cybernetic Hierarchy of Control (CSE,20L0) sociologists.must mention those features of their own
social background that might possible source of biasness
Ans: In his Systems Approach, Parsons sees
on the topic being researched.
society as a system. There are four general needs that
This will allow reader to compensate mentally while
must be met for proper functioning of the system:
reading the research study. The problem of objectivity
adaptation, goal attainment, integration, and latent
also may be due to not responding the question properly
pattern maintenance. In complex, differentiated societies,
by the respondent. If researcher is inexperience then he
these functions are met by separate institutional spheres.
can also make mistake. In spite of all these problems,
These different institutions are integrated through the
the old notion of objectivity is considered an outdated
system pressures of mutual dependency and generalized
perspective. Social scientist no longer belie.f that
medium of exchange.
objectivity is not possible in science. But objectivity as
Social System itself is only one of four systems that
the goal of sociological research is an ongoing process
surround human behaviour. There are cultural, social,
rather than an already achieved end.
personality and organic system, each corresponding
to AGIL functional prerequisites. There is a constant
a. Distinguish between probability and non-
flow of information from top to bottom and the energy
flows bottom up. Parsons referred to this scheme as the
probability sampling' methods. How many
Cybernetic Hierarchy of control. types of sampling designs are there?
(csE,2oo9)
a. Problems of objectivity in sociological research. Ans: Sampling is a method of selecting a portion
(csE,2009) of research item or study units from a large universe
Ans: The word objectivity means unbiased, neutral
for the purpose of study and survey. The method of
samplings have been devised for various usefulness such
or based on facts alone. It can be defined in two ways. In
as- to save the time, money, to bring high'accuracy, to
first case it considers an absence of bias or interpreting
get valid and comparable results within a very short
observations. In second case, it is a situation in which
period of time, to draw inferences about the universe
data gathered represents true picture of reality.
which is unknown etc.
To achieve this kind of objectivity, we need to
describe the\ reality from the interference from the Basically there are two types of sampling.
ways in which one think about it. But such things is (i) ProbabilitySampling
not possible in sociology because sociologists are also (ii) Non Probability Sampling.
member"of society. (i) Probability Sampling: This is one in which
They have also like and dislike that people have. For every unit of population has an equal probability of
example, a sociologists while studying family relations being selected for the sample. It offers a high degree of
would herself/himself be a member of a family and his representativeness. Today it is the primary method for
experience likely to influence his/her works. selecting representative samples for social science and
Another problems with objectivity in sociological business research according to Black and Champior; the
research is that generally there are many versions of probability sampling requires some conditions such as:
truth exist in the world. Also many things look different (i) A complete list of subjects to be studied strould be
from different point of view. Thus, there is no simple available.
way of judging which particular interpretation is true or
more correct. All these make objectivity a very difficult
(ii) Size of universe must be known.

and complicated things in sociological research. (iii) Desired sample must be specified.
However, objectivity in sociological research may (iv) Each element must have an equal chance of being
be possible only rvhen researcher excludes one's own selected.
ideology, non-icientific assumption. Also researcher There are various forms of probability sampling
should not make any evaluative judgment before they such as simple random sampling, stratified sampling,
get fact. Researchers must remain indifferent to one's systematic sampling, cluster sampling, multistage
own inorals and values. To avoid any kind of biasness sampling and multiphase sampling. However, this
researcher can admit its own values openly before method is expensive,'time consuming and relatively
tlt going to sociological research. Researcher can also take complicated since it required a large sample size and
an outsiders perspective on his work and try to look it the units selected are usually widely scattered.
through the eyes of others. (iil Non Probability Sampling: This sampling pro-
This technique is also called self-reflexivity. But in cedure does not employ the rules of probability
spite of self reflexive approach there is still possibility theory and also do not claim representativeness.
of unconscious biasness. To deal with this possibility, There are five types of non probability sampling-
 RESEARCH METHODS AND ANALYSIS :ii 43
(i) Convenience Non Probable Sampling: This is also complicated in comparison to probability types of sampting.
known as accidental or happened sampling. In this At the same time non probability sampling make nt
sampling researcher studies all those persons r.t ho claim for representativeness as every unit does not get
are most conveniently available" chance of being selected. But in probability sampling
(ii) Purposive Sampling: This is also known as representativeness is claimed and every unit gets chance
judgmental sampling. in this sampling researcher of being selected.
purposefully chooses persons who are required to
There are mainly two types of sampling designs;
be relevant to the topic and are easily available to
him. e.g. study of beggars. (i) Quantitative Sampling Designs and
(iii) Quota Sampling: It worked on quota fixed (ii) Qualitative Sampling Designs
by researcher which is fixed according to the (i) Quantitative Sampling Research Design: euan-
proportion in the entire population. titative sampling design is quite large which
(iv) Snor,vfall Sampling: In this technique, the researcher employs statistics method. Here size of samplinp;
begins the research with few respondents who are is statistically determined. It also involves high
known and available. These respondents give other cost and is time consuming. But this design is'
names who meet the criteria of research. representative in nature. In such design every
(v) Volunteer Sampling: In this sampling respondents unit represents in a particular proportion. It also
himself volunteer to give information that he holds. facilitates inductive generalization.
However, non probabilitv sampling has some (ii) Qualitative Sampling Research Design: This re-
disadvantages in comparison to protabie sampling. search design use theoretical method. It also makes
Such as- a choice about the kind of peoples who will be
Researcher conducting non protrability sampling included in the study. In this design few typical
may have no knowledge or little knowledge of the social samples are selected which are more conveni-
setting of the research while in probable sampling there ent and suitable. Qualitative sampling design is
is complete knowledge of social setting. also analytical generalization which uses flexible
In non probable sampling information do not samples according to requirement of research.
represent the population but in probable sampling Qualitative research design is made to studlr the
information represents population. facts very deeply in a sparticular sample like influ-
However non probability sampling is comparatively ence of religions, values, norms etc" in a particular
less expensive, less time consuming and relatively less society.

*r.E t
 CHAPTER

a. Is reference group theory a universally Middle range theories were introduced by Merton,
applicabte model? Elucidate. (CSE 2023) who rejected the universality of classical functionalism
and changed the paradigm to support the restricted
Ans: Reference group as a concept first appeared
applicability of all ideas and theories. In the same way,
in - 'Archives of Psychology' of Herbert Haymary but Context affects reference groups' applicability and
it was Merton who added a functional dimension in influence.
his 'Contribution to the Theory of Reference Group
Therefore, the theory's applicability may vary
Behavior, 1950'.
based on the particular circumstance or choices under
This theory was primarily inspired from Samuel
consideration.
Stouffer's - 'The American Soldier' which highlights
the feeling of relative deprivation of a soldier despite
no apparent deprivation in terms of actual hardship. a. Is Weber's idea of bureaucracy a product
The refdrence group is defined as a group to which of the historical experiences of Europe?
one always makes comparisons to in order to evaluate Comment. (CSE 2023)
one's achievement, aspirations, role performance and Ans: Bureaucracy is defined by Max Weber as
ambition. They act as normative standards for the 'the purest type of exercise of lega1 authority' with a
individual. hierarchy of paid, full time officials who formed a chain
o The reference group theory aids in our comprehensive of comrnand.
understanding of society's openness and closeness, o According to him, 'From a purely technical point
allowing us to comprehend the extent of social of view, a bureaucracy is capable of attaining
mobility. the highest degree of efficiency, and is in this
o Reference groups help in the socialisation and sense formally the most rational known means of
identity-shaping processes of individuals. People exercising authority over human beings".
acquire proper behaviours, beliefs, and conventions o Bureaucracy is superior to any other lorm in
as well as a sense of self by comparing themselves precision, in stability, in the stringency of its
to their ieference groups. discipline, and in its reliability'. Bureaucratic
However, the Reference group theory is not institutions are dominant form of institutions in
universally applicable and its relevance is limited in its industrial society which requires high degree of
scope depending upon various contexts. division of labor and high efficiency in rationally
o Depending on an individual's personality, ideals, organized work environment.
and life experiences, refetence groups can have o According to Weber, 'expansion of bureaucracy
varying degrees of effect. The universality of is inevitable' in modern societies as bureaucratic
reference group theory is called into question by this authority is the only way of coping with large scale
individual variability. administrative requirements in such societies.
ri o The reference group idea is inapplicable to individuals Bureaucracy a Product of the Historical Experiences
who do not experience relative deprivation due to
of Europe
isolation.
For instance, because of little or no interaction, the
o The backdrop of the Industrial Revolution and the
subsequent rise of capitalism in Europe gave rise to
remote tribes in many places are unaware of the
Weber's conception of bureaucracy.
non-membership groups.
 SOCIOLOGICAL THINKERS ?:.: 45
t
t ":* type of organization was required to handle
the intricate duties involved in managing factories,
produces society and holds it together. At the same
iime, the colleciive consciousnJss is produced by
arranging commerce, and overseeing expanding individuals through their actions and interactions.
urban due to fast industrialization . Society is a social product created by the actions of
-populations
and urbanization. The bureaucratic model, with its individuals that then exerts a coercive social force
emphasis on rules, hierarchy, and impersonality, back on those individuals. Through their collective
presented a solution to these issues. consciousness, Durkhei* urgr"I, human beings
o ivioreover, Weber's bureaucratic theory developed become aware of one anotheias social beings, n"ot
as a result of the 19th-century growth of nation- just animals.
states in Europe. The establishment of nation- ' Durkheim also believed that social integration, or
states necessitated the development of an effective the strength of ties that people have to their social
administrative framework to manage large areas and groups, was a key factoi in social life.
heterogeneous people. . Following the ideas of Comte and Spencer,
o With its distinct division of labor, established power Durkheim likened society to that of a living
structure, and codified norms and regulations, organism, in which each organ plays a necessary'
Weber's ideal bureaucracy served as a useful role in keeping the being alive.
template for state government management'
socially Deviant Members of society
weber's conception of bureaucracy is' in fact' a .
Even the socially
) deviant members of society are
byproduct of European historical events, molded by the
poiitical and socioeconomic changes or the era. Despite
its shortcomings and possible negative effects, Weber,s ;:;?'i?,r?l*T:il#3f"T,"X1,rjli'ltrlJ::,7
norms' That is, punishment of a crime reaffirms our
bureaucracy his had a significJnt influence on how
. conte-porury societies areitructured. ry1ff:T:t:tl:I" because we condemn it,,,
a. Durkheimarguedthatsocietyismorethanthe in L893. "An act offends the
3^:IY::^lote
sum or individual acts. Discuss (csl,2022) ;:ffiffi:T;:'J:::1i:?-lTlfi:i::;'Iffi*Jlj
Ans: As a functionalist, Emile Durkheim's (Durkheim 1893). Durkheim called these elements
perspective on society stressed the necessary of society "social facts." By this, he meant that
interconnectivity of all of its elements. To Durkheim, social forces were to be considered real and existed
society was greater than the sum of its parts. He asserted outside the individual.
that individu6l behaviour was not the same as collective Therefore, Durkheim gave the much needecl subject
behaviour, and that studying collective behaviour was matter to the nascent disci"pline. He defined its scope as
quite different from studying an individual's actions. the study of social facts. His sociological theories and
Society as an External Reskaint vocabulary is still undisputable as being distinctively
Society Acts as an External Restraint on Individual sociological' His concepts o{ religion, suicide and
Behaviour anomie are even used in inter-disciplinary studies as
. In his quest to understand what causes individuals well' His contribution to perspectives in sociology is
earrv founders"of
"ii,-i"'ffiilri l#.',[]ilni:#,ffi'":+:.'J#"
to act in similar and predictau".'
do not submit to the conventions of society, if in my
dress I do not conform to the customs observed in
;y;;;;;y ffi"rJ;;;;;il:
and in my class, tr.," a' How do sociologists construct gender in their
the social lsolation in which I am kept, produce, analysis on social inequality? (CSF,,2022)
although in an attenuated form, the same effects as Ans: Inequality based on gender is one of the most
punishment". fundamental forms of stratification. Both in Eastern
and Western societies, the long held view is men
Collective Consciousness & Social Integration
are breadwinners and women are expected to take
. Durkheim believed that society exerted a powerful household chores. Often their status was linked to the
force on individuals. People's norms, beliefs, and status of their husbands
or fathers.
values make up a collective consciousness, or a
shared way of understanding and behaving in Gender based inequalities are studied by various
the world. The collective consciousness binds sociological perspectives:
individuals together and creates social integration. The Functionalist Perspective
. For Durkheim, the collective consciousness was .
The functionalist perspective suggests that gender
roles exist to maximize social efficiency.
 46 )::,).:;,),)) SOCIOLOGY Q & A

' The functionalist perspective sees society as a The Feminist Perspective

complex system whose parts work together to . Feminist theory analyzes gender stratification
promote solidarity and stability. This approach looks through the intersection of gendert race, and class.
at society through a macro-level orientation and . Gender stratification occurs when gender differences
broadly focuses on the social stuuctures that shape give men greater privilege and power over women/
society as a whole. transgender and gender-non-conJorming people.
u This theory suggests that gender inequalities exist
. Feministtheory uses the conflict approach to examine
the reinforcement of gender roles and inequalities,
as an efficient way to create a division of labor, or
highlighting the role of patriarchy in maintaining
as a social system in which a particular segment of
the oppression of women.
the population is clearly responsible for certain acts . Feminism focuses on the theory of patriarchy as
of labor and another segment is clearly responsible
a system of power that otganizes society into a
for other labor acts. complex of relationships based on the assertion of
The Conflict Perspective male supremacv.

" Con{lict theory suggests that men, as the dominant Post-Modernists' Arguments & Current Scenario'
gender, subordinate women in order to maintain Post-modernist theorists like Jacques Derrida, Lacan,
power and privilege in societY. etc. reject the claim that thele can be a single grand that
" Conflict theory asserts that social problems occur can explain gender stratification in society. According
when dominant groups mistreat subordinate ones, to them, patriarchy, class, etc. are not the only basis of
and thus advocates for a balance of power between stratification.
genders. Furthermore, gender stratification has also moved
. Frederich Engels compared the family structure to beyond conventional male-female debate and increasing
the relationship between the bourgeoisie and the focus on transgender, bisexuals, gays, lesbians is also
there. Many countries have now officially recognized and
proletariat, suggesting that women had less power
given legitimacy to such groups. Their problems are also
than men in the household because they were
now becoming part of mainstream stratification debate' \
dependent on them for wages.
Gay Pride, Gay Liberation Front, etc. have highlighted
" Men, lik'e any other group with a power or wealth the issue of rights of such groups globally.
advantage in Con{lict Theory, fought to maintain
their control over resources (in this case, political and
a. Critically examine how Durkheim and Merton
economic power). Con{lict between the two groups explicate Anomie. (C58,2022)
caused things like the Women's Suffrage Movement \
Ans:
and was responsible for social change.
Emile Durkheim and the Concept of 'Anomie'
The Interactionist Perspective . The French sociologist Emile Durkheim was the
o From a symbolic interactionist perspective, gender is first to introduce the term'anomie'. Durkheim
produced and reinforced through daily interactions first mentioned the concept of anomie in his 1893
and the use of symbols. work "The Division of Labour in Society". He also
n Scholars of interactionism study how individuals act described this concept in his 1987 work "sriicide".
within society and believe that meaning is produced . In "The Division of Labour in Society", he explored
through interactions. the topic of the anomic division of labour, a
o According to interactionists, gender stratification phenomenon that involves disordered division of
exists because people act toward each other on labour where some groups no longer fit in as they
the basis of the meanings they have for each other, did in the past.
and that these meanings are derived from social
. Durkheim explained *ris as a result of industrializatton
in European counkies and the change in the nature of
interaction.
. work along with the development of a more complex
According to Cooley's concept of the 1'looking-glass
division of labour.
self," antindividual's understanding of their gender . F{e also used the concepts of mechanical solidarity
role is based on how society perceives them. Thus, and organic solidarity to explain anomie. He
n
if society views a man as masculine, he will also further explained that anomie does not occur in
perceive himself to be masculine. organic solidarity since it's a hbterogeneous form of
o -Doing gender" is the notion that masculinity and solidarity that allows the division of labour to evolve
feminity are performed gender identities. Gender is as needed so that no one is left out and all individuals
something we do or perform, not something we are. play a meaningful role.
 SOCIOLOGICAL THINKERS .../N
47
. In his 1938 work "suicide", Durkheim also explored
the concept of anomie. He argued that anomic
a. According to Mead the idea of self develops
when the individual becomes self-conscious.
suicide is a result of people taking their or,vn lives
due to the breakdown of social standards essential
Explain (CSE,2A22I
for regulating behaviour. Ans: Mead was one of the most important scholars
o Moreover, he explained that whenever a social associated with Chicago School u.,i h" rejected a
behavioristic view of human beings, the view that people
system is in a state of anomie, coflunon values, ethics,
or meanings are no longer valid or accepted, and new
blindly and unconsciously respond to external stimuli.
He believed that people had consciousnessr a self, and
standards or values have not been developed.
. that it was the responsibility of the sociologist to study
In such a society, many individuals feel a sense of
this aspect of social reality.
futility, iack of purpose, despair, and emotional
emptiness. This also can affect the breakdown of Idea of Self
social or community bonds. . Self is the peculiar ability to be both subject and
object. As is true of all Mead's major concepts, the
Robert K. Merton and the Concept of 'Anomie,
self presupposes a social process - communication
. In 1938, the American sociologist Robert K. Merton among humans. Lower animals do not have selves,
linked the concept of anomie to deviance and created nor do human infants at birth.
the structural strain theory. This explicates how
anomie results in deviance and crime. Development of Self
. According to this theory, when society does not
. The'self' arises with development and through
provide people with the legitimate means to achieve social activity and social relationsh,ips. To Mead,
culturally valued goals, they seek out alternative it is impossible to imagine a 'self' arising in the
u/ays to break from the norms and achieve their absence of social experiences. Flowever, once a self
goals. has developed, it is possible for it to continue to exist
. For example, if society does not provide enough without social contact.
jobs that will help people to survive, many will turn Relation with Mind
into criminalor illegitimate methods to earn money. . The self is dialectically related to the mind. That is,
'I'herefore,
according to Merton, deviance and crime on the one hand, the body is not a self and becomes
are a result of an anomic state of disorder. a self only when a mind has developed.
. On the other hand, the self, along with its reflexiveness,
Comparison of Durkheim's & Merton,s Theory of
is essential to the development of the mind.
'Anomie'
. However, even though we may think of it as a mental
. Durkheim's theory of anomie refers to normless
process, the self is a social process. In this way, fuIead
as well as the lack of social cohesion and solidarity
seeks to give a behavioristic sense of the self.
that often comes with rapid social change. Mertont
The general mechanism for the development of
theory of anomie, on the other hand, is an extension
the self is reflexivit/, or the ability to put ourselves
of Durkheim's anomie and mainly describes how
unconsciously into others' places and to act as they act.
anomie leads to deviance and crime.
As a result, people are able to examine themselves as
. According to Durkheim, anomie is normlessness, others would examine them. The self also allows people
lthich is a resuit of the lack of social cohesion and to take part in their conversations with others. That is,
solidarity that typically accompanies rapid social one is aware of what one is saying and as a result is able
change. to monitor what is being said and to deterrnine what is
. However, according to Merton's theory of anomie, going to be said next.
most people attempt to achieve culturally valued In order to have selves, individuals must be able
goals. When society does not provide people with to get 'outside themselves' so that they can evaluate
the legitimate means to achieve culturally valued themselves, so that they can become objects to themselves.
goals, they seek out alternative ways to break from To do this, people basically put themselves in the same
the norms and achieve their goals, resulting in crime experiential field as they put everyone else.
and deviance. However, people cannot experience themselves
Therefore, Durkheim's theory of anomie describes directly. They can do so only indirectly by putting
the lack of social cohesion and solidarity that often comes themselves in the position of others and viewing
with rapid social change while Merton s theory of anomie themselves from that standpoint. The standpoint from
mainly describes how anomie leads to deviance and which one views one's self can be that of a particular
crime in society. individual or that of the social group as a whole.
48 i.iirll SOCIOLOGY Q & A

In Mead's analysis,'self is greatly dynamic because- for ignoring other forms of stratification like race and \
. It carries the capability to read the self of others. ethnicity.
C.W. Mills contends that industrial societies have
' It has capability to cornmunicate with'mind'
' Ithas capability to go for internal interactionbetween produced a new type of power elite, who controls the
'I'and'Me' destiny of modern nations such as America'
According to mead, 'Self' of an individual is a process Ii.unciman, unlike Weberian four-class model,
and not a thing. It is not a biological phenomenon and constructs a seven-part class model: upper class, upper-
an individual is not born with a self, but it develops as middle class, middle-middle class, lower-middle class,
anindividualgrowsinsocietyandisdevelopedthrough skilled working class, unskilled working class and
communication and interactions. Mead kaces the genesis :
of the self through two stages ir-t.nlailooJ;;;"?-;;;; *'HH;, weber,s theory of sociat stratification.has
- i'e'' play stage and game stage' some *.,
limitations, but it was a departure from Marxian
Criticism of Mead
""-* .-',,-:',^: : ^----^.^;-'
economic reductionist approach'
Mead is often criticized for ignoring biological/
geneticin{luenceonhumanattitude.AccordlngtoRlpers,
Mead's analysis sees social activities as only discrete
a. Explain whether Durkheim's theory of
Division of Labour is relevant in the present
episodes without any historical continuity. However, this
day context' (CSE 2021)
criticism is largely unwarranted as Mead. has highlighted
that self is not the same for every individual and 'I' of Ans: Durkheim in his work,'The Division of Labour
an individual offers much dynamism to his theory. This in Society' explains division of labour to be a social
theory of Mead debunked all the predecessors and it fact and highlights its importance and role in different
offered a cornerstone to the rise of Symbolic Interaction. societies.
According to Durkheim, primitive societies
a. Critically examine Max Weber's theory of are marked by low division of labour and features
Social Stratification? (CSE 2021) iike mechanical solidarity, high collective conscience
and repressive punishment while modern societies
Ans: According to Tumin, "Social stratification
rerers to arrangement or any sociar sroup or society iflT:;fl:5r::-,1#'l:]"L::jr:*::Xi'*i:1[:
into hierarchy of positions that are unequal with regard law.
to powef, property, social evaluation and psychic In the present context, division of labour is
gratification". important for promoting integration of the society
Max Weber formulated a three-component theory because 6f tn" functional interdependence of various
of stratification - class, status and party - which has its members, e.g. a worker and a manager work with
roots in the struggle for scarce resources in the society. consensus in a corpor4te due to their interdependence
Class is person's economic position in a society; status on each other. It also aids in promoting efficiency at
is a person's prestige, social honour, or popularity in a work, e.g. Fordism and Taylorism.
society; power is a person's ability to get his way despite Similarly division of labour helps in promoting
the resistance of others individual autonomy as individual is supposed to be
only, giving him time to
Weber saw four classes: the propertied class, the expert in his own profession
other aspects of life' This prevents alienation
non-propeltied class, the petit bourgeoisie and the explore
" among the workers'
manual labourer class.
determined In societies undergoing transition like India many
Weber theorized that class position was
pathological forms of division of labour exist' e'g'
by a person's skills and education, rather than by their in the socierv' rhis is
relationship to the means of production. weber arsues fili:i}i[lffii'tr,J:"il:mie
that stratification was inevitable and is here to stay. *ur*trO argue that Durkheim ignores
He beiieved in proliferation of middle cr'rbb and
tre class trDE ur
drtlr rise of ',r*;*.
that division of labour has its roots in the relations of
bureaucratization.
However, Marxists argue that origin or strati{ication "t'*:}i;iffi.T:BXii#tr-lll';r"",,ns the
is the unequal relationship to the means of production. gender division of labour in the society.
Weber's theory doesn't give due regard to this axiom. Durkheim's theory of Division of Labour is very
Feminists criticize Weber for ignoring gender based important in explaining how a seemingly economic
stratification in the society and similarly he is criticized phenomenon is sociological too.
 SOCIOLOGICAL THINKERS - 49
a. How far are sociologists fustified in using Flowever the contestations regarding Positivism
positivist approach to understand social have enriched the discipline of Sociology. It has
reality? Explain with suitable illustrations. given rise to multiple voices within the discipline.
'mathematisation' of social phenomena is a huge
(csE 2021.) The
contribution
of Positivism.
Ans: Positivism is a method of enquiry in sociology
which believes that sociology too could be studied using a. Critically examine the dialectics involved in
scientific methods. each mode of production as propounded by
The positivist approach in sociology believes that: Karl Marx. (CSE 2021.)
Sociology is a'formal' and 'organized body of knowl- Ans: Marx famously gave the concept of Dialectical
edge', characterized by scientific vocabulary. Materialism borrowing from Hegelian notions of
Unity of method: Sociology is not different from the 'Dialectical Idealism' and Ludwig Feuerbach's notion of
natural sciences, as far as the method of enquiry is 'Materialism'. Thus, he retained the dialectical approach
concerned. of Hegel, but replaced the idealism with Feuerbach's
Human experiences can be explained though'law-like materialism. Marx also borrou,ed Engels' three laws
generahzafions', therefore, Sociology strives for ab- of dialectics as mentioned below and applied them to
stractions and generalizations. explain his Dialectical Materialism:
In{luenced by prevailing atmosphere of rationalism
1.. The law of the unity and conflict of opposites.
and science, the early sociologists like Comte, Saint 2. The law of the passage of quantitative changes into
qualitative changes.
Simon attempted to define subject matter and method
in scientific and objective terms laying the foundation 3. The law of the negation of the negation.
Mode of Production is the term which Marx uses
of positivistic theory.
for a particular social formation or society. It is uniquely
They contended that society is also governed
defined in terms of a particulat'fotce of production' and
by certain fixed laws and hence predictable. They 'relations of production in a materialistic context. Every
believed that application of methods and assumptions mode of production has centrality of one thing. Marx
of natural sciences will lead to 'positive science of has conceptualised the society in terms of six stages or
society' and evolution of society followed invariable six modes of production. Every new mode of production
laws. According to this approach, behaviour of man displaces the earlibr one because of various factors like -
can also be objectively measured and statements based inherent weaknesses of the system, contradictions, class
on objective measures of cause and effect can be made struggle, etc. A revolution is often required to change
leading to theories formulation. the relations of production. Out of six modes, four are
Durkheim also claimed that meaning of 'social historical a4d two are futuristic. The historical stages
facts' remain same. He studies suicide using positivist include:
approach proving that suicide was a sociological 1. Primitive Communism: In this mode of
phenomenon not a psychological phenomenon. production, all are equal and have equal access to
Based upon the knowledge and theories, use of forces o{ production and society is hunting-gathering
positivism could also help in'predictability' of social society. With invention of new tools, forces became
events, e.g. Comte believed that he has cliscovered a law sophisticated. Communal structure of society starts to
of social organization which can predict future course break up as new form of social organization emeiged
of evolution of societies and he also rnentioned various with emergence of private ownership. This led to conflict
and contradiction between erstwhile mode of production
stages in this process.
and ernerging new mode of production which is termed
However, it was argued that unlike nature, society
as'negation of primitive communism'. Those who held
consists of self-reflexive agents who think, argue, and
command over tools emerged as'masters' and those
contest through their practices and actions. Therefore,
who became dependent became'slaves' in new mode
society cannot be subject to abstract generaiizations. of production.
Alvin Gouldner warned of 'methodological 2. Ancient Slave Mode of Production: In this
dualism'implicit in positivism. This dualism mode, some men have control over skills and tools and
separates the 'knower from the known', 'subject others were subordinate to them. This mode symbolises
from object', 'fact from value'. ancient slavery in which slaves didn't have control on
Giddens is categorical about the fact that 'nature their labour also. As population further incteases, slaves
and human society' are two different realms of enquiry. are pressurized to produce more and more and their
Society is being perpetually 'created, renewed and exploitation increases and slaves revolt. New forces
altered'by human agents. Therefore, there are limits to of production emerge in the form of agriculture and
the'natural science methodologv' in sociology. feudalism emerges.
 50 ffi soclolocye&A
3. Feudalism: In this mode, land was central to a. Do you agree with Max Weber's idea that
economic activity and feudal lords were in control of bureaucracy has the potential to become an
land and serfs were dependent on feudal lords. In this iron cage? ]ustify your answer. (CSE 2021)
mode of productiory erstwhile masters become feudal
lords controlling the land and slaves become serfs. Ans: Max Weber defines bureaucracy as a highly
structured, forrnalized., and impersonal organi zation.
Serfs were free, but were forced to cultivate on
He also instituted the belief that an organization must
land of feudal lords and have to pay tax and service
have a defined hierarchical structure and clear rules,
which kept on rising, leading to revolt of serfs when
regulations, and lines of authority which govern it.
mature conditions arrived. New mode of production in
the form of capitalism emerged with increase in trade Weber also has certain skepticism about bureaucracy
and despite it being most efficient type of organizatiory
and erstwhile feudal lords became capitalists and serf
became workers in factories.
Weber believed it to become an iron ca$e which makes
human beings slave of rationality who cannot escape
4. Capitalism: In this mode of production, capital
was central to production and society is primarily
itas they get too addicted to it. Rationalization that
dominates
divided into proletariat and bourgeoisie. The most
significant contradiction that leads to class conflict in all aspects of bureaucratic life was a threaf to
capitalist society is - contradiction between the social indivjdual liberty and source of alienation for human
character of production and private capitalist form of beings" Weber also sees future in terms of dictatorship
appropriation. It leads to conflict and exploited workers of officials. Weber while explaining iron cage said that
"Modernisation creates hedonists without heart and
will unite and revolt heralding new mode of production
specialists without spirit".
- socialism eventually leading to communism.
Marx terms Feudalism and Capitalism as'negation In the present context, the iron cage of rationality
of negation' as these modes of production negate a mode
reflects the pressure that builds over us due to both
of production which has itself negated another mode of others and ourselves to act and behave in certain ways.
production. The two futuristic stages include: It is presented to us as if that is the only beneficial
strategy for us.
l. Socialism: Marx calls it as 'dictatorship of prole-
tariat' as for a short while worker controls the forces These modern organisations are characterized by
of production. rules and regulations which gcivern the behaviour of
2. Advanced Communism: It is the final mode in the people working in it. The people are required to
show formal and impersonal behaviour and with the
which forces of production will be communal.
enlargement of these organisations, people are alienated
Dialectical principle will cease to operate in this
mode of production and this stage will be a closing
from each other.
chapter of dialectical materialism. The specialization is another characteristic. It is
said that the larger the institutiory the more specialized
Marx however is criticized as being reductionist for
over-emphasising on material factors. Karl
the people working in it need to become. These
features of the modern organisations aim to achieve
Popper termed his approach as 'economic
efficiency which consequently propels the concept of
reductionism' for ignoring ideas.
iron cage.
Marx while propounding dialectical materialism
focused primarily on macro evolutionary aspect
In Indian context too bureaucracy can be a1gued
to be an iron cage with features like red tapisrn, focus
and ignored micro reality of social life which was
on rule of law over spi.rit of law, lack of spirit among
explored by non-positivists, phenomenologists and
bureaucrats, etc.
ethnomethodologists.
However, with the growing informal culture in
His futuristic communist utopia never arrived even
the corporate and startups, and initiatives like Mission
in the communist countries. Proletariats have never
Karmayogi, the bureaucratic structures are becoming
taken a leading role in toppling capitalism and his
more flexible and people oriented.
theory is also criticised as being narrow. Feminists argue
that Marx ignores the gender dimension of. production
as patriarchy is also seen as an important factor in the Q. With suitable examples, explain how
mode of production. conformity and deviance coexist in a society
nr
Marx however is still relevant in explaining conflict as propounded by R.K. Merton. (CSE 2021)
and various social problems. Similarly in India also Ans: Conformity is that action which is oriented to
Naxal issue can be seen from Marxist lens. World System social norms or expectations and which falls within the
Theory of Wallerstein is also an example of re-definition toleration prescribed by society while deviance is non-
of Marxian paradigm in a global set up. conformity or deviating from the accepted path.
 SOCIOLOGIGAL THINKERS ',::il,t 51
Merton explains his idea of deviance in his curu-fngness (e.g. - Chanakya and Chandragupta). They
'social Structure and Anomie'. It is an analysis of the replace each other in a process which Pareto calls as
relationship betr,veen structure and anomie. Merton 'Circulation of Elites'.
views anomie as a part of system and a general feature In modern context circulation of elite holds good in
of society which is always there. I{e sees it in terms of countries where one party is replaced by other but people
goals and means and it can lead to positive deviance have little say in decision making, e.g. African Republics.
also. He defined anomie as "A situation in which there Similarly in communist countries one leader is replaced
is a discrepancy between culturally defined goals and by other after his death but elite rule is inevitable, e.g.
structural means available to achieve them". Deviance China, Central Asian countries.
is considered as a result of anomie. He is, however, criticized for not making distinction
A deviant person may resort to various responses among various forms of rules -clemocracy,.fascjsm, and
and Merton enumerates five responses: communism, etc.
L. Conformist: The one who accepts both goals and C W Mills in his 'The Power Elite' (1956) believes
means, e.g. a hardrvorking student. that elite rule is not inevitable" According to him this is
2. Innovator: It occurs when an individual accepts'cul- a recent phenomenon of the American society.

turally defined goals', but rejects'socially accepted According to Robert Dahl, a pluralist, in his lNho
means', e.g. Nirav Modi. GovernsT'power is actually dispersed in society among
3. Ritualist: A ritualist accepis socially understand- various interest groups, e.g. in India groups like FICCI,
able means, but fails to understand goals, e.g. red- AITUC, etc. He in a sense proposes that in a democracy,
tapism in bureaucracv. the masses and leaders govern together unlike Pareto.
According to T B Bottomore, elite circulation may not
4. Retreatish It involves rejection of both means and
always be there. In Indian society Brahmins survived for
goals. For example, alcoholics, drug addicts, etc.
long as elite due to closed nature of caste system.
5. Rebellion: It involves first rejection of both goals
Despite various issues Pareto's theory helps us to
and means and then creation of new means and
explain the regime changes in different countries without
goals, e.g. Prophets.
any significant diffusion of power downwards.
Out of these five responses, except for the first one,
other responses are'anomic responses'.
Howevet, abcording to interactionists like Becker in a. Critically compare the views of E. B. Tylor and
his'Labeling Theory Reconsidered', Deviance is not the Max Muller on Religion. (CSE 2021)
intrinsic quality of behaviour itself. One is labeled' as a Ans: Durkheim defined reiigion as "A unified
deviant and one'is' not deviant. system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things,
Cohen argues that deviance is due to a specific forbidden-beliefs and practices
i.e., things set apart and
subculture that members of particular subgroups which unite in one single moral community called a
develop. Flence, it is collective in nature and not at Church, all those who adhere to them."
individual level. Thus conformity and deviance are Tylor defined reiigion as "the belief in spiritual
relative terms co-existing in a society. Merton's work beings" and argued that this belief exists in all known
added a new dimension to deviance which was earlier societies. He defined animism as having two parts: belief
studied mostly from bioiogical and psychological in the human soul that survives bodily death and belief
perspectives. in other spirits, including deities. Tylor hypothesized
that animism was the foundation of all religions. He
had an evolutionary view of society in firre stages and
a. Critically examine the relevance of Vilfredo
he extended this idea to religion as well. According to
Pareto's theory of Circulation of Elites in the
him, different religious practices prevailed in different
present scenario. (CSE 2021)
phases of evolution of society. Animism is the reiigion
Ans: Elite refers to 'those who excel'. Elite theory of simple hunting gathering societies and monotheistic
developed in part as a reaction to Marxism. It rejected religion is the religion of modern complex societies,
the Marxian idea that a classless society having an according to him.
egalitarian structure could be realized after class skuggle Onthe otherhand, Max Muller developed the theory
in every society. of naturism which is the belief that the forces of nature
Vilfred Pareto claimed in his 'Mind and Society' have supernatural powers. Max Muller argued that
(1935) that personal qualities separate rulers and the with the passage of time the symbolic representations
ruled and they are same at all times. There is a'ruling came to gain an independent identity'of their own and
minority' and 'the ruled majority'. According to him became separated from that which they represented. The
there are two types of governing elite - lions and foxes. attributes or the symbols became personified as deities,
Lions rule by force (".g. - dictators) and foxes rule by e.g. Indra Devta - for rain god.
 52 ,,iii,r
socroLocY Q&A

According to Muller human beings and nature Parsons theory also cannot explain the change of
etc. systems taking place through events like revolutions
stand in a reiationship of awe, wonderment, terror,
Early Iruman beings could not understand or explain and wars, e.g. change of Russian socio-political system
the world of nature. They ended up worshipping it out post Russian Revolution.
of fear and awe out of dependency and as a token of Thus despite being a functionalist, parsons has
respect' tried to explain sociai change. Though his theory
The theories of Tyior and Muller were mainly doesn,t capture many aspects of the Lncept but it
based on psychological and intellectual grounds, later nevertheless is a gooj attempt to
explain the concept
sociological theories of Marx, Weber and Durkheim from a functionalilt perspective.
offered new perspectives regarding the origin and
functions of religion in the society"
How did a. the intellectual forces lead to the
emergence of sociology? Discuss'
a. Do you think Talcott Parsons gave an (CSE' 2020)
adequate theory of social change? |ustify your
'rcSniOZtl Ans: Curious human minds had a desire.to
answer.
Ans: ralcott parsons is a runctio""il::,*::::: Hil#ffi,*,":j::r1i'j:Hf;:,1a$ffiffi":T;
society as a complex system whose parts work together tn" ror* of a discipline only a few centuries back in the
to promote solidaritv and stability first half of the 19th century only.
Florvever, Parsonian system is dynamic in the sense ; Enlightenment, as a European intellectual
that it is not in static equitibrium, but i" *^_-ln"
First, there is a certain amount of flux ";y;";i"";;;.
movement of the late 17th and lgth centuries led by
t" iil;;;i
situation which tends to throw system .ri u"r"""". y?,i"t"touieu and Rottsseau, emphasized reason and
individualism' It had a great influence on the emergence
Secondly, inside the system also, there p;r;;r;;;;
the form of actions going on which p.""ia"t "." of sociology, though an indirect one'
for change. Thus, eluilibrium is ciisturbed and "1"-rp"rr"
system - Early sociology has been a mix of Enlightenment
again reslores it making it a dynamic equilibrium. arrd counter-Enlightenment ideas" As the enlightenment
Parson sess change as temporary state which is thesis put the individual at center stage, on the one
overcome by tiie systemic forces. Change occurs when hand for counter-enlightenment proponents, society was
structural strain of a systern exceeds *qrllib.ir- forces. the most important unit of analysis while on the other
For Parsons, change is restorative, the one that hand Enlightenment ideas of rationalism, empiricism,
brings system back to its equilibrium. All the structures and change-orientation also affected early sociological
are closely related to each other and all the functions are thought. i
interrelated and interdependent. It is related to AGIL Darwin's ideas about organic evolution were
framework of Parsons and any disturbance in energy anotherdominant jnfluenceonearlysociologicalthought.
flow or information flolt'leads to social change. Similarly, ideas of Newton also 1ed to development of
Like evolutionary theorists, he believes that societie, natural sciences which affected sociological thought as
evolve from simple to compound societies and head well.
from one evolutionarl, universal to another in five According to T B Bottomore, main intellectual
stages. Social change, thus, streams that particularly influenced the emergence
involves process of increasing differentiation, of sociology are - political philosophy given by
specialisation and adaptation. likes of Montesquieu, Rousseau, etc. philosophy
However, post-modernists see social change of history, theory of organic evolution given by
beyond integration-conflict debate and thus reject Darwin, movements for social and political reform like
grand theories of social change as proposed by Marx French Revolution and development of method of social
and Parsons. Feminist sociology is one of the strands of survey.
post-modernist sociology. It emphasizes centrality of Thus, modernity in the form of new intellectual
gender in social change. According them, social reality is forces had an impact on social, economic and political
viewed dif{erently by the two sexes. Rising awareness of lives of people. Initially, modernity was seen as positive,
rights, feminization of workforce, women's movements but its negative fallouts soon becarne too apparent.
are seen as new dimension of social change. Modemity posed challenges which led to growth of new
Critiques like Coser and Dahrendorf called Parsons' intellectual ideas. The questions which were posed were
evolutionary theory as uni-linear, rnechanical, biologistic not answered by hitherto existing disciplines and a new
and status quoist, or simply an ill-concealed instruction 'science of society' was sought and what emerged was
manual for the capitalist states. known as - Sociology.
 SOCIOLOGICAL THINKERS s 53
Q. 'Ideal Types' of Max Weber are mental He considers social facts as those phenomena which
constructs, they do not correspond to the exist outside the individual as a force which coerces the
reality. Give your views. (CSE 2020) individual to think, act and feel in a particular manner.
The task of sociology is to identify and study such social
Ans: The concept of the'ideal type' was developed
phenomena or social facts.
by German sociologist Max Weber, who used it as an
ar:alytic tool for his historical studies.
Durkheim kept social facts above individual.
I According to him, social facts are not abstract phenolnena
Ideal type, a common mental construct in the
and they can be visualized as objective reality.
social sciences derived from observable reality although
Durkheim conceded that social facts are difficult to study
not conforming to it in detail because of deliberate
as they seem intangible and hence. cannot be observed
sintplification and exaggeration.
directly.
It is not ideal in the sense that it is excellent, nor In observing social facts, sociologists must avoid all
is it an averagei it is, rather, a constructed ideal used pre-conceptions. He must throw off, once and for all,
to approximate reality by selecting and accentuating the yoke of these empiric categories which from iong
certain elements. continued habit have become tyrannical. Knowing that,
Some writers confine the use of ideal types to our common sense familiarity with social facts creates
general phenomena that recur in different times and preconceptions in our minds about them that these
places (e.g., bureaucracy), althbugh Weber also used are an outcome of limited impressions, orientations of
them for historically unique occurrences (e.g., his famous practical use, and may therefore be distorting.
Protestant ethic). To visualize them as objective reality, he suggested
Max Weber was particularly concerned with the certain 'rules of studying the social facts' which were
problem of objectivity in social sciences. Hence he used explained in his 'The Rules of Sociological Method,
ideal type as a methodological tool that looks at reality 1895' as a part of Durkheim's bid to establish.a distinct
) objectively. It scrutinizes, classifies, systematizes and methodology of sociology. The rules included - Rules of
defines social reality without subjective bias. The Ideal observation, Rules of classification, Rules of distinction,
types are nothing to do with values. Its function as a Rules of Explanation.
:.I
research tool is for classification and comparison. Durkheim is criticised due to his emphasis on
Flowever pioblems in using the ideal type include universalistic and general theories that didn,t have
its tendency to focus attention on extreme, or polar, much practical significance for their all-encompassing
phenomena while overlooking the connections between nature. According to Merton, middle range theories
them, and the difficulty of showing how the types and are required.
their elements fit into a conception of a total social He couJdn't explain why the same social facts
system. influence different individuals differently. Heidleman
His ideal type methodology is criticized as Weber considers that Durkheim is more concerned about
has not suggested any specific method to identify making of society, rather than describing a methodology
elements of ideal type and it is totally left on investigator. for it. According to Lewis A Coser, Durkheim's theory
Despite his claim of objectivity, ideal type is highly of social facts completely ignores the importance of
susceptible to subjectivity of investigator, especially in individual and places too much importance to socigty.
selection of elements of ideal type. Thus, it can be said that despite criticism sociai
According to Weber, 'Ideal Types' are formulated facts were crucial in separating the new discipline from
by the abstraction and combination of an indefinite philosophical discourse. To discover universal laws-
number of elements which though found in reality, are the first precondition was tl-rat there shoulci exist
i.r.. rarely or never discovered in specific form. Therefore some 'social facts' in society like natural facts in
Weber does not consider that he is establishing a new natural world and Social facts fulfilled that precondition.
I,

,l
conceptual method. He emphasizes that he is making
i,
explicit what is already done in practice. a. According to Mills, "Elites rule in institutional
terms rather than psychological terms."
Q. What are the problems in observing social Comment. (CSE 2020)
facts in Durkheim's views? (CSE 2020) Ans: C W Mills explains elite rule in institutional
Ans: Durkheim defined social facts as 'social facts rather than psychological terms. He rejected the view
are ways of acting, thinking and feeling which are that members of the elite have superior qualities of
external to the individual and are endowed with the the population. Instead he argues that the structure
/power of institutions is such that those at the top of the
of coercion' by reason of which they control of
hirn'. institutional hierarchy largely monopolize power.
 54 i#* soctolocY e &A

Certain institutions occupy key'pivotal positions' in the capitalist, it no longer transforms the workers, they
society and the elite comprise those who hold'command get alienated from it and ultimately from themselves.
posts' in those institutions. Mills identifies three key Alienation is an example of the sort of contradiction that
institutions: Central Government, Business Class and Marx's dialectical approach focused on.
Army. Those who occupy the command posts in these Alienation literally Ineans separation from. Malx
institutions form three elites. According to him, interests sees this separation in n-rultiple dimensions. It is a
of elites in these institutions are similar and together feeling of estrangement and disenchantment from a
they form a minority called'Power Elite'. Thus,'power group, a situation, society and even with oneself. It
elite' is a coincidence of economic, political and military also refers to a situation of por.verlessness, isolation
power. Cohesiveness of the Power Elite is further and meaninglessness experienced by the people when
strengthened by their similar social background. Further, they confront social institutions which .they cannot
members interchange among each other. For example control and consider oppressive. it is the breakdirwn
- Boardrooms of big corporations have members from of the natural interconnection among people and what
elites from all these institutions. they produce. History of mankind has a dual aspect
Power elites have unprecedented power, but they according to Marx - 'It was a history of increasing
have little accountability. He cites example of unilateral control of man over nature,.at the same time it was
decision of the political elite to go into \AIW2 and drop history of increasing alienation of rnan'.
nuclear bombs. Mills' Theory is also supported by Floyd As man goes frorn one n-lode of production to
Hunter in his'Community Power Structure, 1963' and another, alienation increases and in those modes of
he claims that power rests in a small decision making productiory 'It is not the consciousness of the man that
group which is dominated by the businessman class. determines their existence, but on the contrary, it is
Robert Dahl criticized Mills that his statements are their social being that determines their consciousnesses'.
only suggestive and not conclusive. According to Dahl, Hence, man becomes a slave of production and his
Mills has emphasized only on one aspect of power- individuality is lost.
:
elite whereas their second aspect is equally important Marx considers four dimensions of alienation in
that they work for the welfare of the mass with full capitalism -
commitment, It is not appropriate here to assume I. Alienation frorn the process of production \
that the power elite possess complete control. In this II. Alienation irom the product
reference only Dahl has talked about plural interest IIL Alienation from the fellow'ivorkers
groups who get the policies turned in favour of the mass.
IV. Alienation from oneself and one's potential
Mills' theory is also criticised for having a narrow
Solution to alienation was visualized in a state when
view as it w'as based on his observations of the American
the prodtiction process was overhauled and relations of
societv only. Social facts in Latin American, Asian and
production modified. It happens in communism where
African Societies are different.
forces of production will be collectively owned.
After rise and spread of Industrial Revolution, high
Marx' idea of alienation is cr-iticised; Karl Popper
rate of division of labour, specialists has further diffused
says that alienation can be a breeding ground for creative
power in the society.
ideas also. Durkheim had highlighted that anomie and
Thus, 'Elite Theory' which developed in part as a alienation can be corrected by existing structur€s also.
reaction to Marxism and rejected the Marxian idea that Max Weber say over bureaucratization of society leads
a classless societv having an egalitarian structure could
to alienation as man is guided by fixed rules and his
be realized after class struggle in every society. creativity is suffocated.
Goldthorpe and Lockwood in their A{fluent Worker
a. Critically assess the Marxian theory of study highlight that work is just a means to an end
'Alienation'." (CSE 2020) which is better standards of living. Workers are more
Ans: Marx believed that there is an inherent relation concerned about the latter. Workers are more concerned
between labor and human nature and that this relation is about what happens outside the factory and it shapes "1

perverted by capitalism. He calls this perverted relation their behaviors and attitude more than the work itself. \
as 'alienation'. It explains the peculiar form that our Workers can satisfy their expressive .and affective
it relation to our own labor has taken under capitalism needs through family retrationships. Despite criticism,
and labor in capitalism is no longer seen as serving the contemporary scholars empirically support Marx's
purpose of human existence. Rather than being an end predictions regarding overproduction and alienation, the
in itself - an expression of human capabilities - labor combined force of evidence strongly supports arguments
in capitalism is reduced to being a means to an end i.e. for engaging in an open debate over the future of
eaming money for the capitalists. Labor is now owned by economic and political organisation in the society.
 SOCIOLOGICAL THINKERS ffi 55
Q. What is the Marxist concept of 'fetishism of external stimuli. Self is the peculiar ability to be both
commodities'? (CSE,2019) subject and object which helps individual in socialization
Ans: 'Commodity Fetishism' is a concept which is process. The self arises with development and through
closely related to Marxian idea of capitalistic production. social activity and social relationships.
It is a condition under capitalism under which social The general mechanism for the development
relations become expressed as relations between things. of the self is reflexivity, or the ability to put
Marx' work on commodity fetishism is central to ourselves unconsciously into others'places and to act
highlight the social structure of a capitalist society in as they act. As a result, people are able to examine
relation to human potential. themselves as others would examine them. The self
By starting with the commodity, Marx is able to also allows people to take part in their conversations
reveal the nature of capitalism. According to Marx, with others.
'commodity' is a product of labor of man. Earlier, In order to have selves, individuais must be
commodities were produced by man for satisfaction able to get 'outside themselves' so that they can
of his needs and personal use and hence, they had evaluate themselves, so that they can become objects to
'use value' according to l\4arx, but in modern capitalist themselves. To do this, people basically put themselveS
industries when worker is not entitled to the fruit of his in the same experiential field as they put everyone
work, they have now'exchange value'. else.
'lJse value' is connected to the intimate relation Mead traces the genesis of the self through two
between human needs and the actual objects that can stages in childhood deaelopment:
satisfy those needs. It is difficult to compare the use I. Play Stage: The first stage is the play stage; it
values of different things. For example, bread has the use is during this stage that children learn to take
value of satisfying hunger and shoes have the use value the attitude of 'particular/discrete others' to
i. of protecting our feet and the two cannot be compared themselves. Children play various roles in iarhich
as both are'qualitatively' dif{erent. they learn to take roles of others who are around
But in capitalism, commodities come in the market them. As a result of such play, the child learns
and are exchanged for money and other things as they to become both subject and object and begins to
are now only'qrrentitatively' different. become able to build a self. However, it is a'limited
Commodities are the products of human labor, but self' because the child can take only the roles of
they can become separated from the needs and purposes 'distinct and separate others'.
of their creators and the exchange value floats free from U. Game Stage: It is the next stage, the game stage, that
the actual commodity and seems to exist in a realm is required if a person is to develop a self in the full
separate from any human use. sense of the term. In the game stage the child must
In capitalism, it seems that the commodities and the take the role of everyone else involved in the game
market for them have independent existences. As the i.e. takes the roles of 'generalized other'.
commodities take on an independent, almost mystical 'Generalized Other' is one of the central concept
external reality, they appear like fetishes to those who in Mead's theory of 'self'. The generalized other is the
produce them. By fetish, Marx meant a thing that we attitude of the entire community. The ability to take
ourselves make and then worship as if it were a god or the role of the generalized other is essential to the self.
spirit. In capitalism, the products that we make, their Because of the self, people are more likely to do what
values, and an economy that consists of our exchanges is expected of them in a given situation. Because people
all seem to take on lives of their own, separate from any often try to live up to group expectations, they are more
human needs or decisions. Even our own labor - the likely to avoid the inefficiencies that come from failing
thing that, according to Marx, makes us truly human - to do what the group expects.
becomes a commodity that is bought and sold. Our labor Though community plays a large role in the
acquires an exchange value that is separate from us. formation of self, it doesn't mean actors are little more
Thus, commodities become source of alienation. than conformists and that there is little individuality,
Marx called this process the 'fetishism of commodities'. since everyone is busy conforming to the expectations
of the generalized other. But Mead is clear that each
a. Aceording to Mead, "We play a key role in self is different from all the others. There is not simply
odr own socialization." Explain. (CSE,20L9) one grand generalized other but that there are many
Ans: Mead was one of the most important scholars generalized others in society, because there are many
that were associated with the Chicago School and he groups in society.
rejected a behavioristic view of human beings, the Thus, by adopting a unique form of generalized
view that people blindly and unconsciously respond to other, Individuals help in their socialization process.
 56 :rrrrrri socloLocY Q&A

a. How, according to Merton, are deviant structure functionalists. Instead, as per his functional
subcultures generated? (CSE, 2019) paradigm, he is mainly concerned with dysfunctions
and anomie is such an example.
Ans: Deviance is non-conformity or deviating
from the accepted path. Deviance may be positively
sanctioned by rewarding it - for example, Nobel Prize a. Does scientific method make Sociology
for 'deviant' activities - or negatively sanctioned by a Science? Illustrate your answer with
punishment, etc. or simply accepted without any reward Durkheim's method. (CSE,2018)
or punishment. Deviant in one society may be normal Ans: According to Auguste Comte and Durkheim,
in other societies. For example - Teton Sioux Indians of "Sociology is a science because it adopts and applies
the USA as part of their Sun Dance ceremony mutilate the scientific method. Sociology does make use of
their bodies as a display of valor, but the same activity scientific methods in the study of its subject matter.
is termed as masochism or madness in other societies. Hence Sociology is a science. It is a science because of
Merton explains his idea of deviance in his'Social the following reasons:
Structure and Anomie, 1938'.It is an analysis of the (1) Sociology adopts scientific method: Sociology
relationship between culture (according to Merton, studies social events by adopting scientific method.
culture is the organized set of normative values Though it does not cio experiments with men in a
governing behavior), structure, and anomie. Merton's laboratory, still man's social behaviour is subject to
theory of Deviance is based on his own conception of scientific investigation like natural phenomenon.
'Anomie' which r.t as drawn in backdrop of 'The Great (2) Sociology makes accurate observation: Observation
Economic Depression'. is possible in field of socioiogy even if it does not
Anomie as a part of the system and a general possqss a laboratory. Accurate observation is also
feature of society is always there. He sees it in terms of possible outside the laboratory. The whole social \

goals and means and it can lead to positive deviance world is the laboratory of sociology. -'Newton did \
also. He defined anomie as 'A situation in which there not invent their laws inside a laboratory. Sociology
is a discrepancy between culturally defined goals and makes observation of tribal marriage at the time of
structural means available to achieve them'. The culture occurrence. Even if Sociology does not possess a
calls for somp type of behavior that the social structure laboratory still it makes accurate observation.
prevents from occurring. Deviance is considered as a (3) Objectivity is possible in Sociology: Like natural
result of anomie. sciences Sociology also makes objective study. The
He takes the example of 'American Dream' which statement that dowry is a social evil is an objective
mentionS the very feasibility of journey from'Log Cabin statement which is based on facts collected by
to White House' for everyone. According to Mertory sociologists.
in American society, the culture places great emphasis (4) Sociology describes cause-effect relationship:
on material success, but many people fail to achieve such Like natural sciences Sociology also traces the
success due to their position in society. cause and finds the answers. While studying
Merton argues that this is so because structural family or population growth Sociology has traced
means are not sufficient and only a few privileged reach the relationship between family disorganisation
at the top. This creates a feeling of deprivation among and divorce and population growth and poverty.
the others. The legitimate means to economic success Family disorganisation is the cause of divorce and
are education and jobs. Not all groups of people have popuiation gror.t th is the cause of poverty. Thus
equal access to these means, however. sociology describes cause-effect relationship in
The result is 'Structural Strain' that produces social disorganisation and population explosion.
deviance. Lower class individuals are most likely to Hence sociology is a science.
experience these strains because they aim for the same (5) Sociolog;y makes accurate Prediction: Like natural
goals as tl're rest of society; however they have biocked sciences sociology does frame laws and attempts to
opportunities for success. These individuals are therefore predict more accurately. On the basis of cause-effect
more likely to turn to crime and deviance as a way to relationship sociology can accurately predict about
achieve economic success. There is a high correlation future. If there will be dowry in society then it will
that exists between unemployment and crime and the lead to suicide, poverty.
it
structural strain theory helps explain this relationship. (6) Sociology rnakes generalization: The notion that
Thus, in anomie as a particular example of structural generalization drar.m by social sciences is not universal
functionalism, Merton is looking at social (and cultural) is proved wrong. Like natural sciences Sociology is
structures, but he is not focally concerned with the able to draw generalization which is universally
functions of those structures as in the case of earlier applicable.
 SOCIOLOGICAL THTNKERS r.il 57
According to Durkheim, scope of sociologists is Merton explains his idea of deviance in his'social
to study'social facts' in society. Social facts should Structure and Anomie, L938'.It is an analysis of the
be studied in similar way as natural scientists study relationship between culture (according to Merton,
things. A sociologist works like a skeptic, and sociology culture is the organized set of normative values
as a science of organized skepticism, looking beyond governing behavior), structure, and anomie. Merton's
what meets the eye. Explanations for religion, suicide theory of Deviance is based on his own conception of
by Durkheim are best examples of such sociological 'Anomie' which w-as drawn in backdrop of 'The Great
outlook. Economic Depression'.
The discipline has concepts which have universal His idea of Anomie is different from Durkheim's
meanings irrespective of who is the investigator. For idea of Anomie. Durkheim defines Anomie as a form of
example - meaning of family, religion convey same normlessness and defines it as a pathological state due to
meaning for every investigator. Durkheim also claimed pathological division of labor. According to.Durkheim.it
that meaning of 'social facts' remain same. Further, they always has negative consequences and is only transitory
claim that there is also a great degree of 'objectivity' in nature. Symptoms of anomie are reflected in high
in study of social phenomenon. Durkheim suggested rates of suicide, marital breakup and industrial conflict
'indirect experimentation' to prove empirical validity as desires become limitless and traditional ceiling on
of social theories. desires in disintegrated. Since a new economic consensus
Sociology is not a Science doesn't develop immediately, it results in anornie.
Unchecked division of labor and rapid expansion
There are some others like Max Weber who deny
of industrial activity leads to anomie as social controls
the status of science to Sociology. He said Sociology can't
are weak. In such a situatiolr, division of labor generates
be an objective Science. Those who deny status of science
unhealthy competition and becomes dysfunctional.
to Sociology put forth following arguments:
(1) Lack of objectivity: Sociology cannot be called Anomie is abnormal and according to Durkheim
can be handled by making workers conscious of their
a science because it cannot maintain complete
role in society. By making them feel organically linked
objectivity with social phenomena. Sociologist has
and involved with the life of society.
his own prejudice and bias hence cannot observe
the subject with complete detachment. Complete Merton on the other hand views Anomie as a part
objectivity In the study of human behaviour is of system and a general feature of society which is
impossible. Sociology deals with social relationships always there. He sees it in terms of goals and means
which cannot be studied like physical objects. which can also lead to positive deviance. He defined
(2) Lack of Experimentation: Sociology is not a anomie as 'A situation in which there is a discrepancy
between culturally defined goals and structural means
science because it can't make experimentation.
available to achieve them'. The culture calls for some
Sociology deals with human relationships which
cannot be replicated in a laboratory test. We can't type of behavior that the social structure prevents from
see or weigh human relationship because it is occurring. Deviance is considered as a result of anomie.
abstract in nature. Through the idea of anornie, Merton also introduces
(3) Lack of Prediction: Like natural sciences Sociology an element of criticism to the process of stratification in
can't accurately make predictions. Natural Sciences society which is seen as totally functional by the earlier
make prediction on the basis of certain data. But structural functionalists like Davis and Moore.
Sociology deals with social relationships and human According tg Merton, Anomie is a structural
behaviour which are so uncertain and peculiar that phenomenon and is ever present in society as some
we can't make any accurate prediction about it. degree of structural strain is always there. Anomie is
(4) Lack of Generalisation: Sociology can't make not normlessness per se, but a result of frustration from
generalisations like natural sciences which is inability to achieve culturally defined goals. It may also
universally applicable. Sociology deals with human lead to positive effects like innovation, revolution etc.
behaviour and no two individuals are alike. Hence In this way, Merton and Durklleim provided different
the conclusions drawn by Sociology can't te perspectives on concept of anomie in the society in terms
uniform or universally applicable. of its functions, dysfunctions and solution.

it Q. I4Ihat is the difference between anomie in a. According to Marx, how are human beings
Merton and Durkheim? Explain. (CSE,2018) alienated from their human potqntial and what
Ans: Anomie is a state of normlessness in a situation does he suggest to change this? (CSE,2018)
in which people in general don't follow norms attached Ans: According to Marx, man is perpetually
to their activities. dissatisfied; he creates new needs once existing needs
 58 ,,,,,r,,ll SOCIOLOGY Q &A

al'e satisfied. Marx, however, sees man as driven by of alienation'. It is least in primitive communism
structure of society and subordinate to it. and peaks in capitalism and work becomes a
Individual consciousness is shaped by the stiffering in capitalism.
production process. Consciousness is a function of the
Marx considers four dimensions of alienation in
person/s position in the production process i.e. forces
capitalism-
and relations of production influence human thoughts.
According to him, there are two essential aspects of
I. Alienation from the process of production- Process
of production is defined irrespective of individuality
human nature, first which is constant and other which
of workers.
changes with changes in production.
i. The constant part is called'being' and is perpetually II. Alienation from the product - ln capitalism, product
doesn't belong to those who produce it, but to
dissatisfied and creative. Man tends to create things
capitalist.
which are expression of his creativity. Once the
society limits the creativity of individual, he feels
lll. Alienation from the fellow *ork"., - Work is
compartmentalized and a worker gets no time to
alienated.
interact with others.
Ii. The other part of human nature is governed by
a person's social position. This is referred to as
IV. Alienation from oneself and one's own potential - In
such a situation worker feels so helpless that they
'social being'. It is identified by the work done
even doubt their own existence.
by the individual. In the existing societies, man is
Solution to alienation was visualized in a state when
identified by his'social being' and not by his'being'.
production process was overhauled and relations of
Concept of alienation occupies a central role in
production modified. It happens in communism where
hlarxian understanding of exploitation and he dwells
forces of production are collectively owned. Only in
on the concept in his work 'Economic and Political
communism, a potential of man is truly realized and he
h,{anuscripts, 1844' . Alienation literally means separation
goes for all the creative pursuits that were inhibited in
from. I\{arx sees this separation in multiple dimensions.
earlier modes of production.
It is a feeling of estrangement and disenchantment from
a group, a situation, society and even with oneself. It Marx' idea of alienation is criticized by Karl
aiso refers to a situation of powerlessness, isolation and
Popper saying that alienation can be breeding ground
meaninglessr\ess experienced by the people when they for creative ideas also. Robert Blauner in his study
'Alienation and Freedorn. 1964' has highlighted that
confront social institutions which they cannot control
and consider oppressive, alienation depends on technology used at work.
History of mankind has a dual aspect according to In different industries using different technologies,
degree of alienation is also different.
h4arx - 'It r ,as a history of increasing control of man
over nature, at the same time it was histoly of increasing Despite criticism Marx concept of alienation is still
alienation of man'. Primitive man felt alienated with relevant in explaining existing dissatisfaction among
nature as nature was too overpowering. working class, especially in industrial workers.
As man goes from one mode of production to
another, alienation increases and in those modes of a. Does collapse of functionalism and
productio4 'It is not the consciousness of the man that bankruptcy of Marxism coincide with the
detelmines their existence, but on the contrary, it is rupture of modernity? Discuss. (CSE 2018)
their social being that determines their consciousnesses'. Ans: Functional analysis also knor,rm as functionalism
Hence, man becomes a slave of production and his and structural functionalism is rooted in the origin of
individuality is lost. Marx gives primary importance sociology. It is prominent in the work of Auguste Comte
to alienation at workplace as it is part of economic and Herbert Spencer, two of the founding fathers of the
infrastructure which shapes the superstructure. Work discipline. It was developed by Emile Durkheim and
is considered central in the life of individual - it is an refined by Talcott Parsons.
expression of creative 'being' of men. So, alienation of
labor is key to alienation of human beings.
Functionalism: The consensus approach
Functionalism was the dominant theoretical
Alienation happens in two ways- perspective in sociology during the 1940s and 1950s.
I. In a given mode of production, it increases with From the mid 1960s onwards, its popularity steadily
it
tin'le. This is because material forces become declined partly due to damaging criticism as well as
stronger and control over forces of production competing perspectives which appeared to provide
becomes tighter leading to increasing exploitation superior explanations. Functionalism begins with the
II. Its degree increases as mode of production itself observation that behaviour in society is structured. This
changes. Marx says, 'History of mankind is a history means that relationships between members of society
 socroLoGrcAL THTNKERS }]i*] 59
ate organized in terms of rules. Social relationships helped humanity in understanding social, econornic
are therefore patterned and recurrent. Values provide and other changes in the societies from different
general guidelines for behaviour and they are translated perspectives but also are responsible for their decline
into more specific directives in terrns of roles and to an extent.
norms. The structure of society can be seen as the sum
total of normative behaviour - the sum total etf sociai a. Explain Durkheim's basic arguments on
relationships which are governed by norms. suicide. Can you analyze high suicide rates of
Functionalists have concentrated on functions rather contemporary Indian society with Durkheim's
than dysfunctions. This emphasis has resulted in rnany theory? (CSE,201E)
institutions being seen as beneficial and useful to society.
Indeed some institutions, such as the family, religion, Ans: Study of suicide by Durkheim \4ras the first
and social stratification, have tieeir seen as not only serious effort to establish ernpiricisrn in sociology.
beneficial but indispensable. This vier.tr has iecl critics In his theory of suicide, Durkheim attempts to
to argue that functionalism has a built in conservative examine a seemingly personal phenomenon in a
bias which supports the status quo, thus it cnllapsed. sociological way.
Durkheim in his 'Le Suicide, 1897' defines suicid6
Marxism: The conflict approach as 'Suicide is any case of death'caused by directiy or
The conflict perspective" produces a portrait inclirectly, positive or negative action of the victim
of society strikingly different from that cffered by himseif, which he knows will produce this lesu-lt'. As a
functionalism. Whereas fi-rnctionalism emphasizes sociologist, Durkheim was not concerned with strrdr,ring
society's stability, the confiict perspective portrays why any specific individual committed suicide, instead,
society as always changing and always marked by he was interested in explaining differences in suicide
conflict. The conflict theorists stress inequalities and rates among different groups.
regard society as a system made of indirridual and For the purpose of theory buiiding he took data
groups which are competing for scarce resources. from police records from various regions of Europe at
These groups may form alliances or co-operate with different time periods. With the help of this data, he
one another, but underneath the surface harmony established that suicide is a social phenomenon and
lies a basic competitive struggie to gain control over not an individual phenomenon. He gave follo",,t ing
SCAICC TCSOUICES. arguments in his support-
Flowever, particular criticisrn has been directed i. Firstiy, he proved that suicide cannot be expiained
towards priority that Marx assigns economic {actors in through psychological, geographical, ciimatic.
his explanation of social structure and social change: hereditary factors etc and hence rejectecl existing
The priority given to economic factors has also been explanations.
criticized by elite theorists who have argued that control
ii. He explains sociological causes of suicide.
of machinery of gor.,ernment rather than ownership of
forces of production provides the basis for power.
iii" He proved that certain rate of suicide is normal for
society with the help of statistical clata.
Renaissance gave birth to ideoiogy of modernism
Analyzing data from different countries, races, etc.
and this led to dawn of modernity. Oki beliefs were
he concluded that the factors like - race, hereditary,
liberally questioned and rationality emerged as new
climate, etc. don't produce consistent explanations.'For
'religion'. Rousseau, Montesquieu etc talked of modern
example, if temperature were a cause/ then rararrner
political ideas while likes of Adam Smith, Iticardo and
countries or for that matter colder countries r,l.ere
I S Mill talked of new econornic order" Ali these had expected to have a differential rate of suicide"
a common thread - rationality of human thoughts.
Similarly, if mental illness w-ere a cause, then
Further, new order started to replace the old order and
there has to be some relations with iilness, but no such
it created considerable social upheaval and disturbance
causal relation could be established and rate of suicide
in society.
was found fairly consistent in different countries over
Ulrich Beck in his'Risk Society: Tou,ards a New the time.
Modernity, 1992' contends that inequalities in modern He, therefore, explored causes of suicide by
society are a function of risk taking capability, risk using statistical techniques and found concomitant
consciousness and risk avoiding capability and not relationship between suicide rate and different social
il;
due to class and status per se. Beck and Baudrillard gave variables attached to the people who committed suicide.
concept of individualized inequalities. Thus, gror,ving Different'social variables' that were tak'en by Durkheiir,
inequalities in societies across the world can be taken were - marital status, rural or urban, cieveloped
as negative fallout of modern ideas. Hence, it can be or underdeveloped, Protestant or Catholic, jews or
concluded that functionalism, Lzlarxism and modernity Christians, male or female.
60 ,i,i: SOCIOLOGY Q & A

He undertook the multivariate analysis to establish a. Distinguish between fact and value in Weber's
concomitant relation between rates of suicides and protestant Ethic and Spirit of Capitalism.
social factors. (csE, 2o1g)
He identified two types of suicidogenic forces or
fa1 regarded as an empirically verifiable
bonds that integrate individual to the society: -,- - -ot"t.o
I. Forces of integration - These."rrrtt iitl t*o types ::::t"u",o"'
It lshas its own independent existence'
Facts can be perceived by our tactical and audio-visual
of suicides associated with two ,tut", oil.,i;;;,i;;":
--"'o-*.'"t' senses etc in similar manner by each one of us. Facts
,over_integration, and,low integration,.
same in every situation and for all observers'
(r) Altruistic suicide-Itresultsfromov^*:-!^^-^!:^- remain objective facts constitute the subject matter of natural
of an individual. It is charactertr,t":ilT"o*tliiffi
societies withhigh degree or*ect-ral,lcal"soffi;,y. H;
sciences'
c^-.^ L^
in sociology refers ):^-
^--1^:^:L:--^ disposition
to subjective
quoted various examples like - sati in India, soldiers ^--,^,-uut'"
arising out of experience, bias, preferences, beliefs and
in war etc.
(b) Egoistic suicide - In this case, suicide is result of ::.:" values can be personal' cultural' temporal and
sitlation specific and may not remain same over a
Iow integration of individuals * *.r",r. t".tri
period of time' values represent what one believes-and
bonds are feeble and an individual r""ir lrr"""i"i
what actually is' They refer to socially
and feels that they are not part ofrr.t;,y;;;J,ho l:^t^l"""tturily
standards of desirability and undesirability'
implies that society is also not part.f ,h-'i;J,,i;;I. lccepted
o-bjectivity is an approach in which the attitude of a
Examples of egoistic suicide ur" - rri.-ia";";"1,*;
trom tarlure, depressiory success, etc
- screntific investigator is detached' unprejudiced' value
and free from biases'
lI. Forces of Regulation - It lmpHes control of free weber in his work'Protestant Ethic and spirit of
individual by the society. There .ur-r u" ir.ih;; t*r
Capitalism' starts his analysis with an observation 'ln
- ' - to ou",-r"grtuttonand
rypes or surcroe rn societyr - due --o---------- ------ modern Europe,
r r
u ncler-regu ratron.
business leaders, owners'of capital as
well as higher grades of skilled laborer and even mote'
(a) Anomic suicide - when the social regulation
the higher technologically and commercially trained
disappears, people fail to fotlow th; ;";
values. Anomle ls tne Iesult oI. suclden r*";;;; personnel of modern enterprise are predominantly
cnanses
leadingto situations of 'desperation'or'dejectiJn'
protestant' a1d it is-not onli' a contemporaty fact'
but also a historical fact also' The individuals in this
(b) Fataristic suicide - These are due to excessivJ control
are representatives of capitalism in Europe'
of society over individual, an u.t of or".-."gulation :11y"""'
This observation led weber to ponder over the fact
oppression of individual leads ,o r"irr."?ir" ,^J
'If there is any correlation between Protestantism and
powerressness.
Cap'ralisrn?
Thus, according to Durkheim, a particular case
01 surcloe can De a case of problem or int"g.uiion o.
weber developed the ideal types of Capitalism
,
and Protestant ethics' He chose 'Calvinism' as the most
regulation. In traditional societies, att uisti. an?rrtrtrtl.
form of Protestant ethics for this purPose'
suicides were more prevalent as individuaL;;;;r;r- :llg'"'lin choosing a particular
Here' religion' his values and
regulated and over-integrated. Thus, high r"llia" rui"r
biasedness played a role' According to weber' value
of contemporary Indian --- --r can
society --- ,rir'rg
-- be "t.ral"J ------o biasedness upto this stage is tolerable. In this way,
Durkheim,s theory.
used fact and value in bringing objectivity in his
while higher number of suicides among students Y:Tt
study of sociological phenomena'
can be related to egoistic suicides u, tt-r"r" ,i.tJ* ;;;
a result of low integration of students -
1T.,?:llrri:l a. Do you think ,I, and ,Me, are central terms in
society, social bonds being feeble and individuals feels -' :
alienated. students are more concerned about individual Mead's work? (CSE, 2018)
goals (like clearing exams) due to which in case of Ans: The two most significant intellectual roots of
failure, alienation push them towards suicide. Mead's work in particular, and of synbolic interactionism
Similarly, farmers' suicides can be related to in general, are the philosophy of pragmatism and
fatalistic suicides due to over regulation of their psychological behaviorism.
lives by banking institutions. In some cases they lose His ideas are contained in'Mind, Self and Society
their agricultural lands and source of income and 1934' - a work compiled from notes of his students, in
commit suicide. Thus, Durkheim's study of suicide is particular of Herbert Blumer. His major theoretical work
still relevant in present times to explain the nature of in the field of Symbolic Interactionism is his idea of 'Sel{'.
suicide by individuals depending on the sociological 'Self' according to Herbert Blumer is the foundation of
factors. Symbolic Interaction.
 SOCIOLOGICAL THINKERS ?i 61
SELF social activities as only discrete episodes without any
Self is the peculiar ability to be both subject and historical continuitv.
object. As is true of all Mead's major concepts, the self
presupposes a social process - communication among a. Critically analyse Talcott Parsons' conception
humans. Lower animals do not have selves, not do of 'Pattern Variables'. (CSE,2017)
human infants at birth. The self arises with development Ans: Parsons viewed social change as a process of
and through social activity and social relationships. 'social evolution' from simple to more complex forms of
1'o Mead, it is impossible to imagine a self arising in society. tr\4'rile economic change might provide an initial
the absence of social experiences. Flowever, once self stimulus, Parsons believed that in the iong rury cultural
has developed, it is possible for it to continue to exist changes that are the changes in the values determine the
without social contact. 'broadest patterns of change'.
I and ME Parsons identified two sets of cultural values:
Mead identifies two aspects, or phases, of the self,
which he labels the'I' and the'Me'. According to Mead,
the sel{ is essentially a social process going on with these
two distinguishable phases.'I' and the'Me' are processes
Achi eve men
within the larger process of the self; they are not'things.'
achieved
The'I' is the immediate response of an individual to ,tpt .sOin's' own
others. It is the incalculable, unpredictable, and creative
aspect of the self. People do not know in advance what
the action of the'I' will be. We are never totally aware
of the 'I' and through it we surprise ourselves with our
actions. We know the 'I' only after the act has been
into
others to satisfy
carried out. Thus, we know the'I' only in our memories.
needs.
Mead lays great stress on the 'I' for four reasons -
i. First, it is a key source of novelty in the social
process.
ii. Second, Mead believes that it is in the 'I' that our
most important values are located.
iii. Third, the'I' constitutes something that we all seek
- the realization of the self. It is the 'I' that permits
us to develop a'definite personality.'
iv. Finally, Mead sees an evolutionary process in own
history in which people in primitive societies are first, rather than of
dominated more by the 'Me' while in modern social group to which
societies there is a greater component of the 'I'
The'I' gives Mead's theoretical system some much-
According to Parsons, rvith the exception of farhily
needed dynamism and creativity. Without it, Mead's
life, pattern variables A are tvpical of simple societies;
actors would be totally dominated by external and intemal
and pattern variables B are typical of advanced induskial
controls. According to Mead, "me" is how we believe the
societies. Social change therefore requires a movement
generalized other sees us. It is what we learn through
towards the adoption of pattern variabies B. If a society
interactions rvith others. This includes both knowledge fails to do this, it will stagnate, for pattern variables A
about that environment (including society), but also stop a society from developing. Parsons accepted that
about who the person is: their sense of self. "What the pattern variables A lvi1l not disappeal compietely even
individual is for himself is not something that he in the most advancecl societies.
invented.,It is what his significant others have come
to ...treat him as being. This is because people learn a. Discuss distinct sociological rnethod adopted
to see who they are (man or woman, old or young, by Emile Durkheim in his study of 'Suicide'.
il etc.) by observing the responses of others themselves (csE,20171
or their actions. If others respond to a person as (for Ans: Emile Durkheim's stud,v of Suicide is one of
instance) a woman, the person develops a sense of the best applications of his positir.ist methodology. Being
herself indeed as a woman. Mead is often criticized a positivist, he relied on empirical data for his study, so
for ignoring biological/genetic influence on human he collected data of 26000 cases of suicide in Europe. He
attitude. According to Ropers, Mead's analysis sees relied on official statistics or coroner's data.
 62 ti, sCIctoLocY e & A
fonethodology used by Durkheim in the study of Suicide Hegel's idea of Dialectical Materialism:
' Durkheim used quantitative 'scientific' methods According to Hegel, The Guist/The spirit
employing the comparative method in a highly or consciousness is the ultimate reality. Hegel's
systematic way. However, he doesn't simply follow 'Phenomenology of Mind' conveys that consciousness
the approach advocated by positivists. resides in mind and is manifested in the form
* F{e used the supposedly objective statistics available of ideas. The external reality comes into existence when
on suicide to support the ciaim that tmobservable the guist is projected outwards, when the ideas act upon
forces shaped human behaviour. The total number the matter and transforms the matter, Ideas shape the
of suicides was determined by such unobservable rrvorld.
'collective tendencies', which 'have an existence of Evolution of spirit takes place in a dialectical
their own' and are as'real as cosmic forces'. manne!' according to Hegal. ln the consciousness of
" Suicide became a major problem after mind, ideas emerge; they are called'Thesis'. Over a
industrialization in Europe. There were many period of time they give rise to opposite set of ideas-
prevailing views and notions about suicide. 'Anti-thesis'. Then there is a conflict of ideas which is
Durkheim puts all these notions into empirical resolved through'synthesis'.
vaiidation. He did not probe any individual case Synthesis incorporates in itself the valid aspects of
of suicide rather he tried to compute social rates of thesis and anti-thesis" As a -;heile. Hegel tried to explain
suicide that is looking the phenomenon at the level the process of historical change through the interactions
of collectivity" between ideas and matter in which primacy was given
u FIe discovered certain patterns in every country in to ideas which shape the matter.
Europe and observed that-Higher rate of suicide in
Marx's Theory of Historical Materialism as a critique
Protestants than Catholics, Higher rate of suicide
of Hegel's idea:
in men than women; higher rate of suicide among
un:narried people than the married ones, Peace-time Marx as a critique of Ideai Dialecticism said "Matter
rate of suicide is higher than the war-time rate of is the ultimate reality" influenced by 18th century
suicide. materialism. He actually synthesized Hegelian ideology
'Ihey are known as Empirical Generalisations. He with 18th century materialism"
' He demonstrated that man is essentially a material
found out from these generalisations that there is
an inverse relationship between the rate of suicide being. Therefore, the first need of man is to survive
and degree of solidarity physicaliy. He said matter existed even before man
. It wai only possible through his distinct methodology coulcl have ideas about it. He rejected the dualism
of empirical validations and generalisations that between lnatter and consciousness by saying that
n-rade him to distinguish between psychic pre-
Consciousness is an attribute of rnatter, consciousness
disposition and social determinism. He admits that doesn't exist outside matter and matter is evolving,
psychological factors do play a role and pre-dispose also it evolves dialectically. He said that consciousness
a person for suicide but the force that pushes them
is the characteristic of highly evolved form of matter;
to commit suicide is social. He called this force as different forms of matter have different levels of
'Suicidogenic Current' consciousness.
"

Halbwachs attempted to refine Durkheim's r,vork Unlike Hegel, according to Marx, as man satisfy
and did not challenge the use of a scientific approach its needs, nelt, needs emerge and man again engage
in the study of suicide. He claimed that Durkheim itself in the process of production to satisfy those needs,
had been able to provide a fully comprehensive treatment as a result both man and environment are undergoing i
of the phenomenon of suicide, which could be modified change. So according to Marx, matter is the ultimate
and added to, but which in principle seems unassailatrle. reality.

e" Analyse Marxian conception of historical a. Give an assessment of Durkheminian notion

ffilaterialisrn as a critique of Hegelian dialectics.
of 'sae red' and 'profane' in sociolo gy of
(csE,201n
religion? (CSE,20t7l
Ans: Emile Durkheim's study of religion is the best
It .,{ns. Karl Marx was the follower of Hegal and demonstration of his functional perspective. Durkheim
also was the member of the group known as'Young argues that religion is a unirrersal phenomenon. He says-
I{egelian'. Hegel r.r.as the propounder of the theory of Human thought categories are shaped by man's social
Ideal Dialecticism. Marx later had conflicting views experiences" Social experience is dual in nature. Man
r.vith Hegal and he presented his theory of Historical develops a dual perception of the r.t orld in the thought
ivlaterialism. categories of 'sacred' and'profane'"
 soctoLocrcAL THTNKERS rn 63
Sacred and profane are mutually opposing According to this, all human societies pass through
categories. Profane is all about polluting what is called various stages of development, starting with primitive
as the sacred. communism, followed by ancient society with ancient
Sacred is always set apart and forbidden. Excess to mode of production, then feudal society with feudal
sacred is very carefully regulated. Sacred demands an mode of production, and capitalist society r,r.ith capitalist
attitude of awe and reverence. This attitude is expressed mode of production. FIe says, in all these societies, the
through rituals. mode of production is greatly determined by people's
control over means of production and use of labour in
He further elaborated on the qualities of sacred:
the process of production. OnIy a few having control or-r
. Sacred is super-imposed: Nothing is sacred in itself,
these lead to conflict in the society. Thus, for Marx, the
whatever the society decides to call sacred becomes emergent forms of social relations, based on mode of
sacred.
productiory defines the domination and su'bordination,
. Sacred is also non-utilitarian: It is not because of equality and inequality present in different institutions
its utility that it is called as sacred. located in the society.
. Sacred is supposed to involve superior powers. Therefore, Marx through his mode of production
. Sacred makes ethical demands, and of these theory determines that economy is the base of a society
demands are fulfilled, the sacred will reciprocate. that determines the institutional structure present in the
. Sacred is also ambiguous that is the beliefs are not super-structure of the society.
amenable to reason and logic.
He looked at the worship of Totems among the a. Describe the functional prerequisites of social
Aruntas to further explore the character of religion. system as given by Talcott Parsons. Examine
He considered totem worship as sacred which compels
in the context of a university as a social system.
all members of a particular totem group to perform
duties and obligations towards each other. Hence (csE,2016)
according to him, religion is necessary to maintain unity Ans: Parsons' social system consists of various
and solidarity among a community. institutions such as family, economyr polity, etc., that
have a boundary within which they maintain order to
a. Evaluate Marx's ideas on mode of production. subsist. This self-maintenance of systems is possible
because human actors as social beings are socialised
(csE,2016)
Ans: The mode of production is a central concept
in society and their motivationai and value
orientations accordingly are patterned. In order to
in Marxisrn and is defined as the way a society is maintain themselves, social systems have to perform
organized. to produce goods and services. It consists
adjustments'in their internal organisation and external
of two major aspects: the forces of production and the
environment.
relations of production.
The forces of production include all of the elements
According to Parsons, Social systems have a
that are brought together in production - from land, raw
self-adjustive and self-maintaining quality. These
material, and fuel to human skill and labor to machinery,
adjustment processes which maintain the social system
tools, and factories. The relations of production include internally and through its boundary conditions are
relationships among people and people's relationships called functions. Functions are processes of systein's
to the forces of .production through which decisions self-maintenance. There are certain functions without
are made about what to do with the results. In Marxist which a social system cannot subsist. These are called
theory, the mode of production concept was used to functional prerequisites by Parsons. They are:
illustrate the historical differences between different (i) Adaptation (i0 Goal attainment
societies' economies, and Karl Marx most commonly (iii) Integration (iv) Latency
commented on Asiatic, slavery/ancient, feudalism, and Adaptation
capitalism. Adaptation as a functional prerequisite implies
The ultimate end-goal of Marx's economic theory generation and acquisition of resources from outside
was a post-class society formed around principles of the system, its external enrrironment and to ef{ect its
socialism or communism; in either case, the mode of distribution in the system. Adaptation is oriented to
production concept played a key role in understanding factors external to the system and it has ar instrumental
the means through which to achieve this goal. character. In the context of University as a social system,
For Marx, economic history of mankind was the this functional prerequisite involves generating resources
true history. He says the nature of human history is full in the form of patentable intellectual property, etc., and
of class struggle. This, he explains through his mode of acquiring resources in the form of physical infrastmcture,
production theory. equipment to the labs, student facilities, etc"
64 t::,|t::::: SOCIOLOGY Q & A

Goal-Attainment or social systems. Every structure manifests roles which

Goal-Attainment is that functional prerequisite may be functional, dysfunctional or non-functional to
which involves, firstly, the determination of goals, other structures, groups or society at large. In addition
secondly, the motivating of members of the system to to that functions associated with the structure may be
attain these goals, and thirdly, the mobilising of the manifest/latent.
members and of their energies for the achievement of Manifest - explains the actions or its outcomes
these goals. Its processes are consummatory in character which are defined, expected, intended and recognised.
although it does involve external interaction. Latent - it means the actions or the outcomes of it
In a University, these functions are primarily taken are neither intended or recognised.
up by the administration board where clear goals in the hr the same way, security of the tenure to bureaucrats
form of academic results, number of research papers to has both manifest and latent functions. .
be published, curriculum setting, etc. are taken up. Also,
Manifest Functions
they will take note of the externai happenings (outside o I fixed tenure gives the bureaucrats job safety and
the university) in shaping up their goals so that they are
wiIllead to efficiency in their work.
up to date with the needs of the world and preparing . They will be committed and dedicated to the job.
the students for the world.
. They will not be irLfluenced by external and internal
Integration pressures while taking decisions.
Integration is that functional prerequisite which . They will get time to familiarise themselves with
helps to maintain coherence, solidaritv and coordination the departments or area in which they work and
in the system. In the social system this function can lead to better public service.
is mainly per{ormed by culture and values. This . They will implement plans and policies of the
functional prerequisite is internal to the system and government effectively.
is consummaroty in character. Each University has is
Latent Functions
its own unique culture and values that shape up the
interactions among the members of the University
. Presence of a known bureaucrat with good
leading to better integration into the University system. credentials for a fixed tenure will encourage people
to approach the government for its services without
For example, the values and ideas of JNU are
the fear of corruption or no service delivery.
different from that of Banaras Hindu Universitv.
. Encourage more bright people from the public to
Latency take up bureaucracy as a career.
Finally, latency is that functional prerequisite of the . Enables the bureaucrat to take risk while making
social system which stores, organises and.maintains the decisions.
motivational energy of elements in the social system. . Having safe tenure may make a bureaucrat become
Its main functions are pattern maintenance and tension corrupt.
management within the system. This function is . It has also the potential to make the bureaucrat
performed by the socialisation process of the members non-responsive towards public service.
of the social system. . Power capturing by the bureaucrat.
The process of socialisation helps in internalisation
of the symbols, values, tastes and habits specific to the a. "Hypothesis is a statement of the relationship
social system in the personality of the actors who are between two or more variables". Elucidate
members of the system. It needs also to be added that by giving example of poverty and illiteracy.
in Parsons' view, the function of tension management (csE,2016)
must take place internally in ail institutions. This Ans: Hypothesis is a proposition or a set of
latency function is done in a University with the help
propositions put forward for empirical testing. It can
of formation of student's union in a democratic setup, be used for proposing a relationship between two or
interactions between the administration and students, more variables. It is a tentative and formal prediction
solving the problems through discussions and debates, about the relationship between two or more variables
and ensuring that opinions of all students are heard. in the population bein! studied, and the hypothesis
translates the research question into a prediction of
a. Analyze the manifest and latent functions of expected outcomes.
'security of the tenure of bureaucrats'in the For example, if poverty and illiteracy are taken as
light of Merton's theory. (CSE, 2016) two variables, we can form two hypotheses based on
Ans: The basic unit of sociological analysis for limited evidence. One, poverty is due to illiteracy. Two,
Merton is the study of social structure than the society illiteracy is the result of poverty.
 SOCIOLOGICAL THINKERS,::':':':':t:: 65
\Atrhen the first hypothesis is put to test, from the perception. Thus, a sociologist must have to understand
evidence we can say that the hypothesis is wrong. There subjective perception of the people to understand their
is evidence for people being poor irrespective of them objective behaviour.
being literate. This can be due to various reasons. For For understanding social action, Weber says,
exairple, a calamity wiping out one's property may method is just a means to an end but not an end in itself.
make a person poor for a brief period before he rebuilds Method should be context specific and need specific. He
his wealth. uses VERSTEHEN, German for understating method for
The second hypothesis too is inconclusive" Frorn micro, meso and rnacro actions. Direct Observational
empirical evidence it is seen that poverty r.a,v not be Verstehen method is the first method to be used to
the cause of illiteracy in some cases. In some patriarchal understand microscopic situations. For understanding
societies, irrespective of them being weaithy, girl macroscopic actions, Weber says, indirect.explanatory
children are not educated making therrr illiterate. verstehen method by using historical data.
The international literature shor,vs that poverty For understanding mesoscopic actions Weber says,
and functional illiteracy can mutually influence arLd a researcher must be freed from explaining facts as facts
reinforce each other in various ways. The study shows and he must be enabled to construct his own theory
that functionally illiterate people, on average, have a depending on the demands of research. These theories
considerably lower income than'those who are literate" which are dynamic, purposive, research focussed,
This is not only the case for individua-l income, but amendable are called as ideal types. Weber believed
{ the political analyst could adhere to the principle of
for household income as weil. Functionally illiterate
people are inactive more frequentllr, in the sense that objectivity once a value or perspective had been laid
they are more often outside the iabour rnarket and do out. For the social scientist, value necessarily determines
not go to school or take courses/ than those who are perspective and influences the facts chosen for analysis,
,f not functionally illiterate. Furthermore, the functionally but once those decisions are made, the social scientist
illiterate are more than three times as iikely to be is bound by the principle of objectivity. Through these
-$
dependent on benefits as those who are iiterate" ideal types \{eber maintains his socioiogical research.
Finally, the study shows that functional illiteracy
also influences locial inclusion and other irnmaterial Q. I4/hich concepts did Weber use to analyze the
outcomes. Functionally illiterate people, for instance, forms of legitimate domination? (CSE,2015)
report that they do less volunteer r,r'ork. They have lower Ans: Weber defines domination as the probability
social trust, experience lower political trust and are less that certain commands will be obeyed by a given
healthy than those who are iiterate. They are also more group of persons. He defines authority as legitimate
likely to live in neighbourhoods with a lower social forms of domination, that is, forms of domination which
status. Thus, from the above examples, it can be said followers or subordinates consider to be legitimate
that hypothesis can be used for finding out a relationship i.e. desirable, or at least bearable and not worth
between many variables by the researchers. cirallenging. Weber outline three rnajor types of
legitimate domination: traditional, charismatic, and
a. Examine MaxWeber's naethod of maintaining legal or rational.
objectivity in social researeh" (CSE,20X6) Traclitional Authority" This is the type of authority
Ans: One .of the " deadly sins in the a-rea of where the kaditional rights of a powerful and dominant
politics" is, Weber says, " a lack of objectivity." The individual or grollp are accepted, or at least not
objectivity, however, can engage only after a r.alue has challenged, by subordinate individuals. These could
been established; otherw'ise, this remark is logically be (i) religious, sacred, or spiritual forms, (ii) well
inconsistent with lVeber's statement that "the nature of established and slowly changing culture, or (iii) tribal,
the cause the politician seeks to serve by striving for and family, or clan type structures. Different types of
using power is a question of faith." The two staternents, traditional authority rnight be gerontocracy or rule by
taken together, imply that once a political position -- elders, and patriarctrralism where positions are inherited.
't
a value or perspective - has been established, the For Weber, traditional authority is a means by which
politician must hold to the ideal of objectivity. For rnequalitv is created and preserved.
Weber, sociology is concerned with the subjective Charisrnatic Authority: Weber defines charismatic
understanding of objective reality. Every objective authority as "resting on devotion to the exceptional
behaviour of the people is driven by the subjectirre sanctity, heroism or exemplary character of an individual
perception that may come out of one's c'alture, ethics, person, and of the normative patterns or order revealed
personal preferences, accidental choice, etc. Therefore, or ordained by him". Weber considers charisma to
every objective act is driven by differential subjective be a driving and creatirre force which surges through
 66 ffi soctoLocYe&A
traditional authority and established rules. The sole basis balance between interrelated social phenomena and to
of charismatic authority is the recognition or acceptance the external relationship the system maintains with its
. of the claims of the leader by the followers. environment. It is the tendency of the social system,
' Legal or Rational Authority: This is authority or when disturbed, to return to its original state, because
legitimate domination resting on "rational grounds - any small change in a social element is followeC.by
resting on a belief in the legality of enacted rules and the changes in other related elements that work toward
right of those elevated to authority under such rules to diminishing the first disturbance.
issue commands". Legal authority could be developed American sociologist Talcott Parsons postulated
through systems of conventior; laws and regulation in that all social systems tend to approximate a state of
societies, written legal codes etc. In modern societies, equilibrium, although no concrete system will actually
authority is in large part exercised on the basis of reach a perfectly equilibrated state. To Paisons, the fully
bureaucracies. equilibrated society served as a theoreiical reference
point rather than as a description of a real system.
a. "Self and Society are twin botn", Examine the Parsons traced societal development through history. He
statement of Mead. (CSE, 2015) explored three stages of evolution: primitive, archaic dnd
modern. Viewing Western civilization as the pinnacle
Ans: The sense of self is defined as a collection of
of modern society, Parsons examined its development,
beliefs that we hold, while self-'socialization is defined as
arguing that social systems have moved toward greater
a developmental process that allows you to reflect upon
adaptation (adjustments that maintain the systemic
yourself. This process begins in early childhood and has
order), differentiation (the specialization of social
many influencing factors. Some of the influences on self-
institutions and the division of labor), upgrading (greater
socialization process include the family, peers, teachers,
freedom from want), inclusion (normative diversity), and
and the media. Cooley's concept of the 'looking glass
value generalization (values that are more reflective of
self', states that a person's self grows out of a person's
the needs of an increasingly complex system).
social interactions with others.
In Parsons' theory, societal evolution parallels
The view of ourselves comes from the contemplation
biological evolution, with modem societies evidencing
of personal qualities and impressions of how others
greater "generalized adaptive capacity" than earlier
perceive us. For Mead, the self emerges out of "special
ones. F{e postulated that all social systems tend toward
set of social relations with all the other individuals"
a state of equilibrium, although never actually reaching
involved in a given set of social projects. The self is
a perfectly equilibrated state. However, his critics,
always a reflection of specific social relations that are \
particularly those like Mills who favored the Marxist
themselves founded on the specific mode of activity of
approach,lnaintained that the basic tendencies in social
the group in question. Mead identified three sequential I
and cultural systems are toward social change rather
stages that leads the child to develop a sense of self.
than toward equilibriu m.
These stages areplay, game, and generalized other. Play
Stage, in which pre-kindergarten children think and act
like the people they frequently see. For example, a young
a. "Anomie is rooted in social structure." Explain
with reference to R.K. Merton's contribution.
girl is actively assuming the role of the mother and
viewing her world as her mother does. In Game Stage, tr!3i:"ill?
children between the ages of five and eight begin to take Ans: Merton's theory on devianc"
account of their own actions and the actions of others.
his 1938 analysis of the relationship between culture,
The Generalized Other is the final stage in the childhood
structure and anomie. Merton defines culture as an
" organized set of normative values governing behavior
development process, in which children are able to not
which is common to members of a designated society
only take on the roles of others, but also take into account
the attitudes and perspectives of others in their social
or group". Social structures are the "organized set of
social relationships in which members of the society or
group.Also, *rere is a profound influence of social media,
group are variously implicated". Anomie, the state of
newspapers, cinema, internet etc on children.
normlessness, arises when there is an acute disjunction
As Mead and Cooley believes "Self and Society are
between the cultural norms and goals and the socially
twin born". There is no separate and independent ego;
structured capacities of inembers of the group to act in
this is simply an illusion, that can t exist.
it accord with them. In his theory, Merton links anomie
with deviance and argues that the discontinuity between
a. How is social equilibrium maintained in culture and structure have the dysfunctional consequence
Parsonian framework? (CSE, 2015) of leading to deviance within society. In other words,
Ans: Social equilibrium, a theoretical state of there is a discontinuity between cultural goals and the
balance in a social system referring both to an internal legitimate means available for reaching them.
 SOCIOLOGICAL THINKERS :! 67
Applied to the United States, he sees the American The main differences between the concepts of
dream as an emphasis on tire goai of monetary success alienation and anomie rest upon the views of man
but without the corresponding emphasis on the in a 'state of nature'. Marx's concept of alienation is
legitirn-ate avenues to march toward this goal. Merton founded upon the belief that man is 'naturally' good,
argues that deviance and crime are "normal" aspects of but has been corrupted by society. Durkheim's theory
society and there is something about American social of anomie, by contrast, stems from the assumption that
structure here, its distribution of wealth and opportunity man is 'naturally' a uncontrolled being, who must be
that requires crime to maintain society's very stability rigidly restrained by society. He makes it clear that
in the face of structural inequality. egoism is a product of society. F{owever, the impqlse
This theory is commonly used in the study of to economic self-advancement is as rnuch a creation of
criminology (specifically the strain theory). modern society for Durkheim as it is for Marx.
Another difference in the views of Marx and
a. Elaborate the views of Durkheim on "The Durkheim is that Durkheim strongly believes that an
Elementary Forms of Religious Life". individual's personality is overwhelming influenced
(csE, 2015) by the characteristics of the society in which he lives
and is socialised into, but that in e\rery man there is a
Ans: Durkheim's primarv purpose in The
struggle betr.veen egoistic impulses and those with a
Elementary Forms of [teligious Life was to describe
'moral' Ieaning. Marx doesn't adopt such a psvchological
and explain the most primitivel religion known to man.
model; he believed there is no asocial basis for such
He seeks to show that society is the soul of religion
conflict between the individual and society. For IVIarx,
- that society is the foundation of all religious belief. 'The individual is the social being'. There is quite a
Durkheim set out to do two things, establish the fact that
close similarity between the'constants' lying behind the
religion was not divinely or supernaturally inspired and
concepts of alienation and anomie.
"t
was in fact a product of society, and he sought to
Both Marx and Durkheim emphasise the fact that
identify the common things that religion placed an
human qualities, needs and motives, are in large part the
emphasis upon, as well as w,hat effects those religious
beliefs (the product of social life) had on the lives of all product of social development. Roth perceive a flaw in
within a societv. R.ecognizing the social origin of religiory the theory of political economy, which treats egoism as
Durkheim argued that religion acted as a source of the foundation of a theory of social order.
solidarity and identification for the individuals within Alienation then, is the structurally imposed
a society, especially as a part of mechanical solidarity breakdown of the interconnectedness that is, to Marx, an
systems, and to a lesser, but still important extent in the essential part of life, at least in an ideal sense. Anomie
context of organic solidaritv. can be defined as the state which society brought about
Religion provides social control, cohesion, and by unchecked economic progress.
purpose for people, as w'eli as another means of \A/hile there are similarities and differei'rces between
communication and gathering for individuals to interact the theories of Marx and Durkheim, there are one thing
and reaffirm social norms. Durkheim's second purpose that is undisputed about these sometimes controversial
was in identifying certain elements of religious beliefs sociologists - they have both had a great impact on the
that are common across different cultures. way the world's people approach sociology today"'
A belief in a supernatural realm is not necessary or
corunon among religions, but the separation of clifferent a. How does Weber use the notion of ideal
aspects of life, physical things, and certain behaviors types' in his theory of bureaucracy?
into two categories -- the sacred and the profane -- is (csE,2014)
common. This division of things ir-rto two separate but Ans: An ideal type is an analytical construct that
interacting spheres is common among all religions. serves the investigator as a measuring rod to ascertain
Religion maintains the influence of society -- whereas similarities as well as cleviations in concrete cases.
" society" represents the norms and beliefs held in It provides the basic method for comparative study.
common by a group of indivicluals. "The ideal type involves determining the features of a
social institution that r,vould be present if the institution
a. Identify the sirnilarities and differences were a logically consistent whole, not affected by other
between Marx's theory of 'alienation' and institutions, concerns and interests.
Durkheim's theory of 'anomie'. (CSE,2014) Weber identified in bureaucracies a rational-
Ans: Karl Marx's theory of 'Alienation' and legal authority in which legitimacy is seen as coming
Durkheim's theory of 'Anomie' is about study of from a legal order. Weber's focus on the trend of
relationship among the people in the society. rationalization led him to concern himself with the
68 socroLocYe&A
operation and expansion of large-scale enterprises in communication technology like mobile phone, laptop,
both the public and private sectors of modern societies. internet people from all section of world are connected
Bureaucracy can be considered to be a particular and share common views through their network or
case of rationalization, or rationalization applied to groups. So, social solidarity is obtained in modern times
human organization. Bureaucratic coordination of via technology. Thus, religion exists in modern times in
human action, Weber believed, is the distinctive mark different form.
of modern social structures. In order to study these Emile Durkheim's understanding of religion can
organizations, both historically and in contemporary be summarized as that his study of religion, asserts
society, Weber deveioped the characteristics of an ideal- that religion is a social necessity, Religion provides
type bureaucracy: man identity, source of integration harmony between
' Flierarch), of authoritY individual societies without which social life stands to
. Impexsonality be impossible. For him religion is the consciousness of
. Written rules of conduct consciousness ordinarily meaning a supreme form of
. Promotion based on achievement consciousness which is eternal and binding in character.
. Specialized division of labor
. Efficiency a. According to Marx, capitalism transforms even
According to Weber, i:ureaucracies are goal- the personal relationships between men and
oriented organizations designed according to rational women. Critically examine with illushations
principles in order to efficiently attain their goals. from the contemporary Indian context.
Offices are ranked in a ]rierarchical order, with (csE,2014)
information flowing rrp the chain of command,
Ans: William Goode considers that in case of west
directives flowing down. Operations of the organizations :
industrialization gave rise to the migration-of rural
are characterizedby impersonal rules that explicitly state
population to urban centers, urban living being costly,
duties, responsibilities. standardized procedures and
women were forced to get out from family to job market
conduct of office holders. Offices are highiy specialized.
that consequently affected to the fertility role of womery
Appointments to these offices are made according to
the size of family become small; affluence of the family
specialized qrtalifications r:ather than ascribed criteria.
increased and lvoman's status in nuclear family become
All of these ideal clraracteristics have one goal, to about equivalent to man.
promote the efficient attainment of the organization's
Marx in his understanding of India and its region
goals.
in Asia, he stated in the Indian sub-continent; women \
still suffer the old torrnents, superimposed on the
a. "According to Durkheim, the essence of barbaric economic exploitation of the capitalist system.
religion in modern society is the same as The Indian bourgeoisie, half a century after so-called
religion in primitive society." Comment. independence has not even succeeded in abolishing the
(csE,2014) caste system. The barbaric practice of "sati", whereby
Ans: Durkheirn in his study defined religion as women are forced to thror,v themselves on the funeral
"A religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices pyre of a dead husband, still exists. There are hundreds
relative to sacred things, that is to say, things set apart of cases every year. And those widows who escape this
and forbidden beliefs and practices which unite in one fate are treated as social outcasts and pariahs who have
single moral comrnunity called a Church, all those who no right to live. They are beatery starved and humiliated
adhere to them". by relatives, until they are driven to suicide.
Durkheim in his study of religion in primitive Marx study of family through the lens of capitalism,
society of totemic ritualistic practice in Australian he observed that private property and its associated
tribe, ire obserrred religion as mutual co-presence/ property rights are irrelevant to the working class of the
common emotional mood, common understanding and towns and the cities, who have no property and mass
identification of sacred promotes social solidarity among employment of women and Children in the factories
the faithfrrl. would abolish the dependence of women on men.
To Emile Durkheim, reiigion is collective conscience Feminist countered Marx's analysis of working class
of people bring social solidarity in society. In the modern family by quoting, the problem of women becomes
times religion is not about going to church or religious submerged in the analysis of the family. Further, Kath
institutions on the contrary the essential collective Ennis argues, "In theory, capitalism could do without
conscience of people is brought by technology in modern the family", b:ut'. "In practice, however, this would
times. So, to Durkheim technology is religion in modern require such fundamental changes in society, it is hard
times where people are connected through various to imagine them ever being carried out".
 SOCIOLOGICAL THINKERS 7.... 69

a. Analyze the salient features of historical division of labor is an integral part of modern industrial
materialism. (CSE,2013) society. Largely, their studies were a response to the
Ans: Historical Materialism is that perspective of consequences of industrialization witnesse.'i by them.
society which traces the ultimate cause of all important For Durkheim, division of labor is tire basis
events to the economic development of society. of society. It is only becaust of division of labor,
According to Marx, this materialism is dialectic in individuals co-operate with one another to fulfill their
nature i.e. clash of thesis and antithesis to give synthesis. needs. But, unlike Durkheim, Marx didn't r.ier,v division
Initially man tried to control the nature for food and of labor as a means o{ cooperation and stressed more on
shelter. In the process he developed the forces of exploitation and conflict. He regards division of labor
production. With the cooperation between the members as closely related to the concept of private property.
of society there developed relations of production. This It is the class who owns private property .also ol.vns
productive organization was referred to, by Marx, as means of production and then exploits the other class.
the substructure of society. Social institutions such as Therefore, it is forced upon the proletariat class by the
religiory law, eduation and kinship were referred as the bourgeoisic class.
super structure of society. Those who own the forces of According to Durkheim, as societies change from
production are called as owners and they are the ones simple to complex, the basis of solidarity changes from
who affect the superstructure. In this way the society mechanical to organic. It happens mainly because of
gets divided into owners and non-owners. As the time specialization and the consequent interclependence
progresses, the material conditions change which leads among individuals. But, for Marx the exploitative
to some contradictions in the society. Due to this the character of class doesn't change over the period of time.
clash happens and finally the resolution of conflict In the t'eudal societies it was nobles who exploited the
leads to social change. Marx explained social changes slaves and in the capitalist societies it is the bourgeoisie
happening in two different ways. exploiting the proletariat. For l)urkheim, di.rision of
(i) The forces of production changes faster than labor leads to social integration as people depencl more
the relations of production. These new forces of upon each other by doing complementary activities.
production come in conflict with old relations But, Marx views it as leading to del-rumanization of
of production. As these forces of production put work force. Workers are reduced to commodities, their
pressure onthe old relations of production it finally creativity is taken away and they become just parts of
replaces them to new relations of production. For the production process. Therefore, it leads to alienation.
example, during French Revolutiory feudal relations To solve the problems related to division of labor,
were replaced by the capitalist relations. Durkheim advocates the replacement of pathological
(ii) This kind of change happens by the conflict forms of labor with normal forms of labor. Therefore,
between owner and the non-owner class. Marx end of norm'lessness or anomie is a necessary condition
predicted that due to excessive exploitation of for a healthy society. For Marx, there is no way of
proletariat by the bourgeoisie class there will be a solving the problems related to division of labor in the
situation where proletariat class will overthrow the capitalistic system. The onl1, solution lies in encling the
bourgeoisie class to give rise to a classless society. concept of prirrate property by communal ownership of
But, in reality this change never happened."But, forces of production i.e. conrmunism.
Historical Materialism represents only one side Thus, both looked at the concept differently.
of social change. Change can also happen from Durkheim responded in a functional manner and gave
superstructure to sub structure. For example, Weber an explanation to maintain social order. Marx looked at
in his study of Protestant ethics explained the role it from conflict perspective i.e. conflict between haves
of religion in developing the spirit of capitalism. and have-nots. Finally leading to change and ending the
Although Marx's theory failed to predict the concept of have-nots from society.
future but gave great insights into the problems of
capitalism and inspired many communist regimes. a. Critically analyze the contributions of G.H.
Mead to'symbolic interact-ionism'.
a. Compare Karl Marx with Emile Durkheim (csE,2013)
with reference to the framework of 'division Ans: Symbolic interactionisrn is a branch of
of labor'. (CSE,2013) sociology which focuses on the micro level interactions.
Ans: Division of labor refers to the system of Interactionists explain the social action in terms of
relationships among the individuals of society which meanings which actors attach to the situation. In this
help them to carry out their day to day activities. Despite way they come closer to the Weber's position and stand
their differences, both Marx and Durkheim admitted that opposite to Durkheim's position of social determinism.
 70 K soctolocYQ&A
Mead through his concept af " self" explains how He regarded bureaucracy as one of the rational
thoughts and actions of an individual are shaped by structures of modern society which is superior to any
the society and how the society regulates the individual other structure in terms of precision, stability, reliability
and, thus, provides the basis for cooperative action in and technical superiority. He cor-rsidered bureaucracy
the society. as an efficient way to achieve large scale organizational
Mead says that human interactions take place in goals and, therefore, inevitable in a modern industrial
terms of symbols. These symbols provide means for society.
interaction as the actors give meanings to these symbols Works in bureaucracy are organized as offices and
whose meanings are shared by all. According to Mead, the activities are called as cifficial duties. Offices are
this human interaction takes place through the process arranged in hierarchy which acts as a chain of command
of "role taking". It means observing yourself from the where the orders are produced at the top and then
perspective of others i.e. with whom you are interacting' communicated to others. Every decision is interpretation
Thi".r.r happen when a person becomes object to itself' of general rule in specific situation and general rules are
ti-re basic rules to follow" Work in bureaucracy is a full
There are two stages of development of self time career and the recruitment is done on the basis of
(i) Play Stage: when children play games such as merit and there exists a rational system of rewards'
police-thief they understand that these roles are This is an ideal tnodel represented by Weber and
different from them' many bureaucracies of the world resemble some of the
(ii) Game Stage: Here, the person observes himself features with Weberian rnodel. Though this model is
from the perspective of " generalized other" i'e' from suitable for normal times, but in the tirnes of crisis or
the overall attitude of society towards that person' change it fails to perform" In the absence of rules there
Once developed, this self has two parts, "I" and exists a trained incapacity among bureaucrats and
"Me". "l' is your evaluation of yourself in a social they become inefficient. Also, sticking too much to the
context and "Me" is the overall evaluation of yourself' rules and regulations also hampers the development of
This "I" component is responsible for difference in the weaker sections of society. Though rules must be
behaviors of two people in a similar situation. "Me" followed but that must not become obstacle in achieving
component is the one which society expects from the goals of policy makers.
everyone inr.a similar situation. Thus, "Me" is the
component of society into an individual.
Further, Mead argues that by becoming self
a. Universalism vs. Farticularism (CSE, 2012)

conscious the individual thinks and plans his Ans: American sociologist T'atrcott Parson in his
future. By becoming self aware he knows what society theory of social system presenterl the concept of pattern
expects from him. Therefore, he changes his behavior,
variables. According to him, role is main component
modifies it and in this way society regulates the behavior of social pattern and tension is created from its
of the individual and provides the basis of cooperative performance. Degree of tension depends on the fact
action. that how role-expectation has been institutionalized
variables to these
Though Mead gave a micro ievel theorv but in society. Parson has said pattern
of behavior in social performance of
drifted too much towards meanings and motives of an patterns or values
individual. He has been criticized on following aspects role for which there
is option before actor to ghange.
(1) FIe neglected the influence of social setting on the Parson has discussed
5 alternative pair of pattern
behavior of an individual. (2) The meanings given by variables'
actors are not always unique; the meanings are also
. affectivity - affective neutrality
generated by social context. (3) He failed to explain the
. self-orientation - collectivity-orientation
fact that many individuals behave similarly in some . univetsalism - particuiarism
particular situation. Thus, he neglected the presence of ' ascription - achievement
social norms. Hence, for a proper sociological enquiry . specificity - diffusitY
we need to focus on both social determinism and Universalism vs. particularism is a type of pattern
interactionism. variable which represents that role status where people
have dilemma in relation of cognitive and emotional
;i a. Examine the salient features of Weberian standards. Which means, actor during role performance
bureaucracy. (CSE,2013) performs his role, based on universal value or particular
Ans: Weber defined bureaucracy as, "a hierarchical value. A good example of this type of behavior based
organization rationally designed to coordinate work on universal standards is role performance according
of many individuals in the pursuit of large scale to law based standards. If a person performs his role
administrative tasks and organizational goals." by obeying rules of law without paying attention to
 SOCIOLOGTCAL THINKERS ffif 71
personal relationship or friendship it will be an example source of this sacredness has tried to establish that
of universal role performance. Whereas, when he obeys collective consciousness of religion is manifestation of
some specific values during role performance due to his society. People in reality worship society in the name
personal relationship or friendship it is called particular of religion.
role performance.
Parson said that dilemma of Universalism vs. a. 'Power and authority go together. Examine.
particularism always comes before actor of society Explain the various types of authority also.
where bureaucracy, formal organizations and (csE,2012)
modern institution have extensive role. In this way,
Talcott Parson in his theory of pattern variables Ans: Power is that capability or ability of an
individual or group on the basis of which he is able to
presented the concept of Universalism vs particularism
realize their own will in communal action,.even against
to explain the doubtful situation of actor during role
resistance of others. It means in a social relation when a
performance.
person is in such a situation that he can realize his own
will even against resistance of others then it is power and
a. Sacred and Profane. {CSE,20L2) when this power is legalized in the form of institution
Ans: Durkheim has presented the concept of sacred then it changes into authority. In this sense, authority
and profane in his sociological system of religion. is legalized form of power.
Durkheim presented this concept after his sociological Power is the ability to seek obedience from persons
study of Arunta tribes of Australia. F{e was of the by penalty and fear whereas obedience of authority is
opinion that society is the real base of every religion and treated as more influential by legalizing authority of
every religion unites every society into a community. In person who commands. The contribution of authority
reality, religion is only a transformation of assumptions is more important than power for the stability and
of society. If society is rational and scientific then religion continuity of society because power is based on
will be like such. repression whereas authority acquires form of institution
Religion has relation with sacred things, which and this is valid as means to keep stability and
means religion is a system of beliefs and assumptions maintenance of the system in society. Much historical
related with sacred things which unite into one single and current evidence are there which proves acquisition
moral communlty, all those who adhered to them. of aufiority by power and again transformation of it into
According to Durkheim, anything is treated as sacred power by losing its validity. On another side, one who
not because of its metaphysical or internal qualities has authority establish exploitative governance without
or its utilitarian values. It is treated as sacred because caring wrong or right.
society treats it so and give respect and special regard So in this context, it is said that power and authoritv
and gives high position in hierarchy. Myths of society, run togethei. But it is not ."."rru^ry that society wiil
fables, beliefs, assumptions provide base to these things provide institutional forms to all who have power. With
to treat them sacred. the emergence of modern state, in new democratic,
Beliefs and rites in sacred things form the religion. egalitarian and welfare governance-system, role of
Elementary form of religious thoughts is beliefs. After legal form of power i.e. authority has become extensive.
this a behavioral form of this theory emerges which is According to Weber, five elements are necessary for
called rites related with sacred things. the stability of forms of authority system. First, any
After explanation of sacred things, Durkheim ruler or group of rulers, second, any ruled individual
during explanaiion of profane says that those things or group/ third, will of ruler to influence the behavior
which are not sacred are profane. Which means of ruled, fourth, evidence of influence of ruler in form
those things which are explained in terms of utilitarian of obeying of command by ruled and last is, direct and
values or economic profit & loss are called profane. indirect evidence that the ruled had willfully obeyed
The concept of sacred and profane changes from the command.
one society to another and this is place and culture Max Weber has discussed three types of authority-
related. 1,. Rational legal authority
For cbnfirmation of his opinion, Durkheim has 2. Traditional authority
.
taken example of Arunta tribes. Arunta tribe is divided
3. Charismaticauthority
into many clans which have its own Totem to which Authority based on rules and law formed on
related tribes attach their origin and emotional relations
rational basis i.e. based on belief in'legal system is
and treat them sacred and worship them.
said to be rational legal authority. A person positioned
In this way, Durkheim by attaching religion on various posts as per some general rule formulated
with sacred things and explaining society as a by state governs the rational legal authority.
72 !ffi socrolocY e & A
It is clear that the source of this type of authority is masses because of having opinion that religion makes
implicit in rule under which he is positioned on special people fataiistic and works as barrier for the realization
post rather than people's own respect. This type of of ail possibilities inherent in human.
authority is found in ail modern states, societies and Weber from his main study'Protestantism Ethics
countries of the world. and Spirit of Capitalism' tells that Calvin sect of
Authority acquired by the people positioned on the Protestant religion develops a sense of disciplined life,
post accepted by tradition is called traditional authority. accumulation of money for the sake of acquiring more
This type of authority is based on traditional beliefs, so money'which resulted into growth of capitalism, whereas
it is called traditional authority. For example-authority Marx does not believe in such type of assumption.
of king or authority of head of tribes is due to tradition. Marx has discussed two main classes in the capitalist
In most backward tribal communities such type of system-proletarian and bourgeoisie. Bourgeoisie
authority is also present today. were the owner of means of production. They made
One type of authority is charismatic authority profit from exploitation of surplus value and work
which is neither based on legal rules nor on tradition" of proletariat. Weber has discussed many classes in
It is based on charisma of person. The people who have capitalist system" According to Weber, rationality.and
such radical, tricky or charismatic power are owners of bureaucracy are main characteristics of capitalist system.
such authority" In reality Marx was explaining the miserable condition
In this way, charismatib leader, person or main prevailing under capitalism by studying capitalism in
authority demands to be obeyed in the name of earlier stage, whereas in Weber's time a lot of changes
themselves or their aim or prestige of their ideals and had come in European capitalism system on basis of
people accept their demand due to influence of their rvhich he presented his explanation.
charismatic personaiity. Magician, prophet, incarnatiory Iv{arx also taiks about presence of class struggle
religious leader, soldier, leader of any party belongs to due to exploitation inherent in capitalist sy,stem and
such authority. establishment of communism by abolishing this system
In these above types of authority, rational legal due to proletarian revolution whereas Weber did not
authority is common in our society. Rational legal talk about such possibilities.
authority seems cornparatively appropriate for running In this way there is lot of difference between Marx
better adrrinlstrative system of rational, modern and and Weber regarding capitalism. For Marx, capitalism
educated society. is an exploitatirre system of economic accumulation
whereas Weber emphasizes on its cultural aspect and
a. Examine h.ow Weber's characterisation of represented religion as a favorable power for its growth.
capitalism is different frorn those of Marx.
(csE,2012) a. Sonietirnes a worker does not feel attachment
Ans: Assumptions related r,r,ith capitalism were for their work. Marx formed a theory for this
different from methodological perspective of Marx and situation, discuss that theory. (CSE, 2012)
Weber. Marx has explained the historical development Ans: Kari Marx presented the theory of alienation
of capitalism on the basis of his own materialism theory, to reveal the inhuman condition of labor in capitalistic
whereas Weber explained this on the basis of historical society. Alienation is a socio psychological condition of
comparative method. Historical materialism, history and a person in which he feels alienated from basic aspects
social change are complex theories proposed by Marx of life, his work and also from himself.
which explain all historical, cultural and social changes This concept is seen firstly in the work of Hegel but
on the basis of material value based production system
Marx has explained in detail as a sociological theory.
which is opposite to idealism. According to Marx, inhuman condition of capitalist
For Marx, emergence of capitalism is only an slrstern has alienated the worker from theii work and has
evolutionary stage in the process of system change felt the need to create such condition where creativity of
obtained by ciass struggle betvzeen means of production, worker must be maintained. Due to this reason neither
mode of production and relation of produgtion whereas
r,vorkers get satisfied from their work nor do they get
Weber in his systemic study of different societies, using
reasonable value of their labor.
historical comparative method reveals cultural factor
like Calvinistic ethics of Protestantism as a reason for Marx has discussed four forms of alienation:
the emergence of capitalism" 1. Alienation from products and production process
Marx presented capitalism as a purely economic 2. Alienation from nature
process whereas Weber presented it in the form of 3. Alienation from colleagues
cultural process. Marx treated religion as opium of 4. Alienation from self
 SOCIOLOGICAL THINKERS il 73
In the context of causes of Alienatiory Marx is of and theory for the explanation of social incident.
the opinion that private ownership of the means of Keeping away from this, Durkheim has suggested
production and complex division of lubo. in capitalist
studying society in context of its facts and rlality.
system are the main factors.
The reality should be independent from our opinion.
The laborers have to do only one part of the work, Social facts remain the same when we analyze or
that's why he can't do any work completely and so check
from any angle.
unable to develop his creativity and ai result is not
They remain objective from this point of view.
satisfied with their work. The workers do not get whole
As they are things if we think from different angle no
profit of their work because surplus value is "exploited changes
occur in them. For example, chair and table will
by capitalist resulting in continuous miserabie
always be same whether we accept it as a pile of books.
for worker. "or-rditior-,
ln same context, Durkheim stated that social fact
Taking alienation as a temporary characteristic of should be
_
human society, Marx says that when ciass consciousness and
treated as thing. This means as we see things
touch them, in the same way we should treat
develop into the capitalist system, worker will become social
fact as an observable fact. Durkheim in the form
aware about alienation and by collective revolution of fundamental
conclition of his positivist ui"* frrl
will eradicate this exploitative system and establish a tried to establish
sociology u, u ryit"^atic science by
communist system. In this way alienation has important examination,
testing and observation of social reality.
place in Marxian theory.
These social and psychological conditions of
alienation create a fertile ground for the revolution and
a" In Marxian classification of Society, feudal
and slave societies are very important. How
try to change the system by realizing the possibility of
class consciousness. are they different from each other?
(csE 2012)
a. 'Social fact is to be treated as a thing., Discuss. Ans: Marx has explained the social change on the
basis of his theory "Historical Materialism,,. Marx
(csE,2012) on
the basis of changes betr,r.een means of production
Ans: French sociologist Emile Durkheim gives and
relation of production divided the different eras into
imgoltlt place (o providing scientific base to soctology
following 5 categories:
and define and determining its limits of subject mattJr.
Durkheim is of opinion that sociologist in the forrn 1. Prinritive communism era
of methodology should develop an Jjective method 2. Slave era
of empirical research of social facts as a thing. To 3. Feudal era
prove explanatory method of sociology differentlrom 4. Capitalist era
psychology Durkheim has suggested that sociologv 5. Socialist era
should pay attention on micro level analysis of society According to Marx, primitive communism was most
and beside causal explanation, sociology shouli elementary era. In this era,.means of production was not
functionally arrange social fact according to social need. particular but of whole community.
In this context by defining sociology Durkheim There was no differentiation in society and all
says that it is science to study the sociallact. Social is collectively belonged to an egalitarian society. After this,
a-way of acting, fixed or not, capable of exercising on slave era had come. In slave society, owner of means
of
the individual an external constriint. Social fact is in its production were master of slave. With this thev have
own right, independent of its individual manifestation. also ownership over laborers who were slaves.
Ctncept
of private property has come in this era and due io
. .. Tl"r: are specific and made from the help of
individual which represent the collective content of any centralization of this property in hands of some people,
society, community or social group. this minoritv master clais made slave to be malority
The first stage to study of social fact is that it ciass. trn this way, due to emergence of private
property,
should be treated as a thing. Durkheim has directed the changes had come in the structure of socieiy ana it
sociologist,to see social fact in the form of thing. In this divided into two classes. Conflict was natural between
way Durkheim tries to separate the sociological-analysis this exploiter and exploited class.
from personal effect and random theorization. Marx spoke about the emergence of feudalistic
Sociologists should systematically keep themselves society after slave society. in this era feuclal lords owned
away from pre-conception or pre_mindsit. In reality the means of production. These feudal lords were owner
everybody knows the general knowledge of thoughis of means o{ producti<.rn rnainly land. Half slave farmer
and process of social world. We have a-use of gen"eral were under these feudal lords. production work is been
mindset on the basis of which we construct opinion done by these landless farmers. Although farmers were
not slave but there were many restrictions on them.
 74 r,# SoCloLoGY Q &A
They have to do cultivation on the land of feudal also considered family, property, prestige, residence in
lord in the form of forced labor and in the time of war prestigious locality, school for children, membership
they have to work as a soldier' of club or association for determining class status'
In this era, concept of property has become intense Different scholars have also divided class in different
and exploitation of farmers by feudal lords were similar ways. Marx has emphasized the existence of classes on
to slave era but position of ryots was somewhat better the basis of social structure and according to him there
as compared to slave era. Class struggle between feudal
are only two classes (i) Bourgeois and (ii) Proletariat
lord and half slave farmer was little more clear' whereas according to T.B. Bottomore there are four
classes. Such as upper class, middle class, working class
Marx, from his concept of class struggle, tried to
explain that apart from primitive communist society, and peasantry class.
in each era, class struggle between two classes, one Weber and marx both have different perspective
who have ownership over means of production and on social stratification. Marx belongs to conflict thebrist
second the exploited class give emergence to new era' and as a social scientist has dedicated his attention to
In this way, Marx has presented his theory by indicating the notion stratification and class struggle. According
social change in different eras based on explanation of to Marx, class is a SrouP who stand in a common
economic-deterministic approach. relationship to the means of production' Marx opined
that in every stratified society there are two major social
classes ruling class and subject class i.e. ruled class' The
a. The protestant Ethic and the Spirit of power of ruling class is derived from its ownership and
Capitalism (CSE,20L1)
control of the forces of production. The ruling class
Ans: Protestantism is a religion of protest which exploits the subject class, as a result there is a con{lict of
arose in 16th century in Europe in the period known as interest between these two classes. The other institution
reformation. Its founding father like Martin Luther King of society such as legal and political are instruments in
and |ohn Calvin broke away from the catholic church the hands of dominant class which uses this to fulfil his
because they felt that church has immersed in doctrines own interests. Thus according to Marx, stratification
and rituals and has lost touch with common people' based on class is dysfunctional for society as a whole
Greed, corruption and vices have gripped the church because capitalist class is exploiting labour class.
and priests had a lifestyle more suitable to princes' Though weberian analysis of stuatification is based
thus the protestant sects spread all over the Europe and on the analysis developed by Marx but weber has
tried to recapture the lost spirit of the church. They also modified and elaborated it. \zVhen we look at the theories
stressed.upon simplicity, austerity and devotion' of the two scholars comparatively, two major differences
According to weber this ascetic Protestantism can be found :
fostered a spirit of capitalism marked by a ceaseless (i) Though like Marx, weber accepts the view that
obligation to earn money and to reinvest.'Moreover, class is based on objectively given economic condition'
the protestant religion encouraged worldly achievement Weber uses greater variety of economic factors in class
in the following characteristics. Such as time is money/ formation. According to weber, class division derives
credit is rnoney, man can achieve his highest goal i'e' not only from control or lack of means of production
grace of God by doing his duty, work is worship, but from other differences which has nothing to do with
p"r-,r-,y saved is penny gained. Thus these form of property. Such resources include skills and credentials
iegulation based on these believes developed a peculiar which affect the types of jobs. For example, white collars,
conscio.rsness among the Protestants. As a result skilled blue collar workers get more wages than serni or
enterprise, hard work, saving spirit, economic rationality unskilled workers.
fostered and this resulted in capitalist development in (ii) Weber has also distinguished between two other
the protestant countries particularly in England and the aspects of stratificatiorL status and party. He argues that
United states. class, status and party are independent of one another
and should not be clubbed together. Though there is
Q. What is class? Do you think that weber's intermingling between status, wealth and power but
contribution to social shatification is different they have their own independent zones of relevance'
from that of Marx? (CSE,2011) According to weber, classes develop in market
for economic
Ans. Class is the basis of stratification in modern economy in which individuals compete
Ll

group of individuals
In,lustrial society. individuals engaged in similar gain. Class according to weber is a

activities in the Process of production, having equal who share a similar position in a market economy and
individual's market position'
economic status and similar lifestyle belong to the same class position is basically
with achieved status Like Marx, weber also considers class division in
class. Generally class is associated
in present capitalist Industrial society. Sociologists have between those who own
means of production and
 SOCIOLOGICAL THTNKERS ,ffi 75
those who do not. Those who have established property Dilthey to describe the first person participatory
holding will receive the highest economic rewards and perspective. But Max Weber and Georg Simmel
enjoy superior life chances. introduced this interpretive understanding into
However, various skills, and services by different sociology. Verstehen refers to understanding the
occupations reflect divergent market values. In a meaning of action from the actor,s point of view. The
capitalist society managers, administrators, white collar term is particularly associated with Max weber, whose
professionals receive higher rewards because of their antipositivism established an alternative to prior
demand. On the basis of these facts weber has outlined sociological positivism and economic determinism,
the class grouping into four categories rooted in the analysis of social action. It is concerned
(i) propertied upper class -
with entering into the shoes of other and this research
(ii) propertyless white collar professionals treat the actor as subject rather than an object of
(iii) petty bourgeoisie observations.
(iv) working manual class It also implies that unlike object in the natural
Like Marx, weber does not believe in polarisation world human beings are not simply the product of the
of classes. Also weber does not agree with ihe fact that pulls and the pushes of external forces. In this method
the middle class will link in future as talked by Marx, individuals are seem to create the world by organising
thereby he goes against the polarisation as viewed b1. their own understanding of it and giving it ,rreur,ir,g. ti
Marx. According to weber, distribution of authority sociology, it is an aspect of the comparative histoiical
and power in society is not necessarily linked witir approach. It relates to how people in life give meaning
distribution of class inequality. Thus, certain agreement to the social world around them and how the social
exist in the views of two scholars but if Marxian theory scientist evaluates this 'first person perspective,.
is about differences weber talked of hierarchy Weber like all other scholars in social science
was justifiably concerned with the construction of a
a. Define Ideal type and explain weber,s concept conceptual scheme oriented towards the explanation
of 'Verstehen' for understanding social of the nature and determinants of social conduct. Thus
phenomena. (CSE,2011) weber conceived sociology as the science with the task
Ans: The terYn "ideal,' means conception or a of the interpretive understanding of bocial action on the
standard of something and the term ,,typ",, means part of individuals participatingin social relationships.
a_ kind, class or group distinguished by a
According to weber, interpretative sociology considers
particular the individual
character. In qther words ideal type can be defined as a and his actions as the basic social units
kind, category, class or groups of objects with particular and he felt that the task of sociology is to reduce.to
understable action. Social actiory in the weberain sense
character that seems to be best example.
is distinguished from mere behaviour and action which
Weber has used ideal type in a specific sense.
is oriented towards inanimate objects does not qualify.
According to him, it is a mental construct like a
Action is only if, it takes'account of the behiviour
model. He has used ideal type as methodological tool
to understand and analyse social reality. Ideal type
of someone else. Intentional behaviour, meaningful
behaviour, and subjectively understable behaviour are
as a method can be used for comparison as well as
all part of Verstehen i.e. interpretative understanding:
generalisation. It is also a rational blue print and is
i meant for value displacement. It is neither true nor false
and is hypothetical in nature. a. Give conceptual meaning of social system.
Ideal types are formulated by the abstraction and What is cognitive consonance between
combination of an indefinite number of elements found 'pattern variables' and,paradigm,?
in reality. Ideal types is a selection of certain elements, (csE,2011)
certain traits or characteristics which are distinctive Ans. Parsons as a structural functionalist, is the
and relevant to the study undertaken. Though ideal is main exponent of system theory. According to
him social
constructed from the facts existing in reality but they system is not only the network of persons
but also a
do not reprbsent total reality. They are of pure types set of patterned relation among structural elements.
In
in a logical sense. Its conceptional purity-"url.,oib" a system all elements of social structure are linked to
found empirically anywhere in reality. Depending on each other directly or indirectly and the linkage
is such
. the purpose of enquiry, an ideal type is-frameJ by that a change in one part will affect other pait also. In
giving more importance to certain features of reality parsons concept of social system there are some feafures.
and ignoring others. Such as :

Verstehen was introduced into philosophy and o A social system is made up of the interaction
human sciences by the German philoiopher Withelm between two or more actors called ego and alter.

;\,i
 tL

76 * socloLocYQ&A
o In the process of interaction each member is an actor (iii) Ascription and Achievement: This involves the
as well as an object of orientation for other actors' situation u.'hen some body favour some on the basis
o Actors in the interaction process are oriented of caste, colour, nationality i'e. Ascription but when
towards a goal. somebody define people on the basis of their ability,
o Actors are con{ronted with a variety of situational it is achievement model.
conditions i.e. societal and ecological' (") Diffuseness and Speciality: This is the dilemma
o The actor's orientation to the situation is both concerned with defining the relation borne by actor
motivational and value oriented. in wide relation of in{inite people. For example, the
The interaction between two individuals i'e' ego and
relationship between husband and wife is diffusive
in nature whereas one's relationship with his friends
alter takes place when both of them try to achieve certain
is specific in nature.
basic goals and in doing so, they are obliged to take into
ua"orttt one another's conduct' Depending on the action Thus these pattern variables define the nature of
of the alter the ego has to modify his or her conduct as role expectation in the society' It also provide direction
both of them have mutual expectation from each other in which most members of a social system choose their
while interacting they have to also follow soilre norms' roles.
Norms define their roles and also limits their
a. Power elite (CSE,201L)
rights, duties and obligation' Parsons also considers
institutionalisation of norms for integrative mechanism Ans. C. W. Mills has given the concept of power
of social system. Parsons have aiso identified three types elite. The power elite is a small group of people who
of institution necessary for the maintenance of social control a disproportionate amount of wealth and
system. TheY are - political power.
(i) relational institutions which define reciprocal The elite in modern society like USA consists of the
role expectations of the actors (ii) regulative institutions highest ranking members of the corporate community,
which include legitimate means to be employed academic, politicians, media editors, military service
for goal attainment (iii) Cultural institutions which personnel and high profile ]ournalist. They are like
define obligation with regards to the cultural pattems' dominant groups share decisions having national
According ito parsons, in a social system there are consequences as the national events are decided by the
various basic units. There are role behaviour, role power elites.
cxpectation, reciprocity, etc. A11 these must function According to C.W' Mills, the governing elite in
properly to maintain equilibrium in the society or to the USA primarily draw its members from three areas
maintain social order. (i) the highest political leaders including the president
Pattern variable is all about the polar dichotomy and key cabinet members and close advisers, (ii) major
and choice that a person makes from the alternatives corporate owners and directors, (iii) high ranking
during performing his role in the society' In performance military officers.
of rolei each person faces dilemma which emanates from These groups overlap and elite tend to circulate
strain in a individual choice or preference' According from one sector to another consolidating power' Unlike
to parsons, there are five pattern variables and each the ruling class, a social formation based on heritage
represents one polar extreme. These are:-
and social ties, the power elite is characterised by the
(ii Affectivity and Affective neutrality: This kind of organisational structure through which its wealth is
pattern involves evaluation in terms of situation
acquired.
ind includes how much should a situation be According to C. W. Mills part of the power elite
evaluated in emotional terms. For example,
is also the managerial reorganisation of the propertied
in mother-child relationship there is high degree of
classes into the more or less unified stratum of the
affective orientation but discipline is also required'
corporate rich. To C.W. mill in all societies there are
(ii) Self Orientation and Callective Otientation: This certain institutions which occupy pivotal position and
occurs when actor has to make choice between
those who at the top of these institutions monopolise
his or her gratification or making good for a large
power.
number of people. Example : the sacrifice of a
soldier's life for societY.
In his study of American society he focussed on
three key institutions such as maior corporation, federal
;,1
(iii) Universalism and particularism: This pattern
government and military. He argued that people who
variable defines the role situation where actot's
are at the top of these institutions have similar interest
dilemma is between emotional vs Standard' For
and activities and inter-connected thereby forming one
example, the role of a person strictly by legal norms
irrespective of personal, kinship or friendship ruling minority which termed as Power elite who have
unprecedented Power.
consideration is the Universalism'
 SOCIOLOGICAL THINKERS A 77
a. Compare Karl Marx with Ernile Durkheim and serfs or bourgeoisie and proletariat in capitalism.
with reference to the framework of ,,division According to Marx, ,,The histoiy of al1 hitherto existing
of labour." (CSE, 2010) societies in the history of class struggle,, i.e. class
conflicl
Ans. Division of labour refers to occupational is the driving force of history frorn ancient society to
differentiation and specialization aimed at increasing the present capitalist society. He predicted same for
the efficiency and productivity of the professional unit. capitalism' Marx berieved that the Lasic contradictions
It is primarily an economic pfuase and used in the same contained in a capitalist economic system would lead
to
vein by Marx while talking about work conditions in its eventual destruction. proletariai will come forward
capitalism. On the other hand, Emile Durkheim tried to as a class and usurp the power and rule of bourgeoise
understand division of labour from social perspective to make society a classless one. However, befoie the
i.e. as a process of social differentiation which renders dawling of this utopia, certain changes must occur. And
society cohesive and integrated. it is here l-re gives the two concepts Lf .lum in itself and
Marx studied Division of labour (DOL) class-for itself. A class in itseffls a class consisting
of
as a characteristic feature of capitalism involving those people occupying the same relation to the means
differentiation of occupation and multiplication oT of production; irrespective of their acknowiedgement
industrial activity in the pursuit of suiplus value. or awareness of this.
Durkheim, in his doctoral thesis-.,,Division of Labour,, They are Iacking in any common class identity,
moved away from this economic interpretation and political mobilization or other icleological bonds, class
explained it in terms of its moral and social role. It is for itself, on the other hand is a full fl"edgea, conscious
not simply as in the works of political economists, the class pursuing its own interests againsi those
of the
cause of 'wealth of nations., It is, instead the source opposing class, aware of their common identity and
from
which they derive whatever cohesion they possess. For organized politicatly. According to Marx, a class in
itself
Marx, DOL is a conscious step on the pari o1 capitalists has to transform into class-for- itself before a successful
to increase production of their factoiies and io meet proletarian revolution. And this transformation
comes
the demands of market. Durkheim, however, sa.nz with true class consciousness i.e. by a realization of the
it as
a gradual process to meet the needs of society true nature of exploitation. Members of a class develop
and not
market. In his anqlysis of division of labour. Dukheim a common identity, recognize their shared interests
anrl
talked about two types of society_one characterised urite, so producing class solidarity. The final stage of
by
mechanical solidarity and othei by organic solidarity. class consciousness and class solirJarity is reached
Mechanical solidarity denotes u foi* of cohesion when
members realize that only by collective action can they
underlying traditional societies. These societies are overthrow the ruling class and r,r.hen they take positivl
marked by homogeneity of values and behaviour, steps to do so..
strong social constraint and loyalty to traditions and
kinship. DOL is simple wlttr iittle specialization of
function. Organic solidarity on the other hand is typical
a. Critically analyse the contributions of G.H.
Mead to'symbolic interac-tionism.,,
of modern societies based on inter dependence of u
large number of highly specialized roles in a system "ury (csE,2010)
involving a complex division of labour. Where Marx Ans: Symboiic Interactionism is an American
saw division of labour as divisive, Durkheim believed school of thought which was developecl from the
it ts be reinforcer of social solidarity. work of American philosophers like John Dewey, W.I.
For Marx, nOf ls the primary reason behind Thomas and George Herbert Mead. It is sometimes
the alienation of proletariat. Capitalism alienates the described as a phenomenological perspective because
workers by its ceaseless tendency towards specializatiory of its emphasis on the actor,s view,s ur-rj i.rt"rpr"tations
towards increased differentiition in the pursuit of o{ social reality. Thus Movis and Meltzer state that
profits. For Durkheim, this specialization instead meant symbolic interactionism is concerned with,the inner,
or
cooperatiory cohesion and mutual interdependence. phenomenological aspects of human behaviour,.
G.H. Mead, one of the primary contributors, to this
a. Examine Karl Marx,s views on ,class-in_ school of thought talks about human interaction
in terms
itself' and 'class for itself, with reference to or symbols. In Mead's r.iew, h:uman thought, experience
prol.etarians. (CSE,2010)
and conduct are essentially social. Tiley owe their
nature to the fact that human beings interait in terms
Ans: Class lies at the centre of Marxian sociology. of
symbols. Symbols impose particulai meanings on
He defines class as a social group whose members objects
and events and through that provici" *"url, wheieby
share the same relationship to the forces of production.
man can interact meaningfully with his natural and
For e.g., the tr,vo classes in feudalist society are
nobility social environment. Symbolic interaction is necessary
78 '{r, soctoLocY Q&A

since man has no instincts to direct his behaviour' In struggle originates within the economic in{rastructure
order to survive, he must therefore construct and live of the Eociety. According to Marx at the dawn of human
within a world of meaning. history when man used to live was a stage of primitive
However, meanings of symbols need to be shared communism. In such societies conflict of interacts
by members of society for social life to proceed among classes were totally absent because the forces of
meaningfully. Common symbols provide only the means produition and products of labour were communally
by which human-interaction can be accomplished' In owned. But with the emergence of private ownership of
the forces of productiory the fundamental contradictions
oider for interaction to proceed, each person involved
must interpret the meanings and interactions of others'
or class distinctions were created' In other words the
forces of production gave rise to particular relations
Mead gave the concept of 'role-taking' to explain this'
The piocess of role-taking involves the individual
of production. Through the ownership of the forces
taking on the role of another by imaginatively placing
of production, a minority group began to command
and control the fruits of production and also became
himself in the position of the person with whom he is
dominant grouP.
interacting. For example, if he observes another person
However, the forces of production do not remained
smiling, crying waving his hand or shaking his fist, he
will put himself in that person's position in order to unchanged. Whenever, the forces of production
interpret his intention and meaning. On the basis of this
undergone a change, there was a corresponding
change in the relation of production also' As a result
interpretation he will make his response to the action
of others.
of thL change a new class emerged as dominant who
controlled, and commanded the fruits of the labour
Another central aspect of Mead's symbolic
of the majority population. These dominant class i'e'
interactionism is the concept of 'self'. Mead claims that
owner class began to exploit the labour class for making
the idea of self can develop only if the individual can
more profit. Consequently conflicts began between the
'get outside himself (experientially) in such a way as to
emerging dominant class and labour class. According to
become an object to himself.' Therefore the origin and
Marx in every stage of existing society except primitive
development of a concept of self lies in the ability to take
communism dominant group endeavoured to determine
the role of another. The notion of self is not inborn, it is
the super structure. (i.e. law, political system, economic
learned during childhood. Mead sees two main stages
system etc.) in terms its own interest. These interests
in its development-Play stage and Game stage'
became reason of conJlicts betw'een the owner class and
Play stage involves the child playing roles which the labour class. This conflict in various stages of social
are not his own. For example, child may play at being life caused the society to undergo in various changes'
mother or father, a doctor or a nurse' In doing so he Thus, Marx claimed that social changes have
becomes aware that there is a di{ference between himself occurred due to contradiction which are found in the
and the role that he is playing. The second stage in the economic infrastructure of the society. Marx opined
development of self is'game stage'. In playing a game/ that the history of all hitherto existing society is the
the child comes to see himself from the perspective of history of class struggle and in his view class struggle
the various participants i.e. from collective viewpoint will continue till classless society i.e. communism will
of other players what Mead calls as'the generalized not come. According to Marx, present existing capitalist
others'. society will be changed by proletariat class i'6' labour
In Mead's view, the development of consciousness class and classless society will come in future where
of self is an essential part of the process of becoming a forces of production will be owned by all' There will be
human being. Without an awareness of self, the individual
no discrimination in societY.
cannot direct action or respond to the actions of others' This view of social change was contradicted by
Thus we conclude that Mead's view of human interactionmany functionalist scholars who believes in stability
sees man as both actively creating the social environment
of social system. According to them social change is
and being shaped by it. The individual initiates and not only the result of class conflict but due to other
directs his own action while at the same time being inherent reasons that exist in society' According to
influenced by the attitudes and expectations of othersTalcott Parsons every social system is composed of
in the form of the'generalized others'. some basic elements zuch as family, religion, populatior;
various institutions/ moors, norms, political system,
a. Comment on the responses of the functionalist- economic system etc' These comPonents interact with
school to Karl Marx's view on social change' each other for proper functioning of social system'
(csE,2009) But whenever, changes occur in component of social
Ans: According to Karl Marx social change occurs system society moves
towards change' According to
Talcott Parsons there are various factors
as a sequel to class struggle and the seeds of class functionalist
 SOCIOLOGICAL THINKERS rr 79
that are responsible for social change such as migration,
on individual for example- the institutions of law,
change in physical environment, clange in availability beliei
religion etc. are obligatory to all individual living in
of resources, the factor of productioi and change in
a
society. A social fact is also independent of individual
technology. According to parsons society has mlved
existence and has general occurrence in the society.
from primitive nature to advanced capitalist one due For
to eg. belief, feelings and practices, moores etc.
changes in various factors but not because of conflicts
Thus, in totality social fact is specific which is born
that occurred in society.
out by the associations of individuals. It represents
Max Weber, another functionalist, in his analvsis a
collective content of society.
of social change and class does agree with Marx that
economy is an important ingredient in the analysis of According to Durkheim these are three kinds of social
social change. But he does not believe that society facts that exist in societ5r:
will
be divided into two hostile group. At the same time (i) Structural or Morphological Sotial Facts:
he also does not favour the idea of .lus conflict that This is the elementary part of the society. For
Marx has talked about_ Weber opined that in coming example- the distribution of population over the
future, the society will be divided into many classei surface of territory, forms of dwellings, nature of
and one class will get promotion into another class
with communication systems.
improvement in economic condition. For example_ in (ii) Institutionalized form of Social Facts: They
future pitty bourgeoisie will turn into white collar jobs represent collective nature of society as a whole. For
as professionals, administrator and so on. On legal and moral rules, religious dogma etc.
the oiher 9xample,
hand labour class will tumed into pitty bourgeoisie
class.
fall under this category.
Thus, there will be no class antagonism in ttre society (iii) Social Facts which are not Institutionalized:
Such
because there will many classer. Thrr, class conflict social facts have not yet acquired crystallized forms.
is
not possible in the society and it will not cause social They lie beyond the institutionalized norms of
change. society. This type of social facts have not attained
Functionalist thus considered Marx approach of a total objective and independent existence. These
social change as utopian in nature which L^fu. u*uy social facts have been termed as social currents.
For
frorn reality. At the same time they also claimed that example- sporadic currents of opinion generated in
in capitalist society, contradictions and problems as the specific situations, enthusiasm generated in crowd,
nemesis of the system itself has not been proved etc.
so far
as talked by Karl Marx. Apart from it Emile Durkheim has also talked
about normal and pathological social facts. A social
fact
a. Subject matter of sociology according to Emile considered as normal when its occurrence is often
is
Durkheim. (CSU, ZOO9;
regular. For eiample- some degree of crime is inevitable
in any society. But an extraordinary increase in the role
Ao:, According to Durkheim the subject matter
.
of sociology should be the study of social facts. Social
of crime is pathological. A g".,"rul weakening in the
moral condemnation of crime lead to anarchy in society,
fact is that way of acting, thinting or feeling which
can be turned as pathological social facts.
is more or less general in a given iociety. Durkheim
has treated social facts as things. These are real and
Durkheim has also given a guideline about how to
study social facts. According to Durkheim facts must
exists independent of individual,s will or desire. True te
treate-d as things and it should be studied empirically
nature of social facts lie in the collective or associational
and through direct intuition. They cannot be modified
characteristics inherent in society. For examples_ Legal
by a simple effort of will.
code, customs, moral rules, religions, practices, belielfs,
languages etc.
The main characteristics of social facts are a. Talcott Parsons idea of moving equilibrium.
(i) Externaliry (ii) Constraint
(iii) Independence and Ans: Tatcott parsons basicany u rrr,"llo?EuiriT:l
(iv) Generality. talked about the evaluation of society from lower primitive
It is external as it exists outside individual
consciences. Their existence is external to individuals to industrial stage. parsons is famous for the theorv of
for eg. lar.vs, customs, religions, beliefs etc. exists outside social system in which he advocated for stabilitv
and
and prior to individual. Because individuar takes equilibrium. Parsons has often accused for maintaining
birth status quo in social system but in his theory of socia'i
in society and leaves it, however, social facts remain
in change he talked about change of system and change
society forever.
within the system. According to Talcott parsons every
Another characteristics of social fact that it exercises
social system is composed of some basic components
a constraint on individual as it apply compulsive
forces such as family, religiory population, various institution
 80 *k soctoLocY Q&A

morals, norms/ political system, econornic system etc' Merton in his theory of deviance argued that
These components interact with each other to maintain
the deviance does not evolve from the pathological
stability and for proper functioning of social system' But personalitv but from the culture and structure of
whenever changes occur in component of social svstem ihe society itself. Merton in his famous essay "Social
its equilibrium is disturbed' As a result society moves Structure and Anomie", has broaden the concept of
deviance to include various types of deviant behaviour
towards change. Merton
as well as revolutionary upheavels' According to
According to Talcott Parsons there are various
often individual is not deviant in nature'
factors that are responsible for the change in social system
change in physical environment' But some social structure and cultures prevalent
such as migration,
-availability of resources, the f actor of
change in in society forces individual to adopt deviant.non-
prodrltiorl and change in technology, 9t-c' He opined conJormiit behaviour. Merton in his theory of deviance
that society has moved from low level of differentiation not only goes against Durkheim and Talcbtt Persons'but
also reiuses the view of Sigmund Freud'
i.e. primitive one to higher level i'e' advanced modern
,o.i"ty. Thus, society has evolutionary character" In his R.K. Merton believes that society restrain the free
evoluiionary idea he has advocated that modern society expression of man's instinct desire which many times
has developed through different stages, such as: breaks into rebelions desire' Merton further says that
(i) LoweiPrimitive Stage: Here different types of ideas social structure is dynamic and active which provide
and religious belief emerged' a fresh motivation and new pattern of conduct to
(ii) Advanced I'rimitive Stage: In this stage its member. Thus, Merton rather concentrating on
differentiation occurred and social stratification indiviclual, concentrating on social structure'
became apparent which brought inequality in the
Merton has clearly separated the cultural and
societY. structural elements of society into two polar extremes
(iii) Intermediate Stage of Society: In this stage i.e" socially approved goals and culturally accepted
means. Goals are more or less integrative and are the
language, literature, leadership became prominent
unJroirr"ttal institutions like bureaucracy and legal framework of social structure. They are also recognized
as desirable such as success/ power, money and so on'
system also emerged.
These goals can be achieved through institutionalized
(iv) Industrihl Stage of Society: This is the advanced
rn"ur-t, o, norrhs. According to Merton these two can
stage of society which is highly specialized and
work independently to each other' He also talked about
differentiated. Here separation has errrerged at a
two polar types of culture present in society'
very large scale which caused separation between
policy, and social system but they have According to Merton these may develop some
"iorlo*y exclusive stress on value of a particular goal and these
connective link and interdependence'
may be little concerned of institutionally prescribed
According to Parsons after every change society trv
to stabilise itself by bringing equilibrium in its various
noi*r. These goals may be so important that even
t}rrough forbidden rneans it can achieved' Merton in
component. But this stability remains for sometimes and
this re"gard cites the example of American society which
again changes occur in the social system' Thus stability'
shareithe goal of success measured in terms of wealth'
e[uilibrium and changes are inherent nature of any material poisession. American democracy states that all
society which remain continue and go on"
member of society should have an equal opportirnlty of
achieving success'
Q. To Robert Merton, deviant behaviour is a result
In American society the accepted ways of achieving
of anomie. Analyse his sociological theory of success are educational qualificatiory talent, hard work'
deviant behaviour, with a special reference determination and ambition. In a balanced society an
to his formulation of types of deviance' equal emphasis is placed on both cultural goals and
(csE,2oo9) in.stitutionalized means and member remain satisfied
Ans: Two social behaviours are universal to every with them. But in American society great importance is
society: Con{ormity behaviour and Deviant behaviour' attached to success and relatively less importance has
Con{ormity is the action of an individual that is oriented been given to the accepted ways of achieving success'
to social norms, values, etc. These norms and values are As a iesult, according to Merton American society is
;i
internalized as the part of personality' Mechanism of unbalanced and unstable. There is tendency of rejecting
social control such as education, religiory state, etc' also the rules of game to strive success by any available
forced the individual towards conformity' means. Such situation is resulting in anomie'
However, deviance is opposite to conformity' It is Anomie, according to Merton, is a situation where
the act of individual which does not follow the norms rule cease to operate in the society and widespread
and expectation of a societY. normlessness resulted.
 SOCIOLOGICAL THINKERS ..i..... 81
However, individuals respond to this situation in mode of goal achievement are in the society but
different ways and their reaction is shaped by their not for the society. They are true alien for the
position in the social system. society. They resolve the con{lict of their situation
According to Merton five ways of deviance can be by abandoning both goals and means to reaching
found among the members of a society such as- them. Such peoples reject both cultural goals and
(i) Conformity Social Behaviour-This is the most institutionalized means. For example-psychotic,
common and widely mode of social behaviour chromic drunker. vagabonds, drug addicts are such
where people confirms to both means and goals and individuals.
thus, in such condition stability and continuity in (") Rebellion-Here individual rejects both the goals and
social system is maintained. institutionalized means and wants their replacement
(ii) Innovation-It occurs when individual gives by different goals and means. This occurs when
primacy to goal without equally internalizing the people realize that the prevailing structure and
institutionalized means to achieve it. For example- its institutionalized elements are unfair or it is
Robbery, cheating, thieft are some of the means for providing hinderance to the realization of legitmatic
reaching to success. goal. Thus, stage is set for rebellion.
This type of deviant behaviour is more common For example-organized political action, social
movement, terrorism, etc. are such kind of deviant
among lower classes lvhose advancement towards
behaviour.
the goal is blocked by the structural barrier of the
society.
Thus, Merton has shown that how culture ancl
structure of society generate deviance.
(iii) Ritualism-This involves scaling down their lofty
goals to a great extent where one's aspiration can
be satisfied. Here individual rejects the obligation
of goal by downing his horizons of aspiration but
he confirm to institutionalized means. This type of
adaptation is made in such society which put much
stress on achieved status. In such society anxiety or
frustration produced by competition forced contain
individual to scale down their level of aspiration
by playing safe. For example-Lower middle class
and caqtious bureaucrats iower their aspiration in + = Acceptance
society. - = Refusai
(iv) Retreatism-This is the private rather than collective T = Refusal of existing norms and goals and their
mode of adaptation. The people who adopt this replacement by new one;

**n*

il
 CHAPTER

a. How do you assess the changing patterns in a Kinship relationships have also been impacted.by
kinship relations in societies today? laws pertaining to marriage, divorce, adoptiory and
inheritance.
Ans: The kinship system l"f"r, ,. , ,"lt::"?:3:l a For instance, India's Hindu Succession
recognized as relatives, either, by virtue of a blood (Amendment) Act, 2005 significantll. altered the
relationship technically called consanguinity, or by country's Iong-standing patrilineal inheritance
virtue of a marriage relationship, that is through what structure by granting daughters equal inheritance
is called affinal or conjugal relationship. Now a days, rights.
they also include - relationships based on adoption t Kinship relationships have also been altered
and places. by technological innovations such as assisted
Kinship bonds are changing dramatically in the reproductive technologies (ART).
quickly evolving society of today. Sociologists have a New familial relationships like sperm donation and
made significant contributions to our understanding of surrogate motherhood have been made possible
these shifting patterns by highlighting the necessity of via ART.
modifying our conception of kinship to take into account a Because they distinguish between social and
the reality. of modern living.
biological parenting, these technologies upend long-
Changing Patterns in Kinship Relations standing kinship conventions"
o The transition from joint to nuclear families a In structural terms, nuclear family, decline of
has occurred with the rise of modernity and patriarchal relations, weaning authority of parents
urbanization. Individual identification is now more over childrery rise oJ alternative kinship institutions
important than kinship identity. like live-ins are contemporary trends.
a Because people are more preoccupied with their a Functional aspects of kinship relations are also
immediate family than with wider kinship relations, changing. Various function of family and other
this has resulted in a ra,eakening of kinship descent groups are taken over by alternative
relationships. institutions.
. Many societies have seen a change from arranged a Placement function is no longer performed by
marriages to love marriages. Inter-caste and inter- family and it is done by other economic
religious marriages are more common now. organizations.
. People from various social backgrounds coming a Similarly, jural rights of kin groups are also taken
together through these marriages frequently results away by formal judicial institutions. Education
in the formation of new kinship ties. function is also performed by schools now.
. Men were traditionally the head of the family in the Cases of marital breakdowry divorce and separation
patriarchal kinship structure. But with the growth are increasing in fa'mily. Incidences of domestic
;j of feminism and women's emancipation, women violence are also increasing.
are no longer restricted to the home. a Community bonds and kinship bonds are
. Kinship arrangements have changed as a result, weakening and there are lesser avenues to vent out
with women increasingly regarded as equal pent up frustrations leading to distress in marital
partners in the family. life.

I
 SYSTEM OF KINSHIP ::L:: 83
Kinship relations are not static but dynamic. counterbalance this with an appreciation of the
Kinship relations adapt to societal shifts in the political, structural elements and power relationships that mould
social, and cultural spheres. these prdctices.
To comprehend the shifting social dynamics of
societies, one must comprehend these shifting patterns a. Does women's education help to eradicate
in familial relationships. patriarchal discriminations? Reflect with
illustrations. (CSE 2023)
a. Analyse critically David Morgan's views on Ans: Patriarchy is defined by Sylvia Waiby in her
family practices. (CSE 2023) 'Theorizing Patriarchy, 1-990' as'a system of social
Ans: David Morgan's viewpoints on family structures and practices in which men dominate and
practices have improved our comprehension of the opPress women'.
complex interactions that take place between families According to her, paLriarchy operates through
and the larger social setting. multiple structures like - production relations in
David Morgan has expanded the definition of the household where women is subjected to unpaid
family beyond its traditional structural components. labour, discriminatorv aliocation of occupations
His emphasis on "family practices" arrd the "doing" in labour market, capture of political power by
of family life, as opposed to tonventional structural patriarchs, male violence which is often patterned and
conceptions of what makes a fam.lly, has made him systematic, patriarchal relations in sexuality which are
especially well-known. manifested in sexual double standards for males and
. David Morgan defines family practices as the females, patriarchal cultural institutions iike education,
media, etc.
..t
!
routine activities that members of a family do with
,:l
the aim of inJluencing each other. These behaviors Role of Education in Eradicating Patriarchal
might vary from straightforward discussions to Discriminations
intricate exchanges. . Women's education exposes people to a variety
. According to Morgan, family life is a collection of viewpoints and ideas, which challenges
of continrling procedures and customs rather conventional wisdom.
than a static thing. Along with more intangible . Women who have greater education are more
elements like preserving emotional relationships, inclined to criticise and question patriarchal
communicating, and upholding shared ideals, it practices and ideas.
encorripasses routine tasks like cooking, cleaning, . Feminists contend that myths and cultural ideas
and child care. give nien the upper hand and assign \,vomen a
. Morgan argues how gendered individuals and Iower status
communities are shaped by family activities. . Therefore, by introducing egalitarian ideas into the
He places a strong emphasis on the mutual classroom, education can help to shift patriarchal
influence that exists between family life and the mindsets.
social context. r For example, the "Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao"
. Single-parent families provide an illustration of (Save the Girl Child, Educate the Girl Child)
Morgan's theory of family behaviours. Morgan by the Indian government aimed at promoting
would emphasise the activities that single parents girl's education and questions patriarchal
do to foster a sense of family, such as shared meals, ideology.
bedtime stories, and holiday customs, rather than . Women's socioeconomic standing can also be
basing the definition of family on the existence of raised by education since it gives them the skills
two parents. necessary to enter the workforce.
l However, Morgan's approach has a tendency to . Since they are more likely to be employed and
ignore the power structures in families. It makes the make more money, educated women have more
assumption that all family members have the same ' negotiating power inside their households and are
degree of agency and choice in "doing" family life. For less dependent on men.
example, women may have less influence over family c I person's capacity to adjust to societal shifts is
rituals in patriarchal households" enhanced by education. As countries develop,
Although David Morgan's perspectives on educated people are more likely to support
family practices offer a vibrant and comprehensive progressive ideals and help tear down patriarchal
comprehension of family life, it is imperative to structures.
 ":\

84 ffi soclolocye&A
Flowever, Marxist feminists contend that gender . Within families, conflict theorists highlight the role
norms and patriarchal ideais are reinJorced by educatiorl of power in family life and contend that the family
which is advantageous to the capitalist system of is often not a haven, but rather an arena where
econornics. The sexual division of labour results in free power struggles occur.
domestic work. . Arlie Hochschild's research on couples led her to
Therefore, it is important to remember that publish The Second Shift (1989), which described
education is not sufficient on its own, even while a second shift, or the labor performed at home in
women's eclucation can be extremely useful in ending addition to labor in the traditional, external work
patria rch.r I prej u drce. sectors.
In acldition, sociai movernents, economic policies, . Marxian says it breeds notions of conformity.
and legal changes all have a significant impact on the According to David Cooper in his 'Death. of
subversion of patriarchal practices and norms. Family, 1972'-'k is an ideological conditioning \
device in an exploitative society'. He also says it
a. Discuss various theoretical perspectives on denies individual freedom and is a hindrance in
the farnily. (C5E,20221 development of an individual's self.
Ans: Sociologists study families on both the macro
The Symbolic Interactionism Perspective
and micro level to examine thisimportant and universal
social institution. Sociologists may use a variety of
. Interactionists view the world in terms of symbols
;
tl-reoretical perspectives to explain events that occur and the meanings assigned to them. The family
within and outside of the family. itself is a symbol.
. To some, it is a father, mother, and children; to
The Functionalist Ferspective
others, it is any union that involves respect and
. When considering the role of family in society, compassion. Interactionists stress that famiiy is not
functionalists begin
"vith the importance of families an objective, concrete reality.
as formative social institutions that play a key role . Like other social phenomena, it is a social construct
in stabilizing society. that is subject to the ebb and flow of social norms
" They also qxamine the statuses and roles that family and ever-changing meanings.
members take on in marriages and/or families. Furthermore, Edmund Leach in his 'A Runaway
The family--and its members-perform certain World?, 1967' says, the modern family is isolated from
systemic functions that facilitate the prosperity and larger society and kin and is a storehouse of stress and
development of sociely. tension. 'Parents and children huddied together in their
" Sociologist George Murdock conducted a survey loneliness thke too much out of each other. Parents fight, -\
.q.
o{ 250 soci.eties and determined that there are four children rebel'. \
universal residual functions of the family: sexual, In contemporary times, increased female labor force
reproductive, educational, and economic. participation, legislation impacting gender, personal law
. Functionaiists examine the division of labor within and international migration, advances in science and
a family b1, distinguishing between instrumental technology including new reproductive technologies
and expressive roles. among others, have interacted with the family and
o Instrumental roles typically involve work outside have led to many structural and functional changes in
of the family that provides financial support and the family.
establishes family status.
. Expressive roles typically involve work inside of a. How do you understand the relationship
the famil,v whicir provides emotional support and between pakiarchy and social development?
physical care for children. (csE,20221
The Con{lict Perspectiv Ans: Patriarchy is defined by Sylvia Walby in her
'Theorizing Patriarchy, 1990' as 1a system of social
. )ust as functionalists are examining the ways in structures and practices in which men dominate and
which a particular social institution operates and
oppress women'.
fulfiils important tasks-or functions-for societies,
conflict theorists are looking at the mechanisms According to Walby, patriarchy operates through
through which these same social institutions multiple skuctures like -
reproduce systems of inequality at a macro- . Production relations in the household where
sociological level. women is subjected to unpaid labor,
 SYSTEM OF KINSHIP ,: 85
. Discriminatory allocation of occupations in labor Unless the state of being equal in status, rights
market, and opportunities are experienced by each and every
. Capture of political power by patriarchs, male member of the family, social inequality i.i,otild keep
violence which is often patterned and systematic, reshaping racial, gender and lveaith ineqrralities and
. Patriarchal relations in sexuality which are social developm.ent will remain elusive.
manifested in sexual double standards for males Therefore, when a group of one or more parents and
and females, their children living together as a unit do not experience
. Patriarchal cultural institutions like education, any male-domination and control over the other gender
media, and so on. and consider both genders equally capable, valued
and deserving respect, the family breaks the circle of
Patriarchy in Family & Society belonging to social groups categorized as advantaged
. Patriarchy is reflected within family as well in and disadvantaged, on the contrary, the family sirnply
wider society and is reflected at manifest as well lives what it means to be together and deliver promises
as latent level. to togetherness and goals of economic and social
. Within family, authority structure, inheritance development.
rights and other entitlements, rituals, division of
labor reflect it. a. Explain how the pattern of patriarchy is being
. In society, gender discrimination, divisions of altered in a family and at the workplace in tire
labor - some jobs are now stereotyped as women's present context. (CSE 2021)
job and others as men's jobs, physical and sexual Ans: According to Sylrria Walby, patriarchy is
.J violerrce against woman etc. reflect it. commonly described as a systeln of social structures
Patriarchy & Inequality and practices, in which men govern, oppress and erploit
. women.
Patriarchy is the least noticed yet the most significant
structure of social inequality. Patriarchy has
However, due to modern education, laws,
technology, etc. patriarchl, is being altered in families,
disempowered women
workplaces and in other social structures as well"
. When the great potential is sidelined and excluded
from decision-making, the family can't be upgraded Alterations in Family
from its existing social status, class, and circle. Due to laws like Prohibition of l)owrv Act,
. When a woman doesn't evolve, it puts a direct and education of womery etc. patriarchy is being altered at
severe impact on the upbringing of children. They homes in multiple walrs. Some women are getting the
do not become focused individuals. opportunity to work outside the homes.
. They receive a poor education, undergo substance This has led to increase in their income leading to
abuse, and face unemployment and marginalisation. their empowerment. At the same time women continue
Hence, they become the subject of social inequality. to perform domestic u,ork leading to the concept of
double shift where a woman has to work in tlvo shifts:
Attention to Rights of Women in offices and at homes too.
. With the advent of feminism, women's rights on the However, according to Wilmont and Young
ground of the equality of the sexes were strongly symmetric families are also coming up in which both
advocated. The French and American revolutions men and women share equal burden and responsibilitiee.
in the late 18th century made people, for the first While the instances of domestic violence have come
time, pay attention to the issue of rights for women. down but the recent increase in domestic violence during
. The different waves of feminism took up issues the COVID-19 shows that home is still an unsafe place
related to political change, unity and sisterhood, and patriarchy still manifests itself through violence.
and class and race to ensure women political, Conholling women{s sexuality has been traditionally
econpmic, and social equality. t seen to be a man's right justified by patriarchal laws
o d lot has been changed since then, instead of and rules. Flowever this. is being challenged in the
earmarking patriarchy, the focus of responsible and judiciary by civil society demanding to criminalize
sensible families is on respecting varied women's marital rape.
involvements, individualities, acquaintance and Traditionally decision making in famiiies has been
influence, and facilitating women empowerment so the man's right. This continues to be so in many families
that they can grow to realise their full rights, and but women are challenging this notion and demanding
consequently reduce social inequalities. equal right in important famill, decisions.
 86 :s SocloLOGY Q&A

Alterations at Workplace . Work schedules of young parents in the software

Earlier the workplace was exclusionary r.vith women industry in India may lead to increasing number
not allowed to uzork outside the homes. According to of grandparents moving in as care-givers to young
Parsons, women performed affective roles like care- grandchildren.
giving while men perform instrumental roies like . Conjugal Relations and Authority Structure -
working outside homes. Relationship between husband and wife today is
This patriarchal notion of workplace has been more based on cooperation rather than domination
challenged giving rise to new form of workplace which and women are also playing increasing role in
is segregational in nature. According to Karuna Ahmad, decision making. Young and Willmott call.them
women are mostly concentrated in low paicl, informal symmetrical families.
and pink collar jobs. Due to the low income in some . Parents-Child Relationship - Children are playing
classes women are also forced to work outside homes more roles in decision making and families have
but at the same time in some classes with the growing nor,r, become filliocentric. Both parents now take up
income women have been forced to withdraw from work instrumental and emotional roles.
as argued by Dipankar Gupta in Mistaken Modernity. . Family is becoming more of an individualized
Laws like Sexuai F{arassment of Women at affair and there are greater incidences of divorce
Workpiace (Prevention, Prohibition and Re,;-lressal) with growth of single parent families. According
Act were believed to have reduced instances of sexual to Duncan Fletcher, people today expect more out
violence at workplace but the recent #MeToo Campaign of marital relations and hence more likely to end a
showed that women still continue to face sexual violence relation which would have survived in past.
at workplace both latently and manifestly. . Family is becoming more of an individualized alfair.
Thus despite various efforts patriarchy as an Authority of the aged is also decreasing.
ideology seems to be surviving despite numerous social, . Concept of old age homes is also leading to the
cultural and political changes. Rather than disappearing
transfer of old age care function to institutions.
altogether it is just altering its course. . Neolocal trend is replacing patrilocal patterns.
Employed new couples have to move to new places
a. Discuss\the changing nature of kinship where their jobs are located.
relations in the contemporary world. . New family types such as DINK- Double Income
(csE 2021) l{o Kids, weekend families, living apart together,
Ans:'Kinship system refers to a set of persons single parent family, etc. have come up. Household
recognized as relatives either by virtue of a blood dimension of family is also emerging due to
relationship called consanguinity, or by virtue of migration, education in cities, etc.
a marriage relationship called affinal or conjugal Marriage
relationship. . Emergence of new forms or alternatives to marriages
Factors like nuclear family, individualizatior:r,
migration, urbanization, wornen empowerment, etc.
- cohabitation or live-ins, love marriage, court
marriage, inter-caste, inter-religious, gay and
have changed the nature of kinship relations as can be
lesbian partnerships, etc. are new emerging trends.
seen from the following:
. Change in forms of marriage is also occurring with
Family changing times. Societies with traditions of plural
. According to Ronald Fletcher, secondary functions marriages are also turning towards monogamy/
of family today are performed by the bureaucratic e.g. Pakistan
organizations. For example, social control is now . Another change observed is that age at marriage
lying in the hands of law and order maintaining is also increasing. Government of India is also
institutions. increasing the marriage age of girls.
. Family, today, no longer performs the production o Dowry is becoming more entrenched and prices of
function and it no longer plays the role of placing groom are increasing with education.
;l
an individual economically in society. Modern . Child marriage is still practised in some parts of
division of labour has facilitated numerous avenues country (according to UNICEF at least 1.5 million
of employment. girls under 18 get married in India. With breakdown
. The migration of men is also leading to an unusual of traditional values, instances of divorce and
proportion of women-headed families in the breakdowns are also increasing and elderly are also
villages. getting neglected and abused.
 SYSTEM oF KINSHIP 'tt::t:: 87
F{owever, according to A M Shah, Breakdown Therefore, kinship continues to be a basic principle
Hypothesis is not relevant to India. In India kinship is of social organisation and mobilisation on the one hand
undergoing new changes along with retention of some and division and dissension on the other. It is a complex
traditional features as wel1. phenomenorL and its role can be sensed even in modern
organisations. Migratiory mobility, changing nature of
a. Discuss the consequences of Across Region marriages, and education have weakened the kinship
marriage on kinship systems in modern systems and rules of clan organisation because members of
Indian sociery. (CSE 2020) a caste/sub-caste or of a clan do not live at the same place.

Ans: Marriage is a link between the family of

orientation and the family of procreation. This fact of a. Does the institution of marriage continue to
individual membership in two nuclear families gives be sacred in Indian society? Comments.
rise to kinship systems. (csE 2020)
Kinship is defined as "a social relationship based Ans: Marriage can be defined as a socially
upon family relatedness". The relationship which may acknowledged and approved sexual union between
be consanguineal (based on blood) or affinal (based two adult individuals. According to Malinowski,
on marriage), determines the rights and obligations of 'Marriage is a contract for the production and
related persons. maintenance of children'.
These social relations may be of authority and According to the traditional Hindu concept of
subordination, of economic exchange, of domestic marriage, Kapadia was of the opinion that marriage is a
cooperation, of ritual or ceremonial nature, and they social duty towards the family and the con-rmunity, and
may be enacted in many different ways. In this way, there was little idea of individual interest. The traditional
kinship refers to the ways and means by which social Hindu concept of marriage enables one to futfil dharma
ordering takes place. (socio-cultural and spiritual obligations towards the
Changes are taking place in kinship patterns due to family, community and society), praja (progeny as
mobility under vocational or professional pressure and social obligation towards society) and rati (pleasure as
movement of peopie due to across regions marriages individual sexual gratification).
in India. !.
During the last few decades the idea of marriage as
Kinship patterns are changing and so is the case a sacrament has weaken and the trend of the "personal
with affinity. In the past kinship was confined to caste, concept of marriage" is gaining ground. Young people
and inter caste marriages were discouraged, But today today marry not for performing religious duties but for
inter- caste, across region marriages are taking place. companionship, and the marital relations are no longer
The number of inter caste marriap;es is also.increasing supposed to be unbreakable, as divorce is socially and
day by day. Due to these types of changes in marriages, Iegally permissible.
kins belong to different castes and regions. With the advent of modernization, industrialization
In the past in every society residence mattered and urbanizatiory traclitional outlook took a backseat in
much. Usually there were no marriages at very distant the society. Traditional marriage is now considered as
places. But today distance has no meaning. Thus, one a loss o{ individuality, loss of privacy, lack of freedom,
can have kinship at distant places and in any caste. But lack of individual growth, lack of social and sexual
due to long distances meetings shall not be frequent. variety, dissatisfaction with spouse, sexual frustration,
Hence, there will not be much affinity. problem with in-laws, etc.
The changes that have taken place in matrilocality All these {actors have led to a change in the form
and malriliny are, however, not uniform in different and purposes of marriage. At present the new trend of
regions. M.S.A. Rao has observed, as a whole the changes live-in-relationship is emerging in urban Indian society.
that have come about are neither uni{orm nor wholesale. Live-in-relationship or cohabitation is an arrangement
They exhibit different shades of intensities in different where two people, who are not married, live together
regions. Example - They are rapid in Travancore and in an intimate relationship, particularly an emotionally
slow in Malabar whereas Cochin occupies the middle or sexually intimate one/ on a long term or permanent
position. Thus, in the words of H.M. Johrison, "Kinship basis.
systen.rs are changing all the time. The changes in Today individuals have become career oriented.
important structural parts such as the form of marriage, Women are going out for work. This is preventing
the rule of residence, the rule of descent and the types them to go into the bonds of married life that is full
and composition of kin groups are usually slow; that is, of responsibility. Economic independence of people in
they usually emerge clearly in the course of generations urban society also paves way to live-in relations as these
rather than days or even years. people don't want interference in their personal life.
88 ffi$ socloLocY e & A
These days' young men and women are getting . Tharawad consists of a woman, her brother and
opportunity to know and spend time with each other. This sisters, her own and her sister's sons and daughters.
enhances the chances of getting into live-in relationship. No affinal relatives live in Tharawad and there are
Besides there are many other alternative forms no husband-wife and father children relationships in
of marriages are emerging as- the intrinsic marriage, Tharawad.
utilitarian marriage, open marriage, two step marriage/ . Village exogamy is not a fixed rule in South and
multi step marriage, temporary marriage, group rrrarriage, different clans within a village marry each other.
consensual marriage, covenant marriage, commuter . Like North, castes are divided into exogamous clans
marriage, swinging and sexually open marriage.
in South as well.
Thus, the processes of educational and urban .
development have, no doubt, created new situations and
Preferential marriages are followed in South.
problerns and have upset certain traditional rnores and Marriages with elder sister's daqghter, father's
values. Yet the marriage institution continues to be the sister's daughter, and mother's brother's daughter
core of Indian society and has not experienced a generai are preferred. F{owever, there are taboo on marrying
disintegration. younger sister's daughter and mother's sister's
daughter. So, a cousin can also become a wife.
Q. What, accordingto Irawati Karve, are the major . Levirate is also a taboo in South, while it is practiced
differences between North Indian and South in some areas in both North and Central India.
Indian Kinship system? (CSE,2019) . There is no distinction between family of birth and
Ans: Kinship in India is instrumental in not only family of marriage.
providing identity, but also governs various aspects of " Kinship terminology- overlap. For example: 'Ai' is
social life. In India, there is a variation in kinship patterns used for elder sister as well as for mother, 'Anna'
across the country. Kinship telations are significantly is used for bc,th an elder brother and father.
different from North to South, Tribes to Castes and so As a result, there is also no clear cut classification
on. Irawati Karr,,e - in her'Kinship Organization in India, of kin on the basis of generation. Instead, kinship
1952' divided India into four cultural kinship zones based terms denote age relations instead and the respect
on many factors like - kinship terms, language, descent thereof.
and inheritar\ce, patterns of marriage and famil|, and Therefore, North and South Indian kinship groups
othcr cultural values. have some distinguishable features along with some
Some distinctizte features of kinship in North are - similar features which are present in both.
. In North India, there is a clear distinction between
matrilineal and patrilineal kins. a. In the light of judicial intervention on'Live-in
. Persons belonging to a given generaticn and sex are relationships', discuss the fufure of marriage
addressed by a particular terminology and hence kin- and family in India. (CSE,2019)
terms are very specific and non-repetitive. There are
Ans: The Indian society has observed a drastic
also primary terms for three generations and terms of
change in its living pattern in the past few years. People
one generation are not exchangeable with the other
are slowly and gradually opening their minds towards
generation.
. the idea of live-in relationships. However, this"change
Sapinda rule is extended to 5 generations on the
has been continuously under criticism and highly
mother's side and 7 on father's side"
discussed as such concepts lack legality and acceptance
. Mother and father village exogamy is also followed.
by the society.
. Definition of incest taboo is wider as there is no
concept of preferential marriage in North and Live-in ltelationship and Law in India:
marriage with primary kin is not allowed. There is no particular law regarding the matter of
. Generally, a four-gotra rule is followed in marriage live-in relationship in India. There is no enactment to
in which four gotras are avoided - mother's, self, lay down the rights and commitments for the parties
grandmother's and maternal grandmother's. in a live-in relationship, and for the status of children
Some distinctioe features of kinship in Southern born to such couples.. There is no legal definition of
lndia are- live-in relationship and in this way the lawful status
. Patrilineal and Patrilocal system dominate, but there of such sort of connections is likewise unverified. The
are matrilineal and matrilocal traditions are also Indian law does not give any rights or obligations to
there among the Nayars, the Tiyans, some Mopalahs the parties of live-in relationships. However, court has
in Malabar region which is collectively known as clarified the concept of live-in relationship through
Tharawad. various judgments.
 SYSTEM OF KINSHIP ]*i 89
Though law is still unclear about the status of On the other hand they are also strengthening
such relationship yet few rights have been granted by the traditional form as many caste and community
interpreting and amending the existing legislations so spesific matrimony sites have also come up. Family
that misuse of such relationships can be prevented by and marriage have undergone changes due to various
the partners. Various such legislations are discussed factors. Industrialization and occupational differentiation
below- has led to geographical mobility. Many traditional
Domestic Violence Act, 2005: Though live-in family occupations are shunned for new avenues and
relationship is not categorically defined in the Act, but nuclearization of family happens. Similarly, in case of
left to the courts for interpretation. The court interpreted India, land reforms and land ceiling requirements had
the expression "relationship in the nature of marriage". led to demands of separate households. Legal fac.tors
The provisions of Act are presently made applicable to also played their role as individual was empowered and
the individuals who are in live-in relationships. Courts government policies promoted the idea of. small family
presume live-in relationships to be covered under the as the source of happiness.
ambit of the expression as the words nature of marriage Divorce and separation laws were made women
and live-in relationship stand on the same line and friendly. Education also promoted liberal thinking
meaning. and docile character was shed by many individuals.
Criminal Procedure Code, L973: Section 125 CrPC Urbanization also leads to migration, but the high costs
was incorporated in order to avoid vagrancy and of living deter shifting of whole family.
destitution for awifef minor children/old age parents,
and the same has now been extended by judicial a. Distinguish between family and household
interpretation to partners of a live-in relationship. with reference to concept of development of
fudicial Response to Live-in Relationships: the household. (CSE,2018)
The Supreme Court decided that couples with live-in Ans: In simplest terms, family is a social unit,
relationship will be presumed legally married. The Court household is a dwelling unit. Classical definitions defined
also added that the woman in the relationship would family as a group based on marriage, emotional bonds,
be eligible to inherit the property after the death of her colunon residence, and stipulation of domestic services. It
partner along with various other rights. has alsobeen defined as a group based onmarital relations,
\.

Future of Marriage and Family in India rights and duties of parenthood, common habitation
and reciprocal relations between parents and children.
Marriage and family have also undergone several
changes.
It is regarded by most sociologists as cornerstone of
the society.
Concerhs for career and spread of higher education
According to the functionalists like George peter
are also leading to rise in age of marriage.
Murdock, 'The family is a social group characterized
hr India also, marriage as an institution is undergoing
by common residence, economic co-operation and
several changes and stresses. New experiments like
reproduction" It includes adults of both sexes, at least two
live-iru single parent families and same-sex marriages
of whom maintain a socially approved sexual relationship,
are now gaining more traction as law takes a liberal and one or more children, own or adopted, of the sexually
interpretation of individual liberties. co-habiting adults'. Family is a social unit based on kinship,
Manners of mate selection are also changing and household is a brick and mortar dwelling unit.
love marriages are more common. Even in conservative The household or ghar is a residential and domestic
hubs like Haryana and Western UP, youths flout unit composed of one or more persons living under the
traditional norms like - Khap and Gotra endogamy sarne roof and eating food cooked in the same kitchen
rules to choose their mates in a freer manner. Inter-caste or hearth/chullah. Thus, emotional attachment is core
marriages are also becoming a noxm. Some hybrid forms feature of family, while commensality is core feature of
of mate selections like'arranged-love-marriage' are also household. Households and family may or may not be the
emerging. same for a given group of people. There can be different
With greater intrusion of technology and science, households for the same rnembers of family as in case of
it was expected that a secular-scientific outlook would husband and wife having occupations in different places
emerge and, consequently, the non-essential rituals and and hence living in different households.
customs will be done away with leading to reduction in There may also be different families in same
wasteful expenditures as well. households, as in case of di{ferent families living in a
Emergence of matrimonial websites has on one single house as tenants and landlords etc. There may
hand made marriage as a more liberal process as young also be institutional households as in case of hostels,
couples meet online, date and get married. dormitories, hotels and so on.
 90 ,x socroLocY e & A
a. Define patriarchy. How does patriarchy In the limited opportunities, through the economic
manifest in interpersonal relations? activity that is been provided through SHG's women
(csE,2018) are doing some smal1 economic activities without
challenging the dominant position of males in the
Ans: Patriarchy is defined by Sylvia Walby in her society, but indirectly through empowerment they
'Theorizing Patriarchy, 1.990' as'a system of social are bringing a paradigmatic shift in the definition of
structures and practices in which men dominate and Patuiarchal Bargain in the contemporary Indian society.
oppress women'. We could also cite the example of increasingly
According to her, patriarchy operates through supported women's role in combat forces where slowly
multiple structures like - production relations in women are entering in the fields of hitherto male
household where women is subjected to unpaid labor, dominated armed forces and bringing a revolutionary
discriminatory allocation of occupations in labor change through the voluntary support qf the male.s in
market, capture of political power by patriarchs, male the same armed forces. This also shows the Pakiarchal
violence which is often patterned and systematic, Bargain where even the males are supporting the
patriarchal relations in sexuality which are manifested participation of women.
in sexual double standards for males and females,
patriarchal cultural institutions like education, media Examine the relationship between the
a.
and so on.Walby distinguishes patriarchy as private contemporary trends in marriage and
patriarchy which is practiced in household and public changing form of family. (CSE,2017)
patriarchy which is collective response of a patriarchal
society to women.
Ans: It has been noticed after the Industrial
Revolution around the world that along with the
Patriarchy is reflected within family as well in
economic systems and patterns of work, institutions
wider society and is reflected at manifest as well as
like family and marriage also undergone a,wide range
latent level. Within family, authority structure,
of changes.
inheritance rights, rituals, division of labor reflect this
patriarchy.
It is said that the extended families were suitable
for the pre-industrial societies. With changing time
In society, gender discriminatioru division of labor
and circumstances, the institution of marriage is also
(Jobs stereotyped on gender), physical and sexual
undergoing various changes and it also does affect the
violence against woman etc reflect it.
forms of family formation.

a. Examine'patriarchal bargain' as gendered Views of Anthony Giddens on Marriage and Family:

division of work in contemporary India. Anthony Giddens explained the relationship
(csE,20171 between the changes in marriage taking place in
contemporary times and changing forms of family. He
Ans: Patriarchal bargain is a term coined by said that the very attitude of marriage has changed, 19th
Kandiyoti in 1988, which describes a tactic in which century led to the emergence of romantic love, now this
a woman chooses to accommodate and uphold has changed.
patriarchal norms, accepting gender roles that As women are taking to work, dual burden of
disadvantage women overall but maximizing her own marriage and work tends to be heavy, conjugal roles
power and options. It has been used to explain why though have not been changed. His study says that
women in patriarchal societies get married, wear veils, the changes are more in the middle-class than the
and con{orm to societal norms about sexual behaviour. working class. Increasing role of husband can be
In Indian society, the norms of patriarchy #fect women seen in the rearing of children. Also, Divorce rate has
in every phase of their life and in every field. Division been increased. Highest divorce rate is among the
of labour is also affected by the norms of Patriarchy. unorganised workers and army men and the lowest is
In Indian society, in the process of socialisation, among the upper and middle class professionals. Hence,
women have somewhere accepted the norms that the single-parent families are also on the rise.
breadwinner of the family should have the dominance
over the family, over the decisions of the family, also
Study of Rapaqorts and Rapaqorts Institution of
Family and Marriage
over the sexuality of the women.
;l
According to a study of Rapaqorts and Rapaqorts,
Pahiarchal Bargain in contemporary India forms of families are now diversifying due to changes
The best example of Patriarchal Bargain in India is in the forms of marriage. Symmetrical Nuclear Families,
the Self-Help groups. Self- Help Groups have become a Single-Parent Families, Homosexual families, Family
major source of women empowerment in the country. without marriage, Live-in Relationships, etc.

& &.4
 SYSTEM OF KINSHIP :I.; 91
According to them, there are two prevailing trends The more important tribes are: Khasi, Birhor, Hos,
in America: Marriage rates are falling, Co-habitation Mundas and Uraon. The kinship organisation here
(live-in relations) is on the rise. There is an increased has no one pattern. Santhals, Juangs, etc practices the
trend towards the marital break-up. Now more \.,v,omen dormitory system where young boys and girls practice
are seeking divorce, laws have also been simplified. free sexuality before marriage. In Khasi and Garo
Hence, more the trend of marital break-up persists; society, Husband is treated as an outsider, he is not
it will lead to greater diversification of the forms of supposed to participate in any important decision. In
families in all the societies around the world.
case of Nagas, bride capturing takes place, that leads to
inter-tribal warfare.
a. Discuss the regional variations of kinship
Regional variations in Kinship largely reflect on the
system in Indian society. (CSE,20\n socio-cultural diversity on the Indian society and hence
Ans: Kinship is a relationship among people are very significant to carry out the uniciue concepi of
driven by relationship based on consanguinity (blood unity in diversity in India.
relationship) and affinity (relationship based on
marriage). Kinship is an institution that transforms
individualism to collectivism. In Indian society, there
a. To what extent is patriarchy a cause for the
are variations of kinship system across various regions.
problems of women? Discuss. (CSE, 2010)
Ans: The briefest glance at the current and historical
Irawati Karwe has studied the regional variations in
outcomes of men relative to women yields an immediate
kinship system
impression that the latter are an un_fortunate party to a
. North Indian Kinship-Aryan Kinship System. raw deal. The list is familiar: on average, men make
. South Indian Kinship-Dravidian Kinship System. more money than women, occupy more positions of
. Central lndia Kinship-Mixed Kinship System high authority than women, and own more property
. Eastern India Kinship-Exclusive Kinship System. than women.
The variations are based on kinship terms, rules Gender Inequality, in simple words, may be defined
of marriage, territorial affiliatioru and kin relationship. as discrimination against women based on their sex.
Kinship Systeryr in North-India The root cause of gender inequality in Indian society
lies in its patriarchy system. According to the famous
According to Louis Dumont, in North India,
the kinship system is fixed. North Indian kinship is sociologists Sylvia Walby, patriarchy is "a system of
very ritualistic and integrative in character. In North social structure and practices in which men dominate,
Indian kinihip system, the rules of marriage are highly oppress and exploit women". Women's exploitation is
exhaustive because a large body of people are excluded an age oldcultural phenomenon of Indian society. The
from alliance relationship. system of patriarchy finds its validity and sanction in
In North Indian kinship father - son relationship our religious beliefs, whether it is Hindu, Muslim or any
precedes over husband - wife relationship. Elaborating other religion. For instance, as per ancient Hindu trar.^r
on this Veena Das in an analysis of Punjabi kinship giver Manu: "Women are supposed to be in the custody
system indicates that natural sexual relationship between of their father when they are children, they rnust be
husband and wife are subdued to social established under the custody o{ their husband when married and
relationship between father and son thereby glorifying under the custody of her son in old age or as widows.
the values of patriarchy. In no circumstances she should be allowed to assert
Kinship System in South-India herself independently".
In southem India kinship systems, no distinction is In Muslims also the situation is same and there
made between patrilineal or matrilineal. Cross cousins too sanction for discrimination or subordination is
marriage take place and so exogamy is not exhaustive like provided by religious texts and Islamic traditions.
in North India. The relationship between husband and wife Similarly, in other religious beliefs also women are
is not subdued to father - son relationship as in case of being discriminated against in one way or other. The
North hritia. Hostility of relationship between the in laws unfortunate part of gender inequality in our society
driven by suspicion is also weak in South India. Dumond is that the women too, through, continued socio-
tlt considers that South Indian kinship promotes social cultural conditioning, have accepted their subordinate
solidarity and exchange of wealth between two families. position to men. And they are also part and parcel of
Kinship System in Eastern India same patriarchal system. Extreme poverty and lack of
In Eastern India, kinship organisation is different. education are also some of the reasons for women's lor,r,
There are more tribes than caste Hindus in eastern India. status in society.

*
 92 .r,,, soctoLocy e & A
Radical feminists believe that patriarchy is society However, the extent of autonomy and democracy
is the reason that women are oppressed and exploited may vary from region to region, community to
by men, and Marxists hold the view that the capitalist community and caste to caste, depending upon the
system is the reason for the gender inequality. Feminists degree of its adaptation of the modern values and the
believe that women are unequal to men, and as a result urban way of life. As most people have now started
society benefits men whilst exploiting men. They believe taking up jobs in different parts of the country leaving
that gender inequality is socially constructed an example their parental family behind, they are having separate
is gender roles; these are taught to children at very households. Such small households look forward to
young ages and encourage these gender inequalities maintaining relationship with the parental family and
to become part of society's norms. People in society extending help and support to it. Passing away of the
are taught male patriarchy through education, male
traditional joint family system and not being replaced
dominance is enforced and a masculine view of the
by nuclear family system has resulted into a new kind of
world is presented to children, this is shown through the
family set-up in the country. Today, most families form
gendered subjects and the teacher treatment of male and
as nuclear kind of households and continue to exist as
female students. They argue that male dominance has
become accepted in society so much so that this leads constituents of joint families. Therefore, today, it has
to violence towards women being accepted in the home become more relevant to study households rather than
and on the streets. joint or nuclear families.
Thus, the post-modern family is sometimes
a. Discuss the contemporary trends in family termed the pluralistic or permeable family. It consists
as a response to social change in modern of many small free-flowing groupings that include
society. (CSE,2016) modern nuclear families; a few traditional families;
single parents; blended, co-parent, adopted, test-tube,
Ans: The influence of social and economic change
surrogate-mother, and gay and lesbian families, with
on the family is one of the oldest issues in the social
sciences. The two-parent family structure is known as a
or without formal marriage contracts.
nuclear family, referring to married parents and children
as the nucleus, or core/ of the group. Recent years have a. Distinguish between family and household
seen a rise in variations of the nuclear family with the as sociological concepts. (CSE,2016)
parents not being married. Single-parent households are Ans: There is no one definition of the'family'; its
also on the rise. Step-parents are an additional family meaning changes across space and time. The dominant
element in two-parent homes. In some family structures idea of the family refers to a group of individuals who
a parent is not present at all and children live with a
are tied by'kinship'. Kinship means they are related by
' guardian Who was neither their biological nor adoptive
blood, adoption or marriage. However, this is just one
parent. Cohabitation, living together before or in lieu
understanding of the family.
of marriage is a growing option for many couples. The
number of same-sex couples has grown significantly in It is important to note that the term'family' is a
the past decade. These increases are a result of more cultural term, what a family is and looks like for one
coupling, the change in the marriage laws, growing culture may not be the same for the next. A household
social acceptance of homosexuality, and a subsequent is the concept of one or more people living at the same
increase in willingness to report it. Events like divorce address and sharing living arrangements (sharing the
and remarriage present new difficulties for families and house, the kitchen, the bathroom, etc).
individuals. There exists no one type of family or household
Indian family system has undergone drastic change formation but many. Family formations changes across
in response to development in terms of industrialization, societies, culture and even across history. Recently,
education and urbanization. Industrialization and within the UK there has been much concern regarding
urbanization, leading to accelerated rate of rural-urban the decline of the'traditional family' (awife, a husband
migratiory diversification of gainful economic activities and their dependent children). Here are the core types
and individual-friendly property laws, have had of families and households:
consequential impact in terms of drastic reduction in . Nuclear: two generations consisting of a pair of
the size of family in the country.
adults and they're children living in the same
The family in the country is no longer patriarchal in
household.
true sense of the termi it exists as a patri-local household.
Ther€ is a lot of individual autonomy and no longer is
. Extended: All kiru including beyond the nuclear
decision-making the exclusive right of the eldest male family.
member of the family. The family is now essentially . Beanpole family: A multi-generation family where
democratic and most of the decisions in the family are each few children are born in each generation, but
taken collectively. people living longer.
 SYSTEM OF K|NSHIP ffi 93
. Patriarchal family: A family headed by a male. environmental and feminist movements, and revolts
. Matriarchal family: A family headed by a female. against authoritarianism all over the world have brought
. Symmetrical family: Coined by sociologists masses of people into the streets demanding change.
Wilmot and Young in the early 70s to refer to a They often succeeded; but even when they failed, their
family whereby authority and tasks (i.e. domestic movements had profound effects, and set in motion
housework) are shared between couples. important political and international changes.
. Reconstituted family: Where one or both partners
Power in movement grows when ordinary people
join forces in contentious confrontation with elites,
were previously married or partnered, with children l
authorities and opponents. Mounting, coordinating and
from previous marriages or partnerships.
. sustaining this interaction is the peculiar contribution
Lone parent family: A family where there is just
of the social movement. Movements are created when
one parent.
political opportunities open up for social actors who
. Same sex family: A family whereby the couple are usually lack them. They draw people into collective
both of the same sex. action through known repertoires of contention and by
. Single person household: A single individual who creating innovations around their margins. At their bdse
lives alone. are the social networks and crtltural symbols through
. Cohabitation: A household comprising of two which social relations are organized. The irreducible
people who live together on a long-term basis in act that lies at the base of all social movements and
a relationship. Whilst this term is generally revolutions is contentious collective action. Contentious
applied to a couple who are unmarried it can be collective action is the basis of social movements; not
included to mean any number of people who live because movements are always violent or extreme, but
together. because it is the main, and often the only recourse that
most people possess against better-equipped opponents.
a. Is male authority absent in matrilineal Organizers know this and use it to exploit political
society? Discuss. (CSE,20L5) opportunities, create collective identities, bring people
Ans: Matrilineal society adheres to a kinship system together in organizations and mobilize them against
in which ance$tral descent is traced through maternal more powerful opponents. Collective actions have power
instead of paternal lines. Matriliny does not eliminate because they challenge opponents, bring out solidarities
male authority, because the mothers' brother is likely and have meaning within particular population groups,
to exercise some authority over his sisters' son, but situations and political cultures.
matriliny does tend to weaken the husband's authority The reason why people band together in movements
over wife and children. When descent is matrilineal is to mount common claims against opponents,
and the residence of the married couple is matrilocal, authorities or elites. It is participants' recognition of
there is at least the potential both for breaking up the their common interests that translates the potential for
solidarity of brothers and for weakening the authority movement into collective action.
of husbands, since brothers leave their own territory Nationalism and ethnicity - based on real or
when they marry to become husbands of wives who "irrragir:.ed" ties - or religion - based on common
own the land. Among the Iroquois, unrelated men lived devotion - have been more reliable bases of movement
in a long-house with wives who were each others sisters. organization in the past than social class. Common
Thus, as brothers men have less chance to exercise purposes/ collective identities and an identifiable
authority over their sisters' sons, and as husbands too challenge help movements sustain collective action.
they have less authority over their own wives and
children. In matrilineal societies, men s authority would
be based only on their position in the matriliny. The
a. How do the rules of descent and alliance in
kinship differ from each other? Illustrate.
salient roles of the male, therefore, would be that of
(csE, 2015)
brother and uncle instead of husband and father.
Ans: Kinship as an important organizingprinciple
in human society play crucial role in the regulation of
a. Explain the conditions under which a
behavior. There are twci major structural approaches
collective action transforms into a social
adopted in the study of kinship, they are descent and
movement. (csE,2015)
alliance. A11 human beings are connected to others by
Ans: A social movement is collective behavior blood or marriage.
that is purposeful, organized, and institutionalized Connections between people that are traced by
but not ritualized. In the last few decades alone, blood are known as consanguineal relationships. The
the American Civil Rights movement, the peace, bond between two families following a marriage is
 94 ,)t)r:t) SOCIOLOGY Q & A

described as relationship of 'alliance'. For example, the in early childhood and the family plays an important
relationships between mother and son/daughter, sister role at this stage. The other one is the stabilisation of
and brother/ sister are consanguinal, while relationships adult personalities of the population of the society,
between father/mother-in-law and daughter-/son-in- which means that family life provides adults with the
law are affinal. emotional security that they need.
Recognized kin groups are established by and In the current global trend there is no longer exists
reflected in what are called descent rules. The labeling of 'Conventional' or'typical' family type. A number of
relatives is described by a culture's kinship terminology. alternatives to the nuclear or modified extended family
t, have emerged. As once perceived as exemptions, are
The three major elements of kinship are rules of descent,
kinship terminology, and residence rules. The incest now becoming popular trend in family institutions
taboo, rules governing marriage choice and family providing alternatives to nuclear family in the name
structure are also important. of live-in relationship, Gay and Lesbian families,
and Single-parent families. Hence, there is change in
structure of family in the present times corresponding
to that their functions also getting changed. So, in the
present times the study of family institution is no more
confined to traditional and nr.rrlear family structure, now
the goal post for Socit-riogical research is getting changed
with the emergence of single-parent family and other
diversified family institution.

Q. What do you understand by institutionalization

of 'live-in-relationship? (CSE, 2014)
Ans: Social values and norms are being changed
according to the human needs and desire. In the name
of globalization it has not only changed the economy
but also social and moral values.
A live-in relationship is an arrangement where a
0. Critically examine the functionalist views on heterosexual couple lives together without entering
the iqstitution of family. How do those help into a formal relationship called marriage. It need not
necessarily involve sexual relations.
us in understanding family in the present
Institutionalization of Live in relationship is being
times? (CSE,2014)
both legally and socially accepted as social institution
Ans: Functionalist perspective has focused on the as regards to status of marriage in a social structure.
functions of the family in society and for its members. In
Judiciary claims it as social institution in the modern
other words, it looks at how the family, as an institutiory times, in order to protect women rights and children
helps in maintaining order and stability in society, and born out of such relations.
the significance of the family for its individual members. But socially, people are still reluctant to accept Live
George P. Murdock in his study of family he found in relationship as a formal institution. Social scientists
family performs four basic functions for its individual and other social study groups argue there are various
members and society at large. He has referred to these as issues involved in such relationship which need to be
the'sexual','reproductive','economic' and'educational' addressed instead of institutionalizing it.
functions. He argues that the family caters to the sexual Issues involved in Live-in relationships: Live-in
needs of its adult members and also limits sexual access relationship tend to dilute marriage based family system,
of other members of the society thereby maintaining which is the healthiest method of having a sexual life
stability. The 'reproductive' function relates to bearing and safest method of safeguarding the interests of wives,
and raising children. The family is also an'economic' would-be mothers, and their children.
unit, with a division of labour along gender lines. The Second, the chances of abortions are much higher
'educational' function that Murdock refers to, can also be in live-in than in marriage. Third, live-in relationships
termed'socialisation'. The family has the responsibility delay the child bearing, and so the parents have much
of transmitting a society's way o{ life, norms and values lesser life span to live with their children. Fourth, the
to the younger members. Talcott Parsons has identified children born out of these relationships have bigger
two functions of family as basic and irreducible - one chances of living in single parent families. Fifth, men
is the primary socialisation of children, which occurs and women living in live-in relationships have greater
 SYSTEM OF KINSHIP :Vi 95
chances of succumbing to promiscuousness, with all the both the men and women of the society. Female feticide
attendant medical and social hazards that go along with and in{anticide are the examples of gender bias when
promiscuity. The subject matter of sociology is getting the girl child is yet to born oi just bIrn. Even women
changed from the live in relationship perspective to are involved in these cruel acts because of the mentality
study of issues and problems rising in such institutions. which is described by Veena Das as "internalization of
patriarchy. As son gives honour to mother and will be
a. Analyze the contemporary trends in family helpful in old age, mothers resort to femaie feticide.
with examples. (CSE,2013) Even religion contributes to the gender bias. In the
Ans: Various types of contemporary trends in daily life, in conservative familes the feeding practices
family are as follows. are such that the women and the girls eat in the end
(i) Nuclear Family: In this, parents live with their which leads to compromise of food by the girl child. In
unmarried children. Because of increasing mobility poor households, the girl child doesn't gef proper food
and being structurally fit with industrialization leading to malnutrition and death. In the adult hood
(Parsons) this kind of family is the most corunon. there is gender bias in dowry practice.
(ii) Lone Parent Family: As women are becoming As women are economically dependent on men
independent, they are becoming more assertive. they are seen as burden and dowry demanded by the
Unable to compromise in a-failed relationship they in-laws to support the woman. But, they forget to put
move out and divorce their husbands. This can the monetary value to the household work done by
happen in the opposite direction too. This leads to women. Also, in employment women don't have equal
a single parent family and represents the growing opportunity to get jobs because of their biological
status of women in the society. disadvantage of bearing and rearing the child.
(iii) Reconstituted Family: These kinds of families are Moreover, we need gender sensitivity in some cases.
formed when two divorced people marry each There is more sensitivity needed by police and women
other. In this way they bring children from their need special protection in the cases of violence against
previous families. women. The absence of these sensitivities can also be
(iv) Same Sex Family: Gay and Lesbian marriages classified as gender bias.
are becomipg common in the western countries. To tackle this gender bias we need to tackle
Assisted by modern technology of reproduction patriarchy, economic dependence of women and reform
they can easily progress their families. This is a the religion. This all will be done if concerted efforts
hallmark of advanced societies but still a far cry by the women group are made and they get positive
in developing countries. In India, recently, the response from the men folk.
Supreme Court has declared it illegal.
(") Live in Family: These families signify the ethos of a. Examine the emerging trends in marriage
growing inequality and increasing choices. With and family as a response to the changes in
increase in consumerist ideals, couple wants to economic and social order. (CSE,2013)
check their compatibility before settling down as
Ans: Today, in this World of industrialization
family. This is also more popular in developed and globalization
all the contemporary societies are in
countries than the developing ones.
transition and changing fast. Family and marriage being
(vi) Small Family: Today, the norm is of small family. a part of society are also changing rapidly.
China's one child policy is the classic example
Parsons and Goode argued that the family is
of government initiative for small families. Even
) changing from extended type to nuclear type. Parsons
women are not ready to bear more children today
told that nuclear family is a structural fit with the
as it hampers their independence.
industrial society.
Thus, new family norms are arising because
In fact, he talked about structurally isolated nuclear
of new changes happening in the society such as
family. However, these views have been challenged
industrialization and urbanization. Not all are socially
by Peter Laslett who identified a nuclear family type
accepted but with time there will be more acceptances
by the people.
of Western Europe which was responsible for the
early industrialization of Europe. Michel Anderson
through his study concluded that the early stage of
a. Analyze the gender bias in the present society
industrialization lead to extended family among the
with examples. (CSE,2013) working class.
Ans: The gender bias is there in almost every Margaret O'Brien and Jones have talked about lone
aspect of present day society. Starting from childhood parent families, reconstituted families and dual earner
to adulthood to old age, the gender bias is inherent in families. Rapports have talked about hve-in families,
 96 i![,r; SoCloLoGY Q & A

gays and lesbian families and commune living. In China, both-matrilineality and patrilineality are used equally'
InL child policy is affecting the family norm"s. For the kinship and family system in different societies
Regarding marriage,"the relations have become of world, lineagesareconductedthroughtheirownsocialfor
assumptions. so lineage is indispensable
more egalitarian. womei are having more independence and cultural
of kinship and family system'
und ai" less dependent on men. Conjugal ioles are social conduction
changing. British attitudes survey concludes that men a,-a-.-1.-^*
is distinct from L^..-^r
household'
are participating more in child care and household a. Show how family
work. But, feminists dispute this claim by saying that
(CSE' 2012)
thedecisiontakenbywomenareof smallnatureandnot Ans: Family is such a group which exists in all
so important. Also, society neglects the invisible work societies of world. Members of famlly are attached with
done Ly women. Marriage rates have come down in the each other emotionally by blood or marriage relations.
West. Divorce rates have increased. So, the changes are According to Maclver, "famlly is a group decided by
good for the economy but dysfunctional for family' The definite uid rtubl" sexual relations to produce child and
trend is more towards increasing diversity' for their nurturing." Family provides social security to
In India, the extent of change is not as drastic as their members.
it is in western societies. Although, consumerism is Household has relation with people residing under
increasing, violence is increasing but the institution of common roof. It is not necessary that members of a
family is surviving. Nuclear families are increasing b-ut household have any blood relation or kinship. When
the extended family sentiments are still surviving' So, a male or males live together with a female or females
the contempotury is towards adaptive change in then it is called household. In this way it is clear that
"i-tr.tge
the family and marriage. there is prominence of formal relation in members of

a. Describe the importance or rineage and l:""::lil,lifi;:S'#:3f.i?ilfl"11il:ffiHi,::Tiil

descent in kinship and family. (CSE,2012\ whereas for household there is no necessary condition.
there is no necessity of marriage'
Ans: Social structule and system of Indian society For household'
relations blood relatiory any contract or other social acceptance'
.are made ,piby kinship. Soclatty accepted of- emoti6nal relation in family
based on marriage, blood or adoptio; ;r; called
There is prominence
of whereas in household there is prominence offormal
kinship. Kinship system is an important element
human society which establishes relitions;;;;;;t,
relation' Family provides ownership on property
siblings and married couples. On other ria",1i""rg" it ; O:.11t" of attachment based on marriage or blood
relation whereas there is no such thing for household'
consanguineous and one si,led group *h;;;;ilrt
Toddy' in this time of globalization' number of
attach their relation with unknown ar-rcestor' This
nuclear families are increasing' Today the number of
ancestor is not any mythical or religious;;;;;; b* ;
household is increasing due to separation' ending of
real person before 5 or 6 generations. Li";;;-;o.a i,
understanding of coeiistence' death of companion etc'
used to represent social rJation between -- --- ur-td Today
a rfr".ro,
the habit of dissociation from family and living
his ancestor in household are increasing because of rising importance
Lineage has important place in kinship and family
to individualism and personal liberty' Today' increasing
system. Family is a small group u,
"o*pu.5a1o1;#
It is not necessary that a'il mlmbers rf #;;";;rl[
of households in developed countries is clear
L1*"'
example of this fact' According to a study number
in common place" Lineage theory is basei on the o{ household are increasing in recent years in USA'
assumption that kinship system runs so ffi; ;;;;;;
and France etc' Migration of people towards
group can exist for a iong time, so h";;;;;*'t? 11?t:"0' to increase in opportunities of
fuih"t cities is taking place due
maintained on the basis of the contact ,o#uri, '*'^'"'
emp^loyment because of which number of household has
and mother both or toward any one or ti#"*"
rhev are or two tvpes-unirin""!,,
T::':l:li],,jl; trf::"jr,'",":Ti:'fi:j:trt T#iI;',.i.I[i:;:ff
In unilineality, one's decent is traced either exclusively providing
:-:: ;::";'-;:-.;;;.;." rheir members'
rn their ,",.orr,#r.
all necessary means to
through male ancestors or exclusively ,h;;;;h;;;;i'"
i1
xlliillliilxiljiJ,,'::*d:::"llffiir:J11","?n-:# a. rhe probrem of senderconstruct
(csE,2011)
that
india and some communities of south India, patrilineal
- Ans: Gender is a Socio-cultural
society is mostly found. defines the differences in the capabilities between men
as a cultural construct speaks
In bilineality a person kaces his lineage from both and women. Gender
is about differential roles both men and women should
father and mother side. In this lineage,
"qruii*portance in spheres of the society' As a result men
given to parents of both father andhother" In tilineality, play
different
 SYSTEM OF KINSHIP ::tt::::::
97
and women born equals have been compartmentalised Q. What do you mean by marriage and family?
into distinct group engaged in different roles enjoying Discuss the strucfural and functional changes
access over privileges/ respect, power, education, in modern society. (CSE,2011)
wealth differently giving way to the rise of gender as a
Ans: According to Anderson, marriage is an
form of stratification. Traditionally on the basis of this
institution sanctioned by society to establish a durable
discrimination production power is being dominated
bond between men and women and permit sexual
by males and private space i.e. family are looked after
intercourse for the purpose of parenthood and for
by women. This gender division of roles justified by
establishing a family. Marriage is such a social
culture universally operates as foundation to gender
phenomena having great variations of forms and
as a form of stratification. Gender as foundation to
functions. Marriage in human society is also considered
stratification has also made appearance from the
as the most crucial institution which connotes'a publicly
changing mode or production in human history. With
recognised and culturally sanctioned union between a
the acceleration of workforce, creation of settled habitat,
male and female.
growth of agriculture and industry private space have
Marriage is also the approved social pattern in
got absolutely distinctive from public space making men
which two or more person establish a family. Marriag-e
warriors, farmers, traders, and women as homemakers,
is also concerned with the acceptance of new status with
child rearers and food producers.
a new set of obligation which is recognised by others.
This form of division of labour has got justification
According to G.P. Murdock family is a social group
from myths, legends and norms of the society,
consisting of male and female having socially approved
transf orming biological inequalities into socio-cultural
social relationship, living together, sharing a common
equalities i.e. Gender. Classical sociologists have also
household with or without children of their own or
made a distinction between patriarchal and matriarchal
adopted, married, unmarried. According to Murdock
society and there by gender role. In both societies
there are various forms of family such as nuclear family,
wealth, status, and power are associated with different
extended faml7y, etc. To Malinowski, family is the
sex and hence some argued that universal exploitation
cornerstone of human society.
of gender cannot be explained by empirical logic.
The family is also the basic unit of society as man is
But this argument is contradicted by Robin Fox who
born in the family and it is the family in which he learns
in his study of kinship finds out that in every matrilineal
language; the behavioural patterns and social norms in
society there is presence of patrilineal control. Hence
his childhood. Thus, family is a most important social
a matrilineal society is distinguished from patrilineal
institution and is a primary social group.
society only by a degree of difference, as patrilineal
domination is present in both societies. Hence all over However, the system of family has undergone
history of human society there is a similar mode of qualitative'changes in modern qociety because of
domination to patriarchy. industrialisatiorl urbanisation, migraion, revolution in
the field of transport and communication, increasing
Descent influence of individualistic philosophy of life. The
a. Lineage and (CSE,2011)
change has been so fast in some parts of the worid
Ans: Descent is the seeking of kinship relationship
and it is a social group in which membership depends that the socialist like william ]. Goode have raised the
on common descent from a real or mythical ancestor. question whether the system of family is disappearing.
Descent can be broadly divided into unilineal descent The increasing industrialisation has played an
and non-unilineal descent. The unilineal descent include important role in the changes observed in the system of
patrilineaf matrilineal, double descent, parallel descent. In family. Industrialisation and the process of urbanisation
non-unilineal descent and many a time confusion occurs have transformed method of production, migration,
pertaining to inheritance. V\rhere as lineage is a unilineal social mobility and psychological relationship.
descent group in which membership may rest either on As a result, the modern family is no more a rrnit of
matrilineal descent or patrilineal descent. In matrilineal production in urban societies, although in rural areas of
descent, descent is traced to the mother and maternal India such role of family is still dominating. In Indusklal
ancestors. Matriiine is a line of descent from a female society, industrialists own the method of production ar,ri
ancestor to a descendant in which the individuals in all workers work in industries. At the same time residenee
intervening generations are mothers. This matrilineal and place of work are not the same. Consequentll'
descent pattern is in contrast to the more common physical proximity of the family members is gradually
pattem of patrilineal descent from which a family name diminishing. Also both husband and i.vife are working
is derived. In matrilineal, sumames are inherited from in modern society independently. Thus, the women's
mother to daughter. But in patrilineal surnames are economic dependence on men is decreasing and it has
inherited or handed down from father to son. generated a sense of independent life.
 ffi socloLocYQ&A
:

These changes inmodern society have also affected form. Industrialization and urbanization process have
structure of the family. In place of joint extended transformed the method of productiory migration, social
families, nuclear and individualistic families are coming mobility and psychological relationship. In industrial
into existence which is following small family norms society, husband and wife both are working people.
with one or two children. In case of India, K. M. Kapadia Also the place of work, working hours and working
argued that family is changing and there is also tendenry conditions are not in their control. As a result of this, the
towards the small o. r,u"l"ur family. William ). Goodl physical proximity among family members decreasing.
also argued that with the advent of industrialisation, It has also changed the old idea that the wife's job
family structure witnessed a change. Talcott parsons is to look after the children and domestic affairs. Now
opined that in modern industrial society nuclear family women's economic dependence on men is decreasing
has emerged as a typical characterstics. The present which has generated a sense of independerrt life. Hence
nuclear family is structurally isolated because it does not both are capable of taking decision about famil;r) lifte,
have a link with wider kinship organisation. In recent marriage etc. These changes have also affected the
times, sociologists have also picked up new trends in size of the family. In Asian countries in place of joint
family system such as decreaie in family size, increase extended families, nuclear and individualistic families
in single parenthood family, increase in unmarried are coming into existence. These families following small
parenthood family norm with one or two children. ln case of India
K.M. Kapadia believes that family is changing and the
a. Discuss the emerging forms of marriage and tendenry towards the small or nuclear famity is growing.
family with examples from the West and the However in Europe, America and other industrially
East. Can there be family without marriage? developed society multiple influence of social changes
Examine. (CSE,2009) have strengthen the individualistic ideology which has
also affected husband-wife relationship and their role
Ans: The marriage and family are the two basic
in bringing up of children along with the control of
functional unit of society. Scholar Anderson has defined
parents. The ideology and life style of western culture
marriage as an institution sanctioned by the society to
have changed rapidly after the Second World War.
establish a durable bond between man and woman
The attitude of society towards unmarried mother is
and to permit sexual intercourse for the purpose of
more liberal now and state organized social welfare
parenthood and establishing family. Whereas the family
schemes helping these mothers and children. The
is such a basic unit of societywhere man is bom. Family
number of unmarried couples living together is also
is also the basic unit where man learns language, the
increasing. This situations have ,""uk"r,"d the role of
behaviouial patterns and social norms in his childhood.
marriage and family in western society.
But in Sociology, the analysis of family given by G.p.
Willian ]. Goodie argued that with the advent of
Murdock is very important. Murdock has collected
industrialization family structure witnessed a change.
data from more than 250 societies and remarked that
The notion of individualism, economic progress,
family has been present in all these societies in some changing value system of life etc. have affected the
form or other. According to him family is a social group family structure. Talcott Parsons opined that in modern
consisting of male and female having socially appioved industrial society, isolated nuclear family has emerged
relationship, living together, sharing a common as a typical characteristics. According to Arithony
household with or without children. The children may Giddens changes in family can be visualized from two
be their own, or adopted. According to him there arl perspectives 1. structural change (Extended family
many forms of family such as nucleai family, extend.ed ->
Nuclear family -+ Single person family) 2. Functional
family and polygamous family. changes in family. Here different alternative institutions
But these notions of marriage and family is have emerged which are taking away the various
undergoing tremendous change due to industrialization, functions of family.
urbanization, technological advancement and social In recent times, sociologists have picked up the
mobility. contemporary happenings in family. The factors like lack
Changes in the system of family: The system of of unity of interest in familial objectives, fulfillment of
family has undergone qualitative changes because sexual desires outside family and conflicting ambitious
of industrialization, urbanization, education etc. The of male and female etc. disorganizingfamily.
. chairge has been so fast in some parts of the world that However, changing in the form of family can be
sociologists like William J. Goodie have raised question summarized from the perspective of decrease in family
whether the system of family is disappearing. The size, increase in single parenthood family, unmarried
increasing urbanization and industrialization ilayed parenthood, single person household, non-marital
an important role in the changes observed in family cohabitation etc.
 SYSTEM OF KINSHIP ffi 99
Changes in the form of Marriage: Within the Thus, considering all these facts about family
contemporary perspective, the focus of sociologists is on and marriage, the sociologists all over the world are
new changing aspects, new emerging forms of marriage apprehensive about these institution and their existence
and the existence of marriage as an institution in the in future. Merryn Cade Wedder has referred marriage as
modern society. Through various studies it is found wretched institution. According to him recent happening
that in most of the society, marriage is not present in an in marriage to be viewed from a changing perspective.
institutionalized manner as it was found traditionally. According to him certainly there has occurred changes
In modern times, new forms and meaning have been but people still insist on enduring relationship through
attributed to marriage. The example of co-living concept marriage.
in which two adult living together has attracted the Thus, the question that marriage has lost its
attention of sociologists. This phenomena has become a relevance does not find its validity. But the traditional
norm in some of the western society like USA, Europe aspects of marriage related with its form ?nd rituals
and is increasing rapidly in cities of Asian countries also. has lost its connotation to some extent. However ]essie
The ritual meaning of marriage has been changed. Fried Bernard in her article "Future of Marriage" has provided
Berg has provided an example of a report which reveals a critical analysis pertaining to marriage. She is very-
that in Western Germany 33% unmarried couple has optimistic about new and satisfying form of marriage
right to have a child. The study also remarked that in in future.
Germany if a woman decides to have child, she can do In her articles she has preferred the terms
that. In recent time there is also witnessed the emergence marriage in future rather than future of marriage.
of gay family in which many homosexual male and According to her changes are bound to happen in future
female live. Some countries like Holland, Denmark and whether one like it or not but in future one may accept
Canada have also legalized the homosexuality. Now, the it as graceful. Thus, finally it can be said that new form
introduction of artificial insemination techniques have of marriage will be in future but not end of marriage
made it possible that a lesbian couple can start a family. and family.

{..f..f. *
 CHAPTER

Q. What is historical materialism? Examine its . Wide-ranging changes in Indian society were
relevance in understanding contemporary brought about by changes in economic policy, such
societies. (CSE 2023) as the LPG reform. These economic shifts have led
Ans:'Historical Materialism' or'the materialistic to the secularizationof marriage, the rise of the new
conception of history' is the pivot to all of Marx' works. middle class, consumerism, and the rationality of the
Its clearest exposition is done in his 'A Contribution to law, among other things. Consequently, changes in
the Critique of Political Economy, L859'. the material world also impact modern civilization.
. It is a conception of society in terms of evolutions . The emphasis on class relations and class struggles in
from one stage to another, which Marx refers as historical materialism offers a helpful prism through
modes of production, and material or economic which to view modern societies.
factors have a pivotal role in historical change. . This viewpoint can be used to analyze the
. It is an ir\quiry into nature of relations between man growing income disparity, labor exploitation, and
and man, and man and things as history proceeds. economic inequality that are present in many
. His theory is called'historical' because analysis of modern nations.
society is in terms of evolution from one state to Marx is criticised regarding his materialistic conception
another in terms of history. of History
. According to Marx, 'History is a ptocess of man's . He is criticised as being reductionist for over-
self-creation'. Since man's involvement into relations
emphasising on material factors.
of production creates history, it is necessary to .
understand history to understand society. Karl Popper termed his approach as 'economic
. reductioinism' for ignoring ideas. Marx over
It is called'materialistic' for two reasons -
emphasised con{lict and ignored social order aspect.
(i) firstly, his conception of society is based upon .
materialistic factors which are understood in Marx while propounding historical matdrialism
terms of production. focussed primarily on macro evolutionary aspect
(ii) Secondly, understanding of change is based upon and ignored micro reality of social life which was
changing material conditions and not ideas. explored by non-positivist kadition.
. His theory of historical materialismhas two aspects-
Despite criticism, Marx is still relevant in explaining
conflict in various aspect of life. His concepts are still
(i) His materialistic conception of society is in
relevant in understanding social order, social problems
terms of 'economic inJrastructure' and 'social
and individual.
superstructure'.
(ii) Marx understands the historical evolution M*y great scholars like Herbert Marcuse, Theodor
piocess in terms of a'dialectic process'. Adorno, Habermas, Gramsci, Althusser carried forward
Marxist ideas into newer fields of sociological study.
Itelevanee in understanding Contemporary Society Neo-Marxists understand today's world order in terms
. The Indian caste system, which has been associated of neo-colonialism.
with specific occupations throughout history, can be World System Theory of Wallerstein is an example
viewed as a superstructure that developed from the of re-definition of Marxian paradigm in a global set up.
feudal agrarian base in which some castes controlled Similarly in India also, Naxal issue can be seen from
the means of production. Marxist lens.
 STRATIFICATION AND MOBILITY Yil 101
a. Do you think that the boundary line between a. How is poverty a form of social exclusion? Illus-
ethnicity and race is blurred? |ustify your an- trate in this connection the different dimensions
swer. (CSE 2023) of poverty and social exclusion. {CSE 2023)
Ans: Race is a complex concept which has different Ans: Social exclusion and poverty are tr,t,rt related
everyday and scientific meanings. In everyday usage, race, ideas that are frequently used interchangeai:,1i; 1-;r.1n,;
as a biological concept, refers to a large category ofpeople resources is referred to as poverty, but social exclusion is
who share certain inherited physical characteristics - the incapacity of individuals or groups to fully engage in
colour of skin, type of hair, facial features, sLe of head, etc. society as a result of a variety of circumstances, including
. For sociologists, a race is a group of people who marginalizatiory poverty, and prejudice.
are perceived by a given society as biologically or
Poverty as a Form of Social Exclusion
culturally different from the others.
. The people are assigned to one race or another, by . The poors are frequently left out of the economic.
systembecause they lack the resources to fully engage
public opinion which is moulded by that society,s
in the market economy, they frequently lack access
dominant group, rather than on any scientific basis.
to chances for job and are unable to pay for basic
. Sociologists view race as merely an ideological requirements like food, clothing, and housing. Social
construct based on physical difference. It is used as a isolation frequently follows economic exclusion since
tool of domination and spreading inequality as well the impoverished are labeled and ignored by society.
in the form of racial stuatification. . The political system frequently excludes the poors.
. \A/hile'race' is perceived as biological, 'ethnicity, is In political decision-making processes, theie is a
cultural or social in its meaning. An ethnic group may decreased likelihood of their interests being reflected
have a common language, history, national origin or and their views being heard. Their economic and
lifestyle. 'Ethnicity' is a purely social phenomenon social marginalization is made worse by their
in which people learn their ethnic differences as a political exclusion as they have no say in the laws
process of socialisation, use of exclusionary devices and decisions that impact their daily life.
like marriage etc. o Poor people are frequently left out of relationships
Blurring of Boundaries and social networks. They don't have the relationships
. Sociocultural'processes cause racial and ethnic or social support networks that are essential for
boundaries to become more blurred. social inclusion, and they are ftequently alone. Their
r For example, based on their ethnicity, a person poverty may worsen due to feelings of hopelessness
and despairbrought onby this social marginalization.
may identify as African American or Caribbean
even though they are racially classified as Dimensions of Poverty and Social Exclusion
'Black." This demonstrates how race and . Social exclusion, according to Ruth Lister in her
ethnicity can blend together and interact seminal work titled 'poverty, 2004, , refers to ways
in intricate ways, making it challenging to in which individuals may become cut off from full
differentiate one from the other. involvement in the wider society or prevention
. The distinction between race and ethnicity can of individuals or groups from having the same
sometimes become hazy in political circumstances. opportunities that are available to the majority of
r For instance, "Hispanic" is regarded as an ethnic population.
)rl
category rather than a racial one in the United . Individuals' limited resources prevent them trom
States. But "Hispanic" is racialized and viewed fully engaging in the market economy, which is the'
as a separate category from "White," "Black,', economic dimension of poverty and social exclusion.
or "Asian" in some political discourses. This For example, renowned sociologist pierre Bourdieu
illustrates how political agendas may redefine calls this "economic capital"
and alter race and ethnicity.
-the material and
financial resources that people own.
A multitude of factors, such as sociocultural . The absence of representation and involvement
.'\ dymamics, political influence, shifting self-identifications, in political processes is referred to as the political
and inter-racial and inter-ethnic unions, contribute dimension of poverty and social exclusion. political
to the blurring of the boundaries between race and scientist C. Wright Mills made the case that a small
ethnicity, Understanding this intricacy is crucial when elite controls most political power in contemporary
researching human communities and cultures. It also civilizations, keeping the vast mass of'people out of
emphasizes the need for a more flexible and nuanced political decision-making.
understanding of human variation, one that goes beyond . The ideas, customs, and ideologies that support and
strict classifications.
uphold the marginalization of the poor are referred
 102 ffi soqolocYe&A
to as the cultural dimension of poverty and social . Party: In addition to stratification by class and status,
exclusion. This is what sociologist Pierre Bourdieu Weber proposed the concept of 'pafiy' as the third
calls "symbolic violence" -the covertways inwhich element according to which society is stratified.
the prevailing society marginalizes and devalues . While classes exist in the economic order and
the poor. status groups in the social order, parties can be
Thus, poverty is a multifaceted problem that is found in the Political order.
intricately linked to social exclusion on many levels' r To Weber, parties 'are always structures
Identifying and tackling these aspects is crucial for struggling for domination'. The people who
creating all-encompassing plans to reduce poverty constitute a party are those who have a goal
and encourage social integration' Through recognizing towards which they strive collectively and in a
the complex interplay between poverty and social planned manner.
marginalization, communities can strive towards fairer Marx vs. Weber: A Comparative Analysis
and more inclusive futures' . Marx said that nature made everyone equal, but
some men deprived others. He agreed that there
a. Explain Max Weber's theory of social shatifi- are inequalities in society in various fields, but they
cation. How does Weber's idea of class differ all emanate from one thing - control over forces of
from that of Marx? (CSE 2023)
production. Thus, in the Marxist theory social classes
Ans: Social stratification is a process in which social are defined by what relation they have to the means
inequalities exist in form of structural hierarchical strata of production.
one placed above the other' It is defined by Sutherland . Weber, however, refused to reduce stratification to
and Maxwell as 'a process of differentiation which places economic factors (or class, inWeber's terms) but saw
some people higher than the others'. it as multidimensional. Thus, society is stratified
Max Weber's Theory of Social Stratification: on the bases of economics, prestige/status, and
Weber's theory of social stratification is based on three power. One resulting implication is that people
fundamental components: class, status, and party. can rank high on one or two of these dimensions of
. Class: 'Class' according to him is not a community stratification and low on the other, permitting a far
but merely a group of people in the same economic more sophisticated analysis of social stratification.
or market situation. Weber piovides a more sophisticated and nuanced
r It is a group of people who share a similar theory by taking into account the consequences of status
position in a market situation. Class situation, and power, even though Marx and Weber both concur
' therefore, is market situation or economic that economic reasons are a major element in generating
situation. social stratification. Thus, Weber's theory offers a more
. According to Weber, the economic condition comprehensive comprehension of the various facets of
of one affects one's chances of obtaining those social inequality.
material things which are deemed as desirable
in their societY. a. Discuss social mobility in open and closed
. Weber used the term'life chances', which refers system. (C58,2022)
to the rewards and advantages afforded by Ans: According to Wallace and Wallaee, social
market capacity to differentiate different classes' mobility is the movement of a person or persons from
. Those who share similar'life chances', share one social position to another.
similar class. Hence, on the basis of life chances, It normally entails changes in the life chances and
Weber see different classes like - propertied lifestyles. Social mobility may not just be limited to class.
upper class, propertyJess white collar workers, For example, simply adapting to a new language or
petty bourgeoisie and manual working class' mannerisms may also increase mobility of a person in a
. Status: Other thanclass, Weber proposed the concept relatively open structure. Implicit in invoking the concept
of 'status grouPs'. of social mobility is the recognition of social hierarchy and
]! Status groups differ from classes in being gradation in society. This gradation is usually in terms of
'communities'. Weber said that status situation power, wealth and prestige.
is determined by positive or negative'social Strata sub-cultures tend to be particularly distinctive
there is little opportunity to move from one stratum
v";

estimation of honour'. when

r While class refers to unequal distribution of to another. This opportunity to m'ove decides whether a
economic rewards, status refers to unequal system of stratification is open or closed. Mobility is an
diskibution of social honour. Status is 'effective indicator of a meritocratic society and stability of class
claim to social esteem'. architecture in a society.
 STRAT!FICATION AND MOBILTTY ffi
Open and Closed Systems . But they also point out that the high mobility
Closed System: Weber talks of social closure by of industrial societies is less an effect of greater
different status groups; for example, caste endogamy openriess of these societies.
in Hindus. . Instead they consider the high mobility as primarily
. In a closed system, individuals are assigned their caused by structural change in these societies.
place in the social structure on the basis of ascriptive Thus, the concept of social mobility is closely linked
criteria like age, birth, sex. This system emphasizes to the concept of stratification and Social mobility
the associative character of the hierarchy. provides means for transition of individuals or grorp,
. It justifies the inequality in the distribution of from one position in the social hierarchy to anotter i.e.
wealth, status and power and discourages or even from one strafum to another.
suppresses any attempt to change it.
Considerations of functional suitability or ideological
notions of equality of opportunity are irrelevant in
this society.
Open System: In an open system, the norms
prescribe and encourage mobility.
exist in the
a There are independent prineiples of ranking like strata one placed
status, class and power. Individuals are assigned to
di{ferent positions in the social structure on the basis
of their merit or achievement.
o The system is characterized by occupational
diversity, flexible hierarchy, and rapidity of change.
. The hold of ascription-based gro ups like caste,
kinship or family is insignificant.
The dominant values in such a system
on equality and freedom of the individual
on change ar\d innovation. Industrialization
urbanization are the contributing factors.
Social Mobility
Very littlb vertical mobility is possible in a closed
society. Pre-modern India was a closed system to a
great extent. In contrast, an open society allows for
greater vertical social mobility. However, even in
open societies people cannot move from one stratum
Differential conformitv and differential rewards
to another without resistance.
strata in society. People themselves also
. Blau and Duncan in their study on mobility observe tend to follow social norms and compare their
that while open societies have a fairly high degree of performance vis-A-vis these norms.
vertical social mobility, the social distance travelled
is not very long.
o Every society has established criteria - which might
proper manners, family lineage, education, or
racial affiliation etc., which must be satisfied before

o A study by Willmott and Youngin London

that83'/, of the managing directors in the 1970swere
the sons of professionals and managers.
A recent survey by Stanworth and Giddens designed functionally less important.
to investigate the social origins of
Societies need these stratified positions for its
revealed a high degree of elite self-recruitment.
Lipset and Bendix's study on social mo
in order., :

that the rate of mobility displays a basic similarity to attract talented people needed to hold such
across industrial societies.

-G.s-,*
104 v:, socroLocY e &A

. Talent is considered scarce and more talented Political ideologies have two elements:-
people are required to hold more functionally (i) Goals-How society should be organized; and
important positions. (ii) Methods-The most favourable way to attain this
. Important positions also require greater investment goal.
of time, skill-sets and training on part of the Generally, each ideology contains certain ideas
occupier and hence, such positions need to be about what it considers the best form of Sovernment
compensated accordingly. (i.e., autocracy or democracy) and the best economic
system (i.e., capitalism or socialism). Left-wing or right-
Criticism of Functionalists' View
wing is not the right way to classify Indian political
Melvin Tumin: He defines social stratification as
parties.
an arrangement of any social grouP or society into a
'hierarchy of positions' that are unequal with regard Diverse views of Parties towards Govbrnment
to power, property, social evaluation and psychic There are many political parties in India. Different
gratification. parties have different views, policies, thoughts and ways
He challenged the claim of Davis and Moore and to rule people.
argued that it is not possible to determine the relative . Some want to combine.government and religion
functional importance of various social positions in an and some want to seParate them'
objective manner and similarly, talent and ability can . Some parties want the government to interfere in
also not be measured. According to him there is no equal
the economy but some parties oPpose the same.
opportunity and trainees don't make any significant
sacri fices.
. Some parties want to conserve their culture but
some want to change the existing system.
Davis and Moore: They however tried to dispel the
notions of Tumin and argued that functional importance Identity Politics
of a position can be judged by the uniqueness of such . Identity politics refers to political positions based
positions and degree to which other positions depend
on the interests and perspectives of social groups
on the particular position.
with which people identifY.
Itratrf Dahrendorf: Apart from Tumin, Dahrendorf
. Identity politics includes the ways in which
';,.ras also ond of the major critics of Functional theory.
people's politics may be shaped by aspects of
ldalf Dahrendorf observes that stratification originates
from the'closely related trinity of norms, sanction and
their identity through loosely correlated social
organizations.
Power/..
Beck and Baudrillard: Similarly, the rigidity
. Examples include social organizations based on
of the caste system cannot be explained through age,, se6iu1 class or caste, culture, dialect, disability,

functional theories of Davis and Moore and others. education, ethnicity, language, nationality, sex and
Beck and Baudrillard also visualize that such functional gender identity.
stratification is no longer valid as inequalities are now Nature of Transition from Ideology to ldentity Politics
individualized and no clear strata exist today. . Rise of low castes, religious identities and linguistic
Alvin Gouldner: According to Alvin Gouldner, groups have contributed to the signific.ance of
stratification is not inevitable as Davis and Moore
identity politics in India.
predicted and criticizes them for providing a justification
for social inequalities.
. Identity politics thus attempts to attain
Thus, Functionalists see the existence of various empowerment, representation and recognition of
strata in terms of their interdependence, cooperation and social groups.
serving the function of integration of society. . In India we find that despite adoption of a liberal
democratic polity after independence, communities
a. Analyse the nature of hansition from ideology and collective identities have remained powerful
to identity politics inIndia. (C58,2022) and continue to claim recognition'
Ans: Ideology in politics is as old as Indian politics
. The existence of identity politics in any democracy
itself. Poiiticians have always used ideology to represent is an indicator of the vibrancy and health of politics.
a collective identity of a group, utilising this identity as . There are several instances in the history of a
a sort of solidarity among party followers. nation when "identity politics" surges. In these
When the allegiance of such 'vote banks' is moments, this term, "identity politics" is often used
threatened, they create a sense of social or economic derogatorily as it presents a threat to the political
insecurity among their followers. status quo.
 STRAT|FtcATtON AND MOB|LtTy *i 105
a In India, the notion of identity politics is rooted
in the violent history of partition and the demand
a. Explain the concept of social mobility.
Describe with suitable illustrations how
for separate electorates for religious and caste
identities.
education and social mobility are related to
Since thery whenever a marginalised community
each other. (CSE2O2L)
has demanded space in politics, it has largely been Ans: Social mobility refers to the movement
seen as divisive, and as a threat to the equality and of individuals, but sometimes of whole groups,
the unity of the nation. between different positions, within the system of social
stratification, in any society.
o Identity politics is inevitability in democracies.
In fact, one could question the legitim acy of a _ It generally involves significant changes in life
chances and lifestyles.
democratic country if it did not provide space for
identity politics. Sorokin in his r.r,ork'social Mobilityu writes that
there are certain primary factors that af{ect mobility in
The existence of identity politics is an indicator of
all societies, and secondary factors that are specific to
the health of a democracy because it means that
particular societies at particular times.
marginalised sections are making an active bid for
He argued that no society cart be regarded as neither
a share of power.
completely closed, denying any mobility, nor can it be
Democratic process intensifies power struggle, and completely
operL as there are always barriers to mobility.
hence, assertion of various identities assumes vital Sorokin listed
four primary factors namely:
importance in a democratic set-up.
1-. Demographic factors like age, sex, and race, etc.
Under an authoritarian regime various identities
may be suppressed or subordinated but it cannot
2. Talent ancl Ability: Sorokin notes that usually,
abilities of parents and children do not match.
be done under a democratic regime.
Popular pressure may force individuals to vacate
a Democracy is nothing if it does not give free play to positions they are unsuited for. Even in ascriptive
power struggles between various ,".tiorm of people. societies, there are scopes for mobility of individuals
The BSP leader Kanshi Ram put caste on the national in upward direction.
agenda of political discourse in an altogether 3. The faulty distribution of individuals
in social posi_
different forin from the one that has been existing tions, e.g. caste system.
among the political parties.
4. The change of the social environment.
Earlier caste was a factor in ticket distribution and
Education and Social Mobilify
a source of reservation perks for schedulecl castes,
scheduled tribes and other backward classes.
Francis J Brown remarks that ,,Education is a
process which brings about changes in the behaviour
But there is an increased feeling that caste is of
society.
becoming an ideology undercutting the It is a process which enables everv individual
traditional notions of left wing and right wing
to effectively participate in the activltils of society
politics in India Though there is disagreement and
to make positive contribution to the progress
among analysts on whether caste in itself can
of society"" Education provides avenues for social
become an ideology and whether caste and class
mobility.
arc coterminous in the Indian context as caste points
\4odern societies are individual achievement
to a definite gconomic indicator of the poverty line
oriented. Education facilitates equality of opportunity
of people.
in future Iife.
If an identity that is meant to be the ,,site of Mass education brings fundamental changes
resistance" for a community, becomes oppressive in social
structure. Example of Right to Education
to the very people it is trying to emancipate, by Act shows how
education has heralded social
replicating the structures of oppressors, then one mobility for weaker
sections of society like SCs, STs
has to re-examine the boundaries of the identity and women
itself.
,
It is a force that is even breaking the moulds of rigid
Thus, Identity politics has played an important role stratification like
.in _bringing caste and.providing opportunities in
marginalized and discriminated sections of closed societies also.
society to mainstream politics. However at the same It facilitates both inter-generational and intra_
time it has brought some negative developments in generational
mobility. In modern society it offers
Indian polity and society. Hence, we need to ensure multiple avenues
of livelihood and hence offers
that Identity politics don't result into limited or narrow occupational
mobility, e.g. providing chance to women
thinking while reaping its benefit. to work outsides homes.
106 'Bn soclolocY e & A
Flowever Althusser argues that education is an . Historical reasons - The colonial period had
ideological state apparatus. Bowles and Gintis believe brought about a high degree of politico- territorial
that education helps in providing surplus labour to integration through an efficient, centralized,
capitalists. coercive machinery of the government' F{owever,
Feminists McRobbie and Sue Lee argue that it also helped cultural and ethnic groups organize
schooling reproduces appropriate feminine roles in themselves politically.
the girls. Apple and King opine that curriculum in . Competition for scarce resources - Resources can
education is decided by ruling class. All these factors be economic or political. Development leads to a
prevent or retard education from being a promoter of rise rather than a decline in ethnic mobilizatiorr
social mobility. because it provides resources to ethnic groups in
Thus, education has been successful in bringing the periphery, increasing their bargaining position
about upward social mobility but the type of society and and organizational capacity for action.
power dynamics too have a bearing on it. Ethnic movements can take various shapes ranging
from peaceful constitutional protests to civil war,
a. Explain the growing salience of ethnicity in with ethnicWhether or communal rioting and terrorism in
the contemporary world with illustrations. between. in the .shape of agitations for
autonomy, movements for better politico-economic
structure, or struggle for separation, the phenomena of
Ans: An ethnic grouP l, u grorP r^r, f:r:t?1:
ethnicity is an intrinsic component of the socio-political
common physical or socio-cultural characteristics or realities of most of the multi-ethnic states in the world
markers. Ethnic identity can be based out of one or today.
multiple cultural symbols such as language, region, It is becoming increasingly evident that in the post
religion, common heritage, history, etc. Paul Brass in
Second World War period both neoliberal and socialist
his'Ethnicity and State' defined three types of ethnic claims have not been abie to remove the eihno-national
rnovements:
question from the political agenda. Therefore the issue
1. Intra-ethnic: Different ethnic identities within an of how to cope with the complexities of multi-ethnic
umbrella ethnic identity strive for their perceived
states and ethnicity remains significant.
separatebenefits. Shia and Sunni conflict in Middle
East.
a. How are Hierarchy and Exclusion the major
2. Inter-ethnic: Ethnic identity of one group is seen as
completely different from that of others, e.g' Bodo
impediments in the transformation of
movement. societies? Discuss. (CSE 2020)
3. Ethnic Group vs" State: A group sees its identity as Ang: Hierarchy refers to "ranking of statuses within
different from larger state, e.g. Naga movement' society or an organization according to some criterion
of evaluation accepted as relevant within the system".
Some common causes for the rise of ethic movements
can be sumrned up as follows:
In general, ineqiralities lead to stratification and
stratification leads to hierarchy. When these inequalities
. Economic factors and regional disparities, e.g. are arranged in an order, hierarchy is formed. Hierarchy
]harkhand movement. denotes presence of multiple strata in a society placed
. Relative deprivation, e.g. the rich regions may one above the other. Hierarchies can be present in
alsr> be- ethno-nationalist if they perceive relative many forms - caste hierarchy, class hierarchy, gender
deprivation, e. g. Punjab insurgency. hierarchy, political hierarchy and so on.
" I\4odernization and political centralization, e.g. Though modern democracies have facilitated
Catalonia in SPain. equality in the political sphere, inequalities in the social
. Internal colonialism - It arises out of relationship and economic sphere still exist. In fact, today one is part
betr.veen members of the dominant or core of multiple hierarchies at the same time.
community within a state and members of Hierarchy also results in unequal opportunities and
the minority or peripheral communities are unequal rewards. Unequal rewards further reinforce
characterized by exploitation, e.g. Tribal movements hierarchy. Marxists perceive this hierarchy as a design
. like Pathalgadi. of the dominant classes and deem it inimical to classless
. Cultural deprivation - One of the significant society. According to them, hierarchy promotes conflict
inducements to ethnicity comes from the feeling of as well.
insecurity among ethnic minorities of their fear from Functionalists on the other hand argue that
getting lost in the sea of majority, e.g' Bangladesh hierarchy is a symbol of division of labor in society and
liberation. is necessary for working of the social system.
 STRATIFICATION AND MOBILITY ::'I f 07
Social exclusion, according to Ruth Lister in Often this is facilitated by ascriptive nature of
her seminal work titled ,poverty, 2004,, refers to membership to
particular strata or exclusivity of
ways in which individuals may become cut off from membership.
Caste system, gender stratification,
full involvement in the wider society or prevention ethnic stratification etc. are
examples of such closeel
of individuals or groups from having- the same stratification.
opportunities that are available to the majority of Functionalists like parsons believed that mobili{r
population. It means 'being left out,, so it can be is a result of a process
of differentiation in society ani
voluntary or due to structural reasons which is a more role filling
by those who suit them most. Marx, on the
prevalent and commoniy understood form of social other hand,
believed that a high rate of social mobiligr,
exclusion. eml:rourgeoisement, will weaken class solidarity. He
It is a process by which individuals or households foresees downward mobility
in capitalisrh when petite
experience multiple deprivations - either of resources Bourgeoisie
will sink down into proletariat class.
or of social links to the wider community or society Those like Frank parkin and Dahrendorf
- which prevents them from participating fully in thl that social mobility also acts as a safety value in believe
society
economic, social and political life of the society in which as build-up
frustrations are vented through the route bf
they are around. social mobility. There are also evidences that the concept
Differential treatment, unequal opportunities and of social mobility is
over-hyped in modern societies and
marginalization are tools of social exclusion. Social there may not be so
much mobility as it is claimed.
exclusion is not accidental but systematic - it is the result
In a 1949 study of David Glass in England, ,Sociai
of structural features of society. It is a broader concept Mobility
in Britain, 1954,, he found out that mobility
than poverty or inequality as it may encompass both. was low as there was rampant elite self-recruitment and
Example: Flomelessness is one of the worst forms as a result,
there were only middle management and
of social exclusions according to Anthony Giddens as lower level positions
were left for others. Further, most
it automatically excludes an individual frorn various of the mobility was 'short range
d, , i.e. in the immediate
other services. adjacent occupational groups.
Further, social exclusion is not a phenomenon Therefore, Social mobility breaks the exclusiveness
prevalent among under-privileged only and can be of classes and
makes them open. It makes social
voluntary as wtell. It is practiced among the affluent hierarchies more
fluid and less rigid. Equal access to
as well. Exclusive clubs, gated cornmrrr.iti", are such all strata
becomes an extension of idea of equality in
examples. modern societies where absolute equality cannot be
Therefgre, Hierarchy and Exclusion are the major achieved, but mobility
at least ensures that tlere is equal
impediments in the transformation of societies as both opportunity to all.
works against principles of equality in social, political
and economic spheres of everyday life. a. Davis and Moore made it clear that soeial
stratification is a functional necessity and also
a. Critically assess social rnobility in closed and an unconscious device. Discuss. (CSE, Z0Ag)
open systems. (CSE 2020) Ans: Davis and Moore formulated their famed
Ans: Social mobility means transition of individuais functionalist theory in their work ,Some principles
nf
or groups from one position in the social hierarchy to Social Stratification, 1945'. Davis and
Moore observed
another i.e. from one stratum to another" The concept that there is no society which
is not stratified; strata
of social mobility is closely linked to the concept bf exist on the basis of differential rewards"
Such rewards
stratification. As hierarchical patterns evolve in a society, are attached to the positions
that exist in the rzarious
a tendency of shifting these patterns at individual and strata and some of these positions
are functionally more
structural Ievel also evolves. important and others are functionally less irnportant.
Open systems are those systems which offer free Societies need these stratified positions for its
mobility from one stratum to another and there are no proper functioning. Higher rewards
are attached to
barriers which cannot be overcome. Modern societies are functionally more important
positions in order to attract
considered such open systems, at least theoretically, as talented people needed tohold
such positions.
one may reach any social position by one,s hard work, Talent is considered scarce and more talentecl
skill, knowledge and efforts. people are required to hold more functionally important
Closed systems on the other hand are marked by positions. Important positions
also iequire greater
rigid boundaries which are unassailable. investment of time, skill-sets and training on the part
Individuals cannot cross their strata in ordinary of the occupier and hence, such positions neecl
to be
circumstances. compensated accordingly.
108 \! soctoLocY e & A
Thus, social stratification is a mechanism of role ideas for socio-political spheres in terms of gender parity
allocation in which more important positions are filled and equality in the society worldwide.
by more talented people for the benefit of all.
Melvin Tumin challenged the claim of Davis and Q. What, according to Mertory is the difference
Moore and argued that it is not possible to determine between'unanticipated consequences/ and
the relative functional importance of various social 'latent functions'? Give examples to elaborate.
positions in an objective manner and similarly, talent (csE,2019)
and ability can also not be measured. According to him Ans: Merton introduced the concepts of manifest
there is no equal opportunity and trainees don't make and latent functions. These two terms have also been
any significant sacrifices. important additions to functional analysis. In simple
Davis and Moore, howevet tried to dispel the terms, manifest functions are those that are intended,
notions of Tumin and argued that functional importance whereas latent functions are unintended. The manifest
of a position can be judged by the uniqueness of such function of slavery, for example, was to increase the
positions and the degree to which other positions economic productivity of the South America, but it had
depend on the particular position" Differential rewards the latent function of providing a vast underclass fhat
are necessary as loss of trainees is not only in terms of served to increase the social status of southern whites,
money, but also in terms of time and energy. both rich and poor.
Therefore, social inequalities came into existence This idea is related to another of Merton s concepts-
into every society. These inequalities occur in specific unanticipated consequences. Actions have both intended
pattern. These patterns are understood through the and unintended consequences. Although everyone is
concept of 'social Stratification . aware of the intended consequences, sociological analysis
is required to uncover the unintended consequences;
Q. Present a sociological review on the 'new indeed, to some this is the very essence of sociology.
middle class'. (csE-201.9)
Merton made it clear that unanticipated
Ans: The middle class is the one which stands consequences and latent functions are not the same. A
between the highest and the lor.t'est strata of society. latent function is one type of unanticipated consequence,
Above it is the class of great capitalists; below it the one that is functional for the designated system' But
proletariat, thb class of wage-workers. It constitutes the there are two other types of unanticipated consequences:
social group with medium incomes. "those that are dysfunctional for a designated system,
Because of its heterogeneous composition, the new and these comprise the latent dysfunctions", and
middle class poses the most difficult problems for the "those which are irrelevant to the system which they
classification of persons according to their place within affect neither functionally nor dysfunctionally" . Fot
the social relations of capitalist production. On account example, slaves provided an underclass to whites
of its intermediate location the new middle class is often (a Iatent function) but at the same time this system
the pivotal class in the formation of political alliances. was dysfunctional for slaves. Thus, Merton's theory
It has therefore occupied an important place in the is of great utility to sociologists who wish to perform
investigation of patterns of political alignment and structural-functional analyses.
cleavage.
Finally, because of its increasing size relative to other Modernization presupposes class society;
classes, the new middle class lends itself to speculation
a.
however caste, ethnicity and race are still
about the transformation of the class structure. predominant. Explain. (CSE,20L9)
Critiques of earlier theories of class and projections of
the future of class society have therefore placed the new Ans: Modernization is the current term for an old
middle class at the center of the analysis. For example: process-the process of social change whereby less
expansion of large-scaie state and corporate bureaucracies. developed societies acquire characteristics common to
Conservatives depicted the rise of a new managerial class more developed societies.
as a totalitarian threat from which capitalism must be We need a new name for the old process because the
saved;' liberals welcomed it as the initiator of a new era of characteristics associated with more developed and less
class harmony and corporate responsibility. In American developed societies and the modes of communication
sociology of the 1950s, the growth of an affluent new between them have become in our day very different
middle class was celebrated as a sign of the "end of from what they used to be.
ideology" and an assurance of the permanent stability of 'Class' is broadly perceived' as a social Sroup
capitalist institutions. Thus, it can be said that the new having identical skills, incomes, wealth and material
middle class has been a harbinger of new ideas in the well- being in general. Weber defines class as 'A
society from bringing new modes of production to new body of people having identical position in a market
 STRATIFICATION AND MOBILITY NI 109
situation'. Modernity accepts class division as a form of involving attacks on Dalits. The caste system has also
stratification while rejecting others like caste ethnicity spilled over into other religions in India, with Christians,
and race, etc. Muslims, Sikhs and Jains all employing similar forms of
For sociologists, a race is a group of people who are social stratification.
perceived by a given society as biologically or culturally Hence, it can be concluded that, despite rejection
different from the others. Thus, people are assigned tt of ideologies of caste, race and ethnicity by modernity,
one race or another, by public opinion which is molded these ideologies still exist in various forms.
b;' tlLat society's dominant group, rather than on any
scientific basis.
Sociologists, thus, view race as merely an ideological
a. Compare and contrast the contributions of
Marx and Weber on social stratification in
construct based on physical difference. It is used as a tool
capitalist society. (CSE, 2019)
of domination and spreading inequality as well in the
form of racial stratification. Ans: Stratification describes the way in which
'I4hite Man's Burden' theorv of Rudyard Kipling different groups of people are placed within society.
was also rooted in racial notions. Adolf Hitler too The status of people is often determined by how
adopted supremacy of Aryan race into a political society is stratified - the basis.of which can include
ideology which led to annihilation of millions of wealth and income - this is the most common basis of
Jews stratification.
and the worst global war in the history of mankind.
Racism now operates in more subtle ways than Marx said that nature made everyone equal, but
some men deprived others. He agreed that there are
earlier open blatant racism. It is termed as ,new racism,.
inequalities in society in various fields, but they all
Discriminatory attitudes still persist. Ideas of cultural
emanate {rom one thing - control over the forces of
differences instead of biological ones are now used to
production. Thus, in the Marxist theory social classes
disguise racism. Those cultures which refuse to assimilate
are defined by what relation they have to the means
into the dominant culture face threat of marginalization
of production. Weber, hower-ei, refused to reduce
and are discriminated on various grounds. Ban on
stratification to economic factors (or class, in Weber,s
turbans, hijab, Islamic headscarves, etc. in European
terms) but saw it as multidimensional.
countries are suc(.r attempts which have political backing
Thus, society is stratified on the basis of economics,
too. \Arhiie 'race' is perceived as biological, ,ethnicity, is
prestige/status, and power. For Marx, Class is the only
cultural or social in its meaning. An ethnic group may
form of stratification in society based on ownership of
have a common language, history, national origin or
forces of production. There are only two classes _ the
lifestyle. It is a purely social phenomenon in which people
haves and the have nots. Class hai to be understood
learn their ethnic dilferences as a process of socializatiorl
in the framEwork of an individual position in the
use of exclusionary devices like marriage, etc.
strucfure of production: On the other hand, according
Antagonistic co-existence is best exemplified to Weber, apart from ciass, there are also other forms o?
which suffer ethnic conflicts. Such type of societies best
stratification viz. - status and parties. However, basis of
demonstrate existence of sharp ethnic lines. Sri Lanka
class stratification is mainly economic.
is such an example where ethnic Tamils and Singhalese
Marx also has an optimistic vier.t, about social
exist in form of distinct strata.
stratification and he sees class struggle leading a
According to caste system, Hindus are divided revolution that will ultimately lead to class equa[ty
up into four classes based on the principle of ,,varna,,, in society. Uniike functional view, Marxists regard
which literally means ,'color,,: the Brahmins (the priestly stratification as a mechanism rvhereby ,orr"
class); the Kshatriyas (the ruling, administrative "rploit
others rather than a means of furtherance of collective
and warrior class); the Vaishyas (the class of goals. Other than
class, Weber proposed the concept
artisans, tradesmen, farmers and merchants); and of 'status
groups'. Status groups differ from classes in
the Shudras (manual workers). There are also people being'communities'.
Weber said that status situation is
who fall outside the system, including tribal people determined by
positive or negative ,social estimation
and Dalits, previously known as ,,untoubhables. of honor'. While 'class'
refers to unequal distribution of
Despite laws that aim to create equality, the caste economic rewards, 'status'
refers to unequal distribution
system in India continues to have a strong impact of social honor.
on socibty.
Possession of property is not always associated
Inequalities under the system still exist in modern with social
honor and, is tlrerefore, not essentially
India despite these measures, which have even served a qualification
for acquiring status. Income, family
to reinforce the divisions to some extent. Violence based background,
education and all those criteria that are
on caste has also erupted in recent times, much of it valued may
be identified as markers of status.
 ttO ?:: soctolocYe&A
In addition to stratification by class and status, household chores. Often their status was linked to the
Weber proposed the concept of 'party' as the third status of their husbands or fathers. This has been termed
element according to which society is stratified. While 'natural' by functionalist sociologists like Murdock and
classes exist in the economic order and status groups Parsons. Biological theories of sexual division of labor
in the social order, parties can be found in the politicai also support this form of stratification.
order. However, this 'Natural' thesis has come under
Thu-s, Marx and Weber saw social stratification from attack as women enter the labor force and the traditional
different perspectives and contributed to comprehensive patriarchal division of labor is slowly being turned
understanding from different vantage points' on its head " Marrist school of thought has led to the
conceptualization of sexual division in terms of the
between 'Life-chances' and 'place' of female labor within the class structure and of its
A. Differentiate 'functions for capital'. They see female subordination as
'Life-style' with suitable examples.
(csE,2019) a result of prirrate property, emergence and consequent
adoption of monogamy. That means stratification on the
Ans: Life-chances refer to the opportunities that basis of gender is also rooted in class division.
a person has to move ahead in life and achieve hisl
Further, in Indian context; caste is also viewed by
her goals included are the chance to receive a college
feminists as a patriarchal insfitution as across the castes,
education, the chance to live along and healthy life, the
role of women is of clomestic worker. Together with
chance to enter a profession, and the chance to marry
religion, it defines the role of women in Indian society.
vsithin or outside one's social class. The availability of
According to Uma Chakravorty, Brahminical traditions
these life-chances is unevenly distributed; being highly
glorify obedient women as'Pativrata' and hence put a
dependent on one's social class.
veil on gender discrimination. Patriarchy legitimizes
Furthermore, each class in a unique subculture
motherhood as primary role of women.
because it shares certain basic values and lifestyles.
lVhile nature created sexual difference, gender is a
Lifestyle includes r,vays of spending leisure time,
social construct according to feminist sociologist Ann
socialization practices, participation in clubs and
Oakley. She rejected biological basis as offered by Tiger
political activities, and the manner of spending money/
and Fox, Patsons, etc. According to feminists, women are
consuming gctods, and practicing religion. Each social
oppressed as a class by men and patriarchal structures
class has a unique way of engaging in these activities'
are geographically and historically almost universal.
The social class into which one is born has a
profound.influence on one's entire life. One faces more Therefore, gender based stratification intersects with
disadvantages and fewer life-chances at the bottom of other forms of inequalities like class, caste, and race.
the social stratification system. One's mental health,
education, occupation, political behavior, religious a. Feminist scholars argue that'New media'is
affiliations, social participation, and attitudes are all masculine and hence reinforces structural
affected by one's social class in general, the higher hierarchies rather than reconfiguring them.
an individual's social status, the longer is his/her life Comment. (CSE,20L9)
expectancy. Poor nutrition, inadequate housinS, and Ans: Building egalitarian societies one of the
is
insufficient medical treatment contribute to higher in{ant priorities of modern democratic states. Mass media play
mortality rates in the lower classes. Therefore, it can be a unique and important role in the shaping of a society
said that, life-chances are the opportunities in one's life where men and women enjoy equal rights.
to have a good lifestyle. Raising women's legal awareness is important for
the creation of an egalitarian society. This is reached
Q. Why is gender a dimension of social through several means, including psychological, social,
stratification? How does gender intersect economic, philosopl'rical, awareness of human rights,
other dimensions of inequality based on political and so on. The role of media is important for
easte, class, race and ethnicity? (CSE, 2019) being successful in all the mentioned spheres. The media
can promote and speed up the reforms in progress, or,
Ans; Social stratification is a kind of social
on the contrary, it can hamper their implementation.
differentiation whereby members of society are grouped
it into socioeconomic sttata, based upon their occupation A number of international conferences and
and income, wealth and social status, or derived power conventions have voiced and publicized the need to
(social and political). Stratification based on gender is break public stereotypes through change in the media
one of the most fundamental forms of stratification. Both policy" Mass rnedia, ho\,\'ever, continue to reproduce
in Eastern and Western societies, the long held view is - discriminatory stereotypes about women and portray
men are breadwinners and women are expected to take them in stereotypical ways.
 STRATIFICATION AND MOB|LtTy .r,, 111
Only in a limited number of news programs do o High educational achievement is the aspiration of
women appear as main actors or experts. One of the most people. At the same time, it is a sufficient but
reasons for this situation is the smaller number of not a necessary condition for upward mobility"
women in these spheres, but even the existing number
r Education is highly correlated with income and
of women is under-represented compared to their male
occupation. The higher the educational level, more
counterparts. In advertising and magazines, women are
prestigious the occupation, leading to higher annual
usually portrayed as young, slim and with beauty that
income. This in turn is associated with property,
meets the accepted standards.
prestige, social status and power.
Femininity, as well as masculinity is not biological,
Mass education brings fundamental changes in
but rather, cultural constructs. Representations and
manifestations of femininity differ across cultures, social structure. Examples of Jyotiba phule, Brahmo
Samaj show how education heralded social change fgr
time and societies. Femininity is culturally and socially
such sections of society. It is a force that is breaking the
constructed by the family, education, the public, and
to a larger extent, the media. In this respect, the long- moulds of rigid stratification like caste and providing
term change in women's images in media could help opportunities in closed societies also. It facilitates both
change the perceptions and stereotypes women face in inter-generational and intra-generational mobility.
a society. In addition, the portrayed female characters There is an alternative view as well which is not
are largely influenced by the beauty myth. As a result so optimistic about role of education in bringing social
oI globalization this myth is increasingly generalized change. Mark Twain famously said 'I never let my
across cultures and societies. schooling get in the way of my education'. In a study by
Despite the tremendous change that has taken place Raymond Boudory he shows that the role of education
in the sphere of media thanks to feminist criticism, the in providing for social mobility is not very significant.
contemporary media are nowhere close to the standards In fact, education based on equality only perpetuates
they claim. Even in US and Europe, where feminist inequality. Power, wealth and other material resources
ideas are widely spread, and women have legally play a greater role in such societies. Commerciaiization
reached equal rights with mery media continue to have of education has further diluted role of education in
discriminatory attitudes towards women and rely on social change as there is now unequal access to quaiity
male worldviewiwhen portraying women. education based on one's class.
Flowever, the image of women and the voicing of Children of working class only have ,working class
women's concern underwent a revolutionary chairge suited' education which offers only limited avenues.
due to modern technology and the of new According to Paul Willis, working class kids get only
"^"rger,."
types of media. Tod.ay, all of us, in fac! are part of the working class jobs as differential education leads to
media not only as consumers, but also as producers. differential reproduction of cultural values.
And anyone/ woman or man/ can cover their problems There is also alternate Marxist view by likes of
and story by themselves, make it public, and turn it into Althusser. Althusser in his 'Ideology and Ideological
media for consumption. State Apparatus, 1972' tieats education as the most
Therefore, despite some positive developments in important'ideological state apparatus' appropriated
New media, it can be said that new media reinforces the by the ruling classes to pursue their own ideas and
patriarchal ideology in various spheres o{ the society. interests, and it reinforces dominant ideology and thus
hinders real social change in society.
a. Schooling does not ensure upward mobility Despite criticism of schooling, education can be the
of all members of the society. Discuss with most universal source of social mobility to enhance one,s
reference to class societies. (CSE,201g) standing in the social hierarchy.
Ans: Social mobility means transition of individuals
or groups from one position in the social hierarchy to a. Evaluate if social stratification is functional
another i.e. from one stratum to another. The concept for society. (CSE, 201g)
of social mobility is closely linked to the concept tf Ans: All societies are marked by differences on
stratification. As hierarchical patterns evolve in a society, various counts like - sex, wealth, skills, color, status,
a tendency of shifting these patterns at individual and power and geography and so on. Such differences may
structural level also evolves. Mobility, thus, can be at an be natural or man-made.
individual level or at collective leveiwhich is termed as
But, such differences rarely remain differences.
structural mobility.
Society tends to attach values on such differences in
In the present-day world, a major key to social terms of superior or inferior, desirable or undesirable
mobility is education. Education is regarded as the and so on. Attachment of these values leads to
primary channel of mobility as: evaluation of differences. 'social differences, now
112 '.i, SOCIOLOGY Q & A
become'inequalities'. While differences are created by Apart from Tumin, Dahrendorf was also one of
nature, man creates inequalities. the major critics of Functional theory' Ralf Dahrendorf
obser..Ls that stratification originates from the'closely
Thus, social inequalities come into existence into
related trinity of notms, sanction and power''
every society. This makes inequalities culture specific'
These inequalities occur in specific pattern' These
Similariy, rigidity of caste system cannot be
explained thiough functional theories of Davis and
patterns arl understood through the concept of'Social
Moore and others.
Stratification.
According to Alvin Gouldner, stratification is not
Social stratification is a process in which social
inevitable as Davis and Moore predicted and criticizes
inequalities exist in form of structural hierarchical strata
them for providing a justification for social inequalities'
wnich is placed one above the other' it is defined by t, functionalists view provides important
Despite
Sutherland and Maxwell as'a process of differentiation "iiti.itt
insight to study the presence of stratification ind
which places some people higher than the others''
inequality in the societY.
Stratification is viewed as a social process (social
phenomenon) as well as a method (mental construct)'
-As
a social process, it has four sub processes - Q. What is the difference between natural and
Differentiation (Differences exist socially as well as social inequality? Give examPles from caste
naturally), Evaluation (Differences are evaluated in and class dimensions. (CSE,201'8)

terms of prestige, desirabilitY), Ans: Patterns of unequal access to social resources

Ranking (differences are ranked), Rewarding(society are commonly called social inequalities' In every society'
develops a system of rewards and punishment) ' some people have a greater share of valued resources -
Structuie functionalists believe that social stratification .rro."y, property, education, health, and power - than
in society exists because it serves important role in others.
functioning of societY' These social resources can be divided into four forms
Different strata are created due to differential of capital according to Pierre Bourdieu -
capacity of actors and their ability to perform different
roies. iunctionalists see existence of various strata in
i. Economic capital in the form of material assets and
income
terms of their'interdependence, cooperation and serving
the function of integration of society' ii. Cultural capital such as educational qualifications
Davis and Moore forrnuiated their famed and status
functionalist theory in their work'Some Principle of iii. Social capital in the form of network of contacts and
Social Stratificatiory 1945'. social associations
Davis and Moore observed that there is no society iv. Symtohc capital which refers to social status' good
which is not stratified; strata exist on the basis of reputation, etc.
differential rewards. Such rewards are attached to Inequalities existed long ago and they have
positions that exist in various strata and some of these been studied even before the dawn of sociology as a
positions are functionally more important and others discipline. Rousseau identified two kinds of inequality
are functionally less important' Societies need these u*orlg people, first, natural or physical inequality
stratified positions for its proper functioning' Higher ,"f"rri-rg to differenc e of age, health, bodily strength'
rewards are attached to functionally more important and mental abilities; and second, moral or political
positions in order to attract talented people needed to inequality referring to differences in privileges that
hold such positions. are estabiished or authorizedby the consent of people
Thus, social stratification is a mechanism of role themselves e.g. Power, honor.
allocation in which more irnportant positions are filled Inequalities in society exist in various forms -
by more talented people for the benefit of all' income, political, economic, wealth, capability, social
Melvin Tumin challenged the claims of Davis and capital und to on. These inequalities become repressive
Moore and argued that it is not possible to determine the when they are rigidly enforced. Caste, slavery, bondage'
relative functional importance of various social positions etc. are such examPles.
in an objective manner and similarly, talent and ability Marxists attribute inequalities in societies due
can also not be measured. to unequal access to forces of production of different
Davis and Moore however tried to dispei the classes. According to them, opportlrnities and resources
notions of Tumin and argued that functional importance are monopolized by a few at the expense of the others
of a position can be judged by the uniqueness of such which lead to social inequalities in societies'
positions and degree to which other positions depend While class is broadly perceived as grouping on the
on the particular Position. basis of economic criteria, status is based on prestige'
 STRATIFICATION AND MOBILITY 1.13
goodwill, fame, personal qualities and social capital develop a common identity, recognise shared
of an individual. Status is often seen in terms of the interests and take collective action to further those
social position. Earlier, status was seen as in terms of interests.
ascriptive values - e.g. - Caste, Noblemary Clergy, Estate Weber rejected the Marxist view that political
owner, etc. Here Social inequality has origin in natural power necessarily derives from economic power. He
inequality or differences. argued that class forms only one possible basis for
Thus, class and caste become social inequality if power and that the distribution of power in society
there is no chance of mobility for individuals or group is not necessarily linked to the distribution of class
to move in higher positions. inequalities.

Q. What is the Weberian critique of Marxist a. Examine gender, ethnicity and race as maior
notion of social stratification? (CSE,2017). dimensions of social stratification. (CSE, 2017)
Ans: Social Stratification is a particular form of Ans: Social stratification is a kind of social
social inequality. It refers to the presence of different differentiation whereby a society groups people into
social groups which are ranked one above the other in socio-economic strata, based upon their occupation and
terms of factors such as prestige and wealth. income, wealth and social status, or derived power.
Marxist Notion of Social Stratification Gender, Ethnicity and Race are the three major
dimensions of Social Stratification. It is explained one
e There are two major social groups in all the skatified
by one in the following section:
societies, a ruling class and a subject class.
o Social Stratification Based on Gender
. The ruling class exploits and oppresses the subject
Gender distinctions are fould in economic-, kinship-
class. Hence there lies a conflict between the two
and caste-based stratification systems. Soiial role
classes.
expectations often form along sex and gender lines.
. The power of the ruling class comes from its Entire societies may be classified by social scientists
ownership and control of the means of production. according to the rights and privileges afforded
o The various institutions of society, such as the legal to men or women, especially those associated with
and the political systems, are instruments of ruling ownership aird inheritance of property. Sex-based
class domination. wage discrimination exists in some societies such
Weber's views on Social Stratification that men, typically, receive higher wages than
women for the same type of work. These and
Max Weber believed that social skatification results
other ggnder-related values affect the distrikrution
from the struggle for scarce resources in society. Although
of income, wealth, and property in a given social
he saw this struggle as being primarily concerned with
order.
economic resources, it can also involve struggles for
prestige and political power. Weber distinguished the . Social Stratification.Based on Race
following class groupings rn capitalist societies: Racism consists of both prejudice and discrimination
1,. The propertied upper class. based in social perceptions of observable biological
differences between peoples. It often takes the form
2. The property-less white-collar workers. of social actions, practices or beliefs, or political
3. The petty bourgeoisie. systems in which different races are perceived to
4. The manuai r,r,orking classes. be ranked as inherently superior or inferior to each
Weber criticized Mqrx on q number of important other, based on presumed shared inheritable traits,
issues as
follous: abilities, or qualities.
. According to Weber, factors other than the Those who share racial characteristics socially
ownership or non-ownership of property are perceived as undesirable are typically under-
significant in the formation of classes. represented in positions of social power; they
. Marx,argued that over a period of time there would become a minority category in that society.
be the polarisation of classes (the small property Minority members in such a society are often
owners would join the subject class) and the subject subjected to discriminatory actions resulting from
class would overthrow the ruling class. But Max majority policies, including assimiiation, exclusion,
Weber saw no signs of such polarisation of classes. oppression, expulsion, and extermination.
o Weber rejected the view of the inevitability of the . Social Stratification Based on Ethnicity
proletarian revolution. He saw no reason why those Ethnic identification can include shared cultural
sharing a similar class situation should necessarily heritage such as language and dialect, symbolic
 114 ri$ri soctoLocy e & A
systems, religion, mythology and cuisine. As such, a. Elucidate the basic premises of Davis'
ethnic categories of persons can be subject to the structural- functional theory of social
same types of majority policies. stratification. How far is it relevant in
Whether ethnicity feeds into a stratification system understanding contemporary Indian society?
as a direct, causal factor or as an intervening (csE,2016)
variable may depend on the level of ethno-centrism
Ans: Davis and Moore developed a structural-
within each of the various ethnic populations in a
functional theory elaborating on the importance of
society, the amount of conflict over scarce resources,
stratification in the society. For them, a society exists
and the relative social power held within each
because of order and stability present in it. This has
ethnic category.
come about by societies following their own functional
prerequisites. As per their theory, societie-s are not mere
a. "Vertical mobility brings structural change collection of individuals. These individuals have to
even in a closed social system". Comment. perform certain functions so that the requirements of
(csE,2016) the society are fulfilled
Ans: Vertical mobility refers to changes in the Thus, there are many number of activities exist in
position of an individual or a group along the social the society. Different skilled workers take to different
hierarchy that is from one statub to another. For example, activities. Therefore, the functional prerequisite of a
if an industrial worker becomes a businessman or lawyer society is to allocate these different roles effectively.
he has radically changed his position in the stratification This will ensure people are placed in proper positions.
system. Vertical mobility involves change within the As per Davis's theory, there are four aspects of
li-fetime of an individual to a higher or lower status than functional prerequisites. First of all, all roles (work) in
the person had to begin with. the society are to be filled. Second, mere filling will
Structural mobility is an opportunity for movement not suf{ice. These roles are to be filled with people
in social class that is attributable to changes in the with requisite skills. For example, filling the role of a
social structure of a society, rather than to changes in engineer in a construction company with a novelist
an individual. will lead to a loss for the company. Thus, roles must
In a closbd system like pre-industrial society be filled with persons appropriate for the task. Third,
hierarchical positions are fixed and hence have less in order to select the best people for the work, they
mobility between the strata. Individuals are set in one are to be trained. Fourth, the roles must be performed
social poqition for life despite their achievements. In conscientiously. This is very important for ensuring
such a system individuals are assigned their place in effective performance in the roles.
the social structure on the basis of ascriptive criteria For Dhvis and Moore, these functional prerequisites
Iike age, birth, sex. can be effectively ensured with social stratification.
Traditional caste system in India is an example of They argue that such. a system is effective because
closed system. Vertical mobility has the potential to it offers unequal rewards and privileges to different
bring a structural change even in a closed social system. positions in the society. If all people are provided with
For example, prior to industrialisatiorL Britain was a similar rewards then there will be no motivation for
closed system with feudal setup. people to work harder. There may be a tendenty for
With rapid advancements in technology and people to avoid taking up positions of responsibility or
investments by the Lords of Britain vertical mobility challenging jobs. Therefore stratification is necessary for
took place and the closed society witnessed structural the efficient functioning of the system.
changes and ultimately led to Britain becoming an open The unequal rewards system contributes in two
society. ways: first, it motivates people to fill certajn roles and
M.N. Srinivas argued that the lower caste started second, even after filling the roles, the rewards are to
emphasising on secular institutions than rather be unequal to motivate the role taker to work harder to
institutions after they found out that by achieving perform the role effectively. For example, if a lecturer
education they can move up the ladder of stratification. position carries higher reward, brilliant students tend
Also the educational institutions have been diversified to take up that role.
ri from the sole authority of Brahmins to the other castes After taking the role, if they are rewarded for their
after the lower castes achieved vertical mobility. lectures and research papers, they further perform their
Vertical Mobility has proved an effective driver duties effectively. Davis and Moore say that this social
of structural change by giving opportunity to people stratification system hold true for both modern society
for status elevation and challenging the rigid social based on competition and traditional society based on
structure. ascription.
 STRAT|F|CATION AND MOBILITY ,!r 115
The keynote of the functional approach to study the available for everyone instead of the person being poor
social stratification is the functional differentiation as or rich.
an inevitable phenomenon. One person cannot perform People who are socially excluded are generally
all or most of the functions in a society. For different also poor, particularly if poverty is defined in a
functions, persons of different intent and ability are multidimensional way. There are, however, several
required. The persons are rewarded according to the key differences between the concepts of poverty and
value attached to the functions they perform. This social exclusion: (i) the majority of people in a society
differential reward pattern gives rise to stratification may be poor, (i.e. suffer from adverse incorporation)
and hierarchy. The functional theory of stratification but it does not make sense to say that the majority are
advanced by Davis an.d Moore conforms with this excluded; (ii) in most cases social exclusion implies
analysis of functional approach to the stratification. inequality or relative deprivation, whereas poverty
Most of the studies on the caste system in India were need not; (iii) social exclusion implies that there aie
conducted from the functionalist perspective in the processes of exclusion and institutional processes and
first half of the 20th century, and even after this, in the actors responsible for excluding, whbreas poverty does
decades of sixties and seventies.
not.
Davis' structural functionai theory fails in Some authors also connect state fragility to social
understanding India's contemporary society. In a caste
exclusion. Thus, the relationship between poverty
based society where functions are dependent on one's
and social exclusion can be concluded as partially self
ascription at birth, the theory says that a son of a labourer
propagating in nature. That is, where there is poverty
remains a labourer but is relt arded if he does his role
there is bound to be some areas where a poor person
as a labourer effectir.ely. Here the theory is actually
faces social exc]usion.
promoting inequality. In India where social
discriminations are higher, power is a more dominant
force in determining one/s functions and roles than a. "No society can either be absolutely open or
unequal rewards. A person from a poor background absolutelyclosed."Comment. (CSE,2015)
with proper skills for a role will lose out to one with Ans: A1l societies have some system of social
having power thus leading to their loss in motivation stratification. They are generally categorized as open and
in improving tl1eir positions in the society. Also, if closed. A closed society is one in which an individual's
\,
we see the contemporarv scenario of workforce in the role and function can tireoretically never be changed, as
country, organised and unorganised workers though in the traditional Hindu caste system.
having same skills have varied status and role position. In an open society, on the other hand, individuals
While the former being unionised have more power have the opportunity to move up to a higher social class
in determining their salaries and avail social security or down to a lower class. Sorokin believed that there is
benefits. This is not the case with unorganised sectors. no society which is completely closed (Caste System in
Thus, the structural functional theory of Davis India) and no society which is completely open (Class
doesn't help in understanding Indian society fully. System). He further contended that no two societies
are exactly same in the amount of movement allowed
a. Discuss the relationship between poverty and or dlscouraged.
social exclusion. (CSE,2016) Further the speed of movement or change may
Ans: Social exclusion is a complex and multi- differ {rom one period of time to another. The rate of
dimensional process. It invoives the lack or denial of change depends upon the level of modernization of a
resources, rights, goods and services, and the inability given society.
to participate in the normal relationships and activities, In a society exists a balance w,hich holds onto a,
available to the majority of people in a society, say, f ixed hierarchical cooperation between social
whether in economic, social, cultural or political arenas. groups, but it permits different social groups to vie
It affects both the quality of life of individuals and the for the same resources through hard work, education,
equity and cohesion of society as a whole. ability, luck, marriage etc, so their relations are
Poverty brings forth this social exclusion. people competitive.
who are poor are generally excluded from participating
in various activities in the society owing to their lack of a. Differentiate between N{arxian and Weberian
access to these activities. theories of Social Stratification? (CSE, 2015)
Though there are certain activities where being
Ans: Social stratification refers to a system by which
poor is not a barrier to participation in the society but
a society ranks categories of people in a hierarchy. Marx
such activities are very limited in nature. For example,
believed that in all stratified societies there are two major
voting rights provided by the constitution of India is social groups: a ruling class and a subject class.
116 ;;'::::,' soclolocY Q&A

Furthermore he states that the principle difference as the basis of nationhood. Identity politics in India
between these groups is the ownership and control of began its journey with certain groups building political
the means of production, which causes a conflict of support by appealing to voters' language, caste,
interest between the two classes. Weber did not disagree ethnicity, or religion. Caste ideology and recognition
with this viewpoint but saw important differences in of their demands especially related to untouchability
the market situation of the property less groups in and reservations for advancement and upliftment of
society and he believed that there exists a more complex backward castes have highlighted the democratic nature
interaction of factors when it comes to determining social of our polity.
stratification than Marx claimed. India's evolving relationship with identity seems to
For Marx, systems of stratification derive from the offer promise. Recent elections suggest that democracy
interaction of social groups to the means of production. may mature not by ignoring identity, but by permitting
Marx used the term,class' to refer to the main strata in competition among identity parties to play out As
all stratification systems. Marx believed that the class democracy consolidates, an incteasingly discerning
struggle was the driving force of social change. citizenry will rely more on political ideology and
The proletariat would overthro'iv the bourgeoisie performance'
and seize the means of production, which he saw as the As identity's influence waxes and wanes, a solid
source of power, resulting in.a classless society. constitutional and electoral framework will help to
For Weber, a class is a group of individuals who ensure that identity politics contributes to the democratic
share a similar position in the market economy and by proqess'
virtue of that receive comparabie economic rewards. Citizens are demanding more of their government,
Their market situation wili directly affect their chances of and parties are responding with stronger platforms, more
gbtaining those things defined as sought-after in society competitive elections, and better governance. India's
such as high"r educatior,, good quillty housing and relationshipwithidentityoffers,paradoxicallyof course,
health care. Social stratification is not merely a matter both promise and caution for India and similar young
of class. It is also shaped by status and party. These democracies.
three overlapping elernents of stratification produce
a vast no*b* oi potential positions within society, a. How could one use Merton's concept of
rather than the more rigid bipolar model, which Marx deviance to understand the traffic problem in
projected. According to Weber, social divisions derive urban India? (CSE, 2014)
not only from control or lack of control of the m:ans Ans: The issue of traffic problem in urban India is
of production, but from economic differences, which not only because of increase of vehicle population in
have nothing directly to do with property. He argued Indian roads it is also has social dimension from human
that the 'middle class' inilates rather than deflates as actions and behavior, which is the subject matter of
capitalism develops. Thus Weber saw a diversification sociologist, here to understand such social phenomena
of the middle c1ass, rather than a polarization as claimed MertonTs concept of deviance can be applied in the study
by Marx. He also discarded the view shared by many of traffic problem in India.
Marxists, of the inevitability of the proletarian revolt. Deviance is behavior that some people in society
Marx attempted to reduce all forms of inequality find offensive and which, if discovered, exaites or
to social class and argued that classes formed the would excite, disapproval, punishment, condemnatiory
only signific.ant p;roups in society. To the contrary, or hostility.
Weber argued that there exist a more complex According to Merton, deviance is an adaptation
interaction of factors when it comes to determining by individuals to the dominant culture. Discrepancies
social stratification' exist between cultural (material) goals and structural
oooortunities.
a. Caste ideology appears to have strengthened " p"opl" in order to reach their destination faster
democracy. Cornment. (CSE, 20L5) they tend to break the rules and violate traffic norms to
Ans: Democracy as an ideology prescribes reach their spot faster. Note that individuals approach
and permits the pursuance of multiple interests by the means-ends discrepancy in different ways like not
jnclividuals, who accordingiy associate in interest groups following signals, speed rules, and other regulations to
that cut across ethnic identities. be followed in roads.
India still struggles with religious extremism, Merton s concept of deviance argues that people,
discrimination, and caste-based violence. The forces who cannot achieve goals determined worthy by the
generated by democratic politics prevent the state from dominant society, use illegitimate means to achieve I
choosing a single cultural identity, even majoritarian, egitimate goals.
 STRATIFICATION AND MOBILITY ..... 117
Further, people's deviant behavior in Indian roads been and continues to be an important social class in
are also one of the causes for increasin g trafhcproblems capitalism. Finally, people in societies create some major
in India, like tent base for festivals, site for hawkers, parties, political parties and other organizations, each
area for social functions such as marriage and festivals, aiming to achieve some end.
pavement to sort rubbish, children ptaying in roads, etc. Again, it is likely that only a fe-r,rr of these
accelerate traffic delays in Indian roads. organizations will acquire major importance for people
It can be concluded by quoting sociologist Anthony at any one time. Weber's writings can thus be used
Giddens on traffic issues, the dangers and the risks as a guide, but one should not get lost in the mass of
have kept pace with modernization. Risks are not only detaiis to be considered. Rather, one must attempt to
associated with personal actions but with the risk- reconstruct the major groups and classes in society,
filled milieu including dangerous traffic situations or determine how people related to these, and holv these
environmental degradation. interact.

a. "According to Max Weber, 'class, and ,stafus, a. Using Merton's concepts of ,manifest, and
are two different dimensions of power.,, 'latent' functions, explain the persistence of
Discuss. (CSE,2014) corruption in Indian society. (CSE,2014)
Ans: In regard to the analysis of power in society, Ans: Latent functions ordinariiy mean the actions
weber introduces a pluralistic notion. Although he or the outcomes of it which are neither
intended nor
agrees with Marx in crucial respects, he refines and recognized. To its contrast,
Manifest functions, explains
extends Marx's analytical scheme. For Marx, power is the actions or its outcomes,
which are defined, expected,
always rooted, even in only in the "last analysis," in intended and recognized.
economic relations' Corruption as many functions in society some
Those who own the means of production exercise are functional, non-functional
and dysfunctional to
political power either directly or indirectly. Weber persons involved in corrupt practices
and public in
agreed that quite often, especially in the modern ihe society. As Robert K.
Merton uses manifest and
capitalist world, economic Power is the predominant latent function in his study of
social realitr,, that concept
form' But he objbcts that "the emergence of economic can be applied in the study
of corruption in Indian
power may be the consequence of power existing on society. In Indian society,
the bureaucratic forn of
other grounds'" For example, men who are able to governance with resting more
power on administrative
command large-scale bureaucratic organizations may pur", *uy for corruptiln
in Society.
wield a great deal of economic power even though they Persons like bureaucratic personals are involved in
are only salaried employees' corrupt practices, the manifest function in corruption is
Weber's discussion of class, status-and power to gralify his self need and fulfill his desires
by r,vav of
give an idea of how markets affect people, and how briting others; the latent function
is getting promotions
people form themselves into groups, partly as a result and opportunities to him.
of markets and partly on the basis of other factors that fuLt and Manifest function of corrupt government:
are socially important' Lack of development and poverty ,." tii" manifust
To some extent, Weber's status groups would function of governrnent involving ir-, .orrrpt
practices
appear to be ways in which people in capitalism protect which hamper the development
and erodes ihe country
themselves from the effects of markets, but at the same but the latent function
of such corrupt practices are
time using the market as they cary and using the means lowering people paying
taxes to the goverlment.
of power they have at their disposal. Corrupt political leader involves in corrupt practices
Weber concludes that there are relatively few with busin"r, p"rrorluls and entrepreneurs
for his
dominant features of social structure. In terms of classes, political financiil stability
and business people need
the major classes are the working class, the capitalist iurou from the government
to run successfui business
class, and the middle professional group. is their manifest functions but the latent function of
For Weber there are also a number of major status such corrupt practices offer scope of
development in
groups and parties, not necessarily identical to or the nation.
determined b1 the same factors as are classes. That is,
. Thus corruption in Indian society is functional,
one may consider s91e of the major styles of life as those non-functionat and
dysfunctional to people involved
of upper class, middle class, and lower class. in corruption depending upon their position and
Within this system of stratification, the working status in the power they aie trolaing in the democratic
class does not fit, although the working class has system.
 118 tt. SOCIOLOGY e &A

a. For Marx, class divisions are outcomes of is associated with religious fundamentalism and
'exploitation'. Discuss. (CSE,2014) dogmatism. It involves making use of religious and
cultural differences to achieve political ends' Religious
Ans: According to Marx, the exploitation of workers revivalism is term applied to mass movements which
by capitalist and the resulting alienation from work are based upon intense religious upheaval. Periodic
result in the denial of worker's humanity. Our specie's religious revivals which seek to restore commitment
humanity is realized through meaningful work and and attachment to the group are a regular sociological
the alienating nature of work under capitalism robs feature of religious traditions. Revivalism happened in
workers of their inherent potential for human growth 18th century in western world among methodists. In
and development. The exploitation of workers arises India Arya Samaj is or-re of the most important revivalist
because capitalist or.trns the means of production movements which were based on shudhi movement.
(technology, capital investments and raw materials) and it aimed at converting F{indus back to the fold who
treat labour as if it were just another inanimate factor had converted to other religions. This had profound
of production. For a capitalist, Iabour is to be hired as irnpact on Hindu especially lower caste Hindus.
cheaply as possible, used up and discalded. They sought to other religions to improve tlreir
Marx argued that the exploitation and misery of social status. New insecurities and alienation that
workers results directly from the laws of capitalism in arise out of migration and urbanisation in a globalised
which the market system dertands that every iapitalist world are driving more people to religion as a way
buy labour as cheaply as possible in order to produce of establishing their identities and validating their
and sell goods ar-rd still turn a profit. If capitalist do not experiences.
exploit their employees, they wiil be undercut by other
capitalists n'ho do. a. How open and closed systems of stratification
In contrast to the utilitarians lt'ho conceive of self- undergoing transformation in the emergence
interest as a regulator of a harmonious society, Marx sees of new hierarchical social order in Societies?
individual self-interest among capitalists as destructive (csE,2013)
of their class interest in general, and as ieading to the
ultimate self-desh'uction of capitalism. The very fact that
Ans: Open system of stratification is the one in
each capitali5t acts rationally in his own self-interest
which norms and values of a given society encourage
leads to ever deepening economic crises and hence to
mobility across the social structure. Here, individual
the destruction of the interests common to all.
talent, ability, and hard rt'ork get preference over
ascribed characteristics. Class based stratification present
in European society is an example of open system.
a. How is religious revivalism different from
A closed system is one where norms and values
communalism? Elaborate with suitable of a given society discourage mobility across the social
examples from the Indian context. (CSE,20L4) structure. Here, ascribed characteristics get preference
Ans: Indian societv is pluralistic from religious over individual talent; ability, and hard work.
point of view. Here, vve have the {ollowers of all the Caste based stratification, ethnicity and race based
great religious systems. Hindus constitute the bulk of the stratification are the examples of closed system. Though
population and they inhabit in all parts of the country. no system is totally closed or open though tha degree
I\4uslims constitute the largest religious minority. But the may vary. With new forces such as industrialization,
adjustment between the Hindus and Muslims has been a urbanization, globalization, high growth, more access to
failure several times, resulting in violent communal riots. education and democracy both the svstems are opening
Colonialism is a product of British administration, up.
to rule the country they applied the policy of divide and Changes in open system are happening faster than
rule which led to communal violence in Indian society the changes in closed system. We have three studies
and finally two nations emerged of communalism. to analyze the rnobility in the British society. David
Though there were many religious revival movement Glass' study in 1949 found out that the intergenerational
initiated by various social reformers but'they couldn't mobility was less and only short range. It means that
succeed in stopping the communal violence, where the sons were moving. to the adjacent category to their
;lt
people in the past believed communalism and revivalism fathers.
are different from each other. Oxford mobility study in 1972fosnd more mobility
Communalism, as we understand it in our country and longer range than the previo'us study. Although
is blind loyalty to one's own religious group. It is absolute mobitity increased but the relative mobility
described as a tool to mobilize people for or against by was still low indicating that inequality of opportunity
raising an appeal on communal lines. Communalism was there among different classes.
 STRATIFICATION AND MOBILITY ffi 119
Finally, the Essex study in 1984 found out more But, today there are changes happening in sexual
mobility because of expansion of white collar jobs. division of labor. Women are getting useful employment
Also, it revealed that mobility among women is also and are challenging the traditional patriarchal mindset.
increasing though women are more concentrated in With contraceptives and other technological innovations
certain occupations. women are overcoming their biological weaknesses.
A recent study by Goldthorpe concludes that the This change is in fact challenging the pakiarchy and
long range mobility which was found in Essex study is its torchbearers. Though some say that a working woman
cleclining and it is not possible to achieve that level of gives less time to children leading to delinquency. But,
mobility now. In case of race based stratification Brown Ann Oakley replies by saying that a working woman gives
and Gay conducted a study in Britain. more quality time to her child. Thus, both patriarchy and
They sent fake job applications on behalf of different sexual division of labor affect each other. Once patriarchy
nationals and found that the response was positive for was responsible for division of labor and now the changing
90% of English cases and only 63% of Asians. Tariq sexual division of labor is changing the patriarchy.
Madood in1997 found out the same thing.
So, race based stratification is not opening as fast as a. Distinguish between people being socially
class based stratification. Santosh Goyal in India found excluded and people excluding themselves
out that 38% of CEOs were from Dvija class, which is socially in societies. (CSE,201B)
more than their actual percentale share in population.
Yogendra Singh in his study in Rajasthan found out
Ans: People being socially excluded are those
that 80% of university professors are from higher class. people who have been excluded by the society. They
Thus, this indicates the closed character of caste based are forced directly to get themselves excluded or the
stratification. Thus, it is important that closed systems society creates certain conditions for their exclusion.
should accelerate their degree of openness; otherwise People excluding themselves are those who exclude
it will hamper the development of the society and will themselves from the society purposely and voluntarily.
generate rnore conflict. As they have certain characteristics which are different
than the average member of society they retain those
characteristics and maintain their exclusivity.
a. Is patriarchy a universal phenomenon? Various examples of people being socially excluded
Critically examine how does pakiarchy affect
are dalits in the caste system, tribal people, underclass
sexual division of labor in societies?
people in the class based stratification, blacks in USA
(csE 2013) and many others. Dalits are excluded because their
Ans: Though patriarchy is the most pervasive touch is defiling and affects the purity of upper castes.
ideology and nearly universal but not the universal Tribal people are excluded as their ethnic identity is
phenomenon. Patriarchy refers to a system of unequal di{ferent and many of their cultural practices are socially
power relations between man and women. Because of prohibited in mainstream societies. For e.g. drinking
this, gender based stratification develops and woman liquor by women. Under class people are excluded as
are deprived of equal opportunities and equal status they have a different lifestyle which doesn't match the
with respect to man. When this gender based inequality life of other people.
extends into the division of labor then it leads to sexual This exclusion affects the people those who are
division of labor. Sexual division of labor and patriarchy excluded in a negative manner. It hampers their right to
are closely related to each other. In patriarchy, the freedom and expression. It provides them inequality of
conduct of woman is regulated. She represents the opportunity and deprives them of many facilities. It is
honor of societv so she is not allowed to mingle with through law and constitution the rights of these people
people as men are allor,ved. This leads to compulsory can be protected as has been done in Indian constitution.
domesticity aird when it is practiced over the years it Various examples of people excluding themselves
ieads to internalization of patriarchal ideology. socially are big businessman, celebrities, people living
Robin Fox has mentioned that adaptation to the on the other side of the law, and politicians. Celebrities
hunting and gathering life for many years as the and big businessmen exclude themselves as they occupy
reason for sexual division of labor. Shulamit Firestone a higher position in terms of popularity. It is their
has talked atrout biological factors such as pregnancy, exclusive nature itself which makes them important.
breastfeeding of child and long periods o{ dependence Thus. by excluding they maintain their distinctiveness.
as the reason of sexual division of labor. G.p Murdoch Criminal elements do it as they are doing something
in his study found that 224/ZS0 societies have sexual which society doesn't approve of. If they don't exclude
division of labor which shows the near universal extent then they will be caught and jailed. Even politicians
of patriarchy in the World. today are excluding themselves from the society.
 120 tt:: SOCIOLOGY Q & A
Once they come to power they are least concerned Class is an achieved status which means a person
about the people. This trend is not good for the political can change his class by effort, education or other
democracy and the politicians must be in touch with the means. According to Marx, class is a collection of such
people frerluently. people who do similar work in process of production.
According to Weber, class is determined by available
How do Karl Marx and Weber differ in terms opportunities in market condition.
a. Marx has discussed two types of class-bour-geoisie
of their analysis of social stratification?
(csE,2013) and proletarian. Weber has classified soc-iety in 4 classes
on the basis of stratification of class-
Ans: Karl Marx viewed society from a conflict
perspective and highlighted the negative impacts of L. the privileged classes through property & education
it. But, the Weber's conception of stratification was 2. the propertyless intelligentsia and specialists
positive and acceptable than the Marx's conception of 3. petty bourgeoisie
stratification. 4. working class
Various parameters on which we can discuss their On the basis of classes in society, Anthony Giddings
analysis are: talks about high, middle and low classes. High class
Basis: For Marx the most important basis of has relation with owner class of production system,
inequality is economic inequality. But, for Weber it political leaders and bureaucracv etc. In middle class,
was multidimensional and it consisted of economic there were people from professional groups like doctor,
basis, power and status as other dimensions of lawyer, professor, engineer etc. and in lower class,
stratifica tion. farmers, laborers etc are included. Today, in this period
Structure: For Marx, the structure consists of of globalizatiory there is tradition of stratification based
minority rich and majority poor. Minority owns the on class. Today due to increasing role of achieved status
forces of production and controls the majority who in society there is much increase in social mobility
owns nothing but their labor. For, Weber the structure of between classes.
society is divided into four classes. These are propertied
upper class, property less white collar workers, petty a. In our society hierarchical relation are
bourgeoisie and manual working class. influenced by social mobility. Explain how?
Consequences: According to Marx, the non-owners (csE,2072)
are being exploited by the owners of the factors of Ans: Since ancient time, India has been stratified
production. They work hard but get little share with society based on caste system. Caste system arranges
respect tcr the produce. There happens pauperization, different castes in hierarchy on the basis of purity and
polarization and homogenization leading to violent pollution:
revolt. But, Weber disagreed with Marx and proposed Top most castes in the hierarchy have high status.
that at the maxirnum the r,vorkers will resort to sabotage And caste at lower level faces so many disabilities. Caste
and strike. There is a least possibility of revolution. puts hard social rules.on their members to restrict the
Desirability: Marx was pained by the existing social mobility between di{ferent castes so that hierarchic
exploitation of man by man to fuifill his animal desires structure must be maintained. For this caste among its
and therefore wanted a classless society i.e. communism. members has formed an accepted social structure of
lVeber believed that stratification is going to stay as hard rules related to fooding, marriage, custom, culture
it is necessary for rnodern society. Therefore, Weber and social interaction between the castes. In this way in
improved upon the model of stratification provided by traditional Indian society, social mobility has been found
Marx. Marx's analysis was enriching but the prediction in negligible amount.
was wrong. But, Weber's analysis was more fruitful and But neither any system has completely closed social
close to reality. mobility nor have completely open social mobility'
To represent possible mobility between castes, social
a. Shatification of Classes (CSE,20l2'l anthropologist M.N. Srinivas presented the concept of
Ans: Class system is a traditional form of social 'sanskritisation. To explain social cultural mobility in
hierarchy which is the most popular base of stratification caste in traditional Indian society, Srinivas presented
rl
in modern society and can be seen in most of the the concept of Sanskritisation by studying the social,
countries of the world. Meaning of social stratification religious life of Coorgs people of south India. Srinivas
is division of society into systematic hierarchy so that found that people of lower caste, to raise the status in
society can be weli conducted. In traditional Indian caste hierarchy, imitate the custom, values, ideology,
society, base of stratification has been caste which behavior, fooding, dress style of Brahmin or twice born
provided the ascribed status based on hereditary. caste. This has been termed Sanskritisation by him.
 STRATIFICATION AND MOBILITY i!]iij 121
According to Professor Srinivas, with Sanskritisatioru to another is the case of intergen-erational mobility.
related castes mobilize upward. But as a result of For example, Son of a industrial worker achieving
Sanskritisation, related mobility is only positional the position of a manager. Intra-generational mobility
change in the system and not any structural change i.e. denotes the social movement of individual within their
a caste raises its position among surrounding caste in own life time. For example, student who became a
relation to them. But the position of the raised caste is manager.
socially accepted after crossing two or three generation Edrrcatiory occupatiory power and gaining wealth
in this process. In this way hierarchical relation gets are important causes of social mobility. In every society
affected due to this process of Sanskritisation. social mobility depends on a number of factors namely
Increasing role of achieved status caused by nature of social stratificatiory political order, economic
economic, educational, political and other reasons due opportunities.
to modernization, westernization, new social roles have In r.t,estern world urbanisation, industrialisation
also affected the hierarchical relation. and political iiberalism are important causes of social
Today in this era of globalization, knowledge, skill mobility but in developing countries like India where
and its utility have also speeded the process of social full industrialisation has not reached, education is an
mobility due to which hierarchical gap has reduced too important cause of social mobility.. Education has helped
much as compared to past but its presence is clearly seen in bringing social mobility in India by creating different
today in traditional and backward society. job opportunities for various castes who were involved
in their traditional professions. Specialised education has
Q. What do you mean by social mobility? Discuss also provided new occupation, equality of opportunity.
the major sources and causes of mobility. Empirical studies by S.C. Dubey in Gorakhput,U.P,
(csE,2011) revealed that most of doctors, engineers, University and
Ans: Social movement literally means movement in college teachers has come from rural areas and their
stafus of individual or group from one status to another. forefathers were either peasants or manual workers,
hr other words it is the change in the position of people in who were uneducated. Gaining of political power and
hierarchical order of Society. It is dynamic in nature and economic wealth is another important factor of social
involves multidimensionality. In an open class system mobility. With the introduction of reservation policy
where achievement is the most important ingredient, in politics many backward castes people got political
mobility is high. Whereas in close social system, where power and their status changed significantly.
the determinant of status is ascription, the degree of
social mobility is lower. In every society there are a. Examine how open and closed systems of
instances aniong the people which are institutionalised stratification are undergoing transformation
but also society provides adequate opportunities by in the dmergence of new hierarchical social
which individuals can improve their position. It is a
order in societies. (CSE, 20L0)
movement within the system of inequality. It is also
concerned with social position which signifies a certain Ans: Looking at the present hierarchical social order
rank with respect to possession of valued, estimated and and the emerging stratification system, one wonders
desired by most members of the society. if it still makes sense to talk about open and closed
The change in the social position is concerned stratification systems as two distinct kind. Though a
with variation in occupatiory power, prestige, income purely open stratification system or a purely closed one
and social position. There are various forms of social are only ideai types and have never really existed, in the
mobility: present scenario, the boundaries between the two have
(i) Vertical and horizontal mobility: When on the blurred to a much greater extent. An open society is
basis of wealtlu power and prestige one improve his the one, where there are ample opportunities for social
status, it is upward mobility and when somebody lose mobility. In such a system of stratification, the status is
it, it is downward mobility. The lose of prestige due to determined mainly by the talents, intelligence, wealth
various reason cause lower reputation and consequently and achievements of the individuals.
downward mobility. Horizontal mobility is a change On the contrary, in'closed systems, the status is
in social position that has no significance in terms of primarily ascribed by birth and there is little or no scope
prestige or status. For example, a worker leaves one of social mobility. Class based societies are examples of
factory and joins another one as a worker, there is no open stratification system and caste societies represent
change in ranking. the closed ones. A closer look today, however makes us
(ii) Inter generational and intragenerational see that the two systems have interpenetrated each other
mobility: The movement in Socio-economic ladder i.e. class boundaries are slowly becoming impermeable
experienced by family member from one generation and caste boundaries have opened to a large extent.
122 ; soctoLocye&A
Classes are basically determined on economic But this August Comte's positivism methodology
criteria or on the basis of occupations. With changing which are derived from the sensory experience was
times, even status has come to be linked with various criticized in both within the positivist group and outside
classes. Margaret Stacey, in one of her studies found the positivists domain. Within positivism a branch called
that members of the manual working class distinguished logical positivism was developed in the early twentieth
three status groups within that class. century which claimed that social science is both logical
The 'respectable' working class, the ordinary and is also based on observable facts and verification
working class and the rough working class. Open through sensory experiences.
stratification system is based on principle of meritocracy Outside positivism another school of thought like
or rn hat we call equality of opportunity but a reality symbolic interactionism also criticized the positivists
check on the ground reveals that there are not many methodology and its perception on soqial reality. They
cases of people from lowest rung making it to upper rejected outrightly the application of scientific method to
c1ass. study the social life. They believe that human behaviour
Similarly, the closed stratification system of caste is reflexive partly influenced by the experience gathered
has adapted itself to changing times by becoming from the past and also partly driven by cognitive
more accommodative and flexible. There are no longer understanding of the universe.
hereditary occupations or strict rules pertaining to Hokheimer who first offered rejection to positivism
endogamy or commensality.' considered it as a traditional methodology because it
The process that started with socio-reform intends to integrate all branches of knowledge together
movements via constitutional legislation and finally from physics to sociology. He also argued that sociology
to present reservatioir policy has given a complete addresses multiples issues from Kinship, inequality to
makeover to the caste hierarchies. Today, lower castes study of market.
are not going for sanskritization , rather they are vying Hence sociologists should go for multiple theories
among themselves to partake the fruits of reservation and methods rather than simply standing iommitted to
to the maximum. glorification of positivism.
Also, with politicization of caste, one can observe Peter Berger opined that facts never fall from
that political success no longer depends on the status heaven, they are created by subjects. According to him
that a caste holds or held but on factors like wealth, man is a subject and his thoughts, perceptions, belief
power and number base. etc. are greatly in{luenced by the activities manifested
by him. Hence studying objective reality in isolation
A. Connment on the reasons why neo-idealists to subject is sociological disasters and positivism is
and symbolic interactionists are critical of committed to it.
positivism in Sociology (CSE,2009) Posiiivist method is further criticized by a scholar
Ans; August Comte, a French philosopher and named Althusar who believed that positivist method is
father of sociology, proposed method of positivism in the specially devised to collect data on demographic character,
field of social research. It is a method which emphasized rate of poverty, socio-economic marginalization, spread
on gathering of empirical data. This nerv methodology of fatal diseases, level of unemployment etc. which are
also rejected philosophical and speculation approach on offering a guide for public policy formulation. These
gathering data. By 1930s the method of positivism come datas are also misused by that party which is in power
to flourish in IJSA and other countries. The method of according to their need and thus, it offer voluntary
positivism also emphasized on application of natural support to the rulers.
sciences methodology in which direct observation of Another scholar Ardano argued that anarchy
behaviours of object is taken into account. sustain in democracy because of the continuation of
On the basis of this, positivists argue that same positivists methods used by people in power to glorify
procedure can be used in the observation of human nationalism. He also criticized the positivist's view that
behaviour but only directly observed behaviour should truth can be arrested, all branches of science can be
be accepted as valuable data. integrated, human behaviour is empirically arrestable,
But some scholars belonging to non=positivists social life is disciplined and organized hence social
methodology argue that certain facts related to human life can be equated with material and organic life and
being such as motives, feelings and inner status of thus, scientific method of positivism can be applied on
an individual cannot be observed directly. However them. According to Ardano this view- point is no longer
positivist opined that like natural sciences various applicable today.
theories based on observable data can also be made in Apart from these scholars G.H. Mead argued that
sociology by observing directly the human behaviour. human thought, experience and conduct are essentially
 STRATIFICATION AND MOBTLITY T: I23
social and human beings interact in society in ternr of To him social stratification is an universal
some symbols. This symbol is related rn ith particular phenomena existing in every known human society.
meaning example chair may be made of rnetal or wood They based their theory on the fact that every social
but it defines very different objects i.e., status of man in system has certain functional pre-requisites which
terms of power, status etc. must be met if the system has to operate effectively and
According to Mead there urould be no human survive. One such function is effective role allocation
interaction without symbols" He also opined that social and performance. Thus, to maintain the system every
life can only proceed if the meaning of symbols are role must be filled by those who are best suited to
largely shared by members of society and common perform it. They further opined that social inequality in
symbols provide the means by which human interaction form of social stuatification is an unconsciously evolved
can be accomplished. Hence, these symbolic interaction device by which society ensures most qu4lified person
must be understood in society for collecting fact which must be matched with the most important position. .
has never been considered by positivist methodology. F{ence every society, no matter how simple or
From all these criticism it can be said that the complex, are stratified. They are of the view that in
method of positivism is full inherent contradiction society, a job is highly rewarded according to its degree
because it has denied sensual or inner experience of of importance which require special training and talent.
man in sociological research such as feeling, thoughts, According to them unequal pay is needed to get all the
common sense etc. jobs filled by properlv qualified person. Thus, in their
It is also criticized on the ground that every truth theory role allocation and performance according to role
that existing in society is quantitative and can be is the basis of social stratification.
calculated with the help of positivist methodology. This This stratification is also attached with unequal
view of positivism has given it exclusive limitation itself. rewards and prestige. They further opined that in a sociefy
However, positivism has given sociology an identity, a positions differ in terms of their importance and therefore
subject matter and a methodology for research. Hence society needs the mechanisms of social stratification to
despite limitations, it deserves intellectual appreciations. match the ablert person with the important positions.
They also argued that people differ in terms of their
Q. What are the reasons for calling Kingsley innate ability and talent also. So, social stratification
Davis and.Wilbert Moore's theory of social serves to match the most talented persons w.ith most
shatification a functional theory? (CSE, 20091 important positions. As different rewards are attached
Ans: Functional theorists view society as a system with different positions, individual compete with one
that is a set of interconnected parts which together another in which the most talented person becomes
form a whole. According to functional theorists victorious. Persons who are selected for the positions
social institutions such as the family, religion, social require training which incurs loss in income. This loss
of income is the sacrifice given by that individual for the
stratification are part of social systems. Functionalists
society. Therefore society promises high reward for this.
often compare between society and organism such as
This reward is also work as an incentir,,e. But according
the human body. They argued that an understanding of
any organ in the body, such as the heart, Iungs involves to Davis and Moore the importance of a position in a
society is measured by two ways-
an understanding of its relationship to other organs
and these organs made its contribution towards the (i) Degree to which a position is functionally unique
maintenance of the organism" Similarly different parts and the alternative available to it.
in society contribute in the maintenance of its structure. (ii) Degree to which some other positions are dependent
Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore have also on it.
presented their theory of social stratification in Thus, Davis and N{oore argues that social
functionalist approach. Davis and Moore in their stratification is a functional necessity of all society and
article "Some Principles of Stratification" elaborated the because of this, their theory is known as functional
functionalist perspective of stratification. theory of social stratification.

{.,{'t
 CHAPTER

Q. What is Taylorism? Analyse its merits and and initiative of workers. Employees often feel less
demerits. (CSE 2023) valued as a result.
. Short-sightedness: The focus on efficiency can lead to
Ans: Taylorism, named after the American engineer
long-term goals and sustainable developments being
Frederick Winslow Taylor, is a method of industrial
neglected. There is a risk that quality and innovation
management designed to increase efficiency and
will suffer.
productivity. For this purpose, workflows and work . Vulnerability
processes are examined and optimised precisely and
to Errors: Because.the work is highly
specialised, an error in a small task can affect the
systematically in order to reduce costs and increase quality.
entire process. This specialisation increases the risk
Merits of a chain reaction when errors occur.
. Increased Efficiency: Work processes are optimized As Taylorism offers advantages in terms of
through the scientific analysis of work processes and improved productivity and cost savings, it also has
the decoryposition of complex tasks into simpler drawbacks, including the dehumanisation of labourers
units. This systematization enables work processes and reluctance to change. Therefore, businesses adopting
to be executed quickly. Taylorism must be aware of these possible drawbacks
. Cost Reduction: By increasing productivity, manu- and take precautions against them. This could entail
facturing costs can also be reduced. This usually leads giving employees a wider variety of jobs, promoting
to an increase in the company's profit. innovation and creativity, and treating them with
. Easy Training: Since tasks are broken down into decency.
simpler processes, it is easier to trainnew employees.
This saves time and resources during training. Q. What characterizes degradation of work in
. Specialisation: Employees can focus on specific tasks capitalist society according to Marx?
and perform them more efficiently. As a result, they (csE,20221
develop a high level of expertise in their respective
field. Ans: Work in simplest terms can be defihed as
. Control and Monitoring: The precise definition of the carrying out of tasks requiring the expenditure of
work processes facilitates control and monitoring. mental and physicaleffort, which has as its objective the
This minimises errors and improves the quality of production of goods and services that cater to human
the end product. needs. But in economic sociology, it is generally an
activity which results in paid employment, reward or
Demerits contract.
. Human Factors: Taylorism tends to neglect the psy- Concept of Work
chological and social aspects of work. This can lead . Concept of work is also associated with industri-
to a deterioration of the working climate.
. alization and groivth of capitalism. Initially, the
Monotony: Breaking down work into simple, repeti-
tive tasks can lead to monotony and thus employee
term'worker' was used for those who worked in
dissatisfaction. This monotony can also have a nega- factories.
tive impact on productivity in the long term. . Worker is a person who enters into employment out
. Disenfranchisement of Workers: The strict separa- of his own will. He has contractual relations with
tion of thinking and acting can limit the creativity the employer.
 WORKS AND ECONOMIC LIFE .ii...r 125
In the contemporary sense, a worker is the one who . There is real contradiction between human nature
a
is not in a managerial job. - which is defined and transformed by labor - and
In a strict sense of meaning, 'worker' is also dif- the actual social conditions of labor under capitalism.
ferentiated from'labor'. The term labor denotes a
. Thus, Marx uses this concept to show the devastating
worker who lacks choice for any reason. effect of capitalist production on human beings and
on society.
Concept of Labor Degradation of Work in Capitalist . Another view is provided by Marxist writer Harry
Society Braverman in his'Labor and Monopoly Capital,
. Labor is a process, an activitl, which is explained by 1974', according to which Fordism and automation
Marx as 'labor is, in the first place, a process in which has actually led to 'deskilling' of the labor force.
both man and nature participate, and in which man . Labor has lost control over its skills and due to
of his own accord starts, regulates, and controls the specialized production, they learn jtist a part bf
material reactions between himself and nature'. whole production activity and they become more
. According to Marx, labor is peculiar to human beings dependent on the capitalist system.
only and animals are not capable of producing it and . Arlie Hochschild in her 'The Managed Heart,
our labor creates something in reality that previously 1983' based on her study of Delta Airlines shows
existed only in our imagination i.e. it is objectification that the service industry requires more and more
of our purpose. manipulation of emotions. Marxists see such a trend
. Labor is material according to Marx as it works with as the pinnacle of commodification of labor power.
the more material aspects of nature. Counter Arguments
. Marx's use of the term labor is not restricted to . Michael Burawoy rejects the Marxian argument that
economic activities; it encompasses all productive workers are always in a disadvantaged position. F{e
actions that transform the material aspects of nature rejects Marx's explanation that workers work hard
in accordance with our purpose. due to coercion.
. Labor, for Marx, is the development of our truly . The advent of labor unions and other changes largely
human powers and potentials. It satisfies our needs eliminated the arbitrary power of management.
as well create new ones. . To Burawoy,. workers, at least in part, consent to
. Furthermore, labor is a social activity. Labor does work hard in the capitalist system, and at least part
not transform only the individual human; it also of that consent is produced in the workplace.
transforms society. According to Marx, labor in . Durkheim saw division of labor as a process of
capitalism is not owned by workers. evolutions in society and it leads to interdependence
o To survive, workers are forced to sell their labor time in the niodern world which serves to integrate the
to capitalists. society.
'1
Contrary to Marx, Hegel viewed labor in non- Handy in his 'Empty Raincoat, 1,994' argues that
material terms or in terms of ideas only. He looks at labor organizations today require workers with multiple skills
as mental labor. and hence labor is 'flexible labor' today. Such workers
Marx believed that there is an inherent relation are not specialized in one task, rather they have a'skill
between labor and human nature and that this relation is portfolio' and such workers are termed as 'portfblio
perverted by capitalism. He calls this perverted relation workers'.
as 'alienation'. It explains the peculiar form that our
relation to our own labor has taken under capitalism and a. Sociologists argue for democratisation
Iabor in capitalism is no longer seen as serving purpose of science and technology for inclusive
of human existence. development. Comrnent (C9F,,20221
Degradation of Work in Capitalist Society Ans: Science and technology are essential ingredients
. Rather than being an end in itself - an expression of of modern life. Science and technology accompany us
human capabilities - labor in capitalism is reduced from cradle to grave.
to being a means to an end i.e. earning money for Science and technology is an important secular
the capitalists. medium which transcends local boundaries and touches
. Labor is now owned by the capitalist, it no longer the lives o{ everyone.
transforms the workers, they get alienated from it Development and Science and Technology
and ultimately from themselves. Alienation is an . The rapid development of digital technologies
example of the sort of conttadiction that Marx's around the world has both been an opportunity and
dialectical approach focused on. a challenge for developing countries.
 126 :l:lr SOCIOLOGY Q & A
, While digital technologies have grown by leaps and A few companies already had a Work from Home
bounds, the broader development benefits from policy that allowed their employees to work from home
using these technologies have lagged. either full-time or when it's most convenient for them
Dernoeratisation of Science and Technology but COVID-19 has made it a new normal.
. Advances in digital technology and artificial In the economv work from home is common in
service sector. In sectors like agriculture, manufacturing
intelligence hold great promise to boost economic
prosperity and address some of the world's most and construction work from home is not possible.
pressing challenges, but they can also worsen Work from Horne has in some cases inJormalized
economic disparities and even undermine democratic work which earlier was formal. This is due to no
governance. trade unionism, no physical interaction and cost
n As these technologies transform business and work, cutting measuring adopted by organisations. Du.e to
they are shifting growth and distributional dynamics this, hiring and firing has become easier for firms, e.g.
in major ways-in both advanced and developing a company named Better.com fired 900 of its workers
economies. Their economic and social implications over a zoom call.
are profound. The inJormal sector like Gig Work, Platform work,
* The innovation ecosystem should promote wider etc. with the Work from Home component also has
diffusion of new technologies. The century-old further expanded due tc loss of jobs in formal sectors.
patent system should be reviewed in light of today's In the informal economy, especially in MSMEs
realities. manned by poor, women/ lower castes, the concept
. Fublic investment in R&D should be revived to of Work from Home was inapplicable due to the type
strengthen support for innovation that serves of work, low credit capacity to shift to Work from
broader economic and social goals rather than the F{ome, etc" As a result, many units were forced to close
interests of narrow groups of investors. down.
. The Small Business Innovation Research and the The idea of formal sector is generally being attached
Small Business Technology Transfer programs to working in an industrial or corporate setup. Working
should be strengthened and their effectiveness at home was seen as a remnant of ancient economic
enhancedtby shifting more resources to early-stage setup when work was done at homes. This type of work
awards to sma1l and young firms. mostly includes informal work like stitching clothes,
e Investment in upskilling and reskilling the workforce making bangles, etc. Flowever, the growing demand of
should be boosted. Scaling up the availability and Work from Home has changed this notion and forced
quality of continuing education should receive us to redefine the concept.
increased support. Thus classifying work into formal and informal
* Workers' access should be facilitated through sector has undergone a change and become more
rnechanisms such as Lifelong Learning Accounts. complex due to COVID-19 induced idea of 'Work from
The potential of technology-enabled solutions should Home'.
be more fully exploited, supported by a stronger
foundation of digital infrastructure and digital
literacy. Support for universal connectivity should
a. Explain the emerging challenges in
establishing gender equality in the informal
receive priority in parliamentary deliberations on
i n-f ra structure bil Is.
sector" (CSE 2021)
Thus, an agenda to enable broader participation of Ans: The International Conference of Labour
firms in the innovation economy and build workforce Statisticians (ICLS) defined the informal sector as
capatilities that complement new technology can deliver enterprises that have a low ievel of organizatioru little
both more robust and rnore inclusive economic gror,vth. or no division between capital and labour as factors of
It can reduce inequality and economic insecurity more production, and labour relations consisting of social
effectively than fiscal redistribution alone. relationships, not formal contracts.
Challenges in introducing gender equality in the in-
A. How has the idea of 'Work from Home' formal sector:
f,orced us to redefine the formal and informal
The biggest problem with the inJormal sector in
organisation of work? (CSE 2021)
India is that there is no precise in{ormation about the
Ans: 'Work from Home' means an employee total number of women workers engaged in in{ormal
is working from their house, apartment, or place of sector which makes it difficult to make and implement
residence, rather than working from the office. policies related to gender equality.
 WORKS AND ECONOMIC LIFE x 127
Informal women workers also do not have any According to Dipankar Gupta, the migrant workers
alternative choice to work due to dire need of income. wanted to go home not to seek material help from their
According to Karuna Ahmed the limited opportunities family in the village but it was the fear of dying alone
available to women are mostly low paid, low status in the city with nobody to perform the religious rites
jobs in the informal sector; jobs which do not have any like chautha and shraddha. These ritual ceremonies are
possibilities of betterment, advancement of efficiency important for easy transition to afterlife. He calls the
or training, to enable them to enter better jobs at a later phenomenon'ritual tug of home'"
stage. Tariq Thachil argues that migrant labour has
It can also be found that women from marginal characteristics like high informality and circular nature.
groups like SCs, STs, and minorities are majorly part of This rendered them highly vulnerable after the lockdown
informal economy. The intersection of these identities with no social security and other benefits in the formal
with gender further decreases their bargaining power sector. With little or no negotiating power they also had
rendering gender equality a difficult task. to face harassment by police and their employers.
According to Sylvia Walby in her book'Theorizing According to CSDS study around 22% of migrant
Patriarchy', patriarchal ideology can be found out in labourers earn only up to 2000 per month. With such
different social structures including informal sector little income and no earning during the lockdown
making the task of gender equality difficult. Veronica their families had to face severe challenges related to
Beechey argues that women are less likely to be provision of essentials like food, medicines, etc. Besides,
unionized, accept lower wages due to fear of losing they could not avail ration in the cities through PDS
jobs, etc. stores under National Food Security Act,2013.
Women are also less likely to get credit from formal Ravi Srivastava opines that migrant workers are
sources like banks due to issues like discrimination by largely composed of marginalized sections like SCs,
banks, low collateral, etc. As a result women enterprises STs, and OBCs. Already facing historical discrimination,
face problems of dwarfism. Introducing gender equality the lockdown further made them rnore vulnerable to
is important as it is the Fundamental Right of women. discrimination, alienation and many forms of violence
Besides it would also give a push to economy and lead and untouchability.
to social justice. , The migrant labourers and their families also
suffered from COVID-19 which they had contracted
a. Elucidate the main problems and challenges in the cities and on the way home. This led to various
faced by the migrant labourers in the recent health complications, death and psychological issues
'lockddwn period'? (CSE 2021) among them.
Migrant,laboures are the backbone of our economy
Ans: Migration is the movement of people away
but they continue to face various challenges. However,
from their usual place of residence, across either internal
measures like One Nation One Ration Card and
(within country) or international (across countries)
e-SHRAM Portal-National Database of Unorganized
borders. As per the 2011 Census, India had 45.6 crore
Workers are the steps in the right direction.
migrants in 201L (38% of the population).
Due to the outbreak of COVID-19 and subsequent
lockdown by government, many economic activities a. Capitalism has brought increasing
were completely or partially suspended and passenger informalisation of work in society. Substantiate
trains and flights were halted. Consequently large your answer. {CSE 2020)
numbers of migrant workers were adversely impacted. Ans: Informal Organization of trVork is the one in
According to Bryan Wilson in his 'Religion in which workers are not governed by fixed rules, but by
Sociological Perspective', they are a result of rapid social directions of the employer. It generally includes casual
change. As traditional norms are disrupted, people labor, contract labor, child labor, domestic labor etc.
search for explanations and reassurance. In{orma1 organization is based on social contracts in
According to Olridge, cults are present in modern which rules are implied rather than stated.
society because they provide relief in this life itself, In{ormal organization also escapes the legislations
provide solution to mundane problems unlike religion and rules of the land. They may also be organizations
i1 which is an after worldly affair. which are developed on the basis o{ personal linkages
Several of the workers lost their jobs due to shutting and rapport. It is largely a feature of society where labor
of industries and were stranded outside their native supply is higher and workers accept whatever is given
places wanting to get back to their homes. With the fear to them in any conditions of work. Such type of work
of hunger and deattu they were forced to move back to organization also makes workers, especially women and
their villages on foot. childrer; prone to exploitation.
128 llilliiii SOCIOLOGY Q & A

Informal work is often believed to be the vestiges The central government proposes to replace 29
of early relations of production in vogue before the existing labour laws with four Codes. The objective
emergence of capitalism. It subsequently transformed is to simplify and modernise labour regulation. In the
the existing systems into its preferred mode of formal globalized economy we need to be competitive in terms
factory lines which dominated the golden age of of prices for which production should be high and cost
capitalist production in the post war period. should be low for which labour group plays a very
The later drive towards informalisation arose out important role.
of a need for a flexible production mechanism with With the passage of time, labour laws need an
decentralized and unregulated production processes. overhaul to ensure simplification and updation,
It developed from capital's need of generating profit along with provisions which can capture the needs of
for continuous surplus appropriation in the event of emerging forms o[ ]abour (e.g., gig work).
changing patterns in the world. . Coverage: Most labour laws apply to establishments
Informalisation of the production system was
over a certain size (typically L0 or above). Size-
coupled with informalisation of labour market conditions
based thresholds may help firms in reducing
where older and direct contract between labour and
compliance burden. However, one could argue
capital was replaced by diffused, indirect agreements,
albeit dependent ones. that basic protections related to wages, social
security/ and working conditions should apply to
This move towards more flexible job structures
and practices with specialised and fragmented units of all establishments. Certain Codes retain such size-
production and contingent labour was definitely not based thresholds.
ad hoc. It was a result of the changing dynamics of the . Retrenchment Establishments hiring L00 or more
world political economic order. Seen in the light of the workers need government permission for closure,
varying nature of capitalism, increasing informalisation layoffs or retrenchments. It has been argued that this
can be understood as its basic tendency to ensure greater has created an exit barrier for firms and affected their
surplus accumulation. ability to adjust workforce to production demands.
Thus it is evident that the informal economy will The Industrial Relations Code raises this to 300, and
not cease to erist with capitalist industrial development. allows the government to further increase this limit
Informalisation is a consequence of modern capitalism, by notification.
not a transitory path towards advanced industrialisation. . Labour Enforcement Multiplicity of labour laws
It is not a temporary phenomenon; it is an essential by- has resulted in distinct compliances, increasing the
product bf capitalism where formal production is the compliance burden on firms. On the other hand, the
hegemonic form of capitalist system which informalises labour enforcement machinery has been ineffective
large segments of its production to facilitate the because of poor enforcement, inadequate penalties
reproduction of the modern capitalist world order.
and rent-seeking behaviour of inspectors. The Codes
address some of these aspects.
a. Discuss the new labour codes and their impact . Contract Labour: Labour compliances and economic
on formal and informal labour in India. considerations have resulted in increased-use of
(csE 2020) contract labour. However, contract labour have been
Ans: Rec_ently, the Parliament passed three labour denied basic protections such as assured wages. The
codes - on industrial relations; occupational safety, Codes do not address these concems fully. However,
health and working conditions; and social security the Industrial Relations Code introduces a new form
- proposing to simplify the country's archaic labour of short-term labour - fixed term employment.
laws and give impetus to economic activity r.r,ithout . Trade Unions: There are several registered trade
compromising with the workers' benefits. unions but no criteria to 'recognise' unions which
These reforms aimed at iabour welfare covering can formally negotiate with employers. The
more than 50 crores formal and informal workers in Industrial Relations Code creates provisions for
the country. This also includes gig workers, platform recognition of unions.
workers and also opens up the doors for social security . Simplification and Updation: The Codes simplify
to those in the self-employment sector. These Bills cover labour laws to a large extent but fall short in some
(i) Industrial Relations Code, 2020 respects. Further, the Code on Social Security creates
(ii) Code on Occupational Safety, Health & Working enabling provisions to notify schemes for'gig' and
Conditions Code,2020 & 'platform' workers; however, there is a lack of clarity
(iii)Social Security Code, 2020. in these definitions.
 WOR.KS AND ECONOMIC LIFE :,':,);'::
1Zg
As a result of these reforms, if India had fewer As a result, the family benefits when women stay at
and easier-to-follow labour laws, firms would be able home. Also, men are better at providing for their family
to expand and contract depending on the market because they have instrumental personalities. He also
conditions, and the resulting formalisation - at present stated that in the industrial society, isolated nuclear
90% of India's workers are part of the informal economy families have become more dominant.
These families have become isolated from their
- would help workers as they would get better salaries extended families because of commitments such as work
and social security benefits. The code is simpler, removed
contradiction in definitiory regime to give protection and demands. The conjugal pair therefore looked to each
further their welfare, benefits and incentives to workers. other to provide for their needs.
However, these reforms are criticised as they When people started.moving from rural areas
introduce new conditions for carrying out a 1egal strike.
into towns and cities, in order to get jobs in factories
and mills, this all changed. Work and horne were now
The time period for arbitration proceedings has been
separated. Families needed to be geographically mobile:
included in the conditions for workers before going on
they could not take large numbers of dependents and
a legal strike as against only the time for conciliation at
extended family with them into the city.
present. Also, presentiy, a person employed in a public
There was paid work for men in the factories and
utility service cannot go on strike unless he gives notice
mills, and so a clear gender division of labour emerged,
for a strike within six weeks before going on strike or
with women staying at home to look after the chiidren
within fourteen days of giving such notice, which the and the house. Increasingly the state took over many of
Industrial relations Code now proposes to apply for all the roles of the family listed by Murdock, leaving the
the industrial establishments. family with the irreducible functions.
, Therefore, as the Periodic Labour Force Survey Conflict sociologists insist that men in the society
observes that 71% of regular wagef salatied workers were primarily the owners of private propertv and this
in the non-agriculture sector did not have a written led to them depriving a woman of their rights as the
'contract, and 50% were without social security cover.
woman was primarily dependent on a man (father,
The new laws, by simplifying compliance, should create male kin or husband) for living. This led to their loss of
an incentive for workforce formalisation. The new labour economic independence and wealth.
codes will help in increasing the pace of generating The discoulse by feminists argued that gender
good quality jobs to cater to the growing workforce, differentiation is not biological rather it is cuitural.
their rising aspirations and to absorb out-migration of According to them, men assigned them domestic chores
labour from agriculture. This way India can fully be able and this was not due to a biological diflerence and
to capitaliie on its inherent labour and skill cost and society coercively confided them in this role.
help a fast economic recovery especially post-Covid-19. According to a study, women do two third of
the world's work while.men do only one-third of the
Q. What is the impact of gender division of world's work but are paid way more than women" In
labour on the development of society? some instances, women do a duai task of childcare and
(csE 2020) earn a livelihood.

Ans: The gender division of labour, in which men

It is often observed that women take more
responsibility in taking care of the family whilstrnen,
tend to specialise more in paid work within the market,
especially in the poorer sections of the society, get
and women tend to specialise more in unpaid work
engaged in crime early or drugs and some claim that
within the home, is a feature cofiunon to modern society. this is because of the entitlement given to men, which
Functionalists put forward a structuralist view of creates a sense of superior being in them from a time
the family and within that context, how they understand they are babies.
conjugal roles. Parson believed the gender division of Based on the above arguments and evidence,
labour was natural and desirable. He also suggested there remains considerable disagreement within
that men and women had biologically determined Sociology over the dispute of conjugal roles. While
personality types. Parson suggested that the roles carried Functionalists believe that roles are progressively
out by women were not inferior, just different. equal in modern society^ Feminists maintain that there
They complimented the role carried out by men. He is very little empirical evidence to support this. For
believed that women were more expressive than men them, there remains considerable inequality. F{owever,
and children were best socialised when they live in a Interactionists and Post Modernists are critical of both
warm, caring environment. The expressive female was approaches for a presumptuous view of conjugal roles
also essential to stabilise the adult male personality by and for ignoring the diversity of family and household
meeting his emotional and sexual needs. structures and outcomes.
 130 ffi soctolocye&A
Q. What is 'reserve army of labour,? present the In{ormal sector is that part of the economy which
position of feminist scholars on this. is not covered by formal regulations, statues anrf rules.
(csE,2019) Here, erirployer and employee are not bound by a formal
contract, but on mutually agreed terms. Informal sector
Ans: The "reserve army of labour,, - a term associated
is sometimes also referred as unorganized sector and it
with those on the left of the political spectrum - is
includes casual labor and contract labor.
disproportionately female.
Problems of unorganized sector workers are both
Marxist in origin, the existence of a reserve army of
internal i.e. work related as well as external i.e. related
labour enables employers to maintain low wages, poor
to their lives. They suffer {rom low wages, exploitations,
working conditions and a compliant workforce.
fewer social security measures, poor security of tehure,
For instance, those who are deemed troublesome or
no matemity benefits, poor working conditions, and poor
unproductive in the workplace can always be replaced
access to health and insurance and so on. Recent clashes
by members from the reserve army of labour. The ranks
between workers and Management at Maruti Suzuki
of the economically inactive thereby maintain high levels
Plant in Gurgaon in2012 was a result of the demand by
of profit for the owners of capital.
workers to address the issue of gross disparity in the pay
According to feminists, the reserve army of labour
of contract workers and regular workers.
is disproportionately female. Women are more likely to
Significance of informal sector in Indian context is
be in low paid jobs with less job security than men. It is
huge as a major chunk of population earns its livelihoocl
also a fact that women disproportionally work in the five
from this type of economic activity. The contribution of
C's (cleaning, clerical, caring, cashiering and catering).
the unorganized sector to the GDP has been over 60%.
Women are therefore a key element of the precariat.
Informal sector also involves low capital investment and
This is particularly notable within third world
hence, it is highly labor intensive and spreads quickly.
countries in which workers' rights are suppressed by the
Implications for workers in the informal sector are -
agents of the state. Multinational companies are attracted
to those countries due to their relatively low wages and
In India, the government has laws to monitor
conditions in the unorganized sector like National Social
poor working conditions. That said, such observations
Security Fund, Janshree Bima Yojana, National Social
also apply to a relatively advanced capitalist economic
Security Board, etc. But in practice, thev are left to the
system such as the UK. For those on the left, this
whims and fancies of the employer or contractor.
represents the exploitation of women by wealthy and
Thus, due to the prevalence of above problems and
well-connected capitalist organizations.
challenges faced by in_formal sector, its timely remedy
is need of the post-industrial societies.
Q. Whatis'informal labour'? Discuss the need for
and challenges in regulating informal labour
in the post-industrial society. (CSE 2019)
Q. What is labour commitment? Discuss it with
reference to sfudies of manufacturing industry.
Ans: Informal labour is the one in which workers (csE,2018)
are not governed by fixed rules, but by directions of
Ans: The concept of commitment had been deait
employer. It generally includes casual labor, contract
both by Western and Indian scholars and they have
labor, child labor, domestic labor, etc.
defined it in various ways. According to Moore and
Informal organization is based on social contracts Fieldmary commitment involves both performance and
in which rules are implied rather than stated. Informal
acceptance of behaviours appropriate to an industrial
organization also escapes the legislations and rules of way of life. The concept is thus concerned with overt
the land. They may also be organizations which are actions and with norms. The fully comrnitted worker,
developed on the basis of personal linkages and rapport. in other words, has internalized the norrns of new
It is largely
a feature of society where labor supply is productive organization and social system. Commitment
higher and workers accept whatever is given to them in consists of achieving workers permanent attachment to
any conditions of work. and acceptance of industrial employment as a way of life.
Such type of work organization also makes workers, A committed industrial labour force develops, when
especially women and childrerL prone to exploitation. workers no longer look on their industrial employment
Developing countries have relatively larger population as temporary, when they understand and accept the
* undef informal organization. In India, more than 90% of requirement of working as part of a group in a factory
the workforce is in informal sector. In{ormal workforce or other industrial enterprise and when they find in thl
has low social security as terms of employment are industrial environment a more adequate fulfillment of
uncertain and little benefits are given to the employees personal satisfaction than they enjoyed in the village or
in case of exigencies. rural society.
 WORKS AND ECONOMIC LIFE i.,,1 131
Commitment to industrial employment implies II. Complex division of labor as specialization increases
more than the presence of workers on the job. It involves III. Importance is given to capital and less to labor
also their acceptance of industrial discipline and the IV. Production is for exchange and profit
performance of tasks under supervision.
V. Production is based on competition and not on
A person has become committed to a new way of cooperation
life if he has adjusted his own life expectations to include
the new way of life and he does not attempt to return
VI. Alienation is high as workers lose control over
produce and due to monotony of work
to the old way.
VII. Multiplicity of economic institutions - e.g. factories,
On the same lines, M. S. A. Rao explains that,
banks and markets.
"labour commitment is a process of adjustment of
traditional social life and attitudes to work according VIII.High surplus as now production is for market and
to the modem industrial discipline." not for self consumption
With reference to studies of manufacturing industry, IX. Money economy replaced harter system and even
Indian Industrial Worker Scholars have different vier,t s: labor is commoditized
(i) Lack of Commitment - The first view asserts that X. Use of inanimate power repiaces use of labor,
Indian workers are uncommitted due to pull of rural leading to higher production on one hand and
society which has prevented the process of absorption
reduced human role on the other
of the workers into the urban-industrial society. XL There is high mobilitl. of u,orkforce as means of
communication improved
(ii) Partial Commitment - The second view claims that
workers are partially committed to the industrial XIL Domestic and commercia-l activities are clearly
employment. Mayers and Kannappan state that, separated
"even after workers were brought to the city, a XIII.Level of innovation is high as individuai has more
number of rural iinks were brought to the city, a freedom to be creative
number of rural links were maintained and have XIV.Laws in such society are no ionger repressive and
even continued to the present day. The continuing religion no longer influences economic activities
family, religious and economic ties with the village XV. Work is organized rationally and not on the basis
contribute along with such factors as ill health, leads of customs and values
to high absenteeism. XVI.Though production is complex, exchange is simple
(iii) Satisfactory Commitment - The third view maintains as money economy facilitates easy exchange
that commitment of Indian worker is not a major In context of modern societies also, social
problenl; According to Mooris D. Morris, the history organization of work is not as simple as described
of the Bombay cotton mills suggests that it was not above in fotm of an ideal typical framework. There are
difficult to create an industrial labour force in India. different ways of organization across developing and
Further, Vaid's study at Kota in Rajasthan indicates developed societies. Developed countries are generally
that higher incorne, higher education and higher skill industrialized and service dominated, while developing
were associated with employees' superior commitment. countries on the other hand are still engaging in
Thus, labour commitment depends on various social, agricultural actirrities in a big way.
economic and cultural factors. Political systerns can also affect social organization
of work. For example, in japan, after Meiji f{estoration,
rapid industrialization took place and it made a rapid
a. Discuss the nature of social organization of
shift from a feudal agrarian economy to industrial
work in capitalist society with reference to
economy. Thus, Social organization of work irr capitalist
the 'Limits of the working day'. (CSE,2018\
societies are more complex than earlier modes of
Ans: As the scale of production increased with production and worker of today has agreed time bound
usage of mechanical instruments, new markets were pay scale in their contracts with the industries.
sought. New possibilities further den'randed setting up
of industxies. Instead of being controlled bv nature, man
a. Can we equate 'povert5r'with'poor living'?
now tries to control the nature. Elaborate your answer. (CSE, 2017)
With emergence of factories, family loses its primary
Ans: 'Poverty' and'poor iiving' though sounds
position in production. Organization of work in a
same but are two different concepts.
capitalist or industriai society is marked by following
Poverty: A person in poverty is someone who is
features - merely trying to survive. People in poverty may not
I. Major economic activity - mass production of goods even have the very basic necessities in life, including
and services in factories food, clothing and shelter.
 132 soctolocye&A
A person in poverty maybe homeless and may Although the informal economy is associated
not have the required education or exposure to work with low value production, informal workers are
towards a better future.
ih;;;i;;;im or a person surrering,,,:* fi";:l-::l[T:i"tfliX'lij,i1,X^1i:J"T#;
poverty would be to secure sufficient food and shelter Nearly 2s% oflndia's urban employment is dominated
for themselves and their families' A person p?"".Ity
1" uf + l.,ror*al trades-Domestic workers, home-based
may be more concerned about his well-beins in the ' .
workers, street vendors, and waste pickers.
short term, rather than worrying about ht; ;r;;;i; -
and financial situation in the ion[ term. A holistic approach is needed to address the issue
poor-Living: A person can be called poor when of informalisation, which to a larger part is due to the
he earns an inctme that does not fully cover all his socio-economic fabric of the society comprising of a large
necessities. The reason for being poor may be because of number of poorly educated labour force, traditional
a career path that they have chosery economic diskess in occupations, and poor financial inclusion, combined
the country, financial distress, and other circumstances with lack of motivation or aspirational skills.
personal or general. A poor person may or may not have
the ability to get out of their circumstances of financial a. Trace the changing nafure of organisation of
distress. Poor lir,,ing can also be illustrated as someone
work in capitalist society over the years.
that have the access to education but is not aware of the
value of education, have resources but still there is lack (CSE,20Ln
of sanitation in any residential area, etc. Poverty can Ans: Many of the world's nations operate under
be equated with absolute poverty when people hive to a system of economic and political standards that may
struggle for their survival, whereas poor living can be be described as capitalist. A capitalist society is a social
equated to the concept of relative poverty where there order in which private property rights and the free
is a lack of resources that is relative to something. market serve as the basis of trade, distribution of goods,
and development'
e. what do you understand by informalisation Changing nature
of labour? write your answer with special of capitalist society over the years:
referencq to India. (CSE;2mn There had been a paradigmatic shift in the nature of
structure of the capitalist economies
Ans: ILo defines "informal sector- as consistinn ln:,**'nisational
of operating at low level of organisatiory *r,n rr,,r" .? 1tl;,contemrorary sociefy' These could be summarised
no division between labour and capital as factors of as rolow:
productioh and on a small scale. Labour relations- are o Post capitalistic economy is becoming more
based mostly on casual employment, kinship or personal participatory and inclusive. This participatory
and social relations rather than contractual arrangements economy focuses on the participation of all citizens
with formal guarantees. through the creation of worker councils and
Informalisation of Labour in India consumer councils'
In India, according to the National Commission for
o Now workers also form an important element in
Enterprises in the unorganised sector -u;r;g;;;; the decision-making process of the organisation
workers consist of those working in the unorianised through the development of Trade Unionb and
enterprises or households, excluiing regular rirorkers other institutional mechanisms which was hitherto
with social security benefits, and the workers in the dominated by the capitalist elites.
formal sector without any employment/social security o The organisation of work in the capitalist societies is
benefits provided by the employers." now becoming more decentralised and fragmented
Factors affecting informalisation of work in India as they are now promoting contracts in the
(i) Labour factors: It includes the quality of labour developing countries like call centres and customer
in terms of education_ and training. In India the level of grievance redtessal centres in the countries like
education is low and there is lack of vocational skills I"ndia.
in the workers enterirrg the labour force. The plethora
of labour legislations often act as obstacles #;;;; o The capitalist societies are promoting free trade
of private and industry ,"ha"r-r." o, a,nd they follow the rules and regulations of
"itr"p."r,"rrship
capital and resoiting to use of contractuai labour. the countries in which they are setting up the
(ii) Non-Labour factors: Regulatory procedures, the businesses that means they are becoming socio-
absence of quality in{rastructure also acts as hindrances ethnically responsive. For example: McDonald
to the development of manufacturing industries. Another promoting vegetarian food in lndian Navratri. This
constraint in setting up industry is land acquisition. phenomenon is also called Glocalisation.
 WORKS AND ECONOMTC LIFE ''"... 133
o The organisational culture of the capitalist societies Such a society is typically organized hierarchically
now represents the diverse cultures present around by class and features a rigid division
of labor alnong
the world like an lndian software developer working #orkers ahd {actory owners. one
of the rnost distinctive
with Chinese developer in the Multinational characteristics of the economic system of modern
Company present in America. societies is the existence of a highly complex division of
o The organisational setting is also becoming gender labour: work has been divided into an number
friendly which was hitherto not favoured due to of different occupations in which people "rlo.-orc
specialize.
tire domination of inherent patriarchal mind set. Modern society has also witnessed a shift in the
Today the successful leaders like Ivanka Trump are location of work. Before industrialization, most work
becoming a global icon. took place at home and lr.as completed collectively by
o The organisational structure of the capitalistic aIl the members of the household.
economies in the contemporary society is more Advances in industrial technology, such ds
environment-friendly. machinery operating on electricity and coal, contributed
o Also, the organisations in these capitalist societies to the separation of work and home. Factories owned
have started taking qualitative activities along with by entrepreneurs became the focal points of industrial
their core work like Corporate Social Responrititity. development: machinery an.d equipment were
Hence, from the above we can conclude that the concentrated within them and the rnass production of
organisational setting and the culture of capitalisl goods began to eclipse small-scale artisanship based in
societies is undergoing revolutionary change which the home.
is both globalised and inclusive to the needs of People seeking jobs in factories would be trained
contemporary society. to perform a specialized task and would receive
a wage for this work. Employee performance was
a. Describe the nature of social organization of overseen by managers, who concerned themselves
work in industrial society. (CSE, 2016) with implementing techniques for enhancing worker
Ans: Social organizations or institutions arise productivity ancl discipline.
out of social needs and situations of members. These Industrial society makes urbanization desirable,
organizationsarethemeansthroughwhichindividuals in part so that workers can be closer to centers of
adjust their behaviour to environmental conditions. The production, and the service industry can provide labor
social structure began to change with the beginning of to workers and those that benefit financially from them,
Industrial Revolution. An entrepreneur, an individuilisl in exchange for a piece of production profits with which
capitalist came in and took over some of the operations. they can buy goods.
He was an intelligent, ambitious man and This leads to the rise of very large cities and
a factory. F{e secured the raw materials, gauged "rtublirhud
the surrounding suburban areas with a high rate of
market, and took workers from under their own roofs to economic activity. These urban centers require the input
produce things in his factory. He took the produce and of external energy sources in order to overcome the
sold it. In this process the worker came to be separated diminishing returns of agricultural consolidation, due
from the means of production. He now owned neither partially to the lack of nearby arable land, associated
the raw material, nor the tools, nor the building nor transportation and storage costs, and are otherwise
the product. He was now a labour. Factory production, unsustainable. This makes the reliable availability of
fixed capital and {ree labour were the characteristics of the needed energy resources high prioritv in industrial
this revolution. As a result of this economic revolution, government policies.
several important alterations occurred in the social The contrast in the division of iabour between
structure and a new type of society called industrial traditional and modern societies is truly extraordinary.
society was born. Even in the largest traditional societies, there usualiy
In all cultures, work is the basis of the economy. The existed no more than twenty or thirtv major craft trades,
economic system consists of institutions that provide for together, with such specialized roles as merchant,
the production and distribution of goods and services. industrial system; there are literally thousands of distinct
An industrial society is one in which technologies of occupations
mass production are used to make vast amounts of To conclude, the industrial society has brought
goods in factories, and in which this is the dominant about great changes in the institutional structure
and
mode of production and organizer of social life. This norms. The American society is an industrial society
means that a true industrial society not only features where the people are highiy literate, scientifically
mass factory production but also has a particular social trained, economically prosperous but
individualistically
structure designed to support such operations. oriented.
114 t;:,:, socrolocy e & A
a. "Globalization has pushed the labour into The third set of factors relates to the Globalization
informal organization of work." Substantiate of the world economy. Global trade and investment
patterns tend to privilege capital, especially companies
your answer with suitable examples. across borders, and to
that can move quickly and easilY
(csE,2016)
disadvantaged labour, especiall,v lower skilled workers
Ans: Globalizationmeans different things to di{ferent that cannot migrate easily or not at all' To increase
people. In its broader sense, the term encompasses all their global competitiveness, more and more investors
types of economic and cultural transfer between nations. are moving to countries that have 1ow labour costs or
In a narrower sense it refers to the economic exchange shifting to inlormal employment arrangements' )
of goods and services internationally and international Further more there has been a radical
financial flows. Globalization process was initiated restructuring of production and distribution in
to accelerate economic growth through enhanced many key industries characterized by outsourcing
internal and external competition, privatization and or subcontracting through global cornmodity chains.
trade liberalization" It includes nleasures to reduce The net result is that more and more workers are being
clomestic credit expansion in general and fiscal deficit paid very low wages and rnany of them have absorbed
in gorzernment expenditure in particular, and to divert the non-wage costs of production" In sum, Globalization
resources towards relatively more productive private put pressure on trow-skilled workers and petty producers
sector. by weakening their bargaining power and subjecting
Global trade and investment patterns are having them to increasing competition.
a dramatic impact on employment relations and work Availabie evidence suggests that Globalization
arrangements around the worid. The impact can be both of the economy tends to reinforce the links between
negative and positive and differs by context, by industry poverty, informality and gender. This is because
and trade and employment status. Some of those who global competition tends to encourage formal firms
work in the inJormal sector have been able to find new to shift formal wage workers to informal employment
jobs or new markets for their products rvhile others have arrangements without minimum wages/ assured
lost jobs and markets. Many workers have seen their work, or benefits and to encourage informal units to
wage decline their working conditions deteriorated or shift workers from semi-permanent contracts without
their workloads increased. minimum wages or benefits to piece-rate or casual rate
In the wlke of Globalization and resultant financial arrangements without either assures work, minimum
crisis employment in the informal sector has risen wages or benefits. Globalization can also lead to new
rapidly in ail regions of the developing world and opportunities for those r.t'ho work in the informal
various.forms of non-standard employment have economy in the form of new jobs for wage workers
emerged in most regions of the developed world. Even or new markets for the self-employed. F{owever,
before the Asian crisis, official statistics indicated that the collaborative efforts on the part of grass root
the share of the informal sector in the non-agricultural organizations of those who work in the inJormal sector
workforce ranged from over 55 per cent in Latin America with sympathetic representatives of non-governmental
organizations.
to 45-85 per cent in different parts of Asia to nearly 80
per cent in Africa.
Globalization and Informal Sector: There is no a. "Social change can be brought about
simple answer to this question as different casual factors through development." Illustrate from the
at work in different contexts. The first set of factors contemporary situation of India. (CSE,20L6)
relate to the pattern of economic growth. Some countries Ans: Social Derrelopment encompasses a
have experienced littie or no growth or jobless growth. commitment to individual and societal well-being, and
In both cases not enough jobs are created for all those the opportunity for citizens to determine their own and
seeking work. Many frustrated formal job seekers find their society's needs and to influence decisions that
employment or create their economic gror.vth "high affect these. Social change incorporates public concerns
tech" growth- tends to create more high skill sdrvice in developing social policy and economic initiatives'
sector jobs than lower-skill manufacturing jobs. In such In the wake of modernization and globalization,
circurnstances who without the skill to compete for the processes of social mobility, the nature of
high tech jobs find work or continue to work in the demographic changes.and increase in urbanization and
informal sector. The second set of factors have to do with industrialization have brought significant changes in
economic restructuring and economic crisis' During the Indian society. We have substantial material on changes
periods of economic crisis, the in{ormal sector tends to in rural and urban communities. There have come
expand. This is because retrenched workers move into vast changes in the fields of new professions, banking,
the irLformal sector when public enterprises are closed management, media and information and several other
or the public sector is downsized. sectors of service.
 WORKS AND ECONOMIC LIFE ffi 135
Social progress is moving and changing in
particular direction with some aim in view. Change can
a a. Examine the role of protest movements in
changing the status of Dalits in India.
be called progress only if it fulfills the desire aim. Social
progress may be termed as realization of social ideals. It
is determined by our social values. Social values are the Ans: Dalits in India, earlier known [?i::3
criteria of social progress. Thus, economic development, nomenclatures, have asserted, through the ages, for their
political awareness, improvement in moral conduct rights of justice and equalit!, andorganised numerous
and better education for the masses are some of the types of movements in several parts of the country.
indicators of social progress. A few of these movements have achieved partial
The economic development in India after success in their goals but many of them have failed
independence can truly be described as a revolutionary miserably due to reasons like structural rigidity of
change. Sociologically, it may be held that the economic the Hindu society being eulogised by the religious
development-both through Nehru and liberal models_ scriptures, economic vulnerability of the people
has affected our social structures in a direction as involved in the movements and the resultant lack of
we desired it. Wlratever sociological model we may their sustainability along with asserted leadership and
uqe for evaluating our society, viz., evolutionary so forth.
(assessing evolving of society in series of stages), conflict No doubt, even partially successful Dalit movements
(ernphasising competition and continuous struggle have left some definite marks on little improvements in
for power), functional (analysing the consequences of socio-religious conditions of the Dalits and proved to
each institutional practice for all other elements in the be instrumental, at least indirectly, in bringing some
social structure), etc., it will be obvious that change has changes in others' attitudes and behaviour enabling
taken place in the network of social relations, social them to be somewhat liberal and accommodative.
institutions, social systems and social structures, social
At the systemic level, these movements have also
norms/ etc. People in India are no longer as conservative
created some situations locally whiclr, either separately
as half a century ago. They do not cling tenaciously to
or through their organic linkages, have forced the
the moral norms and social values that came down to
society for introspection and for undergoing varieties
them from the past. Men individually strive towards
of changes.
individual liberty! ahd collective security. There is also
This has certainly been coupled with active roles
change in their outlook and ideas.
played by other social forces operative at a much wider
India is fully resolved to bring about fast
scale. Dalits in different parts of the country did have the
industrialization. There is increase in industrialization.
tradition or traditions of protest against the individual
Industries have taken the place of agriculture.
Agriculture has itself transformed into an industry. The events of their socio-religious discriminations and
application of science and technology to industry has economic exploitations besides social and physical
increased substantially. Chemical fertilizers, improved violence or atrocities committed on them over a period
seeds, mechanical devices, pesticides etc. have come of time.
into wide spread use. Thus industrialization in India The 'culture of protest' is directed against the
is responsible for social change. Urbanization is the tulture of oppression' and may also be accepted as
result of industrialization. Moreover, the fast growth a case of the culture conflict or conflict of cultures of
of popuiation of .India has led to fast urbanization in protest and oppression.
India. Secularization promotes change. The people of Thus, the Dalits had not only protested in the past
India have adopted the ideal of secularis- u..oiding against their numerous forms of discriminations and
to which everybody is free to follow the religion of exploitations, they had also organised a number of
their choice. The trend towards Westernization in India movements for their religious freedom, liberation from
can be seen in all fields economic exploitation and bondage, sharing power
- social, economic, political,
cultural, religious and educational. India is following and privileges as stated earlier. Dalit movements also
the example of the West. In the social sphere , r" ur" attacked the caste system and insisted on equality ilnd
following the West in matters like dress,life style and dignity of human beings.
town-plannin g etc. Westernization, indust fialization, These movements partially succeeded in sensitising
politicalization, urbanization, seculatization, and mobilising larger segments of Dalits but they
mechanic al ization, democratization, mono p olization, could not transcend the rigid cementaticin of castes
capitalism, culturalization, materialism, Indianization #
thus got culminated in sectional movements. At tiie
and modernization are the major factors influencing social level, they face the problems of untouchability and
social change and social development in India. discriminations though these have been legally abolished.
 136 irl:]rr. SOCIOLOGY Q & A

a. Discuss the relevance of historical method in

the study of society. (CSE,20L5)
Ans: As most social developments-such as the
government of India or United States-have unique
characteristics, in order to understand them as fully as
possible, the social scientist must rely heavily on a study
of their historical background.
We can never understand completely how any
historical situation came to exist, because there are
limits to our historical knowledge and causes become
increasingly complex and uncertain as we trace them
further into the past.
We can howevet, make both historical events
and present social situations much more intelligible
by using the historical method-tracing the principal
past developments that seem to have been directly
significant in bringing about a social situation.
To trace these past developments, a historian will use a. The increasing importance of the tertiary sector
many of the same methods as other social scientists has weakened the formal organization of
such as collecting birth and marriage certificates and work in recent times. Examine the statement.
'classifying those data. (csE,2015)
It has been noted that history never really repeats Ans: The inability of agriculture sector to provide
itself. Nevertheless, present and past situations often
adequate employment opportunities and the increasing
have such striking similarities that knowledge of the
significance of tertiary sector emerging as a major
past can give us insights into present situations and
contributor to the economic growth, has resulted in a
sometimes into future trends.
rapid increase in the size ol informal sector, especially
\
in the developing countries like India.
a. Distinguish between the social organization Several studies analyzing the impact of
of work in feudal society and in capitalist economic reforms on the organized and unorganized
society. (CSE,2015)
manufacturing sector have found that share of the
Ans: In economics, there are two related models that in{ormal sector is equally high in the states which are
have shaped standards of living and social classes, given highly industrialized in comparison to the states which
the social organization of work in feudal society and in are industrially backuiard.
capitalist society. In both feudalism and capitalism, the Some studies po.int out that economic reforms is
power of the dominant class is based on the exploitation likely to expand size of the inforrnal sector through a cut
of the subordir-rate class, but there are a lot of differences back in employment in the formal sector when formal
[etween them. and in{ormal sectors are producing different gopds and
tariff & other governmental policies protects the formal
sector. Trends and patterns over the years indicate that
a political the informal emplovment increases over a period along
s-/stem with the increasing population and labour force, while
aristocracy (a the formal employment decreases.
Given the job security and benefits associated with
formal sector, everyone aspires for a job in organized
sector. But the formal sector is unable to absorb all the
work force.
Peopie who do.not find an employment with
formal organization gets absorbed in informal sector.
a
Also, when the employees are retrenched from the
formal sector, they move to inforrnal sector' The usage
of labour intensive technology is a major factor in huge
employment generation capability of in{ormal sector.
Thus, informal sector acts as a "reserve army of labour"?.
 WORKS AND ECONOMIC LIFE :} 137
The goods and services produced by informal sector To Marx, Primitive communism is represented
is complementary as well as competitive with the formal by the societies of pre-history and provides the only
sector. A significant amount of sub-contracting takes example of the classless society. From then all societies
place in formal organization through giving contracts are divided into two major classes - master and slaves
to informal sector for producing semi-finished product in ancient society, lords and serfs in feudal society and
or a finished good. capitalist and wage labourers in capitalist society.
This forward linkage between the organized and Feudal society is the type of civilization, generally
unorganized sectors through sub-contracting reflects associated with predominantly small-scale agricultural
a complementary relationship such that expansion of production, based on traditional patterns of land-
organized firms helps to expand the unorganized firms ownership and territory, in which the rights and duties
as well, though the linkages may not be the same for of every member of society is defined by traditional
different sub-sectors. inheritance and kinship relations. Feudal society differs
Trade liberalization exposes all industrial units to from slave society in that every class in feudal society
the inherent risk of free market competition. While the has rights and is regarded as human, however lowly,
formal organization are unable to reduce their prices whereas slaves have no rights at a1l and are treated
instantly following the rules and regulation imposed by as property rather than people..Feudalism, was more
the government, informal sector can sustain due to its productive than slavery because the peasants were free
low cost of production. The trade'liberalizatian increases to decide how to run their farm, as long as they delivered
the size of both organized and unorganized sectors in the required part of their harvest to the landlord. This
absolute terms. stimulated interest of the peasants in their own success
Thus, we see that though organized sector expands and increased production.
in terms of its percentage share in NDP but this growth
is unable to create formal employment i.e., the growth of a. Education is often viewed as an agency of
the formal sector is jobless growth. This is compensated social change. However in reality it could
by the growing informal sector which fills in the vacuum also reinforce inequalities and conservatism.
left over by the incapacity of formal sector in terms of Discuss. (CSE,2014)
employment and beneficial cost of production, especially
Ans: According to the sociological perspective,
through sub-cohtracting. Therefore, the increasing
education does not arise in response of the individual
importance of the tertiary sector has led to weakening
needs, but it arises out of the needs of the society of
of the formal organization of work.
which the individual is a member.
The educational system of any society is related
Q. What are the distinctive features of social to its total sociai systern. It is a sub system performing
organization of work in slave society? How certain functions for the on-going social system. The
is it different from feudal society? (CSE, 2014) goals and needs of the total social system get reflected
Ans: Slave society was the earliest form of class in the functions it lays down for educational system
society. The basis of slavery is always economic because and the form in ra,,hich it structures it to fulfill those
with it emerged a kind of aristocracy which lived upon functions.
slave labour. The two mainantagonistic classes of the Schools legitimate the myths that everyone has an
slaveholding system were slaveholders and slaves. The equal chance, those who r,r,ork hard deserve the top jobs,
main characteriqtics of slavery. (1) The slave was the these people deserve their superior rewards. in this way
property of one master or of a collective owner, either inequality becomes justified.
commune/ temple, or the state. He was the master's However, Bowles and Gintis argue that rewards in
living implement of labor, and the product of his labor, education and occupation are based not on ability but on
as well as he himself, was the property of his master. social background. The higher a person's class or origin
(2) The slave did not possess any means of production. the more likely they are to attain top qualifications and
(3) The slave was exploited by means of noneconomic a top job. For Bowles and Ginitis, school can be seen to
constraints. Thus a slave who had been settled on a legitimize social inequality"
peculium (a plot of land allotted to a slave) and .ivho Education is mostiy centered around urban
may even have worked the land by exploiting other centers with good infrastructure, quality teachers
it slaves still remained enslaved because the peculium, all and economically stronger sections to access the high
the means of productiorL and the slaves belonging to the standard education causing inequality among urban
slave were the property of the slaveholder, who could and rural areas. As referred by Kamat, rural poor are
make the final and indisputable disposition both of the denied access to standard education provided in urban
slave himself and of everything he owned. aleas.
138 t;a SoclOLocY Q& A
Thus in conclusion, it can be advocated that the Thus, globalization has both positive and negative
role of education in bringing mobility and social effects. In fact globalization as such is neutral and much
change cannot be universally similar. In every society. depends on how it is managed by the government of the
compulsions of different type, values infrastructure, day. To minimize the impact of negative effects more
determine to what extent and form, education has government intervention and community participation
successfully contributed to mobility and social change. is a must.

a. Examine the social impact of globalization on a. Citizenship and Civil Society (CSE,2012)
labour and society. (CSE,2013) Ans: Citizenship means that situation in which
Ans: Globalization is the process of interaction and people by being a complete and responsible member of
integration of domestic economies with the international political community participates in public life"
economy. It happens through movement of people, Citizen is such person who keeps loyalty towards
state and political, legal and social rights are provided to
technology, capital, trade, investment and services.
him by state. From ancient tirne, citizenship is defined as
1. Employment: In-formalization of economy is a legal membership of political community. According
happening. MNC's are outsourcing the work to
to political and legal theories, citizenship means rights
informal sector. Closure of sick and loss making and duties of members of nation state or country.
enterprises along with downsizing has resulted in
Civil society w,ord is used by thinkers like
unemployment. As competition is touglu companies Locke, Rousseau to explain that natural society is
"
are hiring more on contract basis to avoid giving separate from civil governrnent or nature from state.
benefits to the employees. Concept of civil society is very extensive which
2. Trade Unions: They are voluntarily suspending encompasses political parties, market oriented
their trade union rights for a specific period. They organizations and all those institution's which are
are accepting cut in wages and salaries. Thus, their called interest groups and pressure group by political
bargaining po\,ver has decreased. scientists. Movements of civil society which represent
3. Agriculture: Input cost is increasing as HYVs, the interest of citizens, to a large extent influence the
fertilizerb and other inputs are controlled by profit government policy and social nature.
seeking MNCs. GM crops will further affect them A class of intellectuals is found under civil
as they will have to buy new seeds every time. Even society which tries to resolve problems related with
government can't subsidize them beyond \0% as interest of people by keeping itself vigilant under
mandated under WTO rules. legal provision. Civil society keeps important place in
awakening citizens toward their rights and also in their
4. Women: Feminization of agriculture as menmigrate
political socialization. Role of civil society is appreciated
to other areas for jobs. Women are more involved
in providing extensive base to process of democratization
in home based work which is low paying and
and in ensuring rights ol citizen, duties etc"
unskilled work.
Today, role of civil society seems necessary in awakening
5. Environment: Global warming as countries are citizens politically and for conduction of better political
all connected. MNCs are taking benefits of lax system.
em'ironment rules of developing countries. Kyoto
protocol is also helping the process. a. Analyse the mobility of labour in Indian
6. Inequality: Rich are becoming richer and poor economy in relation to formal and informal
poorer. Those who have skills, assets and capital organisations. Also analyse the nature of
are benefited at the cost of others. That absolute working conditions in these organizations
poverty has gone down but the relative poverty is and relation between them. (CSE, 2012)
increasing. Regional inequality is also growing as
Ans: In recent years there is extensive growth in the
MNCs are investing in those states that have better
mobility of labor. In current situation which is changing
infrastructure.
fast towards the mark'et economy, labor mobility has
7. Falrlrily: From joint to nuclear family. increased towards formal and informal organizations.
8. Consumerism: Consumerism is growing. Demand Formal organization is forrned for a purpose
for fast food and conslilner durables have increased. conducted according to defined procedure and rule. This
9. Human Rights: Awareness about these has organization is helpful in achieving institutional goals
increased. and protects labor from negligence and exploitation.
 WORKS AND ECONOMIC LIFE i,r;, 139
On the other side, informal organizations without There are informal institutions organised as
any formal role is made up of two or more than two variable alternative to achieve the objectives of rural
persons for the fulfillment of any goal. In this type of development and to get community participation in
organization there is primacy of mutual relations, zest rural development programmes. These are similar to
and equal benefit between the labour and employer. traditional group activities in all communities. It is also
Globalization has seen massive increase in the number a new form of movement which aims at reducing the
of informal organizations. poverty through the provision of easy credit.
Today many big formal organizations are also SHGs have been promoted under various
dependent on these small informal organizations for programmes and by various development agencies. It
their task. There is predominance of formal organization has been also found that SHGs can serve the needs of the
in big cities, whereas informal organizations are found small farmers better than the cooperatives. It is also like
everywhere. a sub-system of cooperatives. This grouping is a method
Fast development of industries has taken place in of organising the poor people and the marginalised to
India due to the end of license raj as a new economic come together to solve their individual problerns. The
policy of the government from 1991. As a result of SHG is also recognised by the government and does not
this, number of formal and informal organizations require any formal registration
has increased. Today increase in the mobility of labor The purpose of the SHG id to build the functional
towards these organizations is'result of availability of capacity of its members in the field of employment and
t
new opportunity. income-generation activities.
I To facilitate the formation and management of Self-
Generally labor like to work in formal organization
because of presence of better wage, adaptive conditions Help Groups and to motivate members to join the group
for work and other facilities in these organizations. But over 20 motivators are recruited, trained and inducted.
due to lesser number of these formal organizations They provide guidance to the groups and their members
workers lack enough opportunity of employment and facilitate the process of relationship. They are also
expected to support the groups in holding their meetings
resulting in migration towards informal organization.
and up keep relevant documents.
Today, in this type of market economy, due to increasing
demand of goods and services, dependency of formal
organization oYr informal organization has increased. Q. What is formal organisation? "The growth
In the search of work, labor has to work in this informal of bureaucracy has resulted in extreme
organization on lesser wages. concentration of power at larger levels of
Undel the formal organization, there is presence of socialorganisation".Discuss. (CSE,2011)
labor organization to fight for the demands of rights of Ans. Formal organisation is such an organisation
labor which work for the betterment for them. Today which hav'e a fixed set of rules of intra-organisation
because of a competitive environment between the procedures and structures. It is usually set out in writing
informal organizations attempts are being made for the with a language of rules. The formai organisation have
benefit of labor. several characterstics such as-
o well defined rules and regulation
a. Self Help Group (SHG) as an informal r Arbitrary structure
organisation of work. (CSE, 2011) o Determined objectives and policies.
Ans. Besides cooperatives and other forms of o Status symbols
organisation, there is yet another form of enterprise o limitation on the activities of the individual.
which is organised voluntarily by the members o Strict observance of the principle of co-ordination
themselves to meet a variety of their needs. etc.
The self-Help Groups are such organisations Bureaucracy refers to the way that administrative
which are formed, nourished and managed by the execution and enforcement of legal rules is society
members themselves. A Self-Help Group is an in{ormal organised.
organisation of not less than 10 and not more than 20 This office organisation is characterised by
people from the poorer section of the village society, standardised procedure, formal division of responsibility,
organised, owned, operated and controlled by the hierarchy and impersonal social relationships.
merribers in a democratic manner, based on solidarity, Examples of everyday bureaucracies include
reciprocity, common interest and resource pooling. government, armed forces, corporations, hospitals,
It is also a social design in which people participate courts, schools. Those working in such organisation
by making themselves socially and economically live for the sake of the others more than for their own
accountable to each other. individual needs.
140 {ir socloLocy e & A
The division of labor and clear regulation of In the words of Duncan Mitechell, he becomes "an
responsibilities of bureaucracy support the efficient impoverished 'thing' dependent on powers outside of
operation of any social organisation while recognising himself. Work in capitalism is characterizedby ceaseless
bureancy as the most efficient form of organisation and tendency towards specialization, towards increased
even indispensable for the modern state. Max weber has division of labour in the pursuit of surplus values.
saw it as a threat to individual freedom. Each worker has a specific, restricted and limiting
The growth of bureaucracy has also resulted in role. He becomes a minute part of a process, "a mere
extreme concentration of power at ever larger level cog in a machine." Further, the workers spend their life
of organisation, can be exemplified in modern states producing things not for their own selves but for the
and transnational corporations. As power concentrates
powers that manipulate them.
bureaucracies, these become major sites for social
The increasing organic composition trf capital is
control, social oppression and conflict. Weber believed
reflected in the fact that workers become increasingly
that this bureaucratic model would spread because it
tied to machines. Machines run people, rather than other
is the most e{ficient way to handle complex tasks and
coordinate complex divisions of labor. way round.
The division of labor is such complex that people Work becomes meaningless and dehuman2ing. The
engage in narrowly specialised tasks and work under alienated workers, instead of regarding the work as an
rules and expectations that are clearly defined. The expression of their human nature, regard it as a means
accomplishment of organisational goals also takes to get more and more commodities.
precedence over the welfare of individuals and Marx talks of alienation involving four aspects: (1) \
impersonal rationality is prized as a basis for making worker's alienation from the object that he produces;
decisions in light of those goals. Some sociologists (2) from the process of production; (3) from himself and
argued that the nature of bureaucracy renders it (4) from his community. According to Marx, "alienation
ineffective the rigidity in bureaucracy also gives its appears not merely in the result but also in the process
sense of predictability and stablity. It also encourages of productiory within productive activity itself. The more
employees to blindly follow the rules even when this wealth the worker produces, the poorer he becomes. Just \
may undermine the organisational goaIs. as labour produces the world of things it also creates the
devaluation of the world of men.
a. "Work in capitalism is reduced to mere labour
in which the individual does not develop O. Feminisation of labour in Informal sector
freely his physical and mental energy but csE,2010)
mortifies his body and ruins his mind." Ans: According to an estimate, the informal
Critically evaluate the assertion. (CSE, 2010) economy in India employs about 90 per cent of the \
Ans: Work in capitalism is reduced to mere labour country's workforce and 97 per cent of its women
in which the individual does not develop freely his workers. Informal sector basically covers marginal
physical and mental energy but mortifies his body and livelihoods and survival activity outside the regulatory
ruins his mind. reach of state and not yet been able to be absorbed by
This statement coming from Marxist school of industry.
thought talks, about, how work becomes meaningless Informal sector is characterized by lower wages,
and dehumanizing in capitalism leaving labour alienated
unmonitored working conditions and lack of social
from his work and his own self. According to Marx, the
protection mechanisms. There are various factors as to
truly human existence is one in which man's productive
why disproportionate number of women are working
capacities are developed in a balanced and satisfying
manner.
in informal sector-discrimination by formal sector
employers with regard to issues like maternity leave,
Man affirms himself in his labour but not all
forms qf labour enable him to make this.affirmation frequent movement in and out of labour force and
in its entirety. Work may be forced, dehumanized and inability to work overtime.
meaningless, the condition of alienation, the condition On the other hand,'in{ormal sector offers balance
of capitalism, according to Marx. For Marx, the social for both household work and market work, besides
arrangements which form the context of work in providing safety net for the households. However
capitalist society alienates the worker by preventing him working in informal sector without any bargaining
from exercising his full creative powers and so releasing power or social protection mechanism has rendered
the full potentialities of his nature. women all the more vulnerable.
 WORKS AND ECONOMIC LIFE l.J 141
a. Human Relations School of Thought by Elton at least a minimal awareness of group identity and some
Mayo as a social organization of work process appreciation of and commitment to common interest.
in industry. (CSE,2010) Interestingly non-manual workers or white-collar
workers show little awareness like this, if any.
Ans: Human Relations refer to a process of an
White collar workers do not define work in purely
effective motivation of individuals in a given situation in
instrumental terms. They expect and experience a higher
order to achieve a balance of objectives which will yield
level of job satisfaction. They make friends at work and
greater human satisfaction and help accomplish company
firm's social clubs have a largelywhite collar membership.
goals. It is a medium through which both employees
Promotion for the non-manual jobs is a desired objective
and the company mutually cooperate for the maximum
even a'moral expectation'. The worker feels an obligation
satisfaction of the economic, social and psychological
to put his ability into the firm and in return expects
wants of the people, having relation with an organization
long-term security and career opportunities. There is.an
which has the objective of increasing productivity. emphasis on individual rather than a coilective strategy.
Few of the measures that are necessary to promote A high value is placed on individual achievement and
and maintain sound human relations are promoting the route to success is seen in terms of individual effort.
honesty among the Individuals, developing effective There are various strata or levels differentiated in terrfls
communication techniques with dignity and respect, of occupational status and lifestyle,s of varying prestige
understanding each other's needs and giving due for non-manual class.
weightage in satisfying them, etc.
a. Industrialization and change in the family's
a. "There has been a substantial decline in function. (CSE,2009)
labour class and increase in labour force in
Ans: Impact of industrialization on the family has
non-manual jobs with the advent of new been analysed by the different
scholars from different
technological revolution" Critically examine. empirical realities. If we look at the origin of changes
(csE,2010) in the family then we find that in medieval times
Ans: Marx predicted an increasing homogeneity households were the chief factors of production of goods
within the industrial working class. He assumed that and services. Family was an integrated productive unit.
technical developments in industry would remove But as industrialization started, the home was separated
the need for mdnual skills. As a result craftsmen and from the work place.
tradesmen would steadily disappear and the bulk of the William ]ack Goodie argues that rvith the advent
working class would become unskilled machine-minders. of industrialization family structure has witnessed a
Marx argtred that, the interests and life situations of change. The notion of individualism, economic progress,
the proletariat are more and more equalized since the changing value system of life and extended family have
machinery increasingly obliterate the differences of been affected. So, to him industrialization has brought
labour and depresses the wage almost every where to about certain consequent changes in the family structure.
an equally low level. The subsequent developments in Talcott Parsons also opined that in modern industrial
Capitalist societies, however belied Marx's prediction. society, isolated nuclear has emerged as a typical
According to Ray Dahrendorf, contrary to Marx's characteristics. It is structurally isolated because it does
prediction, the manual working class has become not have a link with wider kinship organization. Thus,
increasingly heterogeneous or dissimilar. He sees this family does not perform a wider range of functiorrnow
resulting from changes in technology arguing that as it did previously.
'increasingly complex machines require increasingly He also argued that there is a functional relationship
qualified designers, builders, maintenance and repairmen between the isolated nuclear family and the economic
and even minders. system in the industrial society. Industrial economy
Technological revolution has indeed, brought demands geographical mobility and nuclear family
many changes in the class structure of working class. has adopted itself according to the demand. According
Technology has separated the manual class from the to Parsons in industrial societv achievement is more
non-manual workers. Non-manual occupations provide important in personal life and for this nuclear family is
a career qkucture and incremental payments which result the best form of family stmcture.
in a steady increase in earnings and living standards. Also However, Anthony Giddens opined that the impact
they have security of earnings and employment unlike the of industrialization on firmily can be visualized from
blue collar workers who have greater risk of redundancy two perspective, structural change (Extended -+ Nuclear
and unemployment. family-+Single) and functional change, here different
Social class involves more than a similar market alternative institutions have emerged which are taking
situation and similar life chances. In order to become a away the function of family. In recent times, sociologists
social class, a collection of similarly placed individuals have picked up the contemporary happenings in the
must to some degree form a social group. This involves family system. The factors like lock of unity of interest
142 x socloLocYe&A
in family, fulfillment of sexual desires outside the family For example whenever, a multinational company
and conflicting ambitions among the members can also is established in developing countries, it is given a
be summerised as the impact of industrialization. But clear indtruction from their base country not to reinvest
overall the changing family structure can be described its profit in developing countries but to transfer
from the perspective of decrease in family size, increase at home base. This is done through a strategically
of single parenthood, increase in unworried parenthood. planed policy. Similarly in agricultural sector, the
There is also tendency of increasing single person developed countries are promoting cash crops production
household, non-marital cohabitation, etc. in developing countries so that these countries
Commenting on the future of family Jessie Bernard remain totally dependent for life sustaining food crops
remarked that there is no threat to family existence. At on them.
the same time Levitone opined that the family is not As a result of this strateg'y of developed country,
disorganizing but developing. There may be change in the food crops production which are requiied for local
the form of family but it will not end in future. consumption are decreasing in developing countries. This
policy is also for exporting the agricultural production in
a. Comment on the critics charge that Immanuel the developing country's market.
Wallerstein's dependency theory is simplistic Thus, this dependency theory has emphasized bn
and wrong. (CSE,2009) the fact that the underdeveloped condition of third world
is not due to their internal problerns but it is the result
Ans: Term dependency has been defined in context
of policy of dependence maintained by the developed
of economic and technology that developing and under
countries. This theory also argued that the development
developed countries often beg from the der.,eloped
and economic prosperity of western countries are due to
countries for the social development of the country. Due
economic exploitation of developing countries which has
to this dependency the developing and underdeveloped
been done by developed countries.
countries are being exploited by the developed countries.
This is being done through giving suggestions onvarious
This theory of Immanuel Wellerstein has been
criticized on the ground that it is simplistic and wrong.
developmental issues by the expert of developed countries.
Followings are the criticisms-
This dependency theory is based on such a concept
which considers that the third world countries till now (i) Since every country of third world are not similar in
have not beenpble to achieve the status of developed terms of many aspects and hence this theory cannot
countries only because of their dependency on developed be applicable for all.
countries. However, the theory of dependency was first (ii) In this theory over emphasis has been made on
presented by Paul Brown who opined that the economic exploitation of developing countries by the western
development of whole western countries are only developed countries. In counter of this theory
because of the exploitation of developing countries by the western capitalist countries have argued that a few
developed countries. These western developed countries decade ago a few countries of third world were weak
have used various strategically framed policies to make but they are now challenging to developed countries
ttrem entirely dependent on their help for the economic in economic development.
development.In this regard Immanuel Wallerstain and (iii) This dependency theory totally ignores the internal
F"G. Frank has given the concept of development of problems of third world countries which have
underdevelopment. For explanation of these concepts been obstructing the way of development in these
they have used the term Metropolish and Satellite to countries. For eg-ecological imbalances, energy
exhibit the relationship between economic development crisis, existence of deserted land, illiteracy, limited
and modernization. economic and mineral resources, conflicts, civil
They have also termed the economy of wars etc and have emerged as big problems which
underdeveloped countries as deformed and dependent have also questioned the future of human beings.
economy. They have also accused western capitalist Problems of food security, natural disasters are other
countries for such conditions of the third world countries. phenomena which are being faced by the developing
Both scholars have also agreed that there is also role countries.
of economic disparity and diskibution of world resources Thus, many logics have been given in support
uniformly all over. Such underdeveloped condition of or against of dependencv theory but in the age of
third world countries have forced most of the countries globalization, liberalization and modernization, the
of this world to make relationship of dependency with position of developed countries are more stronger in
developed countries. To maintain this dependency the comparison to third world countries and uptil now
western developed countries impose their scientific the developed sides are getting more benefits from the
technique and capitals over the developing countries. globalized world.

t***
 CHAPTER
a
a

Q. What, according to Robert Michels, is . Lions are generally a residue of persistence.

the iron law of oligarchy? Do lions and They emphasise social dtability and reject
foxes in Vilfredo Pareto'b theory, essentially quick changes and transformations. They find it
difficult to integrate into society. Most of them are
differ from each other? Substantiate.
professional politicians
. Foxes: They adhere to the maximisation of gain
Ans: In'Political Parties', prblirh"d :S;:f:l concept and are quite crafty. They typically support
decade of the twentieth century, Robert Michels quick change and transition and are speculative in
articulated the iron law of oligarchy. This idea holds that nature. They reject the current state of affairs. They
all organisational structures, no matter how democratic mix up with people really effortlessly.
or autocratic they may be at first, will inevitably give . Elites rule over the masses of people because they
rise to oligarchic tendencies over time.
are dominated by non-rational forces and lack
Roberto Miahels calls the bureaucratic system in rafional capacities. This is the reason that the masses
democracy as 'iron iaw of oligarchy' as bureaucrats are unlikely to be a revolutionary force.
usurp all the power. He challenges Marxist hopes for a . Social change occurs when the elite begins to
truly democratic system as even in utopian democracy
degenerate and is replaced by a new elite derived
there will be a representative system and hence from thq non-governing elite or higher elements of
organisations will be required and these organisations
the masses.
will be manned by bureaucrats who will ultimately .
usurp the power.
All elites tend to become decadent. They 'decay
in quality' and lose their'vigor' as they become
Vilfredo Pareto's Theory complacent. In this situatior; the other elites seize
. Italian sociologist Vilfredo Pareto claimed in his the power. Each type of elite lacks the qualities of its
'Mind and Society, 1935' that personal qualities counterpart, qualities which are essential to retain
separate rulers and the ruled and they are the same power in the long run.
at all times. r or example, an elite of lions lacks the
. According to Pareto, there is a'ruling minority' imagination and cunningness necessary
and 'the ruled majority'. According to him, this to .maintain its rule and they recruit foxes
from among the masses who grow strong over
situation is inevitable as even in communism, such
time.
polarisation takes place where a section of 'the have
nots' occupy dominant position. In Pareto's theory, lions and foxes stand for various
. strategies for gaining and holding power/ but it's
AccoSding to Pareto, there are two .types of
important to understand that these classifications ate not
governing elite - lions and foxes (he borrowed this
exclusive to one another. People can have characteristics
concept from Niccolo Machiavelli).
of both lions and foxes, depending on the situation and
. Libns rule by force (e.g. - dictators) and foxes rule by tactics they choose.
cunningness (e.9. - Chanakya and Chandragrpta, The foxes employ cunning and manipulation, while
19th century European democracies, etc.). They the lions utilise force and aggressiveness. Nonetheless,
replace each other in a process which Pareto calls the same need for control and power motivates them
as 'Circulation of Elites'. both.
144 .,,,t',:tt
socloLocy e & A
Thus, understanding of contemporary power Civil society is essential to strengthening the
dynamics is significantly in{luenced by the theory of foundations of democracy. It guarantees government
iron law of oligarchy and Pareto's idea of the distinction accountability, encourages citizen participation,
between foxes and lions. These ideas help in the advances democratic values, and serves as a spark for
explanation of how elite control and the interactions social and political change.
of many kinds of people in positions of power affect
organisations/ governments, and societies. a. Do you think that social media has brought
significant changes in the forms of protest?
a. How is civil society useful in deepening the Argue your case. (CSE 2023)
roots of democracy? (CSE 2023)
Ans: Social media has brought about significant
Ans: Civil Society is an umbrella like organisation changes in the forms of protest. The introduction
which lies between family and market and state. Hence, of social media sites, such as Facebook, Instagram,
it is a non-market based, no-state based and non-kin Twitter, and others, has completely changed how
based part of the public domain in which individuals individuals express themselves and communicate. It has
get together voluntarily to create institutions and democratised the flow of in{ormation, enabling anybody
organisations. with an internet connection to express their thoughts and
Civil Society consists of voluntarv associations, inspire others to support a cause. This has sociological
organisations or institutions formed by groups of rarnifications for social movements, power relations, and
citizens. It includes pclitical parties, media institutions, group behaviour.
trade unions, non-governmental organisations (NGOs),
Changes in Forms of Protest
religious organisations, and other kinds of collective
entities.
. Conventional protests necessitated a physical
presence, coordination, and even financial
Civil Society and Democracy support. Anybody with an internet connection may
. The civil society is considered both complementary now initiate or join a demonstration using social
and sometimes as a substitute for the state media.
instituti<lns. In fact, De Tocqueville studies the . This has democratised the process. It has also
reasons for the existence of democracy in America increased the inclusivity of protests by enabling
and its absence in France in terms of the presence participation from individuals with a variety of
or absence of civil society. locations and backgrounds.
. According to him, civil society complements . Communities that may not have access to traditional
democracy. In India also, growth of democracy media channels but are marginalised and vulnerable
and Panchayati Raj can be seen in this light. are given a l,oice through social media. By enabling
Decentralisation of power is the basis of the formation people to air their complaints and tales, it promotes
of civil society. The decentralised units of power are inclusivity.
inclined towards trust, association and democracy. . The speed and reach of protests have significantly
o Democracy and Civil Society are inseparably related expanded by social media. Protest ne\{s and
to each other. A heaithy liberal democracy needs the updates can travel quickly throughout the world,
support of a vibrant civil society. gaining attention and support from people all
. The existence of civil society also indicates the around the world.
extent of democracy in a society. Civil society is " This r,vas made clear during the Arab Spring,
an arena of contestation and debate. Civil societies when social media was important in organising
have been viewed as a force for democratisatiory demonstrators and spreading news. The Black
counterweights to the state and economic power Lives Matter movement gained significant
and have emerged as alternative vehicles of citizens' momentum through social media. The hashtag
participation. #BlacklivesMatter became a rallying cry for
. The issues taken up by civil society organisations protesters across the globe, highlighting the issue
. are diverse, ranging from tribal struggles for of police brutality and racial injustice.
land rights, right to information, legal reforms, . Traditional forms of protest were often easier for
devolution in urban governance, rehabilitation of authorities to control or suppress. Social media
those displaced by dams and other developmental allows protestors to quickly modify their strategies,
projects, rehabilitation of pavement dwellers, which makes it harder for authorities to foresee or
campaigns against slum demolitions etc. stop demonstrations.
 POLITICS AND SOCIETY :.., 145
Dysfunctional Changes . They help in social integratiorl political articulation
. Moral panics frequentiy result from the unfavourable and act as a catalyst for change. They, in many
media portrayals of topics like immigration and ways, provide alternatives to inadequacies of
asylum seekers. Such moral panics can occasionally political parties and government.
spark violent outbursts based on misinformation. . In India, pressure groups are formed not only to
. Social media can be used by governments to monitor promote and preserve economic interests, but they
and manage protests. Authorities can identify and are also used to protect and promote linguistic,
target activists by keeping an eye on their online cultural and religious interests as well.
actions, which could result in repression. Pressure groups enable new concerns and issues
. Echo chambers are frequently produced by social to reach the political agenda, thereby facilitating social
progress and preventing social stagnation.
media algorithms, exposing users to content
For example, the women's and environmentalist
that confirms their own opinions. This has the
potential to deepen division and obstruct fruitful movements, farmer movements related to MSP and
women empowerment especially in Maharashtra, etc.
communication between different viewpoints.
There is no denying that social media has Methods Used by Pressure Groups
significantly altered the ways in which protest is Pressure groups may use a variety of methods to
conducted. Protests have become more democratic, pursue their requirements. These include
have accelerated and expanded in scope, given rise to . lobbying state members and the Parliament via
online activity, and have been equipped with tools for petitions, letters and deputations;
counter-protest and surveillance. Social media has a dual . consulting with ministers or senior public servants;
impact on protests, though, as it can be both uplifting
. hiring professional lobbyists;
and also repressive.
. taking legal action through injunctions or appeals
to higher courts;
a. Illustrate with examples the role of pressure
. campaigning for, or opposing, certain candidates
groups in the formulation of social policies.
(csE,20221 at elections;
. demonstrating outside Parliament and government
Ans: Pressure groups are forms of organizations
offices or marching in the streets; and
which exert pressure on the political or administrative
system of a country to extract benefits out of it and
. using the industrial muscle of strikes for political
advance thbir own interests. purposes.
Pressure groups are formed by both dominant Richand Heffernan raises the possibility that
groups and the deprived ones as the former push pressure group activity might itself reduce political
states for economic concessions, the latter demand basic participation in the long term.
amenities in a competing environment. The failure to get demands accepted can lead to
disappointment, which may in turn increase political
Emergence of Pressure Groups disengagement.
. They have come up largely in wake of scarce Thus, pressure groups are seen as providing
resources and competing interests. They are a safety valve-preventing destabilizing opposition
different from political parties in the sense that to government-and thereby increasing the
they don't aim at capturing power and have more overall legitimacy of the liberal democratic political
flexibility in terms of mobilization of support. system.
. Existence of pressure groups in society is validation
of Pluralistic Elite Theory given by Robert Dah1, Q. What is cult? Explain the growth of cults in
Hunter and others and pressure groups act the contemporary world. (CSE 2021)
as multiple power centers in modern liberal Ans: Cult is a srnall group of religious activities
democracies.
whose beliefs are different from the dominant religion
Role of Pressure Groups in the Formulation of Social generally focusing on individual experience.
Policies They are often based upon charismatic leadership
. Pressure groups act as vehicles of mobilization of and have no concept of membership and it is loosely
masses and hence promote political, social and organized.
administrative participation. They have, in away, It never challenges the mainstream religion directly,
deepened the roots of participative democracy. e.g. Rajneesh Movement.
 146 ffi socloLocye&A
Reasons for growth of sects in contemporary world: To achieve the goal of winning elections, they also
use mass media platforms, e.g. social media, newspapers,
' They generally grow among people who feel alien-
ated and marginalized among the mainstream etc.
society. Weber calls this phenomenon'theodicy of Lester Milbrath classified four types of political
disprivilege'. participation in a political system - Political apathetic -
. Steve Bruce argues that they are a result of wider totally unaware of the political activities in state, political
process of secularizatiorL modernisation and liber- spectators - take part in polling and general discussion
alization of society. only, transitional activist - they attend political meetings
and raise funds as well and gladiators - they are the one
' People who find traditional religion as ritualistic,
who enter the political arena and stand in elections.
rigid and orthodox look for spiritual solace in small-
Dye and Zeigler term the political parties and elec-
er, less impersonal religious movements like cults.
. tion process as a mean to divert attention of masses and
They are also due to the rapid growth of media
pacify them. Elections according to them create a false
especially social media and their promotion on
illusion that power rests with majority by creating a false
such platforms.
impression of representation.
The growth of cults shows that religion as an institu-
Although" pressure groups.and political parties have
tion has not disappeared from public life due to forces
differences but both employ similar methods like use of
of modernization and secularization. Religion instead is
mass media, resource mobilization etc. in achieving their
acquiring new shapes and forms.
goals. Besides both are main sources through which the
public's views and interests are channeled to government
a. Explain how political parties and pressure and both carry out representation, facilitate political par-
groups are dialectically related to each other ticipation and contribute to the policy pxocess.
in terms of achieving their goals. (CSE 2021)
Ans: Pressure groups are forms of organizations a. Give your comments on the growth of reli-
which exert pressure on government to extract benefits gious revivalism in the present day context.
and advance their own interests. They come up largely (csE 2021)
in wake of scarce resources and competing interests. Ans: Religious revivalism implies revival of religion
Weber defined\political party u, ,r', orgur,ized structure in any form be it institutional attendance as in church,
-
which promotes candidates, contest elections for aim of growth of religious institutions and phenomenon like
capturing power. sects, cults, denominations, rise in individuals pursuing
Pressure groups are different from political parties spiritual peace through personal motions of religion and
in the sense that they don't aim at capturing power and finally, growth of fundamental ideas or fundamentalism.
have more flexibility in terms of mobilization of support. Spencer, through evolutionary perspectives, had
Memoranda, writing of letter, putting forth of view before predicted that science will replace religion. Flowever,
parliament, legislature, etc. are regular practices adopted in recent years there is a revival of religion and religion
by the pressure groups. Additionally pressure groups has not declined in strict classical evolutionary sense as
also build cordial rapportwith political party and indulge seen from:
in agitational methods, e.g. farmer protests. . Increased Institutional Acceptance Of Religion:
Other ways can be the use of expert knowledge, po- This is observed in increasing attendance at reli-
litical funding, bribery, civil disobedience, protests, etc. gious placeb, construction of new religious places
In countries like USA corporate funds are openly given like temples/ mosques/ churches, etc.
in fund raising campaigns during election times. o Increasing Use of Religion in Politics: political
Use of mass media especially social media in con- parties are increasingly using religious support,
temporary times is another way of putting pressure on increasing fundamentalism. Iranian Revolution,
the government and achieving ones goals. rise of new right Protestant gloups in US, establish-
Political Parties according to Robert Dahl in his 'Who ment of theocratic right wing governments, etc. are
Governs?' act as a linkage between government and examples.
people and provide a platform for interest articulation Thomas Luckmaln says that religion today is invis-
and a conduit for pressure groups. ible as individuals carry it out in their private space and
Political parties also mobilize opinions, indulge in not in institutions. Even where religion seems to lose
political socialization and recruitment of members, etc. To its hold in the sense of decreasing attendance in church
carry out their activities they have a dedicated ideology, ceremonies, a private religion is seemingly emerging.
cadre and raise resources through means like electoral In other words, a personal interpretation of religious
funding etc. doctrines is tolerated.
 POLITICS AND SOCIETY lffi 147
Robert Bellah argued that Civic Religion is emerging The meaning of democracy is not exhausted even
as a new form of religion where civic symbols and na- after interpreting it as a form of government, a type of
tionalism are accorded same respect and faith as religion. state, and an order of society.
Steve Bruce argues that religious revivalism is a reaction Democracy has made great strides in the social and
to wider process of secularization, modernisation and political fields, it has made very little advance in the
liberalization of society. economic or industrial field and social as the next step
Thus as long as religion is perceived as answer to in democracy.
complex questions of life, religious revivalism is bound Democracy embodies a moral principle. It means
to take place in the society. that every man has value. It enshrines the truth that
government does not exist for its own sake, but for the
a. Highlight the roles and functions of civil enrichment of personality. No government has a right
society in a democratic system. (CSE 2021) to be called a democracy if it does not bring out the best
in man.
Ans: According to Helmut Anheier, civil society is
The nine factors inlluencing political participation
the arena outside family, government, and market where
are as follows:
people voluntarily associate to advance common interests
1. Psychological or cognitive traits
based on civility.
2. Social environment
In democratic systems like India and the US, civil 3. Political environment
society performs various roles and functions: 4. Level of modernization and urbanization
. According to Gramsci, civil society has an important 5. Political socialization
role to play in consolidating democracy by challeng- 6. Modes of participation
ing the hegemony of the state and market. 7. Voting 8. Campaign activities
r I strong and reliable civil society can represent the 9. Co-operative activity
interests of the people and the community and serve Based on these factors, peoples' participation in
as a check on the use of power by the state. politics gets influenced.
. Civil-society organisations help in stimulating the In brief, political participation refers to all those
political awareness of the masses by public educa- activities which influence the decision-making process.
tion and enoouraging their political participation These activities may include voting, seeking information,
to protect their own interests, e.g. role of PRS in discussing, attending public meetings, making financial
providing legal and policy awareness to people. contribution, communicating with representatives to
. It also provides policy inputs and legitimacy to the become member in a politicalparty, canvassing, speech
governrnent, e.g. role of FICCI in providing inputs writing, delivering speech, working in campaigns,
to Government of India related to corporate policies. competing for public and party offices, etc.
Some civil society organisations are however accused Political participation provides citizens a sense of
of subverting the democracy, e.g. promoting fundamen- dignity and value, alerts both the rulers and the ruled to
talism, foreign motivated agendas, terror financing, etc. their duties and responsibilities and facilitates broader
Irrespective of the challenges civil society is very political understanding. By involving people in the affairs
important for democratization of a society and thus states of the state, participation promotes stability and order
should provide assistance to civil society organisations in the system. Thus, Democracy is both a promise arul a
to perform their functions more effectively. challenge. It is a promise that free human beings, working
together, can govern themselves in a manner that will
a. Explain democracy as an order of society. serve their aspirations for personal freedom, economic
What are the factors preventing people's opportunity, and social justice. It is a challenge because
participation in politics? (CSE 2020) the success of the democratic enterprise rests upon the
Ans: Democracy is a government by the people in shoulders of its citizens and no one else.
which the supreme power is vested in the people and
exercised directly by them or by their elected agents Q. What is civil society? Present a note on
under a free electoral system. A democratic state means civil society engagement with science and
that the community, as a whole possesses sovereign technology policy in India. (CSE, 20L9)
authority and maintains ultimate controlling and Ans: Civil Society is an umbrella like organization
dismissing a government. which lies between family and market and state.
In addition to being a form of government Hence, it is not-market based, not-state based and not-
and a type of state, democracy is an order of society. kin based part of the public domain in which individuals
A democratic society is one in which the spirit of get together voluntarily to create institutions and
equality and fraternity prevails. organizations.
 148 soctolocye&A
It consists of voluntary associations, organizations welfare increases in society, amount of power held
or institutions formed by groups of citizens. It includes by society also increases. Power is not possessed
political parties, media institutions, trade unions, by lndividuals, but society. According to Parsons,
non-governmental organizations (NGOs), religious since it is very difficult for society to exercise power,
organizations, and other kinds of collective entities. social positions are created which are functionally
The main criteria for inclusion in civil society are that more important and power is exercised througir
the organization should not be state-controlled, and it them. Power is used in society to achieve collective
should not be a purely commercial profit-making entity. goals and this benefits everyone and everyone wins
Civil society is the sphere in which social movements and there are no'winning elites' or'losing masses'.
become organized. . Marxists see power not in form of 'authority' (with
The requirement for openness of science to civil legitimacy), but in the form of 'coercion' - of the
society is particularly striking in the area of technologies haves over the have not. lt is not a societal resource
and the products of technology. The phenomenon of as claimed by functionalists held in trust by those
lucrative research driven by industriai interests that in authoritf , but is rather used by dominant
require rapid returns on investment leads to negative
groups. Their interests are in direct conflict
consequences in terms of the quality and transparency
with those of who are subjected to power. From
of health and environmental assessment.
Marxian perspective/ source of power is economic
In India, civil societiei played crucial roles in
safeguarding farmers' interests at the WTO in terms infrastructure, but it extends beyond economic
of patents and genetically modified crops. They also infrastructure and extends to all other aspects of
advocate privacy laws for citizens in using internet along life as well.
with net neutrality. In health sector, civil societies were r Elite theories are the foremost theories of power.
instrumental in shaping lnd ja's patent policy with regard They broadly fall into two categories - Classical
to compulsory licensing and evergreening of patents in elite theories and Pluralistic elite theories. Mosca,
favour o{ people. Pareto, C W Mills fall under classical elite theorists.
Therefore, it can be said that, civil societies can play Karl Mannheim, Schumpster, Anthony Downs and
the role of mediators in safeguarding the interests of all Robert Dahl are from pluralist tradition. The Elite
stakeholders in policy making for scientific developments. Theorists identify the governing elite in terms of
superior personal qualities of those who exercise
Q. What are the theoretical models of societal power.
power? Which one of them is most applicable Another Elite theory is given by C W Mills in his
in advanced industrial societies? (CSE,2019) 'The Power Elite,1956' . He didn't believe that elite rule is
Ans: Weber famously defines power in his'Economy inevitable. According to him, this is a recent phenomenon
and Society,1920' as 'The chance of men to realize their of the American society or advanced societies.
own r,r.ill in a communal action even against the will of According to him power among elites in US is today
others who are participating in a social action'. Power institutionalized and is not psychological and hence
can be of two types - coercion and authority. rejected the view that some members are superior to
Weberian definition presupposes that power is a others in terms of qualities. Institutes today wield the
constant sum game, but functionalists view it as a variable
power and those who are at the top of these institutes,
sum game. They also say that power is exercised by a
monopolize the power. Three such key institutions
few, but it is for good of all and it leads to collective
according to Mills are - Military, Federal Government,
well-being, higher the well-being achieved, more is the
and Major Corporations.
power. Authority is that form of power, which is accepted
as legitimate, that is, as right and just. It means that the
Pluralists (Pluralist thesis) have challenged the main
master has the right to command and can expect to be elitist contention that a society is marked by the existence
obeyed. of a single centre of political power. It is in contrast to
Various theoretical perspectiaes on societal poroer elite and Marxist theorists who argue that power is
are - concentrated in the hands of a few.
. Weber has seen power as a constant sum game in This theory is a bid to explain the power distribution
it
which one exercise power at the expense of the in modern democracies, especially Western dernocracies.
other. He described 3 bases of power - tradition, Modern democracies have dispersed sources of power.
charisma and legal rational. They argued that in a society there are multiple centers
. Functionalists power rested with society and as
see of political power. Thus, various theories give different
a'variable sum game'. They argue that as collective perspectives in order to understand the societal powers.
 POLITIGS AND SoGIETY i. 149
a. Discuss the concept of circulation of elite. Attacks carried out in different corners of the

believed that personai qualities are the basis

and they rejected communism as a utopia and
as an ideological bias.

Chandragupta, L9th century European democracies, etc.).

Q. What, according to Pareto, are the basic
They replace each other in a process which Pareto calls
characteristics of elites? Discuss. (CSE, 2018)
as 'Circulation of Elites'
Ans: The term Elite refers to'those who excel'. Elite
Elites rule over the masses of people because they
theory developed in part as a reaction to Marxism. It
are dominated by non-rational forces and lack rational
rejected the Marxian idea that a classless society having an
capacities. Social change occurs when the elite begins
egalitarian structure could be realized after class struggle
to degenerate and is replaced by a new elite derived
in every society.
from the non-governing elite or higher elements of the
Elite theory argues that all societies are divided into
MASSES.
two main groups a ruling minority and the ruled. This
All etites tend to become decadent. They'decay in situation is inevitable.
quality' and lose their'vigor' as they become complacent.
Italian sociologist Vilfred Pareto claimed in his'Mind
In this situatiory the other elites seize the power. Pareto
and Society, i935' that personal qualities separate rulers
saw even the.modern democracies as just another form
and the ruled and they are same at all times. According to
of elite domination. This theory, however, criticized for Pareto there isa'ruling minority' and 'the ruled majority'.
not making a distinction among various forms of rules - According to Pareto, there are two types of governing
dictatorship, democracy, fascism, and communism and elite - lions and foxes (he borrowed this concept from
so on. Niccolo Machiavelli). Lions rule b), force (e.g. - dictators)
Despite criticism, 'circulation of elite' theory is and foxes rule by cunningness (e.g. - Chanakya and
considered as pioneering eflort in explaining of power Chandragupta, 19th century European democracies, etc).
relations in the society. They replace each other in a process which Pareto calls
as'Circulation of Elites'.
a. How is terrorism a new form of asymmetrical Elites rule over the masses of people because they
warfare? What are some of the challenges in are dominated by non-rational forces and lack of rational
trying to win the war on terrorism? capacities. This is the reason why masses are unlikely to
(csE,2019) be a revolutionary force. Social change occurs when the
elite begins to degenerate and is replaced by a new elite
Ans: Asymmetric warfare is war between belligerents
derived from the non-governing elite or higher elements
whose relative military power differs significantly, or
of the masses. All elites tend to become decadent. They
whose strajegy or tactics differ significantly. This is 'decay in quality' and lose their 'vigor' as they become
typically a war between a standing, professional army complacent. In this situation, the other elites seize
and an insurgency or resistance movement militias who
the power. Each type of elite lacks the qualities of its
often have status of unlaw{ul combatants. counterpart, qualities which are essential to retain the
Terrorism is hardly a postmodern phenomenon. power in the long run. For example, an eliie of Lions lack
Several of the terror attacks in the 21st century reflect a the imagination and cunningness necessary to maintain
paradigmatic change in the tactics of asymmetric warfare its rule and they recruit foxes from among the masses
and the practice of violence. who grow strong over time.
150 ':: socroLocY e & A
He saw even the modem democracies as just another Focus Group Technique: Focus group discussion is
form of elite domination. He is, however, criticized for mainly used for non-positivist research. The focus group
not making distinction among various forms of rules - technique basically consists of bringing together a group
dictatorship, democracy, fascism, and communism and of people to have an extensive, free flowing discussion
so on. relating to their experiences or opinion on a particular
He is criticized for being simplistic in conception and focus issue. It is like a group interview.
ignores the differences between various types of ruling Case Study: It is a complete and detailed account of
system like - modern democracies and feudal societies. a social phenomenon in which every detail of an event is
Also, Public opinion matters these days and even elites studied in depth. This method is inspired from the legal
have to listen to it. and management case studies. This method considers all
related aspects like - antecedents and consequents - of an
event in gteat detail and hence, offers a holistic treatment
a. Distinguish between qualitative techniques
of the subject.
of data collection with suitable examples from
Content Analysis: It is also a qualitative technique of
Indian society. (CSE,20L8)
research in sociology and is often used in interpretative
Ans: Qualitative Methods refer to examination, sociological research. Content analysis or textual analysis
analysis and interpretation of observations for the is a methodology in the social sciences for studying the
purpose of discovering underlying meanings and content of communication.
patterns of relationship to gain better understanding of Interview: It is also one of the most widely used
symbols, motives and meanings. research methods in sociology. An interview is basically
Qualitative methods emerged as a reaction to a guided conversation between the researcher and the
excessive emphasis on positivist research, which is respondent. Interview is a technique in which there is a
considered unsuitable for understanding of social one to one interaction between subject and researcher. It
phenomenon. They help in discovering underlying may happen in various forms and types like - face -to-face,
rneanings, motives, patterns, symbols, etc. telephonic, group interview etc.
There can be various types of Qualitative Methods Biographical Research: It is a pure sociological
like - Observation Method, Unstructured Interview, method which has found legitimacy only inrecent times.
Case Studie$, Focus Group Discussion etc are some of It includes oral histories, autotiiographies, narratives etc
the methods. Techniques of data collection depend on which are used to explore how individuals experience
whether the data required is quantitative or qualitative social life and periods of social change. It provides new
and whether the data required is primary data or insights to already existing knowledge as texts like life
seconddry data or whether the approach is positivist or histories provide new voices.
non-positivist. Thus, qualitative methods are used for better insight
Participant Observation and Field Study: Observation of sociological phenomenon and helps in getting valid
is systematic viewing along with consideration of seen results in sociological researches.
phenomenon. Rationale behind using observation
method is that sociological investigator should become a. Is the theory of cultural lag valid in present
a part of social phenomenon he or she wishes to times? Discuss. (CSE,2018)
understand. It is a method of qualitative research which Ans: This idea of cultural lag was developed by W F
is most predominantly used in interpretative sociology. Ogburn in response of economic determinism in which
Observatioi'r can be of various types like- social, cultural and political phenomena change in direct
and immediate response to changes in economic base of
I. Structured and unstructured observation the society.
II. Participant, quasi-participant and non-participant He notes that changes in culture were not congruent
observation with economic change. For example - economic changes
III. Controlled and non-controlled observatiorL etc. influencing division of labor in farnily has not affected
In Indian sociology also, an important way in which the patriarchal ideology in similar way.
fieldwork methods have been used is in village studies. Thus, cultural lag refers to the phenomenon of
Village studies were important because they provided cultural change being slower than material changes.
Indian sociology with a subject that was of great interest Traditional organizations and values take time in
in newly independent India. adjusting to the new material conditions.
The government was interested in developing rural In a more general sense, cultural lag exists when
India. Famous village studies of the 1950s by S C Dube, two or more social variables which were in some form
Majumdar and Srinivas laid the foundation of field study of agreement or mutual adjustment becomes dissociated
in India. and maladjusted by their differential rates of change.
 POLITICS AND SOCIETY ffi 151
In present times, theory of cultural lag can be seen Primary socialization of children and stabilizatiorr
in various institutions of the society. of adult personalities are these functions. Today, family
Childhood Development Since the 1980's, video as a functional unit is replaced by many bureaucratic
games have become increasingly popular. Many childrery institutions like schools, old age homes, hospitals, play-
even at very young ages, have tablets on which they play schools etc at least for secondary function. Functions of
regularly. However, research is increasingly supporting family change with changing times due to various factors
the idea of limiting these activities because of proof that like nuclearization, industrialization, rise of bureaucratic
children's long term overuse of technology is negatively institutions and so on.
impacting the development of some motor skills and i. Ronald Fletcher also calls family as multifunctional
social skills. The development of games and technology social institutiory but whose secondary functions are
far outpaced the development of research regarding the today performed by the bureaucratic organizations.
impact of use of that technology. That lag has, possibly, ii. With rise of modern welfare state, social control is
resulted in stunted development in early childhood for now lying in hands of law and order maintaining
many children. Suicides caused by games like blue whale institutions.
are such examples.
Similarly, use of social media like Facebook and
iii. Family, today, no longer performs the productioh
function and it no longer plays the role of placing
Whatsapp to mobilize people for irrational cause like
an individual economically in society. Modern
mob lynchings against the human values and logic are
division of labor has facilitated numerous avenues
other cases to be noted. Mclver and Page has, however,
of employment.
criticized the notion of cultural lag as it is vague and fails
to explain which aspects of culture lag behind. iv. Concept of old age homes is also leading to the
It is also argued that with communication becoming
transfer of old age care function to institutions.
increasingly fast, the process has been actually reversed Apart from its functions, family is also understood
and material changes are now slow,er than non-material in terms of its 'structure'. It means composition and
changes. Thus, cultural can be helpful to study and relationship in kinship terms i.e. persisting pattern of
explain the pace of change of social variables with respect relations which form the basis of kinship organization.
to time. Structural studies are influenced by the size of family and
i its organization in terms of roles and authority.
Increased female labor force participation, legislation
Q. What are the new forms of family in developed impacting gender, personal law and international
societies? Discuss. (CSE,2018)
migration, advances in science and technology including
Ans: A-ccording to functionalists like George new reproductive technologies among others, have
Peter Murdock, in his 'Social structure, 1949', family is interacted with the family and have led to following
viewed as a universal social institution as it existed in all structural changes -
kinds of societies from hunting gathering to industrial
i. Conjugal Relations and Authority Structure *
societies.
Relationship betweefl husband and wife today is
FIe defines'family as a social group characterized more based on cooperation rather than domination
by common residence, economic co-operation and and women are also playing increasing role
reproduction. It includes adults of both sexes, at least in decision making. According to Parsons,
two of whom maintain a socially approved sexual nuclearization has strengthened conjugal bonds
relationship, and one or more childreru own or adopted,
between husband and wife.
of the sexually co-habiting adults.'
Other definitions add some other dimensions to
ii. Parents-Child Relationship - Mowrer says children
are playing more role in decision making and
family and in a nutshell, a family is a primary social
families are now rather filo-centric. Both parents
institution, in r,vhich there are some adults, reproductive
now play instrumental and emotional roles.
relationship, children, emotional bond, relations
- consanguineal and affinal, household, economic iii. Greater incidences of divorce - Single Parent
cooperation and so on. Due to various changes in Families. According to Duncan Fletcher people
skucture and functions o I famlly , it is argued that classical today expect more out of marital relations and
definitions are no longer valid as family today is not hence are more likely to end a relation which would
limited by adults of opposite sexes - as in case of gay or have survived in past.
lesbian marriages - and may not perform the functions iv. Authority of the aged is decreasing.
of reproduction. Its other functions are also overtaken by v. Rise of non-institutionalized features - live-in,
bureaucratic organizations. Parsons also observes that single parent family, etc.
family performs certain basic and irreducible functions. vi. Family is becoming more of an individualized alfa:l..
1SZ ....iri: SOCIOLOGY e & A

vii. According to Young and Willmott in their'The a. Examine the dynamics of pressure group in
Symmetrical Family, 1975' saw family in terms of its multi-party-political system. (CSE,207n
evolution in four stages from pre-industrialization Ans: Pressure groups are the interest groups which
to current form. Today, 'symmetrical relations' is work to secure certain interest by influencing the public
hallmark of husband and wife relations in modern policy. They are non-aligned with any political party
family and husband-wife relations are based on and work as indirect yet powerful group to influence
'companionship'. the decision. These are exercising a profound influence
Some sociologists also argue that family is no longer on the process of politics, particularly on the policies and
cornerstone of society. Some countries like Netherland actions of the government.
have as high as 80% of single individuals in 18-45 age Pressure Groups in India are functioning in an
groups. environment characterized by the multi-party system.
Examples of alternatives like Kibbutz in Israel During L947-89, since the Congress had been mostly
the ruling party in India, the Pressure Groups remained
also raise questions over its universal existence. Other
conscious of the need to keep good relations with it.
sociologists argue that family is being replaced by
household as a unit of sociological analysis.
Particularly since mid-1980s, the Pressure
Groups in India have been trying to keep good
relations with all the major national Political Parties.
a. Discuss the changing interface between state
The operation of parliamentary system in India compels
and civil society in post-independent India. the Pressure Groups to seek the satisfaction of their
(csE,20ln interests mostly through the political parties. These try to
Ans: The most distinctive characteristic of the use their connections with the ruling party as well as the
civil society initiatives in India is that the discourses opposition parties for securing their interests. Pressure
and actions belonging to this realm are not directed Groups in India represent modernity when they use such
towards the installation of democracy or a normatively modern developed techniques like lobbying, funding
of political parties, inducting favourable persons in the
appropriate form of government; they are in fact, directed
legislatures and executive departments and cultivation of
towards making the democratic system live up to its
connections with the bureaucracy. Another salient feature
ideals. i.
of the Indian Pressure Group System is that political
In the 1960's the emphasis was on the fruitfulness parties always try to organize their own Interest Groups
of developmental endeavours and efficacy of state in various trades, professions and industries. As we have
institutions. This upsurge in the civil society sphere a loose, disorganized and fragmented multi-party system,
followed'the failure of the state to fulfil the aspirations so we have numerous groups, big and small, with long as
of its people. well as ephemeral durations, living in conJlict with one
With the emergence of ecology, human rights, another, appearing and disappearing in response to the
women, and Dalit movements, the civil society space prevailing conditions and, above all, driven with shifting
in the 1970's was beginning to be filled with new ways political allegiances, bdt they influence public policies to
of addressing collective concerns. A plethora of social a much-needed extent.
movements raising questions concerning citizenship,
legitimacy of state institutions, ability of the state to a. Discuss the importance of 'power elite' in
implement policies animated the civil society sphere in democracy (CSE,2016)
contemporary india in a significant way. Ans: Instead of seeing hundreds of competing
In the 90's due to globalisation and liberalisation the groups hammering out policy, the elite model perceives
civil society sphere has become the space for the complex a pyramid of por.t er. At the top, a tiny elite makes all
interplay between society, state and market. Gradual of the most irnportant decisions for everyone below.
withdrawal of the state from the economic arena and the A relatively small middle level consists of the types of
filling up of the space vacated by the state by the global individuals one normally thinks of when discussing
capital has led to an increasing emphasis for the state to American government: senators, representatives, mayors/
play a dominant and responsive role. governors, judges, lobbyists, and party leaders. The
masses occupy the bottom. They are the average men and
Civil society initiatives in contemporary India are
women in the country who are powerless to hold the top
concerned with the gap between what is constitutionally
level accountable.'Ihe power elite theory, in short, claims
provided and its frequent violatiory the way the poor
that a single elite, not a multiplicity oI competing groups,
and subaltern relate to the state and to the society, and decides the life-and-cleath issues for the nation as a whole,
collective action in the public sphere against the dominant leaving relatively minor matters for the middle level and
interests and an unresponsive state. almost nothing for the common person.
 POLITICS AND SOCTETY trt# 153
Accordingto C. Wright Mills, among the bestknown Max Weber thought that the expression of ideas
power-elite theorists, the governing elite in the United by charismatic individuals could change the,world.
States draws its members from three areas: (1) the highest Some of these in{luential people who caused changes in
political leaders including the president and a handful the world include Martin Luther King,Jr., Adolf Hitler,
of key cabinet members and close advisers; (2) major Mao Tseng Tug, Mohandas Gandhi and NelsonMandela.
corporate owners and directors; and (3) high-ranking Ideas and ideologies together can in{luence the course
military officers. of social change. For instance, after independence, the
Even though these individuals constitute a close- directive principles - equality, fraternity, liberty and
knit group, they are not part of a conspiracv that secretly justice laid down in our constitution-have not only
manipulates events in their own selfish interest. For revolutionized the Indian society but it has even affected
the most part, the elite respects civil liberties, follows greatly the relations between the members of the family.
established constitutional principles, and operates openly
Social philosophers, who believed in the force of ideas,
and peacefully. It is not a dictatorship; it does not rely on
argued that no material or social factors can produce
terror, a secret police, or midnight arrests to get its way.
change unless there is also a change in ideas within
It does not have to, as we will see. Nor is its membership
society or ideas about society and nature.
closed, although many members have enjoyed a head-
start in life by virtue of their being born into prominent
families. If the elite does not derive its power from O. Define Secularization. What are its maior
repression or inheritance, from where does its strength dimensions in the modern world? (CSE 2015)
come? Basically it comes frorn control of the highest Ans: Secularization is the transformation of
positions in the political and business hierarchy and from a society from close identification with religious
shared values and beliefs. values and institutions toward non-religious values
The power elite establishes the basic policy agenda in and secular institut.ions. Secularization captures a long-
such areas as national security and economics. Of course, term societal change, but it has consequences for religion
since it only sets the general guidelines, the middle level itself. It refers to the belief that as society's progress,
has plenty to do implementing them, but the public has particularly through modernization and rationalization,
been virtually locked out. Its main activities-wearing religion loses its authority in all aspects of social life and
campaign buttqns, expressing opinions to pollsters, governance
voting every two or four years - are mostly symbolic. The Secularization is the process of things becoming
people do not directly affect the direction of fundamental
more secular. Most of the Western world has seen this
policies.
paradigm come to dominate politics and civil life, starting
from the time of the Enlightenment. In present world,
a. "Ideology is crucial for social hansformation culture is maiked by pluralism: religious faith takes many
in a democtacy." Discuss. (CSE,2015) forms, and meaning has many nonreligious sources. No
Ans: Social transformation is the change of culture religious entity can determine society's standards of
and social structure over time. Society is never static knowledge, beauty, and morality. Even when they make
- the social, political, economic and cultural changes their way into popular culture, supernatural notions
occur constantly. Idealistic factors include values, thereby lose any sacred aura. In this world citizenship
beliefs, and ideologies are vital factors instigating sociai requires no religious attachment, and society sets no rirles
transformation. According to Max Weber, in essence, for religious conformity.
values, beliefs, and ideologies have a decisive impact Political authority derives its legitimacy from legal
on shaping social change. These factors have broadly procedures and public support. In modern media,
shaped directions of social change in the modern world. education, or business, religious institutions exercise
For example: greatly diminished influence. Their resources are dwarfed
Freedom and self-determination by those of secular institutions. Because religious strife
Material growth and security is less likely to spill over into the public domain, it
Natignalism, e.g. French & English Canadians, diminishes as a cause of domestic and international
English & Irish, Germans & French, Palestinians, conflict. Operating within such a secular environment,
Kurdish, Basque separatists and Spanish the nature of religion itself ihanges as weIl. Religions are
n . Crrpitalism: an economic system, but also its ideology, organized as the voluntary effort of citizens who choose
connected set of values and ideas emphasizing to belong; they come to terms with pluralism by grving up
positive benefits of pursuing one's private economic claims to exclusive trutfu they comfort individuals more
interests, competition and free markets than they shape society. In this world, an encompassing
. Marxism sacred order turns into a specialized spiritual sphere.
154 ts soctoLocy e & A
Modern society has no sacred canopy. It makes room a. Distinguish between Political Parties and
for religiory but operates on human terms. Secularization Pressure Groups. (CSE,2014)
can take on a life of its own. Once society is broadly Ahs: Political parties are interested in gaining power
defined as a secular enterprise, religious culture becomes at the government level. Parties compete in election for
pluralized and rationalization takes hold-the process votes by putting candidates forward to govern the whole
feeds on itself. In many instances, secularization receives nation-state by winning elections and are interested in
increasing institutional support, for example in the form every issue of political discussion. On the other hand,
of legal provisions separating church and state, as well Pressure Groups are usually concerned with a single
as cultural support, for instance in the form of liberal issue, or a set of related issues. They do not seek election
theological cutrents. but rather operate in the political process by lobbying
The secular principle of religious freedom, construed those in power for their help.
as a fundamental human right, legitimates pluralism. Many contemporary pluralists have argued that
In sum, secularization points to the now-ineradicable the arena of political battles has slowly moved away
tension between conceptions of the transcendent and from political parties and elections and towards the
ever more assertive forms of worldly human reasonr' activities of pressure groups. This is seen as the result
conscience, and desire. Secularizatiory therefore, remains of a rapid expansion in the number and activities of
vital as an idea about the past and a problem for the pressure groups in the globaiized era. Today, pressure
future. groups are seen as essential to democracy. In conclusion
it can be argued that in contemporary times there is no
a. Discuss T. H. Marshall's views on citizenship. clear demarcation between political parties and pressure
(csE,2014) groups as there is changing nature of role and functions
Ans: T.H. Marshall's concept of citizenship is a status, of democracy. Moreover, the present political scenario
given to all full members of a community. That status is indicates that pressure groups are seen as launching pad
assuring rights and duties, though there is no universal for their future political aspirations. Hence, sociologist
principle what those should be; in general the idea of are now not interested in differentiating pressure groups
citizenship goes in the direction of greater equality. and political parties rather they are now concerned with
the study of convergence of pressure groups to political
Marshall points out three elements of citizenship:
arena.
CIVIL - freedom of speech, thought, faith, liberty
of the person, the right to own property and to conclude
valid contracts, right to justice
a. "Power is not a zero-sum garr;re". Discuss with
reference to Weber's and Parsons'views.
POL,ITICAL - right to participate, execute power
(csE,2014)
SOCIAL - live the life according to the standards
of society
Ansi Max Weber has defined power as,'the chance
of a man or a number of men to realize their own will in
Marshall spoke of the development of civil, political,
communal action even against the resistance of others
and social citizenship as an evolutionary sequence. The
who are participating in the action'. Power is, therefore,
rights embodied in the first pointed to those of the second,
an aspect of social relationships. An individual or group
and the second to the third.
do not hold power in isolatioru they hold it in relation to
Marshall is following what he thinks it's the others. Power is therefore power over others. Ih terms
chronological process of gaining right (first civil, then
of Weber's definition, it is simply the degree to which
political and in the end social), but as he describes it, it
an individual or group can get its own way in social
can only be applied to male rights; female struggles for
relationship. Weber believed that Power is a "Zero-sum
civil rights were hot topic still in the late 20th century and garne" and emphasized for one individual to gain power,
not merely an issue from the 18th century. someone else must lose an equal amount of power.
Marshall's essay on citizenship has effectively tumed C. Wright Mills embraced Weber's definition of
the Marxism by making citizenship rather than class into power/ "By the powerful we mean, of course, those who
universal medium. For him, the state, was an expanding are able to realize their will, even if others resist it".
vehicle for rights and self-government.. By this way Talcott Parsons criticized Mills view on power, where in
Marshall has brought the concept of Citizenship and his Parsons view, Mills ertoneously assumes that power is
chronological aspect has raised range of debate among illegitimate, overlooking its positive contribution.
social analysts inlateryears raised the new understanding Talcott Parsons was against Mills and Weber on their
of citizenship. Even in the contemporary times the assumption of "Power is a zero surri game". To Parsons
concepts of 'global' or'cosmopolitan' citizenship in the from the structure functionalist perspective, he rejects the
last decades has been introduced by social thinkers is all constant-sum concept of power and the view that power
because of T.H. Marshall's Classic study on citizenship. is employed in the furtherance of sectional interest.
 POLITICS AND SOCIETY * 155
Rather than seeing power as something which Criticism to Dependency theory: Radicals amongst
some hold at the expense of others. Parsons regards it as dependency theory (mostly neo-Marxists) are often
something posed by society as a whole. As such, power criticized for their grandiose views of development.
is'a generalized facility or resources in the society'. In Gunder Frank wrote, the "economic and social
particular, it is'the capacity to mobilize the resources of development for the majority of the Latin American
the society for the attainment of goals for which general people will not change until they destroy the capitalist
"public" commitment has been made'. In this sense, the class structure through revolution and replace it with
amount of power in society is measured by the degree socialist development." A radical view like this is not
to which collective goals are realized. This view is the best way to accrue a mass of followers behind your
sometimes known as a'variable concept' of power, since cause. It is also known that the theory began to lose steam
power in society is not seen as fixed or constant. Instead with the rise of the economies of both Taiwan and South
it is variable in the sense it can increase or decrease. Korea after they were both predicted to besimilar to that
of Cuba before its revolution.
Q. Write a short essay on the Latin American Proponents of free-market economics also criticize
perspectiveon'dependency'. (CSE,20L4) dependency theory. Tony Smith believes it is an attempt
of Marxism to proletarianize people (or satellites in this
Ans: Economic development theorists over the last
,l case) to mobilize against the ctrrent mode in order to
+i few centuries have developed models for explaining the
achieve socioeconomic change.
'underdeveloped-ness' of countries in the third-world
countries. There are wide ranges of theories ranging from
Finally, a last criticism comes from traditional
Marxists and their claim that dependency theory is "Neo-
Durkheim to IMF to understand the underdevelopment
Marxism without Marxism". According to Marxists and
but it is Andre Gunder Frank's dependency theory
Marxist theory, at the end of it all, the capitalist mode of
lasted over the years in explaining the development and
production is the reason for which why counkies become
underdevelopment in international sphere.
underdeveloped. Gunder Frank's model advocates for a
Here, we analyze Andre Gunder Frank's dependency
massive upheaval of the capitalist mode of production,
theory from Latin American perspective and its relevance
however realistically, this is not the way to go about
in 21st century.
change. This comparative study of dependency theory
Andre Gunder Frank's Dependency theory: with illustrations of how Latin America has been trapped
Dependency theory emerged in 1,940's as against
in underdevelopment has been shown. The task is now
development theory of modernization, where this
for more scholarly academics to show how we cancreate
modernization theory portrayed Latin American
sustaining economies in satellite nations under the stage
continent as similar to uncouth Neanderthals of the
of globalization.
Stone Age. Dependency theory, on the other hand,
i
develops by looking at historical trends to explain the
current state of developing nations and it blamed world Q. What do you understand by social movement?
capitalist integration for economic backwardness of third
How has the mobilization by Scheduled Castes
world nations. Hans Singer and Raul Prebisch in their helped them in constructing a new identity?
international trade theories noted that specialization (csE,2014)
of primary commodities, slow rate of technological Ans: Sociologists have tended to define and redefine
advancement and adverse trend in commodity trade "social movement" in response to the kind of protests they
has caused developing economies to lag behind saw taking place around them. American sociologists like
industrialized world. Blumer defined in the early- to mid-twentieth century
In analyzing the dynamic relationship between the characterized movements as being on a continuum of
First world and third world countries Andre Gunder innovative collective behavior, as the organized end of
Frank developed'Satellite-metropolis' model for better a spectrum whose opposite pole was crowds and riots.
illustration. Using Latin America as an example for this For these scholars, known as collective behaviorists,
model, here Satellites like nation state in Latin America social movements were highly organized but non-
supply cheap primary commodities to rich countries routine entities where people interacted to establish new
(European countries and North America) that then use the meanings about politics (and other subjects), and where
raw materials to produce specialized goods and then send they challenged power based on the making of these
back to the satellites for profit. Because of the exploitative new meanings.
.*]
relationship through the metropolis-satellite model, Habermas in his ner.t, social movement approach
whole regions develop a state of "underdeveloped-ness" stated movements as anti-state, anti-apparat turn of mind
that is witness to the massive upheaval of its capital and action. New social movements, in contrast to old
resources and the transference of said recourses to the social movements, are produced by new contradictions
metropoles. of society, contradictions between individual and state.
156 irir,,., SOCIOLOGY Q & A

Touraineinhis'actionidentity'approachconsiders a. Examine the role of pressure groups in

that social movements are far from abnormal or parliamentary demo..u"y. 1-Sn, ZOfa;
pathological. Social movements not only prevent social a
organized groups
stagnation, but atso promise social eman.r;;;;il; -..",-1"::I:".::y; ffip^l.formallv
established institutionat rorms ,,a tn" ,lii;ir*
norms of knowledge (cognitive rules) and.investment
H|:;:r',Jtriilffr*r::J;ilffi::#,il?"t:rrJjlff;
poriticar system and are directly tinked to modern
asainst
a which movements eruot --r - are
"- - seen imoositions
- - - as--""I'""'"-'" ' ,.
parliamentary democracy. According to Parsons, they
of the ruling classes, that is, of groups that dominate the
are the direct result of structural differentiation. with
processes of socio-economic reproduction and shape
skucturaldifferentiationthegroupsemergeinspecialized
social norms.
Au these crass-rerated sociar rorms or domination are f:l$:Lf#:il#:Xffiil;T:",*::1'#J;li:ii[:
challengedbysocialmovements,whicharetheprincipal these interest groups pressurize the gov"ernment then
class counter-actors. they are called as pressure groups.
Schedule caste movement in constructing new identity They are created when there is lack of their interest
Study of Schedule caste movement by sociologist aggregation by the political parties. They remain outside
is an emerging phenomenon, where Schedule castes the formal decisionmaking process and are therefore not
are now liberating themselves. from their age old social responsible for any action. They are not accountable. Thuy
stigma of untouchability and developing new identity are not bound by the rules. They work in anonymity.
to themselves in the name of Dalit movement. Identity The positive thing is that they do research and educate
formation is a historical process it is based upon the the government about the issues. Thus they play an
experience of oneself in relation to the others, similar important role in raising the voice of poor and left out
beliefs and cultural expressions to formulate the identity. people through their medium. In this way, they help to
Such identity creation for scheduled caste is formed strengthen democracy and make it more vibrant. For
through various phases of consciousness building Dalit example, Narmada Bachao Andolan raised the voice of
movements. local communities and made the government understood
The earlier phase of identity movement among about the plights of local people.
the schedule caste is through Bhakti movement in the If a pressure group is doing a positive work, then
medieval perii,d against thI Brahminical identity. Post it will be more acceptable to the people. A natural
Bakthi movement,'Adi'movement played a significant consequence will be that pressure grouP will become
role in the formularion of Dalit movement (Adi means a political party. In this way it will use democracy
original inhabitants). to represent the will of people. For example, Arvind
Ambedkar provided intellectual basis to the Kejriwal was initially associated with a pressure Sroup
formation of Dalii identity. The Dalit movements from and finally ended up launching a political party as there
1980s onwards aimed at fighting for Dalit assertion. The was social acceptance of his cause.
exploitation and discrimination of the Dalits on one hand But, not all pressure Sroup behave in this positive
u.rd th"ir protest and revolt on the other hand initiated way. Some resort to violence and agitation to prove
the questions of self-assertion and consciousness among their point. Though dissent and agitation is allowed
the Dalits.
" in democracy but when it becomes violent then it
TheDalitmovementsaredominatedbytheirmiddle undermines the democracy and its institutioti. Fot
class raising issues related to identity ani reservations example' Gujjal community resorted to violence when
of go..ernJent jobs and political positions. There is Slr *"t" denied reservation under sr category in
wiJespread local level assertion agilnst the practice of Rajasthan' Almond and Powell have classified the
untouchability and discrimination.
' pressure groups into different types. These are
Their struggles have brought dalits on the agenda of (u) Associational Pressure groups: FICCI, C[
mainstream politics. In academic circles the movements (b) Non-Associational Pressure groups: Gujjar agitation
have forced a section of intellectuals to critically review (") Institutional Pressure groups: Lobbies within an
not only Indian traditions and culture but also the institution
paradigms of modernity and Marxism. They have (d) Anomic Pressure gaoups: Riots and assassinations
exploded number of myths created by Brahminical Thus, pressure groups are inevitable and essential
ideologv' parts of a parliamenLry d"*o..acy. In many ways they
Dalit movement was ironically only that in the end- make the democracy meaningful for the peopie. But,
a movement o{ dalits, challenging some of the deepest when they undermine it then they must be punished by
aspectsof oppressionandexploitationbutfailingtoshow the democratic institutions to repose p"opl",, faith in
the way to transformation. democracy.
 POLITICS AND SOCIETY 'it|: 157

a. Critically examine the role of civil society in a. Theory of Cultural Lag-Ogburn and Nimkoff.
democracy. (CSE,2013) (csE,20t2l
Ans: David Held defined civil society as those Ans: W.F. Ogburn has presented the concept of
aspects of social life-the domestic world, the economic cultural lag in his book Social Change published in1922.
sphere, cultural activities and political interaction- which According to this theory culture of any society has two
are organized by private or voluntary arrangements aspects- physical or non-physical aspects. Technological
between individuals and groups outside the direct control development brings fast changes in physical aspect. But
of the state. Various positive functions of a civil society non-physical part fails to coordinate or they lag culturally.
are as follows. We can see easily that all aspects of culture do not
(1) To limit state power-By checking its political change with same pace. Today in this materialist era,
abuses and violations of the law and subjecting people have concentrated their attention on physical
them to public scrutiny. aspect. A fast change has come in the physical part bf
culture due to technological changes and fast changes of
(2) To empower citizens by "increasing the political
information system whereas there is less development in
efficacy and skill of the democratic citizen and
non-physical part of culture. Due to which cultural lag
promoting an appreciation of the obligations as well
has occurred
as rights of democratic citizenship.
Today there is loss of cultural values, thoughts or
(3) To inculcate and promote an arena for the behavior. Today importance of physical aspect is given
development of democratic attributes amongst in deciding social status of person whereas in past special
the citizens-Such as tolerance, moderation, a attention was given on non-physical part. Ogburn has
willingness to compromise and respect for opposing discussed 150 types of changes due to invention of radio.
viewpoints. In this way, W. Ogburry by his theory of Cultural
(4) To provide avenues for political parties and Lag presented the difference which has comg in the
other organizations, allowing them to articulate, progression of physical and non-physical part of culture.
aggregate, and represent their interests. Ogburn is of the opinion that society is passing
(5) To function as a recruiting, informational and through such changes in which main focus is given
leadership generating agency especially in on physical aspect and non-physical aspect is being
economically developed societies. neglected. For this Ogburn has presented example of
(6) western society where physical progress is taken as
A well founded civil society could act as a shock
base for personal progress and his development of non-
observing institution, where wide range of interests
physical aspect is neglected.
that may cross-cut and mitigate the principal
polarities of political conflict.
(7) To generate public and political support for a. Are Social movements always influenced by
ideologies? Discuss. (C58,20121
successful economic and political reforms-which
require the support of coalitions in society and the Ans: Social movement is that social action done by
Iegislatu re.
large group of people which is performed with aim to
change some values, patterns and social relations but
(8) A well-rooted civil society also helps in identifying
in this process there is continuity and effort. Any social
. and train new political leaders. movement is collective action which not only encourages
But, civil society may sometimes function in a way changes but also resist changes. Ideology and leadership
which undermines democracy. Protests against economic are most important factors contributing for emergence
projects, Mindless Jitigation and violent agitations are and continuitv of social movements.
the ways in which a civil society can be a danger to the Ideology is a system of beliefs adopted by a group
democracy. of people. This helps in understanding the situation and
In India, Naxalism also represents an ugly face legalizes the action adopted by the people. As leadership
of civil society where intolerance and violence are is necessary for the guidance of any movement, in the
unleashefl rather than discussions and debates. Today, same way ideology performs important role in proving
many NGOs are acting in an irresponsible way. ln the the utility of action of people by explaining its meaning.
protests at Kudankulam there were many allegations That's why ideology is the main important factor for
i1
of NGOs funded by foreign governments who want to social movement. Continuity of social movement cannot
create trouble in India. be maintained in the absence of it.
Thus, civil society is animportant organ of democracy People do not adopt social movement only because
but its activities must be checked if it behaves in of special faith towards particular leader. Generally
irresponsible and illegal way. people follow the leader on the basis of what matter he
 158 $ soctolocye&A
is representing i.e. what ideology he puts before people. But, in this era of globalization, due to fast
People may be attracted for short span of time for the development of information revolution and new-modern
better arrangement of living, facilities and opportunity of means of transportation all territories of world have
life. But to maintain the interest of people for long time, united. In this way, because of expansion of information,
some special matter is needed and this special matter is international boundaries are breaking. Now it is being
ideology. accepted that different nations have united and whole
In this way ideology performs important role in world has taken a form of global village.
rururing a movement for a long time. In social movement/
much diversity is found in recognizing the means to a. Explain the concept of participatory
achieve solution over the problem and aim which is democracy. What conditions are assumed to
decided by ideology. So ideology directs the goal of be conducive to participation? (CSE,2011)
social groups and individual, their means and form
of behavioral acts. This provides rationale for social, Ans: Participatory democracy is a process
political and moral ideals. All movements in India like emphasizing the broad participation of the constituents
organized peasant movemen! women's movement, dalit in the direction and operation of political system.
movemenf environmental movement, etc. have their own Etymologically roots of democracy imply that the people
are in power and thus, democracy is participatory.
clear ideologies. In this way ideology is important for
social movements and in the absence of it no movement However, participatory democracy tends to
can run for long time and thus indispensable for social advocate more involved form of citizen participation
movement. than traditional representative democracy. participatory
democracy strives to create opportunities for all members
of a population to make meaningful contributions to
a. Discuss clearly the concepts of "Nation" and decision making and seeks to broaden the range of people
"State" and the difference between them.
who have access to such opportunities.
To what extent are these terms valid in the
Participatory democracy has been a feature of human
modern era? (CSE,2012) society since classical times. It is believed to have been a
Ans: Nation is such cultural community of people common practice of underdeveloped people and hunter-
voluntarily lifing under one political system which gatherer tribes.
is united by the powerful power of moral feeling. Present representative democracy is not generally
Generally, nationality is said to be the group of people considered as participatory. New concepts such as open
which is u4ited by one race, language, religion, culture, source governance, collaborative governance, open
geographicai area etc. and motivated by feeling of politics are important aspects of participatory democracy.
historical heritage. These process allow people to participate in politics as
State is an united group for the system in definite much as possible in face to face manner.
geographical area while nation is said to be those people For effective participatory democracy there is need
who are psychologically united. Statehood is objective to ensure a fair and efficient allocation of public funds.
whereas nationalism is subjective. Statehood is duly Grass root democracy is another important aspect
operationalised by law whereas nationalism is a special of participatory democracy as a national grassroots
situation of consciousness. In state there may be one organisation would place much decision making
nation or more nations. A nation can be divided into two efficiently. Through grassroot organisation individuals
or more than two states. should allow equal access to decision making irrespective
In modern age, nation and State are treated as of their standing in a local community. There must be
concurrent but many communities are present in different frequent meeting of grassroot level body like Gram
parts of world that experience mutual unity and accepts Sabha to discuss problems of people. There should be
national consciousness on the basis of common language, involvement of plebiscite, referendum on a particular
culture and religion. Despite this they are not in position issue. People's opinion must be sought on a particular
to unite,them in the form of state. For example, some legislation and developmental projects, issues of much
people recognize themselves in the form of nation controversy. The country like switzerland has an old
although they are spread in several countries like in Iraq, tradition of some forms of direct democracy as their
-q
Iran and Turkey. constitution provides for referendum on matters affecting
On the other side there are so many states in which the constitution and majority view of people at large
different ethnic group live together but they do not accept is taken into account. The participatory democracy
themselves in the form of a nation. Generally, boundaries procedure can also provide political education to the
of state create distance between different nations. citizens and keep them satisfied with the political system.
 POLITICS AND SOCIETY lN 159
The role of media would be very important in This is what Wallerstein called 'unequal exchange',
participatory democracy as it can aware people about where systematic transfer of surplus is taking place from
their rights, obligations, etc. Conducting free and fair semi-prolbtarian sectors in the periphery to the high
election, reducing corruption in the governance and technology, industrialised core. This leads to a process
making transparency in the functioning of institutions of capital accumulation at a global scale.
could be another conducive steps in participatory For Wallerstein, nation-states are variables, elements
democracy. within the system. States are used by class forces to pursue
their interest, in the case of core countries. According to
this theory, imperialism refers to the domination of weak
a. Discuss world system Theory in the context
peripheral regions by strong core states. Hegemonic
of modern society. (CSE,20L1)
power of strong state maintain a stable balance of power
Ans: World system theory has been closely associated and enforce free trade as long as it is to their advantage.
with Immanuel Wallerstein and this theory is a macro- The current world economy is characterised by regular
sociological perspective that seeks to explain the cyclical rhythms which provide the basis of wallerstein's
dynamics of the capitalist economy as a total system. periodisation of modern history. After current stage, therg
For Wallersteiry a world system is a social system that will emerge a socialist world govgrnment which will be
has boundaries, structures, member groups, rules of only the alternative world system that could maintain a
legitimation and coherence. high level of productivity and change the distribution by
Its life is made up of the conflictingforces whichhold integrating the levels of political and economic decision
it together by tension and tear. It has the characteristics making.
of on organism in that, has a life span over which its
characteristics change in some respect and remain stable a. Identity Politics (CSE,2010)
in others. Life within it is largely self-contained and the Ans: Identity politics refers to political arguments
dynamics of its development are largely internal. World that focus upon the self interest and perspectives of
system is an economic system integrated through the self identified social interest groups and ways in which
market rather than a political centre inwhich two or more people's politics may be shaped by aspects of their
regions are interqdependent with respect to necessities identity through race, class, religion, sexual orientation
like food, fuel and protection and two or more polities or traditional dominance. Not all member of any group
are necessarily involved in identity politics.
compete for domination without the emergence on single
Groups who participate in identity politics may or
centre forever.
may not be a marginalized class of people, However,
According to Wallerstein world system is a
group advocates will often have a self belief, a self
multicultural division of labor in which the production
scheme or explanatory narrative, that they are in fact a
and exchange of basic goods and raw materials is marginalized group. Typically, these group identities are
necessary for the everyday life of inhabitants. This defined in terms of race, ethnicity, religion, gender, sexual
division of labor refers to the forces and relations of orientation, socioeconomic class or neurological wiring.
production of the world economy as a whole and it
leads to the existence of two independent regions - core
and periphery. These are geographically and culturally
a. List the sources of power and explain the
various indicators based on which power can
different, one focussing on labor intensive and other on be measured. (CSE,2010)
capital intensive production.
Ans: According to Weber, power may be defined as
This core-periphery relationship is structural.
the capacity of a person or a group of people to execute
Among the most important structures of the current
his/their will despite opposition from others. Power is
world system is a power hierarchy between core and therefore an aspect of social relationship. An individual
periphery in which powerful and wealthy core societies or a group do not hold power in isolation, they hold it in
dominate and exploit weak and poor peripheral societies. relation to others. Weber's definitioru however is vague
Technology is also a central factor in the positioning of a about the resources, which can be used in the exercise of
region in the core or periphery. power. Anything, which provides a person or a group
Peripheral countries are structurally constrained with a degree of control over what others want or need,
it
to exp6rience a kind of development that reduces their can be seen as power-resource. The most coflunon sources
subordinate status. The different strength of the multiple of power are ownership of the means of productiory
states within the system is crucial to maintain the system income, status-honour, priestly status, magical powers,
as a whole, because strong states rein-force and increase scare skills or knowledge and charisma. What works as
the differential flow of surplus to core zone. a power resource depends upon the society.
 160 ,$ soctolocY e &A

For instance, ownership of means oi production Democracy stands on the edifice of principles
is less significant in a hunting-gathering society than like people's effective participation, transparency,
in a capitalist society, while control over sacramental responsiveness, consensus orientation, equity and
or magical rites is less significant in modern industrial inclusiveness, the rule of law, efficiency, account ability
societies than in pre industrial societies. and strategic vision. These are not just core ingredients of
Economic success increases the chances of gaining democracy but constitute its bedrock. However, all these
power. The rich, for example, have the power to in{luence ideals seem to have lost their way and appear blurred in
laws and policies concerning taxes, industrializatiory etc. the present conditions. Government'of' the people seems
in their favour. However, it is important to note here that to be becoming a government 'off' the people. There is
money is a resource that can be used to enhance po\ ier, gap between not-so-efficient state and the profit alone
but a decision must be made to use money for that matters private sector which needs a third sector to bridge
purpose. For instance, there are always some richwho use it. This is how civil society is seen today. Various Acts, like
their economic resources to gain political power. Expert Right to Informatiory Consumes Protection Act, Citizens
knowledge can also be used to enhance power. Other Charters, Whistleblower's Protection Act, Report, Cuds
possible sources for acquiring power include eloquence, are all result of unrelenting efforts on the part of citizens
style of life and sometimes even maneuverability. Power to improve the system. Civil society acts through'social
is also attached to status. Husband is usually considered capital'-the capacity of people to act together willingly in
more powerful thanwife. Professionals enjoy more power their common long-term interest. And this freedom and
than commoners, etc. Finally, one can gain power by power, in a way stems from the power of democracy.
acquiring organizational ability and clinching issues like Both civil society and democracy work in tandem to
Hitler or Napoleon or Churchill. make each other more effective and efficient. The various
A problem common to ali perspectives on the areas where civil society acts as a promoter and advances
nature and distribution of power in society involves the democratic ideals and principles are-
measurement of power. According to Robert A. Dahl, 1,. Public Education: Awareness is key to any
measurement of power requires a careful examination of democratic system. An informed citizenry can
actual decisions. By this method it is possible to determine sustain effective democracy. Civic association can
whichindividuals and groups realize their objectives and contribute a lot by raising public awareness and
therefore to specify who has power. However, there is a understanding of worldwide existing laws and
problem with this approach as it ignores the possibility regulatory institutions.
that those with power can prevent many issues from ever 2. Voice to Stakeholders: Civil society is an advocate of
reaching the point of 'concrete decisions'. Westergaard the weaker sections point of view. Civic associations
and Resldr provide one alternative to Dahl's approach approach the concerned parties on the neglected
and argue that power can only be measured by its results. social circles like poor, womery or SC's and ST's
Thus if scarce and valued resources are concentrated in to relay information, testimonials and analysis
the hands of a minority, that group largely monopolizes to government agencies about their needs and
power in society. They maintain that 'power is r.isible demands.
only through its consequences, they are the first and final 3. Policy Inputs: Government policy formulation is
proof of the existence of power. Put simply, whoever considerably influenced from the inputs given
reaps the largest rewards at the end of the day, holds by the civil society not only at home but also
the largest share of power. Thus Westergaard and Resler in international area. For e.g. civic groups have
claim that, the concentration of wealth and privilege in been pioneer in sparking debates about ecological
the hands of the capitalist class in British societv provides imbalances, poverty and its related ill effects, etc.
visible proof of its power.
4. Transparency of Governance: Vigilant civic
mobilization ensures transparency in governance.
a. Evaluate how civil society and democracy Constant pressure form civil society has led to
mutually reinforce each other? (CSE, 2010) bringing in regulatory frameworks and operation
Ans: The rise in popularity of civil society was into the open, where they could be accessed for
largely due to the struggles against tyranny waged public scrutiny.
by resistance groups in Latin America, Africa and the 5. Public Accountability: Civic groups keep eye on
former communist world. These civil societies not just the implementation and effect of policies regarding
16
triggered the demise of many forms of dictatorship but people, and press for corrective measures when the
also played a significant role in their democratic transition consequences are adverse. Civil society working
over the years. Civil society diversified into many roles at global level in World Bank or IMF have often
and today it is seen as representing, in true sense, the pushed authorities in global governance to take
'people's power'. greater responsibility for their actions and policies.
 POLITICS AND SOCIETY 'ti,, 161
6. Legitimacy: The sum total of the preceding action of According to C.W. Mills in all societies there are
civil society could lead to a legitimate democratic rule. certain institutions which occupy pivotal position and
Legitimate rule prevails when people concede that those who are at the top of these institutions monopolise
an authority has a right to govern and that they power. In his study of American society he focused
have a duty to obey its directives. on three key institutions such as major corporation,
federal government and military. People who are at
a. C.W. Mills Power Elite. (CSE,2009) the top of these institution have similar interest and are
Ans: Elite theory was first developed by two Italian interconnected, these by forming one ruling minority
sociologists, Vilfredo Pareto and Gastano Mosca. This which he termed as power elite. These power elite have
theory was developed as reaction to Marxism. It rejected unprecedented power. According to Mills American
the idea of a communist utopian. This theory saw Marxism capitalism can be considered as military capitalism where
as ideology rather than an objective analysis of society. tanks, guns and missile pour out from the factories,
Elite theorists argue that all societies are divided into two serve the interest of both the economic and military
main ruling groups, a ruling minority and the ruled. This elite. Similarly business and government also cannot
situation is inevitable; whatever may be the economic be seen as two distinct worlds. He has referred political
infrastructure be it a capitalist or communis! will not leaders as the lieutenants of the economic elite and their
alter the elite rule. Apart from the personal quality, an decisions systematically favour the interest of the giant
elite owes its power from internal organization and corporations.
the major decisisns which affect the society are taken by Thus, according to C.W. Mills economic, military
the elite. Even in so-called democratic societies, decisions and political power is a netpower elite which dominates
are the concerns of the elite rather than the wishes of entire society and takes a1l decisions of major national and
the people. The elite theorists argued that the mass of international importance. The cohesiveness and unity of
population is largely controlled and manipulated by the the power elite is strengthened by the similarity of the
elite. Michel, Pareto and C.W. Mills have made special social background of its members and the interchange
contribution in the development of power elite concepts. and overlapping of personal between the three elites.
C.W. Mills has developed the concept of power elite Members of these elite are largely drawn from the upper
on the basis of America's social-political structure. He strata of society. C.W. Mills argued that American society
argued that elitbs in the field of politics, industry and is dominated by. a power elite having unprecedented
conunerce are power elites. C.W. Mills also opined that power and unaccountability. He claims that momentous
we will have to analyse the elite rule in institutionalized decisions such as American entry into second world war
term. He al,so rejected the earlier view of elite based on and the dropping of the atomic bomb onHiroshima were
superior qualities. made by the power elite with no reference to the people.

***.f.
 CHAPTER

Q. What are the reactions of R.K. Merton to the may be functional in one context and dysfunctional
functionalism of social anthropologists? Bring in other context. He also'distinguished between
out the limitations of latent functions. latent and manifest functions.
(csE 2020) Latent functions are those functions which are
Ans: Merton was a prominent American sociologist unintended or unrecognized consequences of any social
known for his various path breaking concepts like - pattern. They are present but are not immediately
obvious. On the other hand, the intended, conscious,
Middle Range Theories, latent and Manifest Functions,
or deliberate functions of the social policies or action
Anomie, etc. Merton was one of the biggest doyens of
which are created for the benefit of the society are called
structural functionalism along with Parsons. Due to
manifest functions. Manifest functions are generally
his modified functionalism, he is also known as'neo-
expected from the institutions to be fulfilled.
functionalist'.
Manifest functions are beneficial in nature, whereas
He partictllarly draws our attention to the reasons
latent functions can harm as well as benefit society.
why functiodal theories of Radctiffe-Brown and Latent functions therefore have the tendency to turn
Malinowski which were formulated to deal with the
into dysfunctions. However, this is not always the case.
realities of a simpler tribal society, isolated from rest
Dysfunctions are the latent functions which
of the world, could not be applied to contemporary
harm society, create social disorder and conflict.
societies of our own time which are complex and
Latent functions often go unnoticed, unless they
where historical traditions have overlapped on social
are dysfunctions or functions resulting in negative
institutions over several centuries.
outcomes. It is not unnatural for manifest functions to
He modified earlier functionalist view and criticized be dysfunctional at times; in many cases, it is already
the three fundamental postulates of earlier functionalist known that policy or action might lead to some kind of
and suggested their modification in following paradigms - a negative consequence. But, it is the latent dysfunctions
I. Modification to Postulate of Functional Unity: which are of greater concern because being unknown
Investigator has to study'dysfunction' and'non- and unpredictable, they tend to bear more harm to the
functions' of a particular 'social item' as well. society which is often irreparable.
This idea was novel in the functionalist approach
as earlier structural functionalists never looked
beyond the pure functionalist perspective.
a. Examine how social movements come to an
end. Illustrate with examples. (CSE 2020)
II. Modification to Postulates of Funetional Ans: Social movements are purposeful, organized
Irrdispensability: Merton argued that'social items'
groups striving to work toward a common goal.
are not indispensable in nature and there may be
These groups might be attempting to create change
'functional alternatives' i.e. the same function may
(Occupy Wall Street, Arab Spring), to resist change
be performed by different items as well. (anti-globalization movement), or to provide a political
Iil. lVlodification to Postulates of Universal voice to those otherwise disen{ranchised (civil rights
Functionalism: Earlier functionalists believed that movements). Social movements create social change.
all existing social and cultural forms are invariably A social movement requires sustained collective
functional and ful{ill some positive function. Merton action over time and hence totally spontaneous and
argued that the context in which the 'social item' is ephemeral collective actions cannot be termed as social
studied should also be taken into account. The item movements.
 SOCTAL MOVEMENTS ,ir.r\ 16Q
Collective action must be marked by some degree Democratic governments are less violent in their
of organization and also has a certain ideology. This response to protest, but their arrest and prosecution
organization may include a'leadership' and a'structure' of activists may still serve a repressive function by
that defines how members relate to each other, make imposing huge legal expenses on a social movement
decisions and carry them out. and frightening activists and sympathizers who may
.The two features of social movements/
namely/ not wish to risk arrest and imprisonment.
sustained action and spontaneity operate simultaneously. Thus, the life cycle of social movements depends
These together distinguish a social movement from other upon various factors, while some become successful by
collective actions. For example - trade union movements bringing social change, others may die out due pressure
and cooperative movements are not social movements from the govemment through various channels.
because they have a well-defined organizational
structure.
Life cycle of a social movement is generally seen
in the form of five stages, all of which may or may not
a. Is social mobility possible in closed systems
occur. For example - death of a charismatic leader,
of stratification? Illustrate from research
achievement of goals, etc. may lead to abrupt ending. work. (CSE, 2018)
A movement may also witness rejuvenation due to Ans: Social mobility means transition of individuals
some new events, re-statement of ideology or change or groups from one position in the social hierarchy to
in leadership. another i.e. from one stratum to another. The concept
Example- A revolutionary movement goes of social mobility is closely linked to concept of
one large step further than a reform movement in stratification. As hierarchical patterns evolve in society,
seeking to overthrow the existing government and to a tendency of shifting these patterns at individual and
bring about a new one and even a new way of life. structural level also evolves. Thus Mobility can be at an
Revolutionary movements were common in the past individual level or at collective level which is termed a-s
and were responsible for the world's great revolutions structural mobility.
in Russia, China, and several other nations. Reform Functionalists like Parsons believed that mobility
and revolutionary movements are often referred to as is result of process of differentiation in society and
political movements because the changes they seek are role filling by those who suit them. Marx, on the other
political in nature. hand, believed that high rate of social mobility and
Blumer (1969) and Tilly (1978) outline a four- embourgeoisement will weaken class solidarity.
stage process. In the preliminary stage, people become Mobility in industrial and modern societies is more
aware of an issue and leaders emerge. This is followed widespread. As compared to developed countries,
by the coalescence stage when people join together intergenerational mobility is much higher than in
and organize in order to publicize the issue and raise developing and traditional societies. This happens
awareness. because, industrial societies lay emphasis on formal
In the institutionalization stage, the movement qualifications at the time of recruitment. Children of
no longer requires grassroots volunteerism: it is an working class parents often gain the qualifications before
established organization, typically peopled with a paid they set out to look for employment.
staff. When people fall away, adopt a new movement, There are also evidences that the concept of soiial
the movement success{ully brings about the change it mobility is over-hyped in modern societies and there
sought, or people.no longer take the issue seriously, the may not be so much mobility as it is claimed. Open
movement falls into the decline stage. systems are those systems which offer free mobility from
Government responses to a social movement may one stratum to another and there are no barriers which
also cause the movement to decline. The government cannot be overcome. Modern societies are considered
rnay "co-opt" a movement by granting it small, mostly such open systems.
symbolic concessions that reduce people's discontent Closed systems on the other hand are marked by
but leave largely intact the conditions that originally rigid boundaries which are unassailable. Individuals
motivated,their activism. If their discontent declines, cannot cross their strata in ordinary circumstances. Often
the movement will decline even though these conditions this is facilitated by ascriptive nature of membership to
have not changed. particular strata or exclusivity of membership" Caste
Movements also may decline because of govemment system, gender stratification, ethnic stratification etc are
repression. Authoritarian governments may effectively examples of such closed stratification.
repress movements by arbitrarily arresting activists, Caste system: It is a system peculiar to India. Caste
beating them up, or even shooting them when they status is defined by birth and each caste has its own set
protest. of attributes and privileges.
164 ,,,,,,,, SOCIOLOGY Q & A

M N Srinivas wrote numerous books and essays on Flowever, in terms of agenda and end goals
caste like -'Caste in Modern India,1962', 'The Dominant these movements pursue, the social movements can
Caste and Other Essays, 1987', 'Village, Caste, Gender also be called as progressive in nature. For example,
and Method,1996' etc. He tried to capture the fluidity movements like Narmada Bachao Andolan, Chipko
of caste system through concepts o.f Sanskritization, Movement, India Against Corruption in 2011 and temple
Dominant Caste and Brahminization. entry movements can be put in progressive category
According to him, mobility in secular hierarchy movements, though these movements used traditional
by way of migration, ownership of land, government means to mobilize people across the country.
jobs etc is a historical fact and this mobility in secular Therefore, social movements can be called as vehicle
hierarchy has led to change in their ritual/cultural of social change in desirable direction, moving the
position, which he termed as Sanskritization. F{ence, society towards egalitarian world.
according to him caste system is not rigid as depicted
by historians. Q. What is new in 'new social movements'?
For example - Kayasth of Bengal during Mughal Elaborate your answer with special reference
times came close to ruling elite and eventually declared to India. (CSE,2O1n
themselves as Rajputs. Similar is the example of rise
Eyerman and Jamiion have tried to define
of Jats in North India and Lingyats m rri""r"i^'m ^ ,^fttt as processes in the formation by
social movements
dominant castes.
individuals create new kind of social identity'
social mobility in the caste system is evident in the Hl]:-1
They..emphasize the creative role of consciousness and
increasing discrepancy between caste and ;;;;;"*
cognition in human action' what they called the cognitive
withering away of Jajmani obligatio^r, ,igidi;;e;rffi
which transforms Sroups of individual into social
purity and pollution and acceptance of r"";il;lif""/;: f* Thus the cognitive praxis gives the social
occupations have differentiated today alr,1r";; -^'- ) -" i:I:l""t
movement particular meaning and consciousness and
a
secular in nature.
the'new social movements'from the
Thus, he views caste in much dynamic terms and ilt"^1"**"tiates
olo ones'
secular mobility as a pre-condition ftr ritual mobility.
Further, caste n'robility is essentially group mrulrtiy.
'
,"r"l,ffirf}:r',:ilr:ii"i"r"j.t'r1*"*fil[,*;
differentiate them from the old movements:
a. Are social movements primordial in means and
o There is no clear structural role of the participant of
progressive in agenda? Explain. (csE, 2018)
the new social movement; they have di{fused social
Ans: A social movement is defined as a sustained status- youth, women, etc.
collective action aimed at bringing or resisting, social o These movernents exhibit plural ideas and values.
change outside the sphere of established institutions.
A social movement requires ,rrtuir-r"J.;il;.;t""
o Mobilisations are linked to issues of symbolic and
cultural identities than to economic issues'
action over time and hence is totaily ,po*rr"o,rr-urra
ephemeral collective actions cannot be termed as social
o These movements involve personal and intimate
movements . asPects of human life.

Collective action must be marked by some degree of o Non-violence and civil disobedience, etc. are the
organization and also certain ideology. This organization dominant patterns of collective mobilisation to
miy include a'leadership' and a'structure' that defines challenge the dominant norms of conduct.
how members relate to each other, make decisions and o The new social movements are segmented, diffused
carry them out. and decentralised.
The two features of social movements, namely,
New social Movements in India
susta ined action and spontanei ty operate si m ultaneouslv.
These together distinguish a social *orr"rn"n,iro- otnJ,
In India also' these movements focus on cultural
.
collective actions. For Example, trade union movements
and social change' not merely on economic change'
and cooperative movements are not social movements These movements have the support of the middle class
because they have a well defined organizational unlike the earlier movements' which had the strong
" support of the working class.
structure.
Conventionally, ideology, collective mobilizatiory , ,*"- Social movements may be
classified on
the basis of purpose and interest' such as linguistic'
organization and leadershif'are identified as the vital
elements or components oi part of structure of social religious, sectarian, caste, peasant, workers, tribal'
ethnic, women's, environmental' civil rights' and human
movements which can be ,uid u, primordial in terms
of means these movements use. rights movements'
 SOCIAL MOVEMENTS t.'; 165
some of the important movements are as follows: a. Problems of objectivityin sociologicalresearch.
o save silent valley Movement, 1973: A social
movement aimed at the protection (csE, 2009)
of silent valley'
an evergreen tropical forest in Kerala brought many
Ans: The word objectivity means unbiased, neutral
o, t u*a on facts ulorre. It can be defined in two ways. rn
activists and people together' The prote-st was
focused on stopping the valley from being flooded
itrr, Lr" it considers an absence of bias or interpreting
by a hydroelectric project'
,ir"*",r"rr.
""'r.,
Chipko Movement, 1'973: Based on Gandhian gathered represents it is a situation in which data
o ,""ond case,
true picture of reality. To achieve
principles' the Chipko Movement or Chipko lrrir r.l"a of objectivity, *" r-,,"".r to describe the reality
Andolan saw people protesting against deforestation from
the interference irom the ways in which one think
by hugging trees to stop them from being cut. ,fr"if,.
o Namantar Andolary 1978:rtwas a Dalit movement But such things is not
possible in sociology
to change the name of Marathwada university in because sociologiJs are aist
member of society.
Aurangabad to Dr. B. R. Ambedkar University. They have also Iike and dislike
that people have-.
The new social movements bring about changes For example, a sociologists while studying
family
bychallenging values and identiti"r oith" social act-ors relations would herselflhimself be
a member of a
rather than by more conventiorlal and direct political family and his experience likely to influence
his/her
actions. works.
Another problems with objectivity in sociological
a. Millenarian Movements (CSE,2OL2) research is that generally there are many versions of
Ans: Social movement is a type of millenarian truth exist in the world. Also many things look different
movement. Sociologists and anthropologists have from different point of view. Thus, there is no simple
classified millenarian movement as a sociil_political way of judging which particular interpretation is true or
movement whereas theologists assume it as a religious more correct. All these make objectivity a very difficult
belief or assumption. Millenarian movement talks to its and complicated things in sociological research.
followers about total social change by charismatic power. - Howgver, objectivity in sociological research may
This movement plesents an opinion of establishment of be possible only when researcher excludes one,s own
future society based on pure imagination etc. A new ideology, non-scientific assumption. Also researcher
haven, world without miseries, injustice, sin and empire should not make any evaluative judgment before they
of saints etc.. get fact.
Although many millenarian movements are of Researchers must remain indifferent to one,s own
secular nature but this concept is based on millenarian morals and Values. To avoid any kind of biasness
movement of Christianity which believes Isa Masih will researcher can admit its own values openly before
incarnate on earth on completion of 2000 years to save going to sociological research. Researcher can also take
earth. Due to such assumption this is called millenarian an outsiders perspective on his work and try to look it
movemeirt. Usually millenarian movements begin thrgugh the eyes of others. This technique is also called
in leadership of a charismatic leader which becomes self-reflexivity.
famous afterward due to dedicated followers. Followers, But in spite of self reflexive approach there is siill
due to charismatic property in their leader, follow him
possibility of unconscious biasness. To deal with this
and attempt to form new social-religious system.
possibility, sociologists must mention those features
of their own social background that might possible
A main example of millenarian movement is source
of biasness on the topic being researched. This
Peoples Temple Movement, which took place in
will allow reader to compensate mentilly while reading
Jonestown of Guiana in Nov l97g.In this episode, 900
the research study. The iroblem of oblectivity also ma|
followers committed suicide by drinking mixture of
be due to not responding the question properly by thl
ryanide. In this way when limit of faith has teen crossed, respondent. If researcher
people get affected from religion or thought and then is inexperience then he can
also make mistake.
such incidents occur.
In spite of all these problems, the old notion of
Discussion of millenarian movement begins from
objectivity is considered an outdated perspective. Social
Second World War. Movements for establishment
scientist no longer belief that objectivity.is not possible
of new system in social life, to establish new social in science.
structure in place of old social structure are used as
But objectivity as the goal of sociological research
millenarian movement. This is a type of social movement .
is an ongoing process rather than an alreidv achieved
in which mixture of revolutionary movements is seen. end.
 166 fli soctoLocY Q & A
(iii) Quota Sampling: It worked on quota fixed
a. Distinguish between probability and non- by researcher which is fixed according to the
probability sampling methods. How many
proportion in the entire population.
types of sampling designs are there?
(csE,2oo9) (iv) Snowfall Sampling: In this technique, the researcher
begins the research with few respondents who are
Ans: Sampling is a method of selecting a portion known and available. These respondents give other
of research item or study units from a large universe names who meet the criteria of research.
for the purpose of study and survey. The method of (v) Volunteer Sampling: In this sampling respondents
samplings have been devised for various usefulness such himself volunteer to give information that he holds'
as- to save the time, money, to bring high accuracy, to
Flowevet, non probability sampling has some
get valid and comparable results within a very short
disadvantages in comparison to probable sampling'
period of time, to draw inferences about the universe
Such as-
which is unknown etc.
Researcher conducting non probability sampling
Basically there are two types of sampling'
may have no knowledge or little knowledge of the social
(i) ProbabilitySampling setting of the research while in probable sampling there
(ii) Non ProbabilitY SamPling. is complete knowledge of sobial setting.
(i) Probability Sampling: This is one in which In non probable sampling information do not
every unit of population has an equal probability of represent the population but in probable sampling
being selected for the sample. It offers a high degree of information represents population.
representativeness. Today it is the primary method for 'However non probability sampling is comparatively
seiecting representative samples for social science and less expensive, less time consuming and relatively
business research according to Black and Champion, the less complicated in comparison to probability types of
probability sampling requires some conditions such as: sampling.
(i) A complete list of subjects to be studied should be At the same time non probability sampling make
available. no claim for representativeness as every unit does not
(ii) Size of universe must be known. get chance of being selected. But in probability sampling
(iii) Desired sample must be specified. representativeness is claimed and every unit gets chance
(iv) Each element must have an equal chance of being of being selected.
selected. There are mainly two types of sampling designs:
There are various forms of probability sampling (i) Quantitative Sampling Designs and
such as simple random sampling, stratified sampling, (ii) Qualitative Sampling Designs
systematic sampling, cluster sampling, multistage (i) Quantitative Sampling Research Design:
sampling and multiphase sampling. Quantitative sampling design is quite large which
However, this method is expensive, time consuming employs statistics method. Here size of sampling is
and relatively complicated since it required a large statistically determined. It also involves high cost and
sample size and the units selected are usually widely is time consuming. But this design is representative
scattered. in nature. In such design every unit represents in
(ii) Non Probability Sampling: This sampling a particular proportion. It also facilitates inductive
procedure.does not employ the rules of probability generalization.
ih"ory and'also do not claim representativeness. There (ii) Qualitative Sampling Research Design: This
are five types of non probability sampling- research design use theoretical method' It also makes a
(i) Convenience Non Probable Sampling: This is also choice about the kind of peoples who will be included in
known as accidental or happened sampling. In this the study. In this design few typical samples are selected
sampling researcher studies all those persons who which are more convenient and suitable. Qualitative
are most convenientlY available. sampling design is also analytical generalization
(ii) purposive Sampling: This is also known as which uses flexible samples according to requirement
judgmental sampling. In this sampling researcher of research. Qualitative research design is made to
chooses persons who are required to study the facts very deeply in a sparticular sample like
-i . purposefully
be relevant to the topic and are easily available to influence of religions, values, norms etc. in a particular
him. e.g. study of beggars. society.

**a*
 CHAPTER

{o

a. Analyse the relevance of 'pattern variables' in However, in real life, the 'dilemma of choices, in
the study of social change. (CSE 2020) terms of pattern variables is much more ,precarious,
Ans: Pattern variables refers to a set of concepts, and 'full of strain' than, emphasised by parsons" The
which reflects the 'properties of all action systems,, in empirical social systems as described by parsons, may
Talcott Parsons Theory of 'social Action., According to in real life settings, show variations eximple - Racism
Parsons, in the performance of roles, individuals iace in American society, mobility in Indian caste system.
'dilemmas' which occur due to'improper internalization Social reality has however, become very complex
of values' related to 'role -expectation., , especially due to rapid pace of 'social change,, in the
These strains in the'role performance, are reflected wake of an increasingly globalizing world. It is therefore,
in five sets of dilemmas, placed dichotomously, with very difficult to identify social systems, rvith a pre_
each side representing one polar extreme. The social dominant'cultural value' defining them.
actor has to'choose' one side before the actor can act.
The five patlern variables, as listed by parsons are: a. According to Durkheim, ',The major function
1. Affectivity versus affective neutrality of education is the kansmission of soeiety's
norms and values." Discuss. (CSE 2020)
2. Self-orientationversus Collectivityorientation
Ans: Emile Durkheim argued that schools were
3. Univer'salismversusParticularism
essential for.'imprinting' shared social values into the
4. Ascription versus Achievement minds of children. He believed schools would play a
5. Specificity versus Diffuseness central role in forming rnodern societies.
The Pattern variables, therefore according to Functionalist sociologist Emile Durkheim sar,v
Parsons, define the nature of 'role interaction, and ,role Education as performing two major functions in
expectations' in the social system. It provides the overall advanced industrial societies - transmitting the shared
direction in which most members of a social svstem values of society and simultaneously teaching.the
choose their roles. specialised skills for an economy based on a specialise<i
division of labour.
It therefore gives us an idea about the nature of the
social system. They help us to identify different types of According to Durkheim 'society can survive only
'structures of social systems'. if there exists among its members a sufficient degree of
homogeneity: education perpetuates and reinforces this
'Social structure', refers to the specific manner in
homogeneity by fixing in the child from the beginning
which 'roles in an interaction situation are configured
the essential similarities which collective life demandsi
or composed'.
Durkheim argued that, in complex societies, school
The Pattern - variables, can, thus help us to identify serves a function which cannot be fulfilled by either the
different types of structures of social systems, their social
farnily, which is based on kinship or friendship, which
characteristics and their place in society.
is based on personal choice, whereas being a member
For Example, the Universalistic -achievement of wider society involves learning to get on with and
e{
pattern - It is a type of 'structure of social system, in co-operate with people who are neithe.r our kin or our
whose roles those 'value orientations, are dominant friends.
which encourage achievement based on ,legal rational Durkheim argued that a second crucial function
methods' among members of a society. Example: for education in an advanced industrial economy is the
American Society. teaching of specialised skills required for a complex
 168 *:rllr soclolocy e & A
division of labour. Apart from offering information and knowledge, seen
Factory based production in modern industrial as the primary priority of the camPuses, these spaces
society often involves the application of advanced attract the youth, especially young women, because
scientific knowledge, which requires years of formal they assure them freedom, a sense of equality and also
education to learn, thus schools become much more a promise of mobility. The sight of numerous young
necessary. women from modest backgrounds, enrolled in different
Marxists would be a bit more cynical about the distance-mode courses, trooping out of the metro
relationship between school and work - according to stations to attend classes on Saturdays and Sundays,
Durkheim school is a neutral institution which simply proves that the campus, for them, is a relief from their
transmits values and skills to individuals which enable communitarian confines.
the economv to run smoothly - according to Bowles and Language still remains a huge stumbling block for
Gintis' Correspondence Principle, this is a much darker first-generation university goers. Even after 70 years
process - school teaches working class kids to be passive, of Independence, we have not thought of decolonising
making them easier to exploit in later life. our minds. Indian languages are not yet seen as fit to be
Liberals such as Ivan Illich would even question the academic languages. Without having a sufficient grasp
view that we need schools to kansmit complex skills - In over English, you cannot be part of the higher education
'De-schooling Society' he suggested that we could learn universe leading to exclusion of millions.
work related skills in a much more decentralised way, Therefore, when the masses need it the most,
something which is even more possible today in the age public higher education is getting dismantled in
of online Iearning. terms of quality and quantity. The elites are building
Thus, according to Durkheim schools provide for themselves world-class private universities and
'the necessary homogeneity for social survival and the institutions. Acceptance of this inequality as natural
necessary diversity for social co-operation'. would nullify the gains reflected by the increased
numbers recently.
a. Discuss the issues of access and exclusion in
higher education in India. (CSE, 20L9) a. "The sociological imagination enables us to
grasp history and biography and relationship
Ans: Indian campuses can take some satisfaction
between the two in a society." - CJ{. Mills.
in the fact that they are more inclusive than before
in terms of the presence of women, dalits, tribals and Explain. (CSE, 2018)
people from Other Backward Classes (OBCs). This is the Ans: C. Wright Mills, a prominent twentieth century
predominant takeaway from a recent study, 'Exclusion sociologist, developed the concept of sociological
in Indian Higher Education Today' co-authored by imaginatlon to help the general public understand the
Satish Deshpande. work of sociologists. He wanted people to understand
Comparing the present numbers with numbers of this for more than mere intellectual curiosity, continuing
the earlier times, the improvement would not have been a long tradition in the discipline. He believed that
possible without political interventions like the 93rd exercising their sociological imagination could empower
amendment to the Constitution (2006) which ensured people to take control of their lives.
OBC reservation to the elite institutions of national Excerpts from Mills' book are widely used in
importance. It should be a sobering moment for those introductory sociology courses to help students
who have always opposed such moves, calling them an understand this basic aspect of the study of sociology.
attack on the meritocratic culture of higher education. A Mills states "the sociological imagination enables
system which excludes the genius of a large section of its possessor to understand the larger historical scene
society by way of tradition or custom cartnot call itself in terms of its meaning for inner life and external career
meritorious at all. of a variety of individuals". Most people live their lives
However, Muslims still lack a significant presence in relatively small Sroups. They interact with their
in higher education, reflecting the larger socio-political families, friends, co-workers, fellow students, neighbors,
reality of India which is forcing them out of all common and so on. Their understanding of the world is heavily
public spaces. We cannot say that there is a lack of conditioned by this context, yet all of these small groups
i.: desire, if we look at the numerous efforts which the are localized representations of larger patterns in society
community itself is making to bring their youth into the - what sociologists call social institutions.
arena of higher education. Similar is the case with other These institutions are complex, historically created
marginalised groups like SC, ST and women along with social constructions that condition people's existence,
lesser representation from rural areas. constrain their behavior, and open opportunities for
Inclusion in educational spaces is a complex issue. individual and social action. We are socialized into a
 EDUCATION SYSTEM AND SOCIAL CHANGE i*i 169
particular institutional context, and thus accept our groups/ or entire nations, and may measure health
condition as normal, rarely questioning the underlying status, literacy, or education.
logic of our institutional system. More commonly it refers to individuals or families,
For example, students participate in educational and their change in income or wealth.
institutions, yet rarely ask why our educational There is a very strong relationship between high
institutions are structured the way they are, with levels of income inequality and low levels of social
teachers lecturing and students taking notes and exams. mobility. Children of highly paid people are more likely
Who are interests and are truly served by this system to be highly paid and children of low paid people more
of instruction? likely to be low earners. Education is often seen as a
Mill says "the sociological imagination enables us strong driver of social mobility. Social mobility may be
to grasp history and biography and relations between reduced in more unequal countries because educational
the two within society. ... Social study that does not scores are on average lower in less equal countries and
come back to the problems of biography, history and of education improves incomes more for those at the bottom
their intersections within a society has not completed its of the income spectrum than for those further up. It has
intellectual journey." been argued that high.rates of education are essential for
Essentially, Mills is making the point that sociology countries to be able to achieve high levels of economic
connects an individual's circumstances (biography) with growth. Education is important for every individual in
the larger institutional context (history). Possessing the a nation. It plays a vital role to change the status of a
capacity to exercise our sociological imagination and country. No country could bring a revolution in it unless
to understand how our life is conditioned by social its people are educated enough to meet the challenges.
institutions is empowering. This understanding allows Education makes a man reaTize his own self and his
us to take more control of our own life, rather than goals and also how to achieve those goals. Education
simply accepting the circumstances that were handed in every sense is one of the fundamental factors of
to us. development. No country can achieve sustainable
economic development without substantial investment
a. "Education is a major source of social mobility in human capital. It enriches people's understanding of
in contemporary societ5r". Explain. (CSE, 2016) themselves and world. It improves the quality of their
Ans: "No man should bring children into the lives and leads to broad social benefits to individuals
world who is unwilling to persevere to the end in their and society. Education raises people's productivity
nurture and education. If a man neglects education, and creativity and promotes entrepreneurship and
he walks lame to the end of his life.The direction in technological advances. Thus, education plays a very
which education starts a man will determine his future crucial role in securing economic and social progress
in Iife." - Plato and improvihg income distribution. In both developed
and developing countries,.education is seen as a'ticket'
A society is constituted by the people who are
out of poverty because it enables children from low
dynamic (over-changing)in nature. From the primitive
income farnilies move upwards not only when it comes
uncivilized form it has evolved in to modern civilized
to income but social status too.
and cultured society. This proves beyond doubt the
dynamic (ever changing) nature of the society in which
social mobility has played a dominant role since time a. "Education helps in perpetuating social ind
immoral. The social position, status and economic economic inequalities." Critically examine
conditions of people change from time to time. In many the statement. (CSE 2015)
cases social status and economic standard of person Ans. Education plays an important role in
changes due to hard work or lighter education or purely maintaining the stratification system and justifying the
due to superior intellect. Better education and better unequal distribution of wealth. It is believed that society
service also help in change of the socially disadvantaged is based on an unequal distribution of advantages and
groups like women and the people belonging to is characterized by a conJlict of interests between the
scheduled castes, Scheduled tribes or backward classes. advantaged and the disadvantaged children from lower
Lack of better education and will to do hard work have class and castes (SCs, STs and OBCs) who are much
made rich people poor, thereby lowering the standard of less likely to attend the private schools that give better
living. Such type of changes which are observed in the chances for a good career.
social status, class, economic condition and standard of Yet education has also consistently been seen as a
life of a person are spoken of as Social Mobility. Social means of equalization. In democratic societies, education
mobility is the movement of individuals or groups of is meant to be a path to opportunity, arrd public
people in social position. It may refer to classes, ethnic eCucation is meant to ensure society continues to strive
 170 ltr,,l SOClOLOGy Q &A
for equality. Sociologists are not much concerned with Ananda Coomaraswamy held that tradition was
inborn inequalities based on sex, age, bodily strength or the epoch anchored in values of collective life and
quality of mind, but are concerned with inequalities in qualithtive achievement and this was true for East,
conditions of existence. This inequality can be filled in to West and the whole world. This epoch was disturbed
some extent through the efforts of a society by providing by the Industrial Revolution whose in{luence became
equality of opportunity to all. worldwide and made human beings materialistic.
Though education does not guarantee high status Tradition in this sense meant the moral values which
and positions to all people, yet it plays an important role were the basis of all humankind.
in equalizing opportunities in three ways: R Mukherjee and G.S. Ghurye looked at modernity
1. By making it possible for all those who have the as an instrument of adapting traditions to contemporary
desire to be educated and the ability to benefit by conditions. They viewed tradition and modernity as
that facility. confronting each other and shaping each other.
2. By developing a content of education which will D. P Mukherjee analyzed Indian society from
promote the development of a scientific and the Marxian perspective of dialectical materialism.
objective outlook. He argued that there is dialectical relation between
India's tradition and modernity, British colonialism
3. By creating a social environment of mutual tolerance
and nationalism and individualism and collectivity,
based on religion, language, caste, class, etc., for
i.e., sangha. His concept of dialectics was anchored in
providing equal opportunities of social mobility
liberal humanism. He argued all through his works that
to all individuals in society, and for securing good
traditions are central to the understanding of Indian
education.
society. The encounter between tradition and modernity
Although education is not the only channel
ends up in two consequences - conJlict and synthesis.
to social mobility and class, cultural and family
Modernity and social change is a continuous process
background, and parental and other suppor, etc., are also
that is in progress all over the world. Many countries
important variants but lack of education is bound to
have transformed their culture into the contemporary
prove a great handicap in mobility. Education provides
which has been mostly impacted by the trade and
an opportunity for individuals to develop their abilities
commerce activities which brought about radical
and aptitudeB.
change in the.societies both from previous versions of
themselves and from other societies.
a. Examine the dialectical relation between
It is incorrect to view traditional societies as static,
tradition and modernity in the study of social normatively consistent, or structurally homogeneous.
change. (CSE, 2015) The relations between the traditional and the modern
Ans. "Tradition" and "modernity" are widely used do not riecessarily involve displacement, conflict, or
as polar opposites in a linear theory of social change. exclusiveness. Modernity does not necessarily weaken
Tradition refers to the customs, beliefs and cultural tradition. Both tradition and modemity form the bases of
practices that are passed down from one generation to ideologies and movements in which the polar opposites
the next generation. are converted into aspirations, but traditional forms may
It has its origin in the past. Modernity refers to the supply support for, as well as against, change. The past
contemporary behavior or way of doing things. It is tradition can provide a bridge for the masses between
fresh, nerv and modern. the present and the future.

trt trt

;r
 CHAPTER

a. Highlight the differences and similarities o Animism and totemism can also have different
between totemism and animism. (CSE 2023) rituals. Totemism frequently incorporates totemic
rites like dances and ceremonies. On the other hand,
Ans: Animism means the belief in anima or spirits.
It holds that the world is driven by spirits. Animism depending on the individual beliefs of the animist,
refers to a given form of religion in which man finds the
animism may encompass a greater variety of rituals.
presence of spirit in objects or notions that surrounds There are a lot of contrasts between totemism
him. and animism despite their shared beiief in spirits and
Animism is considered one of the most primitive supernatural forces as well as their reverence for the
ideas that gave birth to religion in society and as a natural world. Whereas animism is more general and
does not always incorporate a communal component,
religious concept; it is associated with primitive people.
Even today, nlany tribals, cults and sects across the totemism is more focused and community-oriented.
world believe ih this idea as religious practice. Spirits
are seen as benign as well as malevolent. Q. What functions does religion perform in a
Totemism is system of belief in which humans are pluralistic society? (CSE 2023)
said to have kinship or a mystical relationship with a Ans: Religion is about the sacred realm. Durkheim
spirit-being, such as an animal or plant. The entity, or defines it as 'a unified system of beliefs and practices
totem, is thought to interact with a given kin group or related to sicred things, ihut ir to say - things set apart
an individual and to serve as their emblem or symbol. and forbiddery beliefs and practices which unite them
Similarities between Totemism and Animism into a single moral community, for all those who adhere
o The belief in ghosts and otherworldly forces is the to them'. In Pluralist society citizens can legally and
foundation of both animism and totemism. publically hold multiple competing views. It contains a
o They both believe that non-human entities possess diverse group of religion, culture and tradition.
a spiritual nature. Function of Religion in Pluralistic Society
o Ancestors are worshipped in both totemism o Different religious groups live and interact with
and animism. The totem is frequently seen in
one another in a pluralistic society, which promotes
totemism as an ancestor or as carrier of the spirit
tolerance, respect, and understanding between
of an ancestor. In animism, ancestors are frequently
them. Religion as a social institution promotes social
thought to live on after death in a spiritual form.
cohesion and unity.
o A profound reverence for the natural world is a o Every religion has the concepts of sins, virtues,
component of both totemism and animism. The
heaven, good and bad. They guide the behaviour of
totem in totemism is frequently a natural object,
those who follow the religion. Religious institutions
like ran animal or plant. According to animism,
like temples and churches also conkol the behaviour
everything that exists in nature has a spiritual
of individuals in different ways.
component.
o Religion is an ensemble of beliefs and practices
Differences between Totemism and Animism which often act as moral guidelines. Most of the
o Animism is a more expansive notion than totemism. religions in the world have common tenets of peace,
Animism is the concept that all things, places, and fraternity, love, etc.
creatures have a spiritual nature; totemism is the o For those who practise it, religion provides a sense of
worship of a particular totem. identity and community. People may identify with a
 172 socrolocYe&A
certain religious group in a pluralistic culture, which o Secularisation: The process through which religion
gives them a sense of community and belonging. diminishes in importance and loses its sway over
o Religion can be a platform for conflict resolution society is known as secularization. According to
since religious leaders can arbitrate disagreements Bryan Wilson, nonreligious values (NRMs) are
between various communities. characteristics of seculaizing societies and can be
Flowever, Karl Marx saw religion as an instrument seen as a reaction to the loss of social primacy of
of the ruling class, intended to keep the working class religious values.
under control and preserve social order' According to orientation of New Religious Movements
this perspective' religion can uphold inequalities and
New relisious movements like cults and sects can be
further the goals of the powerful. o
^,^^*; into three broad categories - world affirming'
Religion serves a variety of purposes in a pluralistic :^'.1t-::o"o
society," including fostering "- accommodating and world rejecting.
;::;:j,:^r^:I;":^,-'r.'-""------ wortd
social ..n:t:I:::t:;
upholding social order, giving people a sense of
. wo.ra_affirming
'::-^:;::..:^: Movements: The.se movements
t: support people ,- :::::^::::;
^:::;^ in succeeding in the
identity, settling disputes, and igniting r."i"i"i.f1r.g". :f*l,"ti
world as it is and accept it as it is' They frequently
But religion has a complicated and multtdiiei;tj;i
ernphasize affluence' personal fulfillment' and sel{-
function in society, and it can also be *"r;" ;;;;"Jil;
^ ,, O ..".rrf i. improvement' An affirmaiive approach to spiritual
and division. In a pluralistic culture,
encourase interfaith communicatio,.' u,'d,ra"r;;;;. ;:,11;'#,:il:;,T:;H',":ltffit""ri#',jT#:n*"
o world-rejecting Movements: Based on their
Q. whatarenewreligiousmovements?Elaborate
emphasising their rorms
""d
*i";i;;;;.
2023)
(CSE
:;l',?jl,T;X"::""ti',ff';::;:ffiTiT:JTilxl'J
overhaul of society. For instance, the Naxalite
Ans: Groups or organisations that embrace a novel movement in India has a strong the_ological
or inventive set of religious practices and ideas are component that rejects the world, despite its
known as new religious movements (NRMs). NRMs primary political goals.
\ can be found independent of any pre-existing religious o World-accommodating Movements: These
tradition (e.9., Scientology) or inside an established i movements don't aim to reject or drastically alter the
religion (e.g., fhe Jesus Movement within Christianity). secular society; instead, they concentrate on personal
Novel beliefs that run counter to the conventional reform and inner spirituality. Numerous guru-led
wisdom of established religrons are a comrnon characteristic movements in India, like the Osho movemen! are
activities, considered to be inclusive of all people.
of NRNtIs. Their utilisation of novel or distinctive
such fresh approaches to membership recruitment or In the last few decades, a wide range of new
worship, may also serve as a defining characteristic. religious movements have arisen. \Atrhile some of these
groups prioritize social justice or the environment' others
Forms of New Religious Movements
o Cults: Cult is a smail sroup of religious,i.*11:: #::r1'r::"fi,'"lHr*.;X'#t##:l:'**:l:
whose beliefs are different froni th:,.d:-T1lil] i,
aitr'"r"r,t from the others, they are alr driven by the
religion and are usually individualistic focusins,
same goal: to bring about significant change in the world'
on individual experience. It never .h;li";;";a-h:
mainstream religion directly. They are often based
upon charismatic leadership. It nur ,ro-.or-,.;il; a' Criticallyexaminetherelevanceof Durkheim's
membership and it is looseiy organized withiittle views on religion in contemporary society.
rules and regulations and members may even retain (CSE, 20221
affiliations to other religions as well. Ans: According to Durkheim, religion is a unified
o Sects: The sect is often intolerant toward other system of beliefs and practices related to sacred things,
religious groups. It is marked by a desire to that is to say-things set apart and forbidderu beliefs
disassociate from the existing social order. Sects and practices which unite them into a single moral
are seen as an attempt to rationalize the dominant community, for all those who adhere to them'.
religion. Sects also, generally, promote brotherhood, According to Durkheim, beliefs are a 'system of
equality and common goals for its members. Sects ideas' which explain the sacred, they constitute myths,
tend to arise during a period of rapid social change. spiritual ideas, ethical code, etc. Practices are rites or rituals
;i o . Desacrilization: It is argued that sacred has no explaining an individual's behavior towards the sacred.
place in modern society as supernaTl,l' t"':::
There are two types of such rites-pobitive and negative:
are no longer deemed to control the world. Brvan
Wilson states that men act less and less in."rro.,r" (i) Positive rites bring individuals and the sacred
to religious motivation - they access tn" *r'rra i" together and are easier to perform, for example-
empirftal and rational terms. worship'
 RELtctoN AND SOCIETY .iil! 173
(ii) Negative rites help in maintaining the distance would become more and more marginal in the modem
between the two and keep them separated, for world. According to them, a process of secularization is
example-fasting, sacrifice etc. These are difficult to bound to occur as science becomes more important in the
perform. lives of people to control and explain the social world.
Durkheim's views on Religion Secularization
. Emile Durkheim argued that religion provides social . In general, secularization is a process which
cohesion and social control to maintain society in has occurred throughout history. It can now be
social solidarity. Collective consciousness, which is summed as a process of lower involvement of men
the fusion of all of our individual consciousness, with religious institutions, decrease in in{luence of
creates a reality of its own. religious institutions on other material aspects of
. For Durkheim, religion is endemic to social life, life and decline in the degree to which people hold
because it is a necessary feature of all moral religious beliefs.
communities. Importantly for Durkheim, anything Trends of Secularisation
can be sacred (or rather, a society can determine . Some sociologists even see the seeds of secularization
that anything is sacred): there is nothing in any in the very development of monotheistic religiorrs
object or action that makes it inherently sacred: as 'rationalization of belief in supernatural and
anything can be sacred: not only churches, random magico-religious beliefs'. The term in its
mosques, and religious books, but in some cultures, modern connotations is also associated with the
trees, or even rocks may be regarded as sacred. process of modernization and globalisation.
. For example, Football fans having collective . The rational and systematic, empirical knowledge
conscience towards'national teams is similar to questioned the supernatural conceptions of the
having totems in primitive societies. It brings world and gave an awareness to man's capacity
them together. Also, in modern societies which are to harness nature. There are other interpretations
highly individualized and differentiated, religion as well. Some also deem it equal to increasing
performs the function of bringing people together. tolerance and plurality in society. Marxists view it
as a process of decline of religion itself.
Criticism
. Karl Marx yiewed religion from a conflict point of . The development of secularism as an ideology was
view and terrned it as opium of masses which numbs partly an outcome of the process o{ secularization
their suJferings resulting from class exploitation.
in Europe which spread across the globe through
. According'to Marx,'Man makes religiory religion the globalisation process. Secularism was an
ideological goal of the new political philosophy
doesn't make man'. Men are made into believing and movement after the French Revolution.
that power lies in the supernatural and not with Seculaiism as a progressive ideology was a
men themselves. necessary qualification for a liberal, democratic
. Religion appears as the external force controlling state of the post French Revolution. In 1851 George
man's destiny, but in reality it is man-made. Jacob Holyoake coined the term secularism.
Religion is also a reflection of relationships . Sociologists like Grace Davie argue that, rather
involved in the process of production. than religion declining it is instead changing.
. Scholars argue that it is not religiorL but secularism Davie argued that today people believe without
which is binding societies together in modern belonging. The idea is that belief has become more
industrialized societies and his ideas are applicable privatised. There is evidence to suggest that people
only to simple societies. AIso, the dichotomy of maintain religious belief but choose to keep their
profane and sacred is not absolute and there can beliefs private, rather than join and participate in
be things which are mundane also as per W.E.H. a traditional religious organisation.
Stanner. . Similarly, Thomas Luckmann in his'The Invisible
Despite criticism, Durkheim's theory of religion Religion, 1967', aTso argues that religion is still very
is significant because it demonstrates that any subject much alive though receded from the public sphere
can be approached from a sociological perspective. He and he calls it'invisible religion'.
demystified the subject of religion and encouraged its . Berger, after having.initiaily predicted complete
empirical study. secularisation, has argued that there has been a
significant desecularization of the world and that
Q. Write a note on global trends of western academics did not predict this because
secularization. (C5F,,20221 they were blinded by their own atheism.
Ans: Social thinkers like Durkheim, Marx, Weber, Therefore, religion is not declining, but is channeled
Spencer, etc. were of the view that traditional religion in other directions. Rise of New Religious Movements
174 )tt)':): SOCIOLOGY e & A

also pose a challenge to secularization thesis. Rising 'Universalisation' and'Parochialisation'

tensions in the Middle East and West Asia and capture . Some elements of little tradition are sent upward
of Afghanistan by fundamentalist Talibans also point -which he terms as 'universalisation' and some
out to the fact that religion is given no less importance. elements of great tradition are passed downwards
which he terms as'parochialisation'.
a. How do little tradition and great tradition . These two processes help in maintaining the unity
coexist in contemporary Indian society? of society according to McKimm Marriot. Thus,
(csE,2022) his conception of social change is wider than
Ans: Little tradition and great tradition is a Srinivas' concept of Sanskritization as it deals with
conceptual framework that was first used by Robert reverse process as well which may be termed as
Redfield in his study of Mexican communities to deSanskritisation.
conceptualize social change in Indian context; it was
Criticism
used by Milton Singer and McKimm Marriott in his
Village India: Studies in the Little Community, 1955.
. Sorne of the social scientists feel that Indian society
or culture could not be described fully with the help
Liftle Tradition and Great Tradition and their Co-Existence of little tradition and Great tradition. For, Indian
. Little Tradition and Great Tradition explain change tradition is too complex to analyze by taking few
through the concept of tradition and its social variables.
organization as in case of societies with a profound . According to Yogendra Singh, the concept explains
historical past, change can be analyzed at two social only cultural change and not structural change.
organization levels - little and great tradition. Yogendra Singh also criticizes the approach of using
the words like'little' for the folk traditions and hence
Social strucfure of such civilizations operates at two levels:
attaching a biased notion of inferiority
(0 first that of folks or unlettered peasants which is .
called'little tradition'; According to S C Dube, the dichotomy between
(ii) secondly of elite or 'reflexive few' called 'great a binary'little' and 'great' simply doesn't reflect
tradition'. all aspects of Indian tradition. He gave a concept
. While the Little Tradition is often localized, the o{'multiple traditions' instead and according to
Great Tradition has a tendency to spread out. him, there is a hierarchy of tradition that exists
There is however a constant interaction between and according to him there are six such traditions
the two. Studies of festivals in India will show how - classical tradition, emergent national tradition,
Sanskritic rites (Great Tradition) are often added regional tradition, local tradition, western tradition
and subcultural traditions.
to non-sanskritic rites (Little Tradition) without
replacing them. Thus, tittle tradition and Greattradition interactwith
. It is based on an evolutionary perspective that each other and also these two are interdependent in India.
civilizations or structures of tradition grow in The concepts of universalization and parochialisation
two stages-'orthogenetic' or indigenous evolution also describe the process of cultural change implied by
which is due to internal creative urges and Sanskritisation, especially universalisation comes very
'heterogenetic' evolution or contact with other close to the concept.
civilizations.
. Generally, 'change' starts through an orthogenetic a. Critically analyse Durkheim's views on
process and the 'transformation' occurs due to elementary forms of religious life and role
heterogenetic processes. of religion. Also discuss the consequences of
. Flowever, Milton Singer asserts that due to its religious revivalism in contemporary society.
deep indigenous culture, there is a continuity (csE 2020)
between little and great tradition and there are Ans: Durkheim's concept of religion is based on his
many shared cultural values. Further, little and systematic view of society. According to him, society
great traditions in India not only interact, but are consists of two parts - the sacred and the profane and
also interdependent and modernizing forces are not this process of dividing the world into the sacred and
only accepted, but they get absorbed in tradition. the profane starts with the totems.
. Continuity between the two is seen through According to Durkheim, there is nothing particular
kinship, caste, values, festivals, and so on. Similarly, about totems which make them sacred, so totems or
McKimm Marriott in his study of Kishangarhi sacred things must represent something. So, totem is
village in North India finds that the structure of a symbol of collectivity or the symbol of society itself
village culture and its organization has elements as it represents those social forces which are felt by
of both little and great tuadition. individuals at the social gatherings.
 REL|GION AND SOCIETY :..:1i 175
Social obligations are represented in sacred terms Durkheim evolved a functional explanation of
and hence transformed into religious duties. For the existence of religion in the world and observes
example - marriage becomes a sacrament, to work its existence as a social fact and not a supernatural
becomes a symbol of pleasing the gods, and death in phenomenon. He dwells upon idea of religion in his
battle becomes a gateway to heaven. 'Elementary Forms of Religious Life, 1912' and he
All the people following a particular religion follow defines religion as 'A unified system of beliefs and
speci{ic beliefs and practices. These are also in the nature practices related to sacred things, that is to say
- things
of moral codes which each member follows. This binds set apart and forbidden, beliefs and practices which
them into a single community and integrates them unite them into a single moral community, for all those
together and they feel comfortable living together. who adhere to them'.
Durkheim's theory of religion was criticized as the Durkheim also gave a causal explanation of religion
dichotomy of profane and sacred is not absolute and
by using method of indirect experimentation'. He
there can be things which are mundane also as per Weh
conducted an experiment on simplest form of religion i.e.
Stanner.
'totemism' in which totems are worshipped. Durkheim
According to Edmund Leach, profanity and
argued that the totem is nothing but the representation
sacred are two extremes, all social actions fall in between.
Durkheim also didn t explain why a particular totem is of the clan itself. He drew this analysis from the study
chosen. Even a tribe may have more than one religion. of religious practices among'Arunta' - the Australian
Scholars argue that it is not religion, but secularism aboriginals.
which is binding societies together in modern Primitive men were wanderers and they kept
industrialized societies and his ideas are applicable only on moving from one place to another. Occasionally
to simple societies. His theory fails to explain the cause when they came together for some purpose (for clan
of solidarity in multicultural polytheistic societies like festivals etc.) and interacted on such occasions, they felt
India. Durkheim ignored the conflict caused by it and different. This feeling disappeared, once they separated.
focused only on its functional aspect. Individuals who experience the heightened energy
Revivalism means revival of religion - in any form of social force in a gathering of the clan seek some
be it institutional attendance as in church, growth of explanation for this state.
religious institutions and phenomenon like sects, cults, According to primitive logic, they explained this
denominations, rise in individuals pursuing spiritual feeling in terms of presence of some supernatural force.
peace through personal notions of religion and finally, But, according to Durkheim, the gathering itself was
growth of fundamental ideas or fundamentalism. the real cause and it was a showcase of social forces.
rf Over the last few decades many Western nations
i)
Durkheim calls this feeling as 'state of exultation' or
have becorne less religious, but countries in Latin 'collective effervescence' i.e. the heightened feeling of
America, Eastern Europe, and the Middle East-even the
,,n'[ energy geneiated in collective gatherings.
United States itself, in fervor if not in numbers-have
seen the rise of a religious revivalism that is dramatically
It takes individuals away from the concerns of
profane social life to an elevated sphere which they feel
reshaping politics. Today's religious revival is not a
as a contact with higher forces. These higher forces are
resurrection of the traditionalist opposition to secular
nationalism but a new form of hyper-nationalism deemed as divine and attributed to certain'totems' by
underwritten by religious eschatology. the primitive tribes. Once they are separated, they feel
Thus, it can be said despite advancements in lonely and sad. They feel the need to re-experience ihat
science, there is also religious revivalism. It may be due feeling. Primitive people create a 'totem' to represent
to social, political or economic factors. and regain that feeling.
Social obligations were represented in sacred

\
a. State the reasons for the various religious terms and hence transformed into religious duties.
beliefs and practices in pre-modern societies. For example - marriage becomes a sacrament, to work
(csE 2020) become a symbol of pleasing of gods, and death in battle
\ !!l becomes a gateway to heaven.
-l\ Ans: Religious beliefs are specific ideas members of
't l!
a particular faith hold to be true, such as that Jesus Christ Malinowski gave a theory based on emotional
was the son of God, or that reincarnation exists. Another stress, Sigmund Freud considers religion as a result of
illustration of religious beliefs is the creation of stories guilt, Frazer also gave a theory of 'naturism', Lowie
we find in different religions. According to Durkheim, considered it as a matter of febling and foremost of them,
beliefs are 'system of ideas' which explain the sacred, Max Muller gave a theory based on emotional response
they constitute of myths, spiritual ideas, ethical code of primitives to forces of nature.
etc. Practices are rites or rituals explaining individual's Therefore, in pre modern societies, people following
behavior towards the sacred. a particular religion follow specific beliefs and practices.

4
176 ffi soctoLocYe&A
These were also in nature of moral codes which Earning of husband is gradually proving to be
each member follows. This bound them into.a single insufficient for the upbringing of the whole family
community and integrates them together and thev feel especially in case of middle class. Traditional masculine
comfortable living together. jobs are now taken by women also. As hold of religion
weakens, accompanying notions like - 'streedharma',
a. Are all world religions patriarchal? 'pativrata' and so on are also weakening. Romantic love
Substantiate your answer with examples. is new basis for marriage. Further, as functional roles of
(csE, 2019)
family change, relations of members are also affected.
Therefore in present times, due to increasing
Ans: Patriarchy is defined by Sylvia Walby in her secularism, religion is no longer a patriarchal tool. Also,
'Theorizing Patriarchy, 1.990' as 'a system of social
Postmodernists say that religion has no meaning to
structures and practices in which men dominate and individuals anymore.
oppress women'. Historically men have been considered
as breadwinners and women as housekeeper and raise
children. This arrangement used to be considered as a. What are sects? Discuss their role in multi-
'natural'. religious societies with empirical examples.
Further, in Indian context, caste is also viewed by (csE,2018)
feminists as a patriarchal institution as across the castes, Ans: In Sociology, Church-Sect typology is originally
role of women is of domestic worker. formed by Weber and Troeltsch. According to them,
L
Together with religiory it defines the role of women in Church is a large well established religious institutiory
lrdian society. According,to Uma Chakravorty, Brahminical bureaucratic in its working which is culmination of the
kaditions glon{y obedient women as 'Patlrata' and hence evolution from sect. Sect, on the other hand, is smaller
put a veil on gender discrimination. Pakiarchy legitimizes in size, closed and has a different agenda than the
motherhood as primary role of women. dominant religion.
\Atrhile her status on one hand is of Devi in scriptures, One section of sociologists argues that they
she is given treatment of Dasi. Bina Das calis it as 'Devi are a result of wider process of secularization and
dichotomy'. Religious organisations are mainly male liberalization of society.
dominated evgn though women participate in religion According to Bryan Wilson in his 'Religion in
more than men. For example, Orthodox Judaism and Sociological Per'spective, 1982' , they are a result of rapid
Catiiolicism forbid women from becoming pliests. Karen social change. As traditional norms are disrupted, people
Armstrong says that the exclusion of women from the search for explanations and reassurance, Others argue
priesthood is evidence of marginalisation. that such new religious movements appeal to those
Women's participation may be restricted people who feel alienated and marginalized from the
women are not allowed to preach or read from sacred ".g. mainstream society.
texts. In Islam, women menstruating are not ailowed Sects are the more organized form of religion
to touch the Qur'an. Men and women are segregated than cults and in this type of social organization,
in places of worship. Holm (1994) describes ihese institutionalization of social roles starts. Urge for change
restrictions as the devaluation of women in religion. and reinterpretation are at the heart of the sects and they
Sacred texts largely feature the doings of male are defined as new religious movements which.break
gods. Prophets are usually written and interpreted by away from orthodoxy of dominant religion.
men. Women.tend to have fewer rights than men i.e. The sect is often intolerant toward other religious
divorce, dress codes, etc. Religion also has an influence groups. It is marked by a desire to disassociate from
on cultural norms that lead to unequal treatment. Many the existing social order. Sects are seen as an attempt to
religions legitimate and regulate women's traditional rationalize the dominant religion. Sects also, generally,
domestic and reproductive role i.e. the Catholic Church promote brotherhood, equality and common goals for
bans abortion and artificial contraception. its members. Sects tend to arise during a period of rapid
Simone de Beauvoir (1953) said that religion is social change. r\
oppressive to women - used by men to control women. According to Weber, Sects are most likely to
Religion compensates women for their second class originate within those groups which are marginalized
status. They get a false belief that they will be rewarded in society and he terms this phenomenon as'theodicy
in hbaven and gain equality there. (religious justification) of disprivileged' as they provide
However, patriarchal system with its unlimited an alternative explanation or path of redemption.
restrictions on women and its comparative freedom for For example, Sects like Dera Sacha Sauda of North
men is gradually breaking down under the impact of India promises a casteless society to its members who
new civilization and culture. are generally from rural areas or from depressed castes.
 RELIGION AND SOCIETY ....... 177
Similarly, Black Muslims sect in USA in 1960s promised However, Durkheim's theory of religion was
emancipation to Negros. criticized for generalization of a primitive religion to
Modern sects, however, have a varied membership modern sophisticated religions, terming it as farfetched.
and marginalized doesn't necessarily mean only Scholars argue that it is not religion, but secularism which
in economic terms, but it can be in form of relative is binding societies together in modern industrialized
deprivation as well. ISKCON is another sect which societies and his ideas are applicable only to simple
has a wide appeal not limited to economically weaker societies.
sections alone.
a. How can Parsons' AGIL framework be used
a. In what way did Durkheim perceive religion to analyze key problems in a society? Discuss.
as functional to society? (CSE, 2018) (csE,2018)
Ans: Durkheim's theory of religion is borne out of Ans: The structural-functional sociological theoribs
his concems for social order and integration. He evolved of Talcott Parsons almost entirely dominated the field
a functional explanation of existence of religion in the during his own lifetime. Parsons viewed society as
world and observes its existence as a social fact and not a system of interacting social units, institutions and
as a supernatural phenomenon. It was also partly in organizations. He was interested in the force of social
reaction to the existing explanafions of religion which norms, and how we come to feel that force and act
Durkheim deemed as'non-sociological' explanation accordingly.
especially that of Taylor's animistic theory based on One of the ways he conceptualized these social
supernatural and of Max Muller based on nature-myth. systems was as problem-solving devices. In his mind,
He defines religion as 'A unified system of beliefs social systems arose to solve four particular problems,
and practices related to sacred things, that is to say - listed in AGIL order below, for modern developed
things set apart and forbidden, beliefs and practices nation-state systems:
which unite them into a single moral community, for o Adaptation: Social systems must cope with their
all those who adhere to them'. external boundary conditions, such as their resource
Social obligations are represented in sacred terms base, physical environment, territory and so on.
and hence transformed into religious duties. Economic activity serves to solve problems of
For example - marriage becomes a sacrament, adaptation.
honest work has become a symbol of pleasing the gods,
and death in battle becomes a gateway to heaven.
o Goal Attainment: The goals of societies and social
institutions have to be defined, resolving goal
One m'ay ask, why man worships totems or
conflicts, prioritizing some over others, determining
sacred things and why not society itself? According to
resourcE allocations and directing social energies.
Durkheim, it is easier for man to visualize and direct
Political activity organizes and directs the goal
his feelings of awe towards a symbol like totem, idol
attainment of modern social systems.
etc rather than towards a complex thing like a society.
Like his other functional theories, he sees religion o Integration: All the adaptive efforts of social
also in functional terms. He sees religion also as a institutions within a society needs to be integrated
social fact. He rejected the earlier philosophical and into a cohesive system. The institutions need to be
psychological explanations and averred that it is a regulated so that a harmonious society.ur"r
from their interaction. Legal systems solve "*Lrg"
this
product of self-creation and autonomous development
of society like other social facts. problem, seeking overarching principles for aligning
All the people following a particular religion follow social activities.
specific beliefs and practices. These are also in nature o Latency: The encultured patterns of behaviour
of moral codes which each member follows. These required by the social system must be maintained"
bind them into a single community and integrate them Peoples' motivation must be established and
together and make them feel comfortable living together. renewed, and tensions they experience as they
He further explains the functions though his idea negotiate the social order must be managed.
of similarity. Religion becomes basis for similarity, thus Furthermore, the cultural patterns that accomplish
bringing people together. In modern societies which this renewal must themselves be maintained and
are highly individualized and differentiated, religion renewed. Fiduciary systems such as families,
performs the function of bringing people together. His schools and churches solve these problems of
theory of religion is signi{icant because it demonstrates pattern/tension management.
that any subject can be approached from a sociological Thus, these four functional imperatives (Adaptatiory
perspective. Goal Attainment, Integration, Latency: A.G.I.L.)
178 riili SOCIOLOGY Q & A

provided what Parsons felt was a more complex o Increased institutional acceptance of religion
and systemic account of social phenomena which - This is observed in increasing attendance at
previous theorists had tried to explain in terms of religious places, conskuction of new religious places
unitary causes. (number of Gurudwaras have gone many folds in
past 50 years), increase in activities of sects and cults
a. Discuss the challenges thrown by religious (like ISKCON)
revivalism to a secular nation-state. Complexities of life, stresses, anomie, and alienation
(csE,2018) are leading people to explore peace in spirituality.
.Ans: Revivalism means revival of religion - in Further, religion has also rationalized itself and many
religions now don't prescribe strict scriptural messages,
any form be it institutional attendance as in Church,
growth of religious institutions and phenomenon but moral guidance. Rising incidence of communal
clashes in West Asia is also an indicator of rising
like sects, cults, denominations, rise in individuals
religious fervor.
pursuing spiritual peace through personal motions of
religion and finally, growth of fundamental ideas or Religion has survived because of both individual
fundamentalism. and social functions that it performs and in words of
Turner the secret of the survival of religion is 'Religion
Further, sometimes, fundamentalism and religious
is not a cognitive system or a set of dogmas alone, but
revivalism are considered one.and same.
it is meant to be a meaningful experience'.
Classical evolutionary theorists like French Spencer
has through evolutionary perspectives like - theological
stage, metaphysical stage, and scientific stage, etc. has a. Problematise the concept of secularism in the
predicted that science will replace religion. present context. (C58,20171
During renaissance period, religion saw a decline in Ans: Secularism as a philosophy means that
its presence both in terms of attendance to institutions religious ideas and beliefs would be replaced by rational
as well as a matter of belief as rationality and scientific humanistic ideas based on scientific knowledge.
temperament sought to sideline it. General Conception in Sociology has beery with the
Emergence of liberal democracy first weakened progress in modemisatiorg there would be secularisation
church influe4ce and gradually confined it to private of social life. But in reality this-has not been found to
sPace. be the case.
In spite of super-growth of science and technology
Challenges thrown by Religious Revivalism
in advanced industrial societies, religion has not only :
l
Howqver, towards the end of first half of the 20th survived but also revived, its importance is increasing
century in1940s, a tendency across the globe has been today, a trgnd of religious revivalism is grooming across
observed where its role has been re-emphasized. It is all societies of the world. i
observed at following levels:
Some of the problems in front of the concept of
o Increasing use of religion as a medium - political secularism are as follows:
parties are using religious support; increasing o Religious Revivalism: Anthony Giddens pointed
fundamentalism with Iranian revolution in East;
out that growth of high modernity is creating
rise of new right Protestant groups in US, etc; conditions for religious revivalism. The reasons
establishment of demi-theocratic governments and
given by him are the growing uncertainties in
so on.
social life, community integration has been broken
o Growth of invisible or private religion - Even down, increased consumerism and religion has
where religion seems to lose its hold in the sense become a basis for determining self-identity,
of decreasing attendance in church ceremonies, conditions of anomie, religion used as a basis of
a 'private religion' is seemingly emerging. In political mobilization, traditional identities are
other words, a personal interpretation of religious breaking down in the 3rd World countries due to
doctrines is tolerated. Luckmann says that religion modernisation.
today is invisible as individuals carry i! out in their o Religious Fundamentalism: Religious
private space and not in institutions.
Fundamentalism is ene form of religious revivalism
o Growth of civil religion - Robert Bellah in his and posing another challenge to secularisation
/New Religious Consciousness and the Crisis in
in any society. Religious Fundamentalism is a
Modernity, 1976' argued that'Civic Religion' is proclamation of the authority oI sacred traditions
emerging as a new form of religion where civic that is to be re-instated as an antidote for the
symbols and nationalism are accorded same respect problems of the society that has sprayed away from
and faith as of religion. its moorings.
 RELIGION AND SoclETy i.,i,. 179
. Communalism: Communalism states that the a. Is religion playing an important role in
common secular interests of one religion are increasing fundamentalism? Give reasons for
dissimilar and divergent from the interests of the your answer. (CSE,2016)
follower of another religion and these interests Ans: Since the awakening of religion, wars
of the followers of the different religion or of have been fought in the name of different gods and
different 'communities' are seen to be completely goddesses. Still today most violent conflicts contain
incompatible, antagonist and hostile. religious elements linked up with ethno-national, inter-
The State, remaining free from religious obligations, state, economic, territorial, cultural and other issues.
can take a tolerant attitude towards every religion and Threatening the meaning of life, conflicts based on
can pursue the ideal of achieving the well-being of the religion tend to become dogged, tenacious and brutal
people, irrespective of caste, creed, religiory etc. types of wars. When conflicts are couched in religious
terms, they become transformed in value conflicts:
a. Elaborate on various types of religious Unlike other issues, such as resource conflicts which can
practices prevalent in Indian society. be resolved by pragmatic and distributive means, value
(csE,20171 conflicts have a tendency to become mutually conclusive
or zero-sum issues. They entail ptrong judgments of
Ans: Religion is a central social institution that
what is right and wrong, and parties believe that there
is found in all forms of society since the beginning of
cannot be a common ground to resolve their differences.
recorded human history although its form of content
has been changing from time to time and from region
In a world where many governments and
international organizations are suffering from a
to region. The term Religion is understood as a set of
legitimacy deficit, one can expect a growing impact of
institutionalised beliefs and practices that deals with the
religious discourses on international politics. Religion is
ultimate meaning of life.
a major source of soft power" It will, to a greater extent,
o Hinduism: Hindu practices include rituals such as be used or misused by religions and goverirmentai
puja (worship) and recitations, meditation, family- organizations to pursue their interests. It is therefore
oriented rites of passage, annual festivals, and important to develop a more profound understanding of
occasional pilgrimages. Some Hindus leave their the basic assumption underlying the different religions
social world iand material possessions, then engage and the ways in which people adhering to them see
in lifelong Sanyasa (monastic practices) to achieve their interests. It would also be very useful to identify
Moksha. elements of communality between the major religions.
r Islam: The religious practices and rituals of Fundamentalism is an effort by religious interpreters
Islam are relatively few in numbet, but great in who like to go back to that they believe to be pure
importance. The Five Pillars of Islam are Shahada and original values and behaviour. The forces of
(con{ession of faith), Zakat (alms tax), Sawn(Fasting social change are important for the emergence of
During Ramadan), Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca), Salat fundamentalism. Whenever there are drastic changes
(5 times prayer in a day) in society and a pace of change which disturbs
o Christianity: The two most widely accepted community life, there is loss of identity and rootlessness
sacraments are Baptism and the Eucharist (or among people. Fundamentalism offers restitution and
Holy Communion), however, the majority bringing back the earlier better period. To acl-rieve this
fundamentalists evolve a comprehensive and absolutist
of Christians also recognize five additional
rigid belief system and practice. This belief is capable of
sacraments:'Confirmation (Chrismation in the
intense commitment among its followers.
Orthodox tradition), Holy orders (ordination),
The fundamentalism takes on a rather aggressive,
Penance (or Confession), Anointing of the Sick
militant form where killing and terrorisn-r is justified. l']ost
and Matrimony.
independent India has seen an increase in the religious
o Sikhism: The Gurus in Sikhism emphasise that intolerance with religious harmony being undermined
a Sikh should lead a disciplined life engaged in and deliberate attempts are made to encourage and
Naam Simran (meditation on God's name), Kirat intensify religious discord among different religious
Karni.(living an honest life of a house-holder), communities. One of the reasons being the electoral
sharing what one has with the community and practice which encourages the formation of vote banks.
Wearing the SKs- Kara, kanga, kesfu kachha, kirpan. The vote bank is nurtured on the basis of caste and
Religion provides a blueprint for the behaviour religious lines. Another reason is the increasing size of
of individual member of society on the basis of claimants to the national economic gains. One way of
principles sustained by divine, supernatural or increasing the share is to mobilize politically on religious
transcendent order of moralitv. and caste lines.
 180 :.:.:,::: soclolocy e & A
Thus one's religious or caste identity is emphasized Besides, the world has become what is called a
more than one's national identity. 'global village'whose every corner can be reached within
Religious organizations have a major impact on hours and from where mass media can communicate
inter-communal and international conflicts. During the almost instantly to the rest of the world. Thus, religious,
Cold War, religious as well as ethnic and nationalist ethical, or any other ideas can float almost from
conflicts were relatively neglected in the study of everywhere to everywhere.
international relations and peace research. After the India is a multi-cultural and a diverse nation
irnplosion of the communist block, the escalation of with a flourishing history of pluralism that has been
nationalist violence was a surprise. Some expect an thriving for thousinds of years. Among the many faiths
escalation of religious conflicts as well.
.Despite
an represented here are Hinduism, Islam, Chrisiianity,
increase in the attention to the religious dimensiorr of Sikhism, Buddhism, and
]ainism
conflicts' it remains an under-researched field' There As the world's largest democracy, India presents
is no useful typology of religious conflicts; no. serious a
unique opportunity to understand a long and
study of the impact of religious organizations on *uttifu""ted
heritage of religious diversity. The
conflict behavior; no comparative research of peace- ;--_;;:;i:^ -^;;::, ,:-.^,:.'::;;;;:,:".^_'j
making and peace-bulding errorts or dirrerient?rI;;, :X1ffi:l:1'#,il:lTr":',lt[i::11:,f"Tjil,?:'#;
organizations.
communities'
The u,orld cannot survive without a new olobal
developed their sacred geography
ethic, and religions pray a majo,or", ur'iurf;;;
-".ii"" ,^^^^?o^*unities
on their faith and the belief in structures specific
violent conflicts, as passive bystanders l:t|o individual cults by marking on the ground
peace-makers ancl peace-builders. Hans ""a'*
rr"gJ ,n"rt l,l ln"tt
that there cannot be worrd peace witho", ?"rigi."r ll"ti meanings for places and natural features' within
peace is right. Representing two thirds rf ^th; ;.;i; the fram|york of a.pluralistic society, the different
population, religitns have a major responsibility in communities co-existed symbiotically, lending to the
.."itir-rg a constructive conflict culture. ' diversity extant in the sub-continent, which had been
achieved over centuries'
They will have to end conflicts fueled by religiory
stop being passive bystanders and organiz" til"*r8rr"- ExaTl.l"'ll" ptp_"li: beiief of Char Dham, the four
to provide mpre effective peace services. Religions and of idea of India is equally understood by the
"o':"1: .the
irrespective of their value-system within the
religious organisations hJve an untappea arid under- f]iofty,
,r"d i.rt"grutive power potential. To assess this potentia, Hldu sects. The cultural and religious
diversity leads to
individual, social and p_olitical choices of organized and
and to understand which factors enhance or inhibit;oint
recognized pluralism. In the Process, both individual
peace veirtures between the Christian religions, but also
and.collective identities are redefined, incessantly
between the prophetic religions (Judaism, Christianity,
moving along the continuum that ranges from exclusion
Islam), the Indian religions (Hinduism and Buddhism)
to inclusion
and the Chinese wisdom religions, is an urgent research
challenge. For example, the political, cultural, religious and
theological pluralism of the contemporary world,
a. "Religiouspluralismistheorderof present-day society, and Christianity constitutes a real challenge to
societies."Explainbygivingsuitublee*r*pler. the Seventh-day Adventist Church. on the one hand,
1

Ans: ln our world today, there exists a

c s ;
r, z^or o
bewildering
:::'ff ifl ':1ff '"l^ffi iiilH;"ff il J:ll:, ffff ]
i;;ir; prrriJ"r',n" ,fp"rirr,ty
'to
(a) to *rty in
variety of world views, religions and con{essions, ethical a ,global mission,,
1bj prociaim the".,gug" gospel
beliefs and lifestyles. Historic faiths as well as new as Tpresent truth, in "t"riut
ih" .r*"rous ,market places, of
religions and religious movements strive for attention, this
world, (c) to implement the divine principle of
if not supremacy, in a multi-religious and multicultural incarnational
ministry, and (d) to constantly grow
world' Indeed' many gods are worshipped today, for in the understanding
of love and truth. Rather than
ours is a religiously pluralistic world.
rhis is io, ,o ,"y ,n,, previous ages did not atso
have a rich diversity of religions, lifestyles, and world
::T:I,iffir:il:.tf,r*rli:ff "xtJ:il#:iy;:,tr*
the cliances which lie hidden in it.
views. However, these were often either reeionallv n
conrined or engaged in bitter
conflicting views' Today i. many""",""";;tu"r";t;il
places adherents of
o,rrl::'jt:J:;,H1,:[#r1:;JlrJ;Tlfi:ffij
different religions and confessions live and work more
;;;;; incrude ethnic prurarism, varue pluralism,
or less peacefully side by side'
a.""*a pluralism, ethical pluralism, political pluralism.
Rerigious pluralism is, however, one of the most
 RELIGION AND SOCIETY :.:.,:t 181
important in contemporary society, considering a. Distinguish between sects and cults with
globalization and the role of religions in many conflicts. illustrations.
(CSE, 2015)
It has its root in political liberalism. Tension between ,
group solidarity and productive relationr;;;;;;;;
Many types of religious organizations exist

k;lj";;;i
Jrh";;il;;r;l;;;;;;"il; ,- .^^1'"'
LI!H"J',;':,T",1,:,,";$?$'J:J::|,J"::.#jTT
types of religious organizations exist: church
In Europe it has played out most enduringry in XlI;'*""
rerations u*o,,g the monotheistic rerigil,llilg"ii#; n'TIifJi"lH'#Iffi|:"J:"?#fi1,.,r,,
Christianity, and Islam. Today, in the face of mass can be
^^r,) as new movements that appear to represent
migration from Muslim regions, nr"rrro,J oi il','ffi :^":'"1"0
iaentity and berongi,,g ,"-ui,, bound * ;1,il."#ffi
affiliation' since religious convictions clearly influence
:ff:i',""T:iffitftr;,Hll,ti:1r:,*1fT:T:J';tl;
."r"*ur" sectarian secession from an older tradition. The
social, political and economic activity on a gtobal. scale,
emphasizing the shared common values of religions
d;f.;;;";;;;;;;"l"ii, ,"a sects is that cults represent
has the potential to facilitate better global relationships'
;;;;" radical break with and rejection of the teachings
ur-ri ueu"r, of established faith traditions. In contrast,
*"T:"#',:l|:,:l?:iltTl,ffifflfii':l:tr1fi:i
a. ro what extent revolution replace'-ll-:
existing order of society? Discuss.(CsE 2016) that is not closely integrated into tl-re larger society
Ans: Revolution originally meant a revolving and that often conflicts with at least some of its norms
movement and is still used in this sense when we talk and values. For example, in the beginning Islam was
about engines doing so many revolutions per minute. classically divided into three major sects. These political
It later came to be extended to describe a change in divisions are well known as Sunni, Shia and Kharijites.
the political set-up (a change of ruler or Constitution). Each sect developed several distinct jurisprudence
Thus, when in 1688 Parliament and the Bishops systems reflecting their own understanding of the
expelled the Catholic King ]ames II and replaced him Islamic law during the course of the history of Islam.
by the Protestant William of Orange, appointed by Cults are similar to sects but differ in at least three
Act of Parliameqt, they described this as the Glorious respects. First, they generally have not broken away
Revolution. Then, in the following century, there was from a larger deiromination and instead originate
the American Revolution and of course the French outside the mainstream religious tradition. Second,
Revolution. they are often secretive and do not proselytize as much.
We would be more precise today and use political Third, they are at least somewhat more likely than
revolution to describe a change in the class which sects to rely,on charismatic leadership based on the
controls the State, social revolution to mean a change in extraordinary personal qualities of the cult's leader. The
the basis of society and socialist revolution to describe major world religions, including Christianity, Islam, and
the particular change of society from capitalism to ]udaism, and denominations such as the Mormons all
Socialism following the winning of political power from began as cults. For example, Scientology was founded
the capitalist class by the working class. The criterion for in1952 by science fiction author L. Ron Hubbard, based
revolution is the end envisaged (a change in control of on Hubbard's system of Dianetics, which he called
political power, a change in the basis of iociety) not the "the modern science of mental health". It is deemed
means advocated (peaceful or violent). as church in some countries like US while some other
Bhagat Singh was asked during his trial in the countries have deemed Scientology a cult and refuse to
Lower Court what he meant by worJ"Revolution." In recognize its legitimacy. The cult of F{eaven's Gate made
answer to the question, he said: REVOLUTION does theheadlinesinMarch of 1997 when3gmembersof the
not necessarily involve sanguinary strife, nor is there cult killed themselves, in hopes of reaching a spaceship
any place in it for individuai vendetta. It is not the cult which was following in the wake the newly-discovered
of the bomb and the pistol. Hale-Bopp Comet.
By "Revolution" we mean that the present order
of things, which is based on manifest injustice, must a. How can we use reference group theory to
change. By "Revolu tion" , we mean the ultimate understand fashion in society? (CSE, 2014)
establiihment of an order of society which may not Ans: As a cultural process, fashion is responsible for
be threatened by such breakdown, and in which the locating individuals within peer group or community
sovereignty of the proletariat should be recognised and to identify and make such gioup u, ."i"r"r-r"" group as
a world federation should redeem humanity from the Robert K. Merton hypothesized to explain individual
bondage of capitalism and misery of imperial wars. behavior in social structure.
 182 ,,i.,, SOCIOLOGY Q & A

The concept of "reference group" has been used in They are heavily dependent on the forests and live
several ways, but its utility can be maximized when it in a symbiotic relationship with them. Once they are
signifies that group whose presumed perspective is used displaced the tribal people lose their natural setting of
by an actor as the frame of reference in the organizalion rivers, forests and are devoid of minor forest produce.
of his perceptual field. In other words, it is people whose
Instead they are forced into the mainstream economy
where they feel total alienation. As they don't have
attitudes, behavior, beliefs, opinions, preferences, and
any skills, the men end up in informal sector and get
values are used by an individual as the basis for his or
exploited. Women also enter informal sector and few
her judgment.
end up in prostitution. The children drop out of schools
One does not have to be a member of a reference and end up being child labor. Thus, for the development
group to be negatively or positively influenced by of country we are sacrificing the development of tribal
its characteristics. Reference groups provide the people. This is not inclusive development and will lead
benchmarks and contrast needed for comparison and to more con{licts in future. Though, we have enacted a
erzaluation of group and personal characteristics. new land acquisition act and it will improve the situation
In order to understand fashion in society Merton's but the fault lies with the overall way we treat the tribal
reference group concept can be used, as he explained people. We must integrate them in the society rather
the concepts such as non-{nembership/membership than assimilate them.
reference group, comparative reference group, multiple
reference groups as an appropriate social tools to explain a. Examine the relevance of Parsonian Social
the fashion change in.society and inter and intra Sroup System in the present society. (CSE, 20L3)
relationships among individuals and groups. Ans: According to Parsons, social system is an
Social comparison on fashion takes place; where analytical tool to study society and its various parts. A
people begin to compare the group to which they belong system is a unified whole made up of interdependent
to other groups. For instance/ a woman who categorises parts called as subsystems. These subsystems are
herself as belonging to the 'western-centric' subculture connected with each other in a patterned way. Every
will begin to dress in a certain way - by paying close system has a well defined goal which defines its
attention to or emphasising or incorporating fabrics boundaries.
and accessories that are considered to be Western - Beyond the boundaries there is environment which is
and she will adopt the value system of this group with
always influx. There exists dpramic equilibrium as system
exceptions to things that are in conflict with her other
always kies to maintain equilibrium but as the system tries
identities.
to orient itseH to equilibrium the environment changes.
Every system has universal needs and derived
a. Examine the social dimensions of displacement needs. Universal needs are necessary lor a system to
induced by development. (CSE,2013) exist but the derived needs may vary. He identifies
Ans: Our present development process is the which four universal needs viz. adaptation, goal attainment,
who looks at environment and poor people as drag on integration and latency.
the development process. According to Amratya Sen Today, Parsons' social system approach is very
rt,e must see development as the process to increase much relevant. In this interconnected world where all
freedon'r of human beings. As environment protection the culture and various systems in a culture affect each
itself is a way to increase human freedom, then the other, Parsons provides a conceptual framework of
development process itself will become environment analysis and the ways to solve the conflict. For example,
and people friendly. It is the tribal and mostly the village if two subsystems of a system are not working properly,
people who are affected by the displacement induced there is a need for latency for its proper functioning.
by development. Consider family as a system. The changes in economy
Various development projects which involve are affecting the changes in family system. Thus, various
displacement are dams, roads, industries and mining. subsystems are affecting each other.
The problem is not only displacement but the failure We can understand even Naxalism using Parsons'
of rehabilitating them. A study by Walter Fernandes approach. The social life of tribal people was affected by
si
shows that only 18% of tribal people were rehabilitated. the need for economic development. Though the changes
Today, of the displaced people 50% are tribal people. in their life happened but there were no efforts made to
In many cases they got the land on paper but not in sustain them so as to ensure their economic dependence.
practice because of local dominance of higher castes. As there was lack of coordination among various
The life of tribal people is intrinsically linked with the systems there occurred conflict. Even globalization,
environment and forests. urbanization, changes in caste system and many other
 RELIGION AND SOCIETY ',,; 183
phenomena can be easily understood by Parsons' According to Durkheim, toternism was elementary
social system approach. Though Parsons didn't do any form of religion not because of being established first.
empirical work while giving his systems approach but Totemism was sirnple from organizattonalview, so it was
still this approach is relevant today. believed to be elementary form of religion. Since totemism
can be understood without explaining the features of
a. Is religion antithetical to science? Comment. ancient religion, so it was a fundamental element also.
(csE,2013) According to Durkheim, Arunta tribes is divided
Ans: Science refers to a systematic body of changing into many clans and each clan has its own totem
and certified knowledge based on observable facts. which may be any animal , bird,, tree or any lifeless
Religion refers to the institutionalized interaction thing to which members of clan attach their origin
between human beings and a non-empirical entity where and experience, special emotional relation and give
the human being propitiates and the entity reciprocates. special respect to them. it is possible to connect with
The relation between science and religion is very totem without total practices or rites. To connect with
complex. At the same time they exist as competing totem which is treated as sacred, people should be pure
systems and reinforcing each other. Merton showed that internally as well as externally. As per Durkheim, this
modern science emerged with the help of Protestantism. totem has no any internal qualities or supreme power.
It provided legitimacy to the pursuit of this-worldly In fact the source of power of this totem is society.
goals. Thus religion contributed to the growth of That's why totemism is not worship of any ancestor,
science. But, as science developed, it questioned the animal or bird but of society. In this way Durkheim by
logic of religion. For example, science doesn't approve connecting religion with sacred thing and society as a
of praying to God if somebody is sick. Rather, it believes source of this sacredness has tried to establish religion
in providing the best possible treatment. as a manifestation of religious beliefs and it represents
There are various parameters where science and .class consciousness. Society is worshipped in the name
religion are opposite to each other. In science it is the of religion.
sensory system which is supreme but religion is based on In this way, Durkheim in his study of toternism has
super sensory state and goes beyond sensation. Science tried to represent the reality of religion. According to
is individualistic whereas religion is collectivistic and Durkheim, "religion is a system of beliefs and practices
there is unquestibning acceptanie of authority in religion. related to sacred thing, which unite into one single moral
Science is essentially utilitarian in nature while religion community, all those who adhered to them". From
is essentially non-utilitarian. Science is neutral towards above explanation it is clear that sacred is established
morality but religion essentially reflects morality. by society. In this way society is worshiped in the name
Science is useful in increasing efficiency and making of sacred. \zVllen any society collectively performs some
the life easier by providing constant inventions. But, rites, then i sense of collectivism develops in them.
today in this fast moving world, there is environment of Special rules and ideals related with rites gives direction
uncertainty which creates anxiety in the minds of people. to the society and convert it into a moral community.
As science can't relieve this anxiety because there is no In this way Durkheim, according to functionalist
finality in science, there is only probability. According to view, by advocating totemism as elementary form of
Malinowsky, it is the religion which relieves the anxiety religion and developing a sense of collectivism in the
by promising absolute rewards. It is truly said that society, proves its functional role.
"Science without religion is lame and religion without
science is blind". Thus, their role is complementary in a. Discuss the factors leadingto growingreligious
social life and not antithetical. revivalism in the contemporary world.
(csE,2012)
a. Show how Durkheim through the study of
Ans: During past three-four decades, on the global
totemism demonstrates the reality of religion.
map, religious revivalism has emerged in the form
(csE 2012) of a new social-religious phenomenon whose aim is
Ans:Durkheim in his sociological study of religion to reestablish lost prestige of religion by expanding
presented sociological perspective of religion in place its importance in all areas of social life. Today in
of traditional theory of religion like nature worship, contemporary world, religious revivalism activities on
animism, monotheism and evolutionary perspective. one side has freed people from identity crisis due to
Durkheim presented sociological theory of religion by modern values and on other side by providing spiritual
studying totemism of Arunta tribes in Australia. He sight, which plays an important role in providing mental
added primary and profane religion to this which keeps peace from physical, mental problems caused by fast
important place in life of Arunta tribes. and stressful life.
184 iiiir'ii socloLocY Q&A

Today in this time of market economy, religion India is also a classic example of cultural pluralism
has also come into its influence area. Today due to both in letter and spirit. Indian society is a synthesis of
marketization of religion, increased number of religious complex cultures, religions, languages, people belonging
institutions, leaders, sects are preparing environment for to different caste and communities. As far as the
religious revivalism. plurality of Indian culture is concerned, it is a miniature
People have expanded material attitude in all of world as it contains Hinduism, ]ainism, Budhism,
areas of life due to increasing influence of money. Islam, Christianity, etc.
Due to present situation people feel alienation. In such
situation religion tries to remove mental dissatisfaction a. Define sect, cult and religion. In what way do
by providing a spiritual base. Today in globalization, weber's views on religion differ from those
religious revivalism process gets speeded due to of Durkheim? (CSE,2011)
increasing in{ormation sources. Ans: According Max weber, sect is a newly foimed
A big market for increasing religious activity has religious $oup that form to protest elements of their
been erected due to increasing number of different parent religion. A sect has distinctive religious, political
religious channel, online selling of religion-related or philosophical beliefs. Although in the past it was
things, quick payment of donation and prasad or blessed mostly used to refer to any'organisation that breaks
food. Increasing effect of religious orthodoxy in form away from larger one to follow a different set of rules
of globalised incidents has also increased the nature and principles and later on expanded in modern culture
of religious revivalism. Today, a competitive mentality as organisation.
between religions due to activeness of different religious \&lhereas the cult refers to a new religious movement
reformist organizations established by different religious whose beliefs and practices are considered abnormal.
reformist movements are becoming pioneer of religious
The word cult denote a system of ritual practices and
revivalism. Today it can be seen the efforts of religious
first used in 17th century denoting homdge paid to a
revivalism against terrorists activities and atrocities in
divinity. The organisation of cult is concerned with a
the name of religion.
particular personality and is being influenced by their
In total, increasing identity crisis due to globalizatiory
values, ideas, philosophy, etc..
marketizatiop of religion and irrational explanation of
On the other hand religion is a collection of cultural
religion has speeded up such activities.
systems, belief systems and world views that establishes
pluralism. a symbols which relate humanity to spirituality and
a. Cultural (CSE,201L)
sometimes to moral values. It also give meaning to
Ans: Cultural pluralism is a term used when small
life or tfue universe and has exercised most profound
groups within a larger society maintain their unique
influence over man's thought like immemorial time.
cultural identities, and their values and practices are
The development of religion has taken different forms
accepted by the wider societY.
in different cultures. Some religions place an emphasis
Example of such case is United states which has
of belief while other einphasize practice.
a relative strong dominant culture which includes
Durkheim in his famous book "Elementary forms
strong elements of nationalism, a sporting culture
and an artistic culture. In pluralist culture, unique of Religious Life" has used two important concepts
sacred and profane. According to Durkheim all societies
groups not only co-exist side by side but also consider
qualities of other groups as traits worth having in have been divided into two categories, the sacred and
profane. According to him religion is unified system of
the dorninant culture. A successful pluralistic society
will place strong expectations of integration in its belief and practices related to sacred things. The sacred
members rather than expectation of assimilation. The thing may be anything like a rock, a tree, etc. and there is
existence of such institutions and practices is possible
nothing speciality about it. This sacred thing is a symbol
if the cultural communities are accepted by the larger of society and represent society's sentiment. According
society in a pluralist culture and sometimes require the
to Durkheim religion plays important role in cohesion
protection of the law. Often the acceptance of a culture of society.
may require that the new or minority culture remove In absence of religion there will be no social
sqme aspects of their culture which is incompatible order, social control, social solidarity. Thus, it is a
with the laws or values of the dominant culture. The vital constituent of society. Durkheim held the view
idea of cultural pluralism in the United States has its that the main function of religion is group cohesion
roots in the transcendentalist movement and developed often performed by collectively attended rituals. He
by prognatist philosophers such as william ]ames and asserted that these group meeting provide a special
kind of energy that makes Sroup member to lose their
John Dewey.
 RELIGION AND SOC;ETv rirli 195
individuality and feel united with the gods and thus Religious fundamentalism leads to strong feelings
with the group. of self-righteousness and feelings of otherness towards
Max weber has portrayed each religion as rational followers of other faiths. it leads to the belief that
and consistent in their respective societies. Weber truth is the sole monopoly of one's own religion
acknowledged that religion had a strong social to a feeling of theological superiority. In case of
component. He diverged slightly from Durkheim's globalization, such fundamentalists have in common
concept and opined that religion is not only a cohesive a fear that their way of life is under threat from the
force but a force of social change. In his book "The unwelcome liberalization of social moves and values.
protestant Ethic and the spirit of capitalism" he wrote As a result, these fundamentalists, believing themselves
that modern capitalism spread quickly in western to be beleaguered, seek to alter prevailing sociopolitical
Europe and America due to protestant worldly ascetic realities by trying to reform society either by violent or
morale. Weber's main focus is not only to develop a non- vioient means in accordance with what they belie:re
theory of religion but on interaction between society are suitable religious tenets and to change the laws,
and religion. morality, social norms and, if necessary, the political
con{iguration to build a more traditional society.
a. Examine the social dimensions of religious
revivalism and fundamentalism in the context a. Positive Religion (CSE,2010)
of globalization. (CSE, 20L0) Ans: Positive Religion refers to the "scientific
Ans: In recent years, the belief that the onset religion" or religion of humanity championed by
of modernity would ultimately lead to a decline in Auguste Comte. Comte's "religion of humanity " is
religious belief- a theory known as the secularization based upon morality and religion and not upon belief
thesis -has been challenged by what seems to be a in a divine force. Comte was opposed to the theological
revival of religious adherence across the world. This type of religion. The object of worship should be
resurgence is characterized by the growing saliency mankind and not God. Comte was of the opinion that
and persuasiveness of religious beliefs, practices and a society based on positivist principles needs positive
discourses in both personal and public life. Social religion.
theorists and scholars see the rise in religiosity as a He conceived of a society directed by the spiritual
defensive reaciion or backlash to globalization and power of priests of the new positive religion and leaders
modernization. of banking and industry. The new positivist order,
Increasing numbers of people who have become Comte claimed, "would have love as its principle, order
disenchanted with the seemingly destabilizing effects of as its basis and programme as its aim." The egoistic
modernity-the fragmentation of society, the emptiness tendencies of mankind as evidenced in all the previous
of consumerism, the breakdown of families, widespread history would be replaced by altruism and by the
socio-economic grievances, erosion of traditional Command'Live for others'.
morality and values, social dislocation and culture
shock-are turning to religion to establish meaning a. "Science has empirical means to logical ends
and order in an otherwise rapidly changing and often and religion has non-empirical means to
confusing world. logical ends". Comment. (CSE, .'010)
Forces of modernity and globalization have not Ans: Science has empirical and rational basis to
affected all the people equally. Instead of bridging the explain various facets of human life and to help mankind
gaps between rich and the poor, the spaces in between, in leading a meaningful life. Religion, for thousands of
seem to have widened. Although the resurgence of years of human existence has been doing the same thing
religion is taking place in countries at different levels though without any empirical justification. Tylor argued
of economic development, for the most part, religious that religion originated to satisfy man's intellectual
fervour is inversely related to material progress. needs. For Miller, it was response to man's emotional
Another effect of rising religiosity is manifested in the needs, resulting frorn the effect of nature upon man's
accompanying emergence of fundamentalist trends in emotions. Today, it is seen in terms of its contribution
almost every major world religion. Infact, globalization in nleeting the functional prerequisites or basic needs of
is itself a kind of fundamentalism as it imposes a single society i.e. in fostering social solidarity, value consensus
vision of economic world with readymade market and harmony and integration of its parts by the
oriented recipes, ignoring the diversity of the national functionalists. For them it helps to build, maintain and
situations. And this religious fundamentalism, in its legitimise universes of meaning for people.
most extreme form, has manifested itself as religiously In w,ords of A.W. Greery "Religion is not unscientific,
motivated terrorism. it is ordy non-scientific". Scientific truth is that which is
186 ttt.t:. SOCIOLOGY Q & A

known by the evidence of the senses. Religious truth is (, Separation of religion from the state.
that which is known by revelatiory by faith. Both however (ii) Rationalism and scientific outlook.
serve the same purpose i.e. "construction and maintenance
(iii) Imphasis on this world as opposed to the other
of people's universes" (Berger and Luckmann)
world.
Broadly speaking, the process of secularization in
a. Ethnicity and Development (CSE,2010)
modern society is operating through three factors: (a)
Ans: Ethnicity refers to self consciousness of a Education (b) Legislation and, (c) Social reforms.
group of people united, or closely related, by shared Modern education being imparted on scientific
experience such as language, religious belief, common Iives giving rise to rationality in thinking. For example
heritage, etc. In traditional modernization theory, in India education was imparted through religious
ethnicity is seen as an obstacle and claims to ethnic institutions such as Pathsala, Madrasa, Temples,
identity as anti-developmental. According to this view, Mosques and Churches. These instituiion promoted
when people cling to their ethnic identities, they do not religious attitude interpretation of world. But when the
identify with the state. This is particularly true for poor scope of formal education was widened through formal
nations like Sub-Saharan countries. In poor countries, educational institutions, it brought about a sea chairge
state is the prime mobilizer of resources for the people.
in the outlook of people and people began to interpret
But when state is hijacked by one or more ethnic groups,
the world in rational way.
they use the state machinery for selfish ends as opposed
The legislation factor is also a crucial factor in the
to national development concerns.
process of secularization. For example India introduced
In that case upward social mobility of other ethnic
secular ideology for governing the society. In India, state
group suffer. Also development cannot take place in
has no religious ideology to govern the society. Here
turbulent environment. Clashes between various ethnic
every religion is given due respect. Constitution of India
groups undermine development pursuits. However,
also has forbidden the state of any discrimination on the
scholars in recent times have started arguing that issue
basis of religion.
of ethnicity can be reconciled within developmental
agenda through cautious political and judicial actions
Social reform initiated by various religious and
because ethnicity not just pertains to ethnic loyalties and
political leaders have been an important weapon for
interests but also genuine human rights issues. the promotion of secularization. It has acted as mental
conditioning for the people of india to accept rational
social change.
a. secularization of socieries r" _.1EIr:;11, Apart from these factors there are other two
important process which influenced the process of
Ans: Secularization is a process of social change secularizdtion in India. These are urbanization and
through which the influence of religion declines in industrialization. Process of industrialization introduced
public affair. This process is also concerned with at lot of technological innovations. This process also
an ideology which implies that the state will not be weaken the strong grip of religion on social life. It also
governed by religious authorities such as Bishop, Pandit, presented a newer alternative to man. It ultimately
Mullah, Khalifa, etc. promoted rational cause and effect explanation and
In modern world religion is being replaced by other consequently the hold of religious belief over different
ways of explainipg facts and events. The importance of aspect of life declines. Although the interest in religion
religion in regulating social life is decreasing and is being as a phenomena persists but it has shed much of
taken over by the interpretation of reality in terms of communal overtunes.
reasons and rationality. A number of western societies
as well as eastern modern societies are examples of
this phenomena where religion still survives but it is
Q. What according to Max Weber, is "the role.of
particular religious ideas" in the emergence
largely confined to the private domains of individuals. In
modem societies, science replacing religion as the primary of modern capitalism? (CSE, 2009)
approaeh to understand the natural and social worlds. Ans: Max Weber in his book "The Protestant Ethic
In modern societies a secular polity is working in and the Spirit of Capitalism" has shown the close
which state does not discrimate between citizens on the relationship between a particular religion and the
bas"s of their religions. It grants equal civil rights to all emergence of capitalism. According to Max Weber there
citizens. State also respects the religious liberty of each is a great role of religion on the development of capitalist
and protests even the liberty of those who do not believe in American society as well as in the European society.
in religion. However, the process of secularization in a He talked about the Protestant Ethick that emerged
society characterized by followings- in Europe during 16th century. This Protestant ethic
 RELtctoN AND SOCIETY rirlil 197
helped in the rise of capitalism in European society. Similar to India many Asian countries also failed
Max Weber opined that Protestantism is a religion of to become capitalist society only because of religious
protest which arose in Europe in the period of religious ethic. Fof example-Confucian, Islam, etc. also do not
reformation. The founding father of Protestant Ethic like favour the sprit of capitalism. Thus, according to Max
Martin Luther and ]ohn Calvin broke away from the Weber religion has played a great role in development
Catholic Church. Because they felt that the Church in of capitalism in modern societies like Europe, USA, etc.
Europe has immersed in doctrines and rituals and has
lost touch with common people. They also noticed that a. Science without religion is lame. Religion
greed, corruption and vices has gripped the church and without science is blind. Comment on this
priests had life style more suitable to princes. Thus, the
statement critically in the light of emerging
protestant ethics as ideology spread all over the Europe
sociological contexts in Europe, USA and India.
that tried to recapture the lost sprit of the Church. At the
same this Protestant ethic ideology is based on ascetics
(csr, zooe;
control of life which forced a spirit of capitalism. This Ans: This statement is given by Albert Einstein.
Protestant religion encouraged worldly achievement is According to common perception, a huge gulf exists
following manner such as- between science and religion. Because science deals with
o Time is money, things concrete whereas religion is based upon abstract
o Credit is money ideals. Science implies fact but religion involves faith.
Religion is basically a rnatter of instinct and science that
o Man can achieve his highest goal i.e. the grace of
of reason. But there is a very close relationship between
god by doing his duty.
the two.
o This also emphasized on work as duty is equivalent
Since the time immemorial religion has been there
to worship of god.
with the human beings as an integral part of their life
o Penny saved is penny gained. and life style. In the very early of human civilization,
o It also emphasized that man should not waste human mind unable to understand natural phenomena
money in alcoholism, sensual pleasure, etc. ascribed everything to a supernatural entity-wonder and
o Every unit of money should be reinvested for instinct promoted humans to worship the unknown
earning more profit and this profit should be used presence.
in welfare of human beings.' But slowly, experience and widening thought
o Thus, by doing this a man can get the grace of god. processes eroded the sense of wonder. The development
Thus, this form of believes connected with protestant of modern sciences in Europe rvas a turning point both
religion developed a peculiar consciousness among the in fields of humanities as well as science. This happened
people. As a result enterprise attitude, hardworking through ren'aissance only after the reformation in 13th
tendency, saving sprit and economic rationality and 14th centuries. The development of scientific
developed in Protestant countries like England, United inventions and urge of individual freedom and quest of
States etc. This caused capitalistic development in these knowledge originated a sharp reaction to the suffocating
societies. atmosphere created by the misuse of religion.
According to Weber India was economically The general notion that science and religion both
advanced prior to Industrial Revolution that took place two different worlds of materialism and spiritualism
in western society. But Hindu religion failed to provide is also not correct. Both the problem starts when both
a suitable work ethic for people and hence India failed encroach upon each other fields. But as the horizons
to developed as capitalist society. Hinduism did not of human knowledge widen, the barriers to discussion
allow individual to change their occupation attached start falling down.
with caste and thus, it discouraged innovation. At the Also as the civilizations advanced, philosopher and
same time, the ideas of Karma, Dharma, Sanskara, scientists attempted to explain the moving heavens in
Cycle of birth, rebirth etc. also made the Indian people rational terms. Perhaps the first major confrontation
fatalists. The preaching of Hinduism on other worldly, between science and religion came into being with
asceticism, de-emphasised the material world. In Hindu the publication of Copernicus statement against the
religion materialistic prosperity has also not given general belief advocated by Ptolemy that the sun
+lt
due importance. Thus, Hinduism failed to encourage moves around the earth but Copernicus stated that it
capitalism in India. The notion of purity and pollution is the earth which moves around the Sun. This new
attached to caste system also made negative impact. theory upset the standard philosophical and religious
Weber also opined that Indian religion was incapable beliefs of the medieval era. It not only collapsed
to give birth to economic and technological revolution. the concept of universe as described in the Bible,
188 ,ltti, SOCIOLOGY Q & A

but also the myth that man occupy the central place in Inspite of too much scientific development in USa,
universe. Other important scientist who made important Europe and in some developing countries like India,
inJluence on Christian society and its religious beliefs organized religion has a significant place in the life of
has been that of Darwin and his'Origin of Species'. This individual. Because it is still fulfilling the spiritual, social
given a crushing blow to the Christian concept that man and psychological needs of the people. As a system of
is the child of God. Darwin stated that man has actually thought religion gives a comprehensive philosophy
evolved from the stage of apes to human beings. His of creation, destruction, life-death etc. Talcott Parsons
theory brought religious belief and scientific temper into has identified the role of religion in modern industrial
a direct con{lict as never before Darwin's work enabled society as in the process of socialization and social
us to see the position of man and our present civilization control.
in a true light. The progress in science had its direct He opined that value patterns of religion help in
impact in dismantling of many baseless religious belief social control. Religious assumption also enable one to
and superstitions. distinguish between desirable and undesirable action
Science has certainly influenced society by altering and it also gives control to undesirable things.
the religious thinking and attitude of the people. But Role of religion have also been guiding factor in
science has its own limitations. Science has broadened some scientific research
the human reach by making possible the things For example, the philosophy of religion about
undreamt but somewhere it has created a psychological the origin of universe, life etc. promoted scientists
void. Scientific inventions have created for every a little to work in this direction. Religion had also some
world for himself. This void has given space for various scientific connotation such as during Rig-Vedic period,
religious and spiritual gurus-fake or genuine. People the worship of Gods and Goddesses began many
such as rich, poor, educated, half educated alike making religious customs and practices were woven with
a beeline for the ashramas, giving donations and alms, scientific purpose.
going for pilgrimage center etc. Science is also not able For example, the common practice of offering
to answer the question related to mystry of life such as water to the sun god has bene{icial effect on the eye in
death and birth. For getting answer to these questions the morning. Similarly, the custom of hawan
people still rely on religious explanation provided by during puja had its origin in.the fact
it purifies the
Dharmaguru, Priest, Mullah, etc. atmosphere.

a.f.f.,
 CHAPTER

12

a. Is humanity at the mercy of Nature, Science Today, zoonotic epidemics have become the new
and Technology? Comment in the light of normal, an indicator of a climate emergency born from
pandemic situation. (CSE 2020) capitalist greed that has destroyed habitats and natural
ecosystems.
Ans: The world is facing a global health pandemic
The marriage of genetic and AI technologies, and
as many countries battle the widespread transmission
the datafication of soil, forests and oceans by powerful
of COVID-19 that has already cost the lives of millions.
Big Tech today creates great risks for the future of
The healthcare community across nations is human civilization. The pursuit of such researdh - in
engaged in desperate attempts to save lives and gene editing, for example - is carried out in utmost
stem this crisis, even while becoming highly secrecy, without any public disclosure about potential
vulnerable through continuous exposure to the dreaded harms.
infection.
While national epidemiological databases on
Developed lountries such as the US, Italy, France COVID-19 are viial for enabling governments to take
and Spain experienced an unprecedented health crisis steps to effectively address the crisis, such data must also
as their national death toll increases on account of the
be pooled for furthering global public health research
Covid-19 pandemic. for the common good, ensuring future benefits are not
Science, technology and innovation have played cornered by corporations.
an important role in addressing this health crisis. The Therefore, the global scientific community must
emergence of COVID-19 is a direct consequence of anti-
continue to take part in the development of scientific
people approaches to science and technology rooted in and technological innovations not only to successfully
an un{air patent regime, evisceration of investments in combat the COVID-19 emergency,.but also to contribute
public health, and the expansion of unregulated new to knowledge societies that exist in harmony with nature
frontiers that put people and planet in peril. and where individuals can lead prosperous and fulfflling
Big Tech companies have jumped into the fray, lives.
seeing a business opportunity in the current context,
announcing that they rt ill develop new apps for self-
screening. This will only help them further amass data
a. Technology has accelerated the process of
development and dependency. Discuss.
capital at the cost of privacy.
From drones that monitor people in cities to Facial
Recognition Technologies that can see through helmets, Ans: Development as a social ."r""::t::O;:l
wristbands that trace the movement of those home- progressive change from one inferior state to a superior
quarantined and AI based video analytics that capture state of wellbeing or simply change in the desired
number plates of vehicles to monitor mobility, national direction. It is also defined as 'development is about
authorities have deployed surveillance technology, removing the obstacles to the things that a person can
violaiing by a huge margin, the necessity, proportionality do in life, such as illiteracv, ill health, lack of access to
and legality tests needed to track citizens. resources, or lack of civil and political freedoms'.
The COVID-19 outbreak is but a reflection of Andre Gunder Frank (1971) argues that developing
a science and technology paradigm that has had nations have failed to develop not because of internal
little regard for social ethics and human wellbeing. barriers to development' as modenrization theorists argue,
190 #s soctoLocy e &A
but because the developed West has systematically Therefore, true development is the one which
underdeveloped them, keeping them in a state of not only means growth, but also self-realization and
dependency (hence'dependency theory'.) independence of thoughts and actions leading to full
Technological globalization is speeded in large part realization of one's potential.
by technological diffusion, the spread of technology
across borders. In the last two decades, there has been a. How is the increasing use of technology
rapid improvement in the spread of technology to changingthe status of women in Indian society?
peripheral and semi-peripheral nations, and a 2008 (csE,2014)
World Bank report discusses both the benefits and
ongoing challenges of this diffusion.
Ans: With the growth and application of science
Rural and low-tech products such as corn can and technology to control human environment,
man's relationship with nature has changed, which
benefit from new technological innovations, and that,
has produced far reaching changes in society. Thus
conversely, technologies like mobile banking can aid
according to Weber, overall consequences of science and
those whose rural existence consists of low-tech market
vending. technology is rationalization of society.
In addition, technological advances in areas like In earlier period, woman.was dependent on man
mobile phones can lead to competition, lowered prices, because of low muscle fat ratio and also mothering
and concurrent improvements in related areas such as role. But automaticn of work helped in reducing the
mobile banking and in-formation sharing. impact of these factors and led to egalitarian gender
However, the samepatterns of social inequality that relations. In some countries fertility rate has declined to
cteate a digital divide in the United States also create replacement level. Thus the stature, status, and role of
digital divides within peripheral and semi-peripheral women have changed with the development of science
nations. and technology.
While the growth of technology use among Some scholars also criticize the negative
countries has increased dramatically over the past consequences of science and technology in changing
several decades, the spread of technology within the status of women. They consider that technology is
countries is significantly slower among peripheral and more inclined to men than women and it is patriarchal
semi-peripheral nations. In these countries, far fewer in nature.
people have the training and skills to take advantage India has achieved higher technoiogical advancement
of new technology, let alone access it. during last decade. The Green Revolutiory which focuses
Technological access tends to be clustered around on increasing yields of rice and wheat, entails a shift in
urban areas and leaves out vast swaths of peripheral- inputs from human to technical. Women's participation,
nation citizens. While the diffusion of information knowledge and inputs are marginalized, and their
technologies has the potential to resolve many global role has shifted from being "primary producers to
social problems, it is often the population most in need subsidiary workers." Women work longer hours and
that is most affected by the digital divide. For example, their work is more arduous than men's, yet their work
technology to purify water could save many lives, but is unrecognized.
the villages in peripheral nations most in need of water There are tremendous effects of information
purification don't have access to the technology, the technology on women's employment and the nature of
funds to purchase it, or the technological com{ort level women's work in all third world countries including
to introduce it as a solution. India. But in areas of technology, till today women
Dependency theory is criticized by liberals who tem represent about 1"0 % of researchers and about 5% of
this theory as simplistic and suffering from ideological manager. The impact of information technology on
biases. Gunnar Myrdal contends that developmental society has not been uniformly beneficial, and the
deficit cannot be completely attributed to dependency, technological divide is being increasingly felt, especially
but its major causes are value deficit and institutional in the developing countries. Serious obstacles still
inadequacies in third world countries. Another principal continue in achieving gender equality.
criticism of dependency theories has been that the school Flence, it should be noted that scientific and
does not provide any substantive empirical evidences to technological advancenient should meet the necessity
support its arguments. of society, advantageous to the people, compatible with
Dependency theorists also fail to acCount for the overall culture, where advantages overweigh the costs.
rapid economic development of many East Asian Thus, technology should be powerful tools for women
economies and even Latin American countries like to overcome discrimination, achieve full equality and
Brazil, Mexico, etc. higher well-being.
 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ',,':,, 191
a. Examine science and technology as agents of ideas of equality, individualism, liberty and fraternity.
social change. (CSE,201,3) Inspired by these ideals, many educated Indians fought
against the dogmatic and conservative beliefs present in
Ans: Social change is a long term process happening
traditional Indian society.
in almost every aspect of society viz. social institutions,
According to MSA Rao, the reform movements seek
economic organizations, etc. Many factors such as law,
a limited change often in a gradual manner and rely
education and religion contribute to it.
on the legitimate methods to bring about that change.
But, it is the science and technology which
For example, in India various social reformers such as
accelerates this process by first changing itself and then
Raja Ram Mohan Roy (Arya Samaj), Dayanand Saraswati
putting pressure on other aspects to change. Marx first
(Brahmo Samaj) and Vivekananda (Ramkrishna Mission)
highlighted the importance of science and technology
fought against child marriage, sali, widow remarriage
in terms of forces of production leading to changes in and inhuman treatment. By pressurizing. British they
relations of production. Leslie White argued that when
succeeded in passing laws against them.
there is increase in per capita consumption of a society
then the techno-economic component puts pressure on
organizational component of culture to change.
a. "Science has empirical means to logical ends
and religion has non-empirical means to
But when this change happens without any change
logical ends." - Comment. (CSE,2013)
in cultural aspects of society then it creates conJlict which
Ogburn called as "Cultural Lag" . He explains further Ans: Empirical means which can be verified with
that any technological change demands a social support the observation and experiments. Non- empirical is one
system which needs social reorganization. For example, which can t be verified and have to be accepted as such.
automobiles need roads, engineers, fuel stations, etc. In Though they are opposite in this sense both of them are
India, technological changes have impacted the lives means to a common end of human welfare and well
of people in many ways. It includes gender equality being of society. Therefore, in social life they both are
as women are getting employment, economic growth complementary.
with increase in efficiency, secularization of life goals Science is useful in increasing efficiency and making
is happening and new methods of learning has opened the life easier by providing constant inventions. But,
new vistas for the young generation. today in this fast moving world there is environment of
Although science and technology accelerates the uncertainty which creates anxiety in the minds of people.
social change but it will be more peaceful if these As science can't relieve this anxiety because there is no
changes are indigenous and slow. Also, they must be finality in science, there is only probability. According
acceptable to all. Otherwise, some affected groups can
to Malinowsky, it is the religion which relieves the
use the same technology to stop its spread.
anxiety by promising absolute rewards. For example,
many civil service aspirants after failing twice or thrice
in exam go to priests for their success. In, this way they
a. Define social movement. Elucidate the role of
are complementary to each other. But, in the end they
reformist movements in social change. are serving the same purpose.
(csE,2013) As society is becoming more and more consumerist
Ans: A social movement is defined as a sustained it is degrading the environment. Because of this natural
collective action which must have a change orientation. balance is getting disturbed. Recently, many devotees
It requires ideology, Ieadership and a loose organization who went to the temples of Uttarakhand died because
to coordinate its activities. of bad weather leading to floods" In this way, religion
Various reasons for social movement to happen failed to provide logical end of providing blessings to
are a sense of relative deprivation and mismatch the pilgrims. So, there is limitation of religion and in that
between capabilities and aspirations. Neil. J. Smelser sense science too. Being non-empirical it is impossible
has identified six conditions which are sufficient for a to judge the validity of religion.
social movement. These are structural conduciveness/
structural strain, generalized beliefs, precipitating factor, a. Industrial Democracy (C58,2012)
mobilization for action and failure of social control- Ans: Industrial democracy is such a system in
Social reform movements have an important role which effort has been taken to condirm the execution of
';;
in social change. They critically analyze the norms responsibility of laborers, inclusion in decision making
and traditions present in the present society. With the process and their rights and authcirity. Industrial
acculturative contact with the outside world, a society democracy is like a organizational form which tries to
gets exposed to new ideas and that facilitates the con-firm the extensive partnership of labor in production
change. For example, in India, British exposed us to the system.
192 *l soclolocy e & A
In this form of Industrial democracy, labor execute social change. Revolutionary change represents sudden
their role without any pressure at all level in formation and fundamental changes in the social structure of any
of system, conduction and management. society or in its important social, economic or political
Modern industrial economy has adopted many aspect. By revolutionary changes, basic structure
aspects of this Industrial democracy so that fast changes comes into position of change. Generally this
development may be possible in production process. type of revoiutionary changes is connected with political
In this type of Industrial democracy, task is performed and sudden violent changes.
like a team work. Revolutionary changes present an example of
This form of Industrial democracy is most famous in structural change in society. The main aim of this type
Scandinavian countries, Netherlands, Germany, J apan, of change is to bring about radical changes. To root
U.K. etc. Industrial democracy is aiso called work field out old basic social structure and institutions and to
democracy. stabilize new system is the main aim of'such changes.
In reality, Industrial democracy model talks In revolutionary social change, the main aim is to root
about better production system along with complete out the ownership of property, family rule, institutions
development of labor. Flere, rights of laborers are related with political system and establishment of new
protected by assuming that they are inseparable part of system. In the revolutionary social changes ownership
production process. of property, family, institutions related with political
Today the formation of beneficial system of laborers system.. different classes of society, castes, basic cultural
for the expansion of production process in developed thoughts and beliefs are changed by new views and
countries is a gift of this Industrial democracy. ideology-related assumptions. This type of change is
This system checks the alienation of laborers. This known as structural change.
type of system has become popular in modern industrial For example, in many countries of the world,
system. In this era of globalization, due to market system has been changed by revolution taking Mar- xist
economy new forms of production are being invented. assumptions as base. Revolutionary changes are not
Methods to study relation between labor and production alwavs violent.
have clearly favored industrial democracy. In reality this For example, development of science and
form pays attention on benefits of laborers. technological knowledge has done well for the speedy
changes in society. In the 17th century, industrial
a. Describe Revolutionary change and its nature. revolution has played influential role in bringing
Discuss the kinds of revolutionary changes the radical structural change in European society.
that have been brought about in society like Development of science and tech has started new
institutions and demolished irrational beliefs and
economic, political, social and religious fields.
assumptibns etc. of old institutions. In Europe
(csE,2012\ superstition spread in the society by Church-like
Ans: A change in stabilized form of social relatiory main institutions was removed by the rational ability
social values, and structure or sub system is known influenced by science and given new direction to the
as social change. Revolutionary change is one form of society by explaining it in new context.

*r**
 CHAPTER

13

a. Examine the relevance of corporate social However, Subaltern sociologists contend that the
responsibility in a world marked by increasing majority of CSR funding are spent.in urban or semi-urban

environmental crises. (CSE 2023) areas and are not used for the rehabilitation of tribes, small
and marginal farmers, or to lessen agricultural loss from
Ans: A corporation's ethical behavior toward extreme weather events or draughts. Despite criticism,
society is referred to as corporate social responsibility, CSR is clearly relevant in a r,vorld where environ:nentai
or CSR. It suggests that businesses ought to care about concems are becoming more prevalent.
the environment and the welfare of society in addition
to maximizing profits.
a. Explain how economic globalisation has
Relevance of Corporate Social Responsibility broughtchanges inthe patterns of employment
. AccordingtoAnthonyGiddens"'reflexivemodemity" in the 2Lst century. (CSE 2023)
theory, institutions and people alike must adjust to Ans: Economic globalisation is the economic
changing environmental conditions. Corporate Social mixing and interdependence of economies across the
Responsibiliiy lCSnl can be understood as a way for world through the cross-cultural movement of goods,
firms to demonstrate reflective modernity, which services, technologies, and wealth. Much of this type
acknowledges that in order to address environmental of globalisation can be seen through the importing and
issues and maintain their own sustainability, their exporting of goods.
. behaviors must be modified"
Changes in Patterns of Employment
. According to Ulrich Beck's "Risk Society" theory, . The biggest change i4 employment has been from
contemporary industrial societies are marked by
manufacturing to service industries. Due to cheaper
hitherto unseen risks, particu.larly environmental
labour costs, traditional manufacturing employment
hazards. Within this framework, environmental
has been outsourced to developing nations.
crises pose hazards that can be addressed by
corporate social responsibility, or CSR. Companies
r For example, a iarge number of American
businesses have moved their production facilities
participate in corporate social responsibility (CSR)
to China, India, and other Asian nations. As
in order to control and minimize risks, as well as to
a result, the service industries - including IT,
win over the public and lessen the possibility of civil
finance, healthcare, and hospitality - have grown
unrest brought on by environmental damage.
in industrialised nations like the USA and the UK.
. The significance of corporate social responsibility has . Precarious work, marked by uncertainty and
increased due to the severity of climate change. The
insecurity, has increased as a result of globalisation.
main source of greenhouse gas emissions that are
Jobs now offer less social safety and are increasingly
causing global warming is corporations. Companies uncertain and part-time. Employees in the gig
can pledge to lessen their carbon footprint through economy, like Uber drivers and independent
CSR.
contractors, deal with unstable employment,
. In addition, CSR can help advance environmental sporadic pay, and a dearth of benefits like pensions
justice. Vulnerable and underprivileged communities and health insurance.
are frequently disproportionately affected by the . The need for highly skilled workers is rising in
detrimental environrnental effects of business the global economy. The skills gap between high-
activity. Through corporate social responsibility and low-skilled workers is growing as a result of
(CSR), businesses may make sure that their automation and technological advancements that
operations don't worsen social inequality. are eliminating low-skilled occupations.
{ 94 t:,t:,:, SOC|OLOGY e & A
* This is evident in the tech sector, where traditional surplus for the metropolis, which causes the satellite
IT support roles are being automated and there is to become impoverished and the metropolis to
a strong demand for software engineers and data accumulate wealth.
scientists.
. Criticism of the Theory
Globalisation has also had a gendered impact on
employment. Women are now part of the global
. The theory has been criticised for being unduly
workforce, frequently working in low-wage, deterministic and simple. Without taking into
unstable positions. account the complexity of international economic
interactions, it often presents an image of a world
' Subaltern sociologists contend that h.ibal peoples and
neatly split into rich countries that exploit others
small-scale and marginal farmers have been displaced
as a result of economic globalisation. It results in and poor countries that are exploited.
forced urban migration and labour from bondages. . The theory's dearth of empirical backing has drawn
Technological innovation has been hastened by criticism. Numerous nations that were formerly s'een
" as peripheral, like Singapore, Taiwary and South
globalisation" leading to the emergence of new job
roles in industries inciuding renewable energy, Korea, have effectively grown their economies
artificial intelligence, and data analytics. without cutting their connections to the core nations.
. Internal causes contributing to underdevelopment
" People can now work remotely from anywhere in
the globe due to the digitization of the workplace. are not given enough credit in the theory. It mainly
Many people's work-life balance has improved as a overlooks the effects of internal policies, political
result of this. unrest, corruption, and cultural elements on the
. Cross-border labour mobility has been made easier economic performance of developing nations.
by economic globalisation. Migration of both . The theory has drawn flak for its gloomy assessment
high- and low-skilled individuals is on the rise. of the future for developing nations. It implies that
For improved prospects, highly qualified workers there is no obvious way out of the underdevelopment
relocate to wealthy nations; Indian IT professionals cycle that these nations are caught in.
in the USA are one example of this. Low-skilled While A.G. Frank's theory of development of
labourers move simultaneously in search of underdevelopment provides a critical perspective
employment in domestic labour, agriculture, and on global economic relationships, it is not without
constructibn; they frequently face exploitation and its limitations. It offers valuable insights into the
unfavourable working conditions. dynamics of exploitation and underdevelopment, but it
The 21st century has seen a si gni{icant transf ormation oversimplifies the complex realities of global capitalism
in employnent patterns due to economic globalisation. and underestimates the potential for development within
!\4rile it has given some people opportunity, it has also the existing system.
resulted in inequality, job insecurity, and exploitation for
a large number of people. Thus, it is essential to control
globalisation processes to guarantee that everyone has
a. Examine the role of science and technology in
addressing age-old taboos and superstitions.
access to decent and fair labour.
(csE 2023)
Ans: For a considerable amount of time, science and
a" Assess critically A. G. Frank's 'theory of
technology have been hailed as the representatiyes of
development of underdevelopment'.
reason and objectivity in the world. On the other hand,
(csE 2023) long-standing taboos and superstitions frequently have
Ans: Andie Gunder Frank was an economist and their origins in cultural customs, myths, and traditional
political activist who wrote widely in the fields of beliefs that are unsupported by facts.
economics, social and political history, development
studies and international relations. Role of Science andTechnology in AddressingAge-Old
, According to Frank, economic activity in the more Taboos and Superstitions
developed capitalist nations frequently causes . Science encourages logical thinking and a methodical
significant economic issues in the less developed approach to comprehending a range of events.
nati,ons. He maintained that the rich coie countries r For example, "evil eye" belief is common in
of the global capitalism system grow at the expense India. But rather than being a supernatural
of the impoverished peripheral countries. occurrence, science explains this as a
n Frank discovered a pattern of "metropolis-satellite" psychological phenomenon.
interactions, in which the underdevelopment of . The internet and social media in particular have
the satellite regions (underdeveloped countries) is been crucial in raising awareness of the illogic of
caused by the economic activity in the metropolis superstitions. People use a variety of online channels
(developed countries). The satellite produces to share scientific justifications for popular beliefs.
 SOCIAL CHANGE IN MODERN SOCIETY AND DEVELOPMENT I 195
. Many health-related taboos in India, such as mental to work in informal, part time, contractual or home
health, have been addressed through scientific based activities.
understanding. The taboo around mental health . Feminization of working conrlitions for both women
issues, often misunderstood as possession by spirits and men workers. Initially, informal, flexible and
have been explained through neuroscience, leading contractual employment was used to be reserved
to better acceptance and treatment. for women whereas men enjoyed more stable, full-
. The debunking of taboos and superstitions is time employment, sometimes with benefits. Over
largely dependent on science education. Students these years more and more, even male workers are
are encouraged to think critically and to approach subjected to feminized working conditions.
things with questions. Implications of Feminization of Work
. Max Weber argued how modern cultures are . Hoschild in his'The Second Shift, 1989' has argue.d
rationalizing. He maintained that the world has
that employed women are doubly harassed by
become less magical and more scientific as a result
men-one during their'first shift' at their workplace
of the emergence of scientific reason, which has
and secondly in their'second shift' in the form of
supplanted magical and religious thinking.
housework.
However, over-reliance on science and technology . According to W Yeung, as women move into paid
is also leading to a shift from 'adaptation' to 'change'
employment in increasingly larger numbers, men's
the environment. This is having serious consequences
in terms of climate change and increasing frequency of contribution to domestic tasks and child care does
not seem to be increasing at the same pace.
disasters.
Science and technology are powerful forces for
. Karuna Ahmad explored four characteristics of
change when it comes to dispelling long-held myths and women's employment in India in her article 'Studies
taboos. Through scientific investigatiory technological of Educated Working Women in India: trends and
progress, and cultural change, cultures are progressively Issues, 1979' which also reflect the larger sexual
approaching a more logical and impartial perspective. division of work in Indian society.
The application of scientific principles to many (0 Clustering of women in a few occupations - C)ccupations
are stereotyped as feminine and mascuiine.
areas of life not only disproves myths but also clears
the path toward,a society that is more progressive and (ii) Clustering either in low status occupation or in the
enlightened. Therefore, it is crucial to embrace the power lower rungs of the prestigious profession.
of science and technology in order to debunk long-held (lll) Women receive lower salaries than men - There is
myths and promote an evidence- and reason-based discriminationin wages as well. Female laborers are
worldview.' given even below the minimum w-ages.
(lo) High proportion of highl1, educated and
professibnally trained unemploved women"
a. Explain the implications of feminization of
.
work in developing societies. (C9E,2022\ Employers also discriminate against women. There
is a well-recognized phenomenon of an invisible
Ans: World over, more and more women 'glass ceiling' present in professions w,hich prevents
are participating in the labour force. The phrase
women from reaching the top jobs.
'feminization of labour force' or'feminization of work'
was first used by Guy Standing of the International
. T S Papola in his study of "Women Workers in the
Labour Organisation. He observed the fact that around Formal Sector of Lucknow, India" sho'vrrs that women
the world there has been a rise in female labour force were discriminated against at the time of promotions
participation and a relative if not absolute fall in men's and tended to be crowded into lower status clerical
employment, as r,r'ell as a'feminization" of many jobs and primary school jobs.
traditionally held by men. . Even within a family, first priority is given to the
employment of the husband and empioyment of
Feminization of Work women is given a low second priority and is linked
The term'feminization'is used to describe following with the employment of the husband. Even when
processes: they are employed, according to Leela Guiati in her
o extensive survey of Kerala villages, enployment did
Increase in the labour force participation by women
not improve the women's self-estimation or status
across the world, i.e. in industrialised developed
in the social hierarchy.
ll
countries and also in developing countries.
Thus, in developing societies, it is generally said
. Relative fall or stagnation of men's employment. that women generally suffer from dual stratification -
. Substitution of men by women in certain jobs of gender and of work, but in India certain sections of
traditionally held by men. women like Dalit women suffer from triple stratification
. Flexibilisation of labour where women are expected - gender, class or work and of caste.
196 ,:ii.1 SOC|OLOGY e & A

a. Trace the traiectory of development . Science and technology has greatly improved
perspectives on social change. (C9E,20221 connectivity and communication. People can remain
Ans: Social change has been defined by sociologist in touch with each other in a never before manner.
Wilbert Moore as 'a significant alteration in structure Education & Development
over time in behavior patterns and culture, including . Education as a form of development also brings
norms and values'.
social change by way of affecting existing value
Social Change has two broad aspects - Structural and systems and beliefs, creating capacity among the
Cultural: individuals to absorb new ideas, opening up avenlres
(0 Structural changes include-urbanization, for social mobility and so on. Education fosters
industrialization, etc. personal development and self-fulfillment.
(ii) Cultural changes include-emancipation of women, . It encourages the individual to develop his or.her
dilution of caste, change in family forms and social mental, physical, emotional and spiritual talents to
values and so on. the full.
Thus, agents of social change can be various.
Development as a Concept
They can be from within the society i.e. endogenous/
. Development, like modernization, is a concept, orthogenetic or can be frorh external sources i.e.
which was used to analyze the level of social, exo genous/ heterogenetic.
economic and political proffess incolonial countries
on the lines of progress attained by the West #ter the
Renaissance and the Industrial Revolution.
a. Critically analyse Parsons'views on society as
a social system. (C58,2022)
. Social, political and economic changes that took
Ans: Talcott Parsons attempted to develop and
place in Western Europe became the parameters of
perfect a general analytic model suitable for analyzing all
development and moderirization to assess the level
types of collectivities. Unlike the Marxists, who focused
of progress made by the developing countries on
on the occurrence of radical change, Parsons explored
this path.
why societies are stable and functioning.
Development Un-Development & Underdevelopment
Social System
. Developrnent implies some positive progress whereas
. Social System is defined as 'Consisting of plurality
un-development implies decline or stagnation. On
of individual actors interacting with each other, in a
the other hand, the term'underdevelopment' is
situation which has an environment with the actors
used to describe the economic and social conditions
who are motivated in terms of the tendency to the
of those Third World countries whose markets,
optimisation of gratifica tion'.
labour and resources irave been exploited by the
development of western capitalism. Shuctural Functionalist Theory and Society as Social System
Attributes of Development o Parsons gave his structural functionalist theory
. The attributes of developrnent include industrial as a master framework for working of all social
institutions, including society. His idea of social
capitalism, rationalisation of all aspects of life,
system is explained in his 'Structure of Social Action,
commodificatiory scientific thinking, an:rd a speeding
1937', and 'The Social System, 1951'.
upof thepace of life, surueillance andso on. Modemity
is associated with the onset of industrialisation, the
. Social actions don't occur in isolation, but in
growth of capitalism and the appearance of an constellations which are various social systems.
increasingly complex and differentiated culture. Parsons developed his idea of the Social System from
the works of Tonnies, Durkheim, etc.
Globalization & Development . He also took the idea of 'Cultural System' from
. Globalisation has triggered forces of change, making Malinowski, W H R Rivers, etc. and the idea of
people rethink about social relations encompassed 'Personality System' from G H Mead, C H Cooley,
between the institutions of caste, marriage, family etc.
and religion. It focuses on the emerging social . 'Social System' is just one of the four highest
realities especiaily those relating to changed gender abstractions in his grand structural functional
equations, modified family ties etc. framework and it is made up of a constellation
S&T&Development of social actions and it fulfills some functional
. prerequisite
Science and technology as form development can
help lift millions above poverty by helping in . Socialinteractionisapre-requisiteforSocialsystem
improving food security and making basic amenities to emerge. Social systemis defined as -'Consisiing of
more affordable. plurality of individuals actors interacting with each
 SOCIAL CHANGE IN MODERN SOCIETYAND DEVELOPMENT I 197
other in a situation which has an environment with and identity to the wider society. parsons argued, for
actors who are motivated in terms of a tendencv to example, that education does this through teaching
the optimization of gratification,. It is clear fro*it-ri, us a shared history and language"
definition that a system has two parts- . Other institutions-regulate individual behavior
(l) structure (actors, environment, relatiory etc.) and through social sanctions, preventing crime and
(ll) functions (performance of which leads to deviance escalating out of control.
gratification). Thus, through his AGIL concept, he understands all
o Structure has various parts like - institutions, the parts of society in terms of the functions they perform.
organizations, kinships, stratification, power Criticism
relations, religion and moral values, etc.
. . Parsons' concept of social system is criticized on
His model is AGIL, which represents the four basic
various grounds, as a Grand functional theory with
functions that all social s;zstems must perform if they
little practical utility and low on empirical testability.
are to persist. It was one of the first open systems
His ideas are too abstract with little empirical
theories of organizations. To visualise the system
verifiability. Dahrendorf called his conception as
and its functional prerequisites, parsons gave an
utopian.
AGIL Framework:
(0 Adaptation-In . According to Jonathan Turner,'structure functionalism
order to survive, the social system
must gain some control over the environment for of Parsons suffers from illegitimate teleologies and
needs like food and security. Adaptation refers to tautologies which are the two most important logical
the relationship with the environment. problems confronting structural functionalism. They
(ii) Goal Attainment-The polity performs the function often take cause and effect and vice-versa.
of goal attainment by pursuing societal objectives Therefore, Merton takes much realistic view and
and mobilizing actors and resources to that end. he included latent functions, dysfunctions as well in his
(iii) Integration-The integration function is performed anaiysis as Merton termed such a grand conception as
by the societal community or institutions of social both futile and sterile.
control. For example, the law.
(io) Latency-The fiduciary system or institutions of a. Discuss how 'environmentalism, can be
socializationi(the schools, the family and religion) explained with new social movements
handle the latency or pattern maintenance funition approach. (CSE,ZO22|
by transmitting culture to actors and allowing it to Ans:
be internalised by them.
. New Social Movements
To visualize the system and its functional
prerequisites, Parsons gave an AGIL framework . Since late 1960s or so there has been a spurt of social
where there are four problems or functional pre- movements across the world and they include a
requisites of any system - Adaptation (to physical diversity of movements - students movements of
environment), Goal Attainment, Integration, Latency 1,960s, feminist movements of 1,920s, anti-nuclear
or pattern maintenance (stability). A society must movements of 1980s, envirorunental rights rnovements
find solution to these problems, if it is to survive. of 1990s and so on. They collectively fali under the
Following the organic analogy, parsons sought category of New Social Movements. They are new
to understand institutions by analyzing the positive because they have new issues, new organization, new
functions they played in the maintenance of social order. social constituencies and new methods.

Some of the positive functions parsons identified include:

Old Social Movements
. Instifutions generally promote Value Consensus
. The 'Old Social Moveme.nts' clearly saw reorganization
of power relations as a central goal. The old social
- One of the most important functions of social movements functioned within the frame of political
institutions is the creation of value consensus - which
is agreementaround shared values. parsons argued parties. For example, the Indian National Congress
that commitment to common values is the basis for led the Indian National Movement.
order in society. Environmentalism
. The Family is responsible for passing on the basic . Environmentalism is concerned about protecting
norms and values of our society - it provides early the environment. It includes political and ethical
socialization; the stabilization of adult personalities movements that seeks to improve and protect the
and also somewhere for people to escape from the quality of the natural environment through changes
pressures of modern life - acting as a release valve. to environmentally harmful human activitiesi
. Education integrates individuals into wider society through the adoption of forms of political, economic,
- providing individuals with a sense of belonging and social organization that are thought to be
 198 l't:t:t SocloLoGY Q & A
necessary for, or at least conducive to, the benign Criticism of NSM
treatment of the environment by humans; and . NqM are criticized because many of their features
throu5l-:. a reassessment of humanity's relationship wete also present in the old social movements
witli irature. as well. Further, many social institutions have
. In various ways, environmentalism claims institutionalized themselves as wel1. For example,
that living things other than humans, and the in the case of PETA, Greenpeace, etc.
natural environment as a whole, are deserving of Therefore, environmentalism in general, as a form
consideration in reasoning about the morality of of new social movements, is more concerned about
political, economic, and social policies. protecting the environment and moving towards
sustainable development for all.
Nexus of Nature and Culture
. The nexus of nature and culture was first disturbed Are traditional social institutions getting
in India during colonial rule when forests were a.
weakened as agents of social change in
hea','ily exploited and industrialization started.
contemp orary s ociety? Sub stantiat e (C5E,2022)
Since early displaced were tribals who also had
deep affinity with forests for cultural reasons also, Ans: Social institutions are mechanisms or patterns
they were perhaps the pioneers and unsung heroes of social order focused on meeting social needs, such as
of environmental movement in India. government, economy, education, familv, healthcare,
and religion.
Environmental Movements
Various social institutions of social change can be like-
" Environmental Movements appeared in the
background of misplaced notions of 'development' . Cultural Factors: A large part of change in society is
that prevailed throughout niodern history. It led to caused by change in culture. Culture is a system that
unequal benefits and did considerable harm to earth. constantly loses and gains components. Invention,
. According to Madhav Gadgil, environmental discovery and diffusion are considered to be the
movements have issues like - forest and land related main sources of cultural change. Diffusion is a
rights, dams, commercial exploitation of mines, and process of the spreading of ideas, culture and objects
right over marine resources, etc. to other societies. Change in position of women in
. many societies is an example of cultural change.
Gadgil aird Guha in their'This Fissured Land: An
Ecological History of Indi4 1992' highlight that though
. Political Factors: Ruling class defines the political
environmental movements may be new, environmental atmosphere of a society. For example - in military
conspiousness is a historical fact in India. dictatorship, resources are channelized in a different
manner as compared to a democracy. Often a
Environmental Issues/Concerns redistribution of power happens due to some big
o Various other environmental issues can be political events like revolutions, coups, etc. as in
enumerated as - air pollution, water pollution, case of French Revolution. Gradual changes also
solid waste, resource depletion, soil degradatiory take as a result of far reaching political initiatives
desertification, deforestation, genetically modified like universal adult franchise.
foods, loss of biodiversity, river pollution, man- r Demographic Factors: Demographic change is
animal conflicts, environmental disasters like caused by an increase in birth and decline in death,
Uttarakhand floods and industrial disasters like and migration of populations. Change occurs from
Bhopal tragedy, Chernobyl accident and so on. the demographic transition in society.
. Certain environmental concems sometimes appear . Religious Factors: Religion can act as an agent
to be universal concerns, not particular to specific of change as well as resistance to change. Weber
social groups. For instance, reducing air pollution or has shown how protestant ethics brought
protecting biodiversity seem to be in the public interest. industrialization to Europe.
How NSM differs to Old Politics In modern contemporary societies, traditional social
. New Social Movements were not about changing the institutions like family, religion, kinship etc. play
distribution of power in society but about quality- Iesser role in social change and other factors like
of-life issues such as having a clean environment' schools, educational instifutions, science and technology
AccordingtoHabermasinhis'NewSocialMovements, and other natural factors play important role as
+i " following:
1981,', the new social movements are the 'new
politics' which is about quality of life, individual . Technological Factors: Industrial Revolution is such
self-realization and human rights like environment an example. In Ogburn's concept of 'culture lag'
related movements whereas the'old politics' focus technology has been an important factor in social
on economic, political, and military security. change.
 SOCIAL CHANGE IN MODERN SOCIETYAND DEVELOPMENT I 1S$
' Ideas and Values: New ideas and modification of . Political upheaval in the form of French Revolution
old ideas in a new context bring wide-scale giving rise to ideas of liberty, equality and freedom.
:liig":
in society. For example, Max Weber established . irrroi" also witnessed Renaissance giving rise to
thatrationalizationof religiousideasbroughtabout thought modernity ancr commercial and scientific
phenomenal change in Protestant world'
revolution. This led to a new social order as
' Education: It is the most powerful instrument of traditionai institutions like y'oint families were
social change because education fulfils the needs of replaced by new institutions like nuclear families.
society and propagates such ideas which promote
social chang" lritt t"tar of life. Education ir"rur", However, Europe was not the only place where mo*
ground for-the advent of social change. M;y;;;;; dernity developed as:
evils like Sati, child marriage etc. were largely British brought modernity to India. leading to
banished from Indian society due to education.
- ' modernization of indian trariition, u. utgrr*J by
. Economic Factors: According to Karl Marx, true social Yogendra Singh.
change in form of communist revolution can come ' American Society also witnessed modernity due
onlybychangeineconomicinfrastructure.Discovery to outflow o{ ideas from Europe to United States.
of oil in Middle East, rise of industrialization ani Currently American society is the epitome of
capitalism are some of examples. Globalization of modernity with a democratit go,r".rrr"r-tt, secular
economies is the most recent example. and an industrial capitalist society.
' Environmental and Physical Factors: Early ' Countries like China, tr{.ussia too have ttndergone
civilizations were mostly situated in flood ptaini. selective modernisation in economic sphere leading
Village life is drastically changed by Tsunami. No-- to their high economic growth.
a-days global warmingalso looms large which may Thus, although modernity emerged in Europe but
bring multiplicities of change. it diffuserl to other parts of the worii leading to nrhat
' Social Movements and Change: Social movements Eisenstadt calls 'Multiple modernities'.

il"':;-::i'Ji:i3:?##::'#ff:'J;':iJ#i a. Criticauv examine rhe contribution or

institutions, culture relaiionships and traditio", oi dependency theories in understating the
the society. They also generate new identities and u pr"sent global scenario. (CSE 2021')
new perspective' Ans: Theotonio Dos Santos describes depender,ce as
inhumaninteractions "a situation in which the economy of certain countries
Thus, social change is changes
and relationships that transform cultural and social is conditioned by the development anci expansion
o{
institutions and multiple factors play an important role another economy to uzhich the former is subjected,,.
in bringing social change. Developgd countries over the years shaped their
a. Europe was the rirst_and the onry p1::yj::: il:ff* #:J$:ffiTiJ*::t=[,:#:T:?T"?"::;j""J
modernity emerged' Comment" (csE 2021) ;;;';por"d on newly liberated
nations after second
Ans: Modernity is associated r,r'ith the sweeping World War when many of them became independent.
-
changes that took place in the society-particularl! However, soon it was realized that their
conditions
social, economic and cultural changes including values were not improving and instead they
were facing a net
and norms that are universal in nature. It involves outflow of iesourc"es, stagnant leveis of poveriy
and
the breakdown of traditional society leacling to a new worse of all, a dependeniv on the western
countries.
rational society. This leads to rise of dependency theories.
According to Anthony Giddens, modernity is associ- - _Andre Gunder Frank in his book'Development
ated with features like: of Underdevelopment', argues that the contemporarv
o { certain set or attitudes towarcls the wortd, the idea ;lj"i?,:."_i:i#::t":iri"1'T
of the world as open to transformation, bv human }}:;;r":r.:;l;:',:;
intervention ;;;;;"".y that west has historically created and this
s iundamentally different from underdevelopment in
o I goqpl-ex of economic :
^- :- institutions, especially the true sense of the term.
industrial production and a market economy.
similarly, Immanuel wallerstein in his book ,The
' + certain range of political institutions, including Modern worta System' argues that the modern world
the nation-state and mass democracy' system is essentially capilalist in nature. process of
All these features were first witnessed in Europe as: exploitation during cotoniat period produced a world
' Europe underwent Intellectual Revolution with system made up of core, semi-periphery and periphery"
thinkers like Paine, Locke giving the concepts of World-system refers to the international division o{
democracy, humanism and rationality. labour in unequal terms.
200 ii'.' soclolocY e &A

Core forms the exploitative capitalist class on a COVID-19 also led to alienation and depression
global level. Core countries focus on higher skill, capital- among people and people felt a need to connect to the
intensive production, and the rest of the world focuses divine. Through digital media and TVs people could
on low-skill, labor-intensive production and extraction watch various religious programmes which gave them
of raw materials. psychologicai relief.
In the present context, dependency theorists also Families which were living apart could connect to
highlight the stalling of talks at WTO over issues each other through online media. This was important to
like agricultural subsidies as a symbol of Western prevent distress and panic among people.
vested interests in promoting an unequal global trade Science and technology also had negative impacts
framework. Other manifestations of the dependency during COVID-19 as could be seen from instances of hate
culture include unequal trade relations giving birth to and bigotry on social media against min9rities, people of
sweatshops in developing countries, issues with climate
colour, womery etc. During COVID-19 instances of'drug
finance and technology transfer, etc.
trafficking using internet, child pornography, digital
Gunnar M1'rdal in his work "Asian Dramai An
addiction harre also reported to be increased.
trnquiry into the Poverty of Nations' contends that
cleveloprnental deficit cannot be completely attributed Due to COVID-19, it is also being observed-that
to dependency, but its major causes are value deficit due to digital divide between,men-women, rural- urban
and institutiernal inadequacies in third world countries. areas, and the consequent unequal access to digital
Amartya Sen critiques dependency theory and services, the socio-economic inequalities in the society
argues that third world countries have benefited from have further increased.
technology transfers and revolutionary changes in Thus the response to the COVID-19 pandemic, with
social sectors like health, education and communication. emergence of new variants like Omicron, requires a far
They harze achieved results in a matter of a decade, more coliaborative relationship between scientists and
what developed countries achieved in centuries, e.g. policymakers, and the fruits of scientific research shared
development of China. equitably among people, communities and countries.
Dependency theorists also {ail to account for the
rapid econornic development of Latin Discuss the importance and sources of
American countries like Brazil, Mexico and counkies
a.
hypothesis in social research. (CSE 2020)
like China, qtc.
The dependency theories have various limitations Ans: A hypothesis is a tentative statement, which
and they do not provide any substantive empirical formulates a precise and definite relation between two
evidences to support their arguments. But they can or more variables. It is an untested statement which
help us understand various new issues like the vaccine awaits validation" It states the objective of a research
availability gap between the core and periphery. and telle what a researcher is looking for. It can also be
defined as a conjecture or an educated guess based upon
a. Describe the role of Science and Technology previouslv accumulated knowledge about a given state
in enabling us to face the challenges triggered of affairs put in concrete terms to provide the basis for
by the CCJVID-19 pandemic? (CSE 2021) empirical testing.
Ans: Science and technology has played a key Upon validatiory a hypothesis may yield a theory,
role in enabling people to respond to the COVID-19 concept or generalization etc. Hypothesis^should
pandemic and the unprecedented socio-economic crisis reasonably show the interconnectedness between two or
it has triggeled. more variables. For example * a researcher obsewes that
In healthcate, science and technology was 'number of marital breakdolt'ns' goes up as one observes
instrumental in saving lives and preventing the spread 'rise in annual total family income' ot 'crime rates' ate
of virus through vaccinations, and scientific policy higher in'slums' than in other parts of urban areas.
inputs like lockdowns, etc. It also helped in providing A hypothesis will aim at finding interconnectedness
health services for other ailments through measures like between the tw'o variabies mentioned in the sentence.
telemedicine, online health consultancy and delivery of Sources of a hyrpothesis are - existing theoretical
medicines, etc. propositions, corrunon sense, existing base of knowledge,
Science and technology was also instrumental in the resemblance between the phenomenon, general
coping up with the learning loss caused by the closure of
patterns that influenc'e the thinking process of people,
schools and colleges by shifting the education to digital
scientific theories, observations from past studies,
format using laptops, mobile phones, television, etc.
present-day experiences and from, the competitors etc.
Organisations across the globe adopted the policy of
'Work from home'. This helped in sustaining economy In sociological research, various factors may affect
and prevented massive job losses especially in formal a hypothesis testing like - subject effect in terms of
service sector. passiveness of subject, placebo effect, observer effect
 SOCIAL CHANGE IN MODERN SCIGIETY AND DEVELOPMENT I 201
like Hawthorne effect, etc. According to interpretivists, but of an antagonism that emanates from the individuals
scientific hypotheses cannot be formulated in sociology social conditions of existence - but the productive forces
as they are likely to be contaminated by the valu,es of developing within berurgeois society create also the
investigators. Further, due to the changing nature of material conditions for a solution of this antagonism.
individuals and social circumstances, they can also not Max Weber and Karl Marx have two different
provide generalized results or true cause and effect approaches to the conflict theory. Marx supports the
relations. ideas of deviance, clairning that individuals choose to
The hypotheses when tested are "either proved engage in such rebellious and conflicting behaviour as
or disproved and in turn constitute further tests of the a response to the inequalities of the capitalist system.
original theory." Thus the hypothetical type of verbal Weber discusses the conflict of stratification and its
proposition forms the link between the empirical effects on power in society. FIe stresses property,
propositions or facts and the theories. The validity of prestige, and power as the main influences to the
a theory can be examined only by means of scientific conflicting behaviours of groups in society.
predictions or experimental hypothesis. Thus, Marx' dynamic model of society is based
upon following prooositions - a continuous change in
t
a. How does Marx view social conflict as an the forces and relations of production in response to
essential element in social change? (CSE 2020) changing material conditions; a continuous struggle
Ans: Social conflict is the struggle for agency or between two classes till capitalism and its resolution
power in society. Social conflict occurs when two or in sociaiism and communisrni a continuous struggle
more actors oppose each other in social interaction, between man and nature throughout history will be
each exerts social power with reciprocity in an effort
resolved in communism; a continuous struggle to
to achieve incompatible goals whilst preventing the resolve the contradictions of previous stage through
process of dialectic; a continuous struggle between being
other from attaining their own. It is a social relationship
wherein action is intentionally oriented to carry out the and social being that will end in communisui.
actor's own will despite the resistance of others.
In the Critique of the Political Economy Marx a. Critique A.G. Frank's 'development of
writes: In the social production of their existence, underd/eveloprnent'. (CSE,20L9l
men inevitably'enter into definite relations, which are Ans: Andre Gunder Frank in his book -
independent of their will, namely the economic structure 'Development of Underdevelopment, 1966' argues that
of society, the real foundatiory on which arises a legal in fact the contemporary underdevelopment of Latin
and political superstructure and to which correspond American countries and AJro-Asian countries is a result
definite forms of social consciousness. The mode of of artificial {epender-rcy that West has historically created
production of material life conditions the general process and this underdevelopment is fundamentally different
of social, political and intellectual life" It is not the from un-developrnent. Colonialism and capitalism led
consciousness of men that determines their existence, but to a complex integration of colonies into the world
their social existence that determines their consciousness. economy in a subservient manner.
At some stage of development, the material According to him, though Adarn Smith perceived
productive forces of society come into conflict 'n ith global trade to be based on principles of equ4lity,
P the existing relations of production or - this merely powerfuX rich countries impose unequal terms in the
expresses the same thing in legal terms - with the name of free trade and developmental help. Surplus
property relations within the framework of which they by trade and industriaiization is taken away by the
have operated hitherto. From forms of der.elopment developed countries and multinationals.
of the productive forces these relations turn into their His theory of dependency was criticized by liberals
fetters (legcuffs). Then begins an era of social revolution. rvho term this theory as simplistic and suffering from
The changes in the economic foundation lead sooner ideoiogical biases" Gunnar Myrdal contends that
or later to the transformation of the whole immense developmental deficit cannot be completely attributed
superstructure. to dependency, but its major causes are yalue deficit
In broad outline, the Asiatic, ancient, feudal and institutional inadequacies in third world countries.
and modern bourgeois modes of production malr bg Another principal criticisrn of dependency theories has
designated as epochs marking progress in the economic been that the schooi does not provide any substantive
development of society. empirical evidence to support its arguments.
The bourgeois mode of production is the last Dependency theorists also fail to account for the
antagonistic form of the social process of production - rapid economic development of many East Asian
antagonistic not in the sense of individual antagonism economies and even Latin American countries like
202 i:: soclolocY Q & A
Brazll, Mexico, etc. Amartya Sen also rejects dependency modern. Thus, Tonnies, Durkheim, Weber and Marx
theory and argues that third world countries have predicted the character of modern society by using
benefited from technology transfers and revolutionary concepts of orientation of societies, division of labour
changes in social sectors like - health, education and and class struggle, etc.
communication. They have achieved results in a matter
of a decade, what developed countries achieved in Q. What is affirmative action? Substantiate
centuries. theoretical positions on affirmative actions
Despite criticism, AG Frank's theory gave different with example. (CSE-20L9)
perspective in studying the prevalence of inequalities
Ans: Affirmative action is a policy or a program
at a global level.
providing advantages for people of a minority group
who are seen to have traditionally been discriminated
a. How well do you think Tonnies, Durkheim,
against, with the aim of creating a more egalitaiian
Weber and Marx predicted the character of society through preferential access to education,
Modern society? Critique. (CSE,2019) employment, healthcare, social r.velfare, etc. For example,
Ans: Social change has been defined by sociologist in India reservation for SC, ST, and OBC in governm-ent
Wilbert Moore as'a significant alteration in structure jobs and educational institutions is a type o{ affirmative
over time in trehavior patterns and culture, including action in order to provide equality of opportunities to all.
norms and values'. A. R. Desai approached the idea of state from
Theories of social change can be classified in terms Marxist perspective and hence, he was more interested
of nature change that ,is viewed by the sociologists. in the capitaiist state. In an essay called'The Myth of the
Change is r.iewed by some as linear, some view it in Welfare State', Desai argued that an ideal welfare state
cyclical manner, some view it in form of waves - growth has three core features - it is democratic, it is a mixed
and decay, some view it in the form of spiral - ever economy, and it is a positive state rather than a laissez
expanding, postmodernists on the other hand don't faire state i.e. it intervenes positively when things go
attribute a fixed pattern to change. out of hand. But according to him, welfare states around
Tonnies - a German sociologist - used Gemeinsch#t the world have failed on these counts as they have
and Gesellschaft to account for the same phenomena. not been able to remo\.e poverty, reduce income gaps,
These two social groups exist due to the existence of two eliminate social discrimination, check the capitalist greed
types of will viz. * 'Essential will' and 'Arbitrary will'. and provide employment for all. For these reasons, he
Essential r,r,ill is associated with peasants and artisans, termed idea of welfare state as a myth and according to
iarhile Arbitrary will is associated with businessmen, him, in practice only a capitalist state exists.
scientists, political class, etc.
People of groups belonging to the first type of a. Explain with examples, the explanatory and
will are cailed Gemeinschaft or community and those exploratory designs of social research.
associated with the latter are called Gesellschaft or (csE,2018)
society. Societies also evolve from Gemeinschaft to
Ans: Research Methodology is a wider term given
Gesellschaft.
to entire process of sociological research which includes
Marx (Conflict Theory) too viewed history as specific research methods (like questionnaire, samples,
moving in a dialectic pattern. F{owever, for him the
etc), research design, data, assumptions and logic. It
prime mover was materialism and not idealism. He
is guided by sociological researcher's conception of
represented his evolutionary model into form of 6 modes
relation between man and society.
of production" According to Marx, Class Struggle is the
So, research methodology will be conceived
driving force behind social change. Real social change
differently by different researchers, say, functionalists,
occurs only when there is a revolution leading to the
interpretativists, positivists and so on. \zVhile a positivist
establishment of communism.
researcher will lean more towards quantitative
Durkheim explained the modernity with the
techniques, a non-positivist researcher will incline
evolution of division of labor, he employed an
towards qualitative methods. More often than not,
evolutionary perspective. In primitive societies, division
mixed methods are used now-a- days.
of labor is very low and in rnodern societies it is very
high. He also argued that in modern societies, religion Further, research methodology or research design has
will have lesser importance. following basic types-
Weber predicted the character of modernity on the Exploratory Research Design-It is a study of new
basis of social actions and argued that societies with phenomenon. Exploratory research is characterized
Zweckrational Social Action will be more advanced and by its flexibility. When a problem is broad and not
 SOCIAL CHANGE IN MODERN SOGIETYAND DEVELOPMENT I 203
specifically defined, the researchers use exploratory o To protect consumers, especially children, from
research as a beginning step. Exploratory studies are harmful content.
valuable means of understanding what is happening r To accurately and impartially report news.
around us; to seek new insights; to ask questions and r To educate audiences so that they can make
to assess phenomenon in a new light. Exploratory informed decisions about political issues.
research has the goal of formulating problems more Some sociologists like Gerbner, have focussed on
precisely, clarifying concepts, gathering explanations, representations of violence in certain types of media
gaining insight, eliminating impractical ideas and and suggest that these contribute to violent crimes and
forming hypotheses. Literature research, survey, focus anti-social forms of behaviour in real life.
group and case studies are usually used to carry out
Some feminist sociologists Dworkin, Morgan, etc.
exploratory research. An exploratory research may have suggested that the consumption of pornography
develop hypotheses, but it does not seek to test them.
which is now easily accessible through media, is harmftrl
Explanatory Research Design- When the focus is on in terms of encouraging sexual violence and negative
cause-effect relationships, the study can be explanatory
attitudes towards women. The world is shrinking into a
explaining which causes produce rt hich effects" Our 'global village', and mass media is playing a major role
concern in casual analysis is how one variable affects, in it. However, the technology should be utilized for the
or is responsible for changes in another variable. The maximum good of the people.
stricter interpretation of causatidn is that some external
factor produces a change in the dependent variable. a. Examine any two theories of social change in
Explanatory research which is grounded in theory detail. (CSE,2017)
is another research purpose type, and the theory is Ans: Social change is an alteration in the social
created to answer why and how questions" We are order of a society. Social change may include changes
more interested in understanding, explaining, predicting in nature, social institutions, social behaviours, or social
and controlling relationships between variables than relations. Social change may refer to the notion of social
we are in detecting causes. Explanatory studies go progress or socio-cultural evolution, the philosophical
beyond description and attempts to explain reasons for idea that society moves forward by dialectical or
phenomenon that the descriptive study only observed. evolutionary means.
In an explanatory study, the researcher uses theories or Some Theories of Social Change
hypotheses to represent the forces that caused a certain c Classical Evolutionist Theory
phenomenon to occur. For example Durkheim used the o Diffusionist or Classical Diffusionist Theory
cause-effect relationship in explaining suicide. o Economic/Conflict Theory of Change
Therefore, various research methods can be used o Functionalist Theory of Change
for explaining social phenomenon and researchers try o Sorokin's Cyclic/Oscillating Theory of Change
to bring objectivity by using suitable methods. Here we will examine deeply about the Diffusionist
Theory and the Oscillating Theory of change.
a. Assess the role of mass media as an agent of 1. Diffusionist or Classical Diffusionist Theory
social change. (C5E,2017)
Diffusion refers to change that result in a society
Ans: Mass media includes print media (newspapers, as a result of borrowing of cultural traits from.the
magazines, comics, books), The audio-visual media society or culture. M J Herzkowitz accepted the model
(television, radio, cinema, music) to the 'new media'- of cultural diffusion. According to him, there can be 2
Internet, mobile'phones, social media, etc. kinds of processes of cultural exchange- Acculturation
From a pluralist viewpoint (Pluralism is a label and Transculturation.
applied to theories of the media) modern capitalist o Acculturation: If the cultural contact is asymmetrical
societies are democratic; all interest groups are given - one culture is dominant while the other culture
a platform to express their views. The mass media is is submissive, then the flow of cultural traits
seen as essential component of this ideal, as most people is primarily from the dominant culture to
obtain their knowledge about politics from newspapers the subordinate culture, this process is called
and television. In the pluralist perspective, mass media Acculturation. For example, Due to British rule,
performs the following roles: there was massive westernization of Indian way of
o To provide quality programming with particular life, an asymmetrical relationship.
emphasis on giving the audience access to the arts. o Transculturation: Transculturation is the process
o To protect vulnerable programme types such as in which the cultural contacts are symmetrical,
news, documentaries, children's pro gramming and example-trade ties.There can be contra-acculturation
drama. too with the synthesis of various cultural traits.
204 1:,:::i: SOCIOLOGY e & A

2. Sorokin's Cyclic Theory of Change L. Innovation: It is a form of the technological

Sorokin starts with his basic perspective known advance, and the accumulation of a number of
as 'Integralist Perspective'. He developed a concept diverse innovations is brought together in the form
known as socio-cultural systems. These systems of an artefact.
transcend particular societies. He says every socio- 2. Accumulation: Number of innovations is combined,
cultural system is woven around a meaning element its dispersal depends on whether it satisfies the
or a theme known as a Weltanschauung. According needs of the people or it is user-friendly or it doesn't
to him every socio-cultural system shares a common go against the core value of the culture.
Weltanschauung. According to him, there are three types 3. Diffusion: \z\rhen it is diffused, it acts as a source of
of Weltanschauung: change.
o Sensate Weltanschauung (reality can be known He explained that Technology creates.alternatives,
through sensory observations) by providing alternative ways to achieve'goals, it brings
o Ideational Weltanschauung (Based on supra-sensory about change. Every technology to be absorbed needs a
{aith and intuition) social support system; this produces a change reaction,
o Idealistic Weltanschauung (Sensate and ideational Ogburn called it'The Domino Effect'.
rationally synthesize together) Science and Technology.in the process of social
According to Sorokin, these three Weltanschauungs change directly or indirectly affects so many social
formed the basis of entire socio-cultural systems and in processes like Industrialisation, Urbanisation, Migration,
this way the socio-cultural systems keep moving from Modernisation, Development of means of Transport and
one to another; hence the process of change in society is Communication, Changes in social institutions, Cultural
not linear but cyclical according to Sorokin. Lag, and many more. Hence, technology leads to drastic
transformation in society.
a. Critically analyse the role of science and
technology in bringing about social change. a. "Social conflict is both a cause and a
(csE,2077\ consequence of social change". Explain.
Ans: Technology refers to the rationally designed (csE,2015)
tools and the procedures adopted for procuring Ans: Social change is broadly defined as the
and using these tools. Technology is as old as the transformation bf cultural, economic, political and social
man himself. But, today science and technology are institutions and relationships over time. Population
considered to go hand-in-hand, because today the growth is a major source of social change as societies
tools that'are produced, out of scientific knowledge are evolved from older to modern times. Culture and
considered more efficient, therefore science forms the technology are other sources of social change. Changes
basis for all the technologies now. in culture can change technology; changes in technology
Views of Sociologists on Technology and Social Change can transform culture; and changes in both can alter
Science and Technology has been seen as an other aspects of society.
important motive force for social change. Morgan, Social change results from social conflict, including
a Classical Evolutionist from America, believed wars, ethnic conflict, efforts by social movements
technology is the prime mover of change. He identified to change society, and efforts by their opponents to
three stages of human society: (1) Savagery (2) Barbarism maintain the status quo. The immediate impact that wars
(3) Civilization. have on societies is obvious, as the deaths of countless
numbers of soldiers and civilians over the ages have
Each stage is marked by advances in Technology.
affected not only the lives of their loved ones but also
Karl Marx was influenced by Morgan. He said the course of whole nations. To take just one of many
changes in society are triggered by the changes in the examples, the defeat of Germany in World War I led to
forces of production, and technology is seen as one of a worsening economy during the next decade that in
the important forces of production. turn helped fuel the rise of Hitler.
Although Marxist theory was not about tpchnological An important aspect of social change is cultural lag,
determinism but the initial stimulus to change comes a term popularized by sociologist William F. Ogburn.
due to the changes in the technology. When there is a change in one aspect of society or
William Ogburn was influenced by Karl Marx and culture, this change often leads to and even forces a
Austin Weblen. Weblen first gave the ideas of leisure change in another aspect of society or culture. However,
class. Combining the ideas, he said that there are various often some time lapses before the latter change occurs.
stages in the role of technology in bringing about social Cultural lag refers to this delay between the initial social
change. They are as follows: change and the resulting social change.
 SOCIAL CHANGE IN MODERN SOCIETY AND DEVELOPMENT I 205
Tension and con{lict in a society produce change. all of the world religions, from Judaism through Islam,
Karl Marx saw class conflict as the engine that drives whereas Durkheim's theories were sweeping and more
societies from one historical era to another. Social class general to mankind as a whole and were primarily
has been considered by Marx as a means to social based on the study of the Totemism of early Australian
change. The two classes identified were the capitalists Aboriginal religion. He believed that the study of
and the workers. Both these classes are based on early religious behaviour provided the key to its social
inequality. Social classes are located in the different purpose.
relationships of people to the means of production. Clearly a major difference between Weber and
The relationships become important if a group becomes Durkheim in the area of religion relates to their
conscious and organized for action. individualistic versus holistic theories, respectively.
Out of these two groups capitalists oppose social Weber's ideas were centered on the personal willful
change, whereas the workers want to change the society. action of each individual in response to the religious
According to Marx the conflict between the two classes is beliefs of the society in which that individual participated
a means to social change. The two classes cannot remain and was dependent on. Weber's "religious individual"
in conJlict for all the time. The conflicting situation has acted for his own betterment in order to receive favour
to be resolved, and whatcver the 'give and take' for in the eyes of god and rewards in the afterlife, and it was
resolving the conflict, the ne'r.l'situation will be different his moral duty to do so. For Durkheim, social solidarity
from the previous one a social change new relationships. was the basis of his sociological study of religion. Rather
than a willful act, Durkheim's "religious individual"
a. How is Durkheim's theory of religion different acted in an almost mechanical way to the powerful
from Max Weber's theory of religion? effect of group religious ritual. Durkheim supposed that
(csE,2016) the purpose of religion is not to make us think about
the nature of this world or the "other world" but it is
Ans: A comparison of the views of Max Weber rather to tell us how to act and how to live in society,
and Emil Durkheim in the area of religion and its role in the real world.
in shaping social behaviour and history shows that the For Durkheim religion was not divinely or
two thinkers have a different method, language, and supernaturally inspired but was. in fact a product of
resulting theory.ilt is made more interesti.g by looking at society. For Durkheim the answer was solidarity, both
the upbringing and religious orientation of each thinker, mechanical (individual feeling of commonality with
Weber being the Protestant Christian and Durkheim the the group) and organic (created authority figures and
agnostic. Weber's focus was on the individual and their moral norms, social control and purpose). His idea
relationship with their god, Durkheim focusing on the of mechanical and organic solidarity was certainly
effects of religion as a group activity. Weber focused not limited'to religion however the principle shows
on the economic effects, Durkheim, the moral. For itself clearly in religious.aspects of life. In contrast to
Durkheim religion involves a more mechanical social Durkheim's concepts of reiigion as society's way of
participation, but for Weber the motive of the individual creating order through moral regulation, Weber, on
with regard to religious activity was key. Weber argued the other hand, saw that the religious experience was
that it was rewards in the afterlife that drove religious a highly individual one and argued that men drew
behaviour but for Durkheim religion was a "real world" subjective meaning to life through personal religious
thing, the upholder of social solidarity. experience. Weber saw the great world religions as
Both Weber and Durkheim pursued the study of establishing a more universal God and relied on ideas
religion as a scientific study. Durkheim's "science" of heaven and hell to ensconce its social effect rather
focused on the moral effects of religion on real life than the Totemic spirits, studied by Durkheim, which
social behaviour, and extended this to the philosophical objectified moral values.
and even psychological realm as he studied group So as we have seen, Durkheim believed that the
religious behaviour but it is clear the Weber focused on study of early "simple" religion, specifically Australian
the effects of religion on the economics aspects of life Aboriginal Totemism was the key to understanding
and the historical development of economic systems. religious behaviour but Weber studied the historical
Durkheim argued that repetitive religious ritual had development of world religion stretching from ]udaism
a "conditioning" effect on the individual, which made and Christianity to Hinduism, Buddhism, Con{ucianism
i1
the individual feel part of the group and behave in and Islam.
ways conducive to the survival of the group. As a Durkheim focuses on the moral and social
result religion created the moral basic of society and implications, whereas Weber saw religion through the
held society together on a fundamental level. Weber's development of economic systems. Moral regulation
theories of religion were more contextual, as he analyzed and social solidarity versus the moral obligation of
 206 ':::"::'| soclolocY Q&A

hard work and productivity through the accumulation refers to the spread of new forms of non-territorial
of wealth. The power of the group religious experience social activity.
versus the individual and his God. "God as society" While increasingly reduced barriers in regard
versus "God and the afterlife". Rather than seeing only to international commerce and communication are
the opposing views of Durkheim and Weber in the sometimes seen as a potential threat to nation-states,
area of religion perhaps it is possible to see the unity of these trends have existed throughout history. Air
these two worldviervs. They both have clear elements of and sea transportation that made same-day travel to
truth and including all the ideas presented above could other continents possible and greatly expanded trade
enhance any true sociological understanding. among countries did not abolish the sovereignty of
individual nations. Instead, globalization is a force that
a. Explain the relevance of the idea of 'cultural changed the way nation-states deal with one another,
lag' in understanding social change. particularly in the area of internatiorial commeice.
(csE, 2015) Historically, national identity was'territorialized,' tied
Ans: Cultures provide a condition for resistance to a particular geographical space by the ways state
to change. The term cultural lag refers to the notion practices made national territory into an administrative
that culture takes time to catch up with technological space of supervision, authoritv and control and giving
innovations, and that social problems and conflicts are it a national identity. Thrrs, in a nation-state - the
caused by this lag. nation gives state space a name and cultural resonance,
It is the tendency of material culture to evolve and and the state territorializes national territory. Though
change rapidly while non-material culture tends to resist deterritorialization may manifest itself in many social
change and remain fixed for a far longer period of time. spheres, geographical location remains crucial for many
Cultural lag creates problems for a society in undertakings.
different ways. Technology is advancing and the
social institutions are lagging and not following the a. I[ushate the conflicts and tensions experienced
changes. This creates disharmony in their mutual by societies undergoing social change.
organization. Cultural lag is seen as a critical ethical (csE 2013)
issue because failure to develop broad social consensus Ans: Social change is long term change in the
on appropriate uses of modern technology may lead social, cultural, political and ideological components
to breakdowns in social solidarity and give the rise to of the society. Because of globalization, urbanization
social conllict. For example, for controlling population, and industrialization there is free flow of ideas and
many effective contraceptive devices such as condoms, goods happening across the cultures. In this way the
lUDs, diaphragms, foams, jellies and birth control pills old traditional ideas are giving way to new ideas. Thus,
have been developed, but these have not been adopted there exists a situation of flux where new problems are
in some cultures because they are inconsistent with their coming into the picture. Therefore, the social change is
societal or religious values and beliefs. the result of problems Created, solution aspired and a
conservative reaction to the change.
a. Globalization involves deterrito ria-lization." Consider India first, the traditional social order
Examine with reference to the nation state. was characterized by caste and gender inequalities
(csE,2015) backed up by religion. But, with the advent of Britislu
Ans: Globalization is generally recognized as the new ideas of equality and freedom arrived. Finally,
fading or complete disappearance of economic, social and we gave to ourselves a forward looking and modern
cultural borders between nation-states. The contemporary constitution which is a major driver of social change.
analysts associate globalization with deterri toriaLization, Today, inequalities basecl on caste are giving way to
accorcling to which a growing variety of social activities inequalities based on class. Untouchability has become
takes place irrespectirre of the geographical location of a thing of past atleast in urban areas. Women are
participants via telecommunicatiory digital computers, getting empor.r,ered and are asserting themselves and
audiovisual media, rocketry etc. Business people challenging the traditional patriarchal authority. Family
on different continents now engage in electronic system is changing from joint to nuclear. Nationalism
commerce; academics make use of the latest rzideo is challenging the regional identity of people leading
conferencing equipment to organize seminars with to protests for separate states. Unplanned and rapid
participants across the world; the Internet allows urbanization is leading to more ciiminal activities
people to communicate instantaneously with each other in the cities. We had witnessed various movements
notwithstanding vast geographical distances separating such as hackward class movement, dalit movement,
them. In this initial sense of the term, globalization environmental movement and ethnic movements.
 SOCIAL CHANGE IN MODERN SOC!ETYAND DEVELOPMENT I 207
Because of secularization and assertion of religious pass through stages of change, starting and often ending
bodies is leading to communalism in the society. with the same stage.
Naxalism is the direct result of poor governance and This passing through stages is called a cycle. The
mismanaged globalization in the country. Various cycle when completed, repeats itself over and over
environmental conflicts and pressure groups are again. Sorokin's theory is based on the principle of
challenging the western model of development. immanent socio-cultural change. Sorokin also makes
Therefore, a rapid social change is happening in Indian a distinction between three broad types of culture*
society. ideational, idealist and sensate-which he conceives
In USA, there are social inequalities based on race. as succeeding each other in cycles. Ideational culture
Race is overlapping with poverty leading to inequality. is spiritualistic, mystical and indeterminate. Sensate
Capitalism combined with economic recession is culture is the realm of science and of direct sensory
affecting the lives of people. In Britain, we witnessed experiences
the riots by underclass where they looted the grocery Idealistic culture has certain characteristic of both
shops for food. There are even food riots in few countries the ideational and sensate cultures. These three types
including Somalia where people are dying of hunger. of cultures are looked upon as three views of reality
South Africa is going through a big social change. that change according to the two principles mentioned
Now, blacks are asserting themselves in every sphere. above. Sorokin's work is especially noteworthy not
Today, violence is rampant in South Africa as blacks only because it contains a mass of historical analogies
have still not got their proper rights. Recently, black and comments on particular social transformations, but
miners were shot down by police as they were also because it saw societies as'changing' rather than
demanding more wages. In Pakistan, a rapid and uneven necessarily progressing or decaying.
change is happening.
Thus, social change is happening in every society. a. Development and Dependency (CSE,2011)
To make it more peaceful and enduring, this change
Ans: This notion arose around 1970 as a reaction
must happen in a slow and acceptable manner.
to modernisation theory which held that all societies
progress through similar stages of development, that
a. Critically examine the cultural theories of today's underdeveloped areas are thus in a similar
social chahge with suitable examples. situation to that today's developed areas at sometime
(csE,2013) in the past.
Ans: Social change is defined as the alteration of Therefore the task in helping the under developed
mechanisrris within the social structure characterized areas out of poverty is to accelerate them along this
by changes in cultural symbols, rules of behavior, social supposed common path of development by various
organizations and value systems. Various theories of means such as investment, technology transfers and
social change are as follows : closer integration to the world market.
(i) Evolutionary Theory: The notion of social Proponent of dependency theory argued that under
evolution was taken from the theories of biological developed countries are not mereiy primitive versions
evolution. Spencer propounded an analogy between of developed countries but have unique features and
social and organic growth and between society and structures of their own. But the critics of this concept
organization. The theories of social evolution are argued in opposition to free market economists and
composed of one or more of the following principles argued that under cleveloped countries needed to reduce
- change, order, direction, progress and perfectibility. their connectedness with the world market so that they
Comte proposed a directional theory of society. can pursue a path more in keeping with their own
He suggested that a society evolves from a theological needs less dictated by external pressures i.e. developed
orientatiory to a metaphysical orientation to a positivistic countries.
orientation. Durkheim classified societies into simple Dependency theory is a body of social science
societies united by similarity of their members, theories also predicted to the notion that resources flow
(mechani.cal solidarity) and complex societies based from a periphery of poor and under developed states to
on specialization and functional interdependence of a core of wealthy states and enriching the wealthy states
members (organic solidarity). This also suggests a at the expense of the poor state and poor states are also
directional evolutionary pattern. The criticism of this becoming dependent on rich states or developed states
type is that it is sometimes difficult in evolutionary for their development requirements.
theory to differentiate simple direction from progress. Hence the dependency of poor countries on
(ii) Cyclical Theory: The basic premise of the developed or rich countries increasing in terms of
cyclical theories is that the cultures and civilizations investment, technology, etc.
 208 i;, SocloLoGY Q & A
a. "Collective action in politics can bring Ans: A social movement is a sustained collective effort
integration and disintegration in society" that focuses on some aspect of social change. According to
Comment. (CSE,2011,) M.S.A. Rao, a social movement essentially involves sustained
collective mobilisation through either in-formal or formal
Ans: The literal meaning o coltrective action is
organisation and is generally oriented towards bringing
doing anything as a group such as implementing
about change in the existing system of relationships.
agreements. Collective action also involves public choices
in setting of standards of social integration and provision of There are mainly three prerequisites for a social movement:
public goods through the collaboration of individuals. This (i) Collective organisation: The basic functional
also describes the situation in w-hich multiple individuals requirements of a social movement are an ability
would be benefitted from certain action. Public goods are to mobilise human and material resources, to exert
often provided by governments in societies. external influence and mount resistance to counter
One of the abiding puzzles in the development pressures. Social movements are organised collective
economics is the remarkable failure of third world endeavours. Thus, the first important prerequisite is
governments and their large size population. There is its collective nature.
widespread agreement that collective participation is (ii) Organisational structure and leadership:
worthwhile. Micro studies estimate that the social and Organisational structure and leadership is another
private returns to public intervention in health and important aspect of a social movement. Distribution
primary education typically coriciucle that the net benefits
of task is required in every movement. These tasks
are substantial. In a study it has found that top ten major
are assigned to different persons and units of the
problems facing the country are related tr:r physical and
group depending upon personal qualities and
social inJrastructure. Many devel:ping countries iike
commitment of individuals. In this respect, some
India have had many years of relativeli. stable populist
kind of organisational structure emerges to fulfil
government but quality of infrastructure vet have the goals of a movement. When a persuasive leader
not been developed. Even public health and primary
leads a movement, support of masses tends to be
education is well developed in Srilanka"
spontaneous. Mahatma Gandhi's role in India's
This evidence of w,idespread failure is questioning freedom movement is a well known example in
the presumption that pupular control or dernocracy is this respect. Decentralised democratic leadership is
enough to make the state do what its people -,rrant and another important aspect. An elaborate organisational
a coffesponding shift to the view that we need to better
structure of local andregional units are veryimportant
understand the determinants of suecessful collective to strengthen the movement. These units are required
action at the local level. Specially a lot of attention has to be formed for mobilising the people communicating
been paid.to the question whether the social structure messages and implementing action plans.
of communities, defined in terms of the size and the
number of different social groups, has any influence on
(iii) Ideological frame work: A movement carurot keep
itself alive unless it develops its ideological frame
the provision of publicly provideel goods.
and identity. An ideology of a social movement
But there are several disintegrative problems related
explain and iustify its purpose and methods.
to collective action. First tastes might differ across sociatr
IVloreover, ideology also gives legitmacy to the
groups and as a resuit, a heterogenous communitv
action programmes of a movement. The ideological
may find it harder to articulate a common demand for
underpinnings provide the movement acceptablity
a shared good. These could be reflected in lower local
and recognition among the people at large.
contributions for these goods or political actirritv w-hich
Finally change orientation is another significant aspect
favours relatives to the cooperation.
of social movement as every social movement is directed
Second, even if everyone wants the seme public
towards some change according to its aims and objectives.
goods, people rnay have conflicting vielvs of hon
Social movement and revolution are both meant for
the private benefits associated with generation of the
bringing change in society. However, social revolution
public good should be shared and who should be
is concerned with rapid change in a society's political,
incharge of procurement, whose broth-er should get the
economic and stratification system and it takes place
construction contract, etc. It may be also possii:le that
through conflict. But social movement is a slow process of
community en{orcement machanisms are u,eaker in more
chanp;e which try to maintain the existing system or bring
heterogeneous communities and the agency aspects of
some changes in that. But social revolution overthrows
collective action would become more problematic. This
the existing set up of the society and inkoduces a new
t will cause disintegration of social mechanism.
mode. According to Lenin, social revolution is the
festival of oppressed. In words of peter kropotkin, social
a. Highlight prerequisites of social movement. revolution means reorganisation of industrial, economic
Bring out the differences between social and the entire structure of the society. For example, French
movement and revolution. (CSE,2011) Revolution, American Civil War, Russian revolution, etc.
 SOCIAL CHANGE IN MODERN SOCIETYAND DEVELOPIVIENT I 209
18. "Social support mechanism needs to be thousands of year ago. The impact of science is very visible
strengthened for effective irnplementation of on every aspect of society such as agriculture, medicine,
development programmes". Cornment. health care, telecommunications, transportations,
(csE,2011) computerisation and so on is part of our daily living.
Ans: Social development mechanism has been Technological advances such as automobiles,
airplanes, radio, television, cellular phones, computers
designed to help people who are in need of help-such
have brought major advances and changes to the world.
as elderly, rural poor, destitute women and childrery
Indeed the 21st century technology has completely or
physically disabled, mentally disturbed. Social support
irreversibly changed the way people meet, intelact, learrl
mechanism has been developed to take care of needs of
these people. This has been resuited in many benefits
work, do business.
for poor, women, physically and mentally disabled The technological information is also increasing
peoples. Several social support mechanisms working in exponentially and entire database of scientific knowledge
the country are health delivery system through ASHA doubling every severai years. This technological
in rural area, rural employment through MGNREGA, explosion is due to advances in comrnunication
etc. other private social support rnechanisms are like technology. Consequently, sociologists are concerned
community groups, NGOs, churches, etc. with how technological societies wilt be forced to adapt
Accredited Social Health Activist (ASHA) selected to social changes that improvement in technology *itt
from every village in the country wtro are trained to continue to bring. In the 1990s, people witnessed on
provide health facilities in rural areas are performing explosion of computer techaolog,v which has in turn led to
a change in how and where people work. The internet the
well all over the country. This social framework is also
a key component of the National Rural I{ealth Mission. largest computer network has revolutionised electronic
Mahatma Gandhi National RuraJ. Employment networking and the number of peopie using internet
Guarantee Programme also providing rural employment doubling annually.
and have been successful to some extent in reducing W.F. Ogburn has also analysed the impact of science
poverty all over the country. Variorrs hiGOs and other on society. He developed the concept of cr"ritural iag to
institutions working in the field of education, disabilities understand the inJluence of science on societ,v. According
related people also have been very helpful" The Nationai to him, science and technology is so rapiciiy advancin[
policy on older persons introduced by the government but societal change is not keeping pace with thai change
mandate state support to elderiy with regard to l-reaith consequently cultutal lag situation is occurring in society.
care, shelter and welfare and social security has been The internet has certainly provided new possibilities
made the concurrent responsibility of the central and the for society but also influencing cultural vaiues of society.
state governrflents. Global culture is now dominating over local crilture. The
The policy also recognises that older persons could value system of society is also changing. Critics have
render useful services in the famiiy and in the society. also argued that with advent of science and technology,
Regarding health care for the elderly, the goal of the policy crimes are increasing, cultural moral values are declining,
is to provide good #fordable health services. L-r this process consumerism is rising.
itenvisages to have the cooperative efforts of the public
health services and of the private health services and in this a. Distinguish between people heing socially
regard development of health insurance has been given high excluded and people excluding themselrles
priority. Mobile health sewices, special camps, ambulance socially in societies. (CSE,2010)
facilities are also being provided. Ait these social support
Ans: Exclusion is a 'sense of l-.eing' and not an entity
mechanism have been very crucial in implementing the
in itself. It is a continuum. People move Irom one end
government's social development progranunes in the field
of being socially exckrded to another end of exciuding
of education, health, rural employment, etc. Thus, there is
themselves socially. For poor, downtroddens, deviants,
need to strengthen them through proper management and
drop-outs, delinquents, vagrants, people from lower
financial support to make them efficient mecharrism of
caste or class, life is all about moving frorn one end of
development in the counhy.
the continuum to another. Poverty, the most abysmal
human experience leads to multiple forms of exclusion-
a. "Science and technology are rnajor forces economic, social, political, culturai, edrcational for the
accelerating the process of soeial change". poor rnan. He consequently'gets engulfed into a culture
Co.mment. (CSE,2011) of poverty characterised by strong feeling of marginality,
Ans: Though the modern science is relatively recent of helplessness, of dependence, a sense of resignation
origin having started with Galileo about 350 years ago and fatalism. They reject the societal norms , values,
but it has made rapid progress and have completely wavs to have a subculture of their own, a world of their
transformed outwardly the manner of our living. own. Robert K. Merton's'retreatists' also fa1l in the same
Human society has changed rapidXi, more in the category.
 210 $ socloLocYe&A
The term applies to psychotics, autists, pariahs, a. Shucture of a social movement. (CSE,2009)
outcasts, vagabonds, tramps, drug addicts, who abandon Ans: The term social movement was first used by
both the cultural goods as well as the institutionalised Saint Simon in France at the turn of the 18th century
means to achieve them. Finding themselves unable to to describe the social upheaval that emerged. It is an
cope, they'drop-out'of society, defeated and resigned organized effort to bring change or resist change in the
to their failures. Similarly, various sects and cults draw society. But these social movement are of great sociological
their membership lagely from the marginalized society. interest because they are a major source of social change.
In Peter Beyer's words, sects are "in tension with the layer These social movements have been classified on the basis
society and closed against it" of numeroug criteria such as nature of change intended,
nature of demands, groups and collectivities involved.
a. Analyse the social impact of market economy But Indian sociologists MSA Rao has classified social
on traditional societies. (CSE,20L0) rnovements into three types-Reformists, Transformatory
Ans: Introduction of market economy into hitherto and Revolutionary. Reformist movement is identified
traditional societies based only on subsistence to with the partial changes in value system and quality of
agriculture and simple division of labour completely relationship. Transformatory movements, on the other
changed the face of these societies. The production that hand, aimed at middle level .structural changes in the
was earlier meant basically for village consumption with traditional distribution of power. But revolutionary
little or no surplus became a rirarket driven process with movements lead to radical changes in the totality of social
emphasis on cash crops and surplus production. It is not and cultural systems. However, every social movements
that traditional societies did not have market presence. have some structural components such as-
They had markets with market values and principles. (i) Ideology- This is the very essential component of
Thus the relationships that were earlier characterized by social movement. A movement cannot keep itself
traditional, personal exchanges based on barter changed alive unless it develops its ideological framework. An
into contractual, impersonal and pecuniary ones based on ideology of a social movement relies ofl sets of ideas
cash. Market driven production also led to complex form that explain and justify its purpose and methods.
of division of labour based on specialization to increase It also articuiates aspirations and defines levels
productivity. Also old hierarchies driven by tradition and of expectations of the people. Ideology also gives
customs gavqway to new hierarchies based on class and legitimacy to the actionprograrnmes of a movement.
economic factors. The ideological underpinnings provide the movement
acceptability and recognition among the people at
A. Examine the social dimensions of displacement large. It also help to generate involvement to the
indtrced by development. (CSE,20L0) cause and becomes a rallying point to assemble
Ans: Development induced displacement is forcing people for collective gains. For example-the ideology
communities and individuals out of their homes, often of Grandhism and Marxism have influenced several
also their homelands, for the purpose of economic social and political movements in India.
development. It is a subset of forced migration. Though (ii) Leadership- Leadership is another important aspect
historically associated with construction of Dams, Hydro of a social movement. In every social movement
Electric projects or for irrigation purposes, it now seems to a persuasive leader called charismatic leader in
be triggered by many other activities like mining, creation sociological literature, leads a movement. Mahatma
of military installation, airports, industrial plants, weapon Gandhi's leadership in India's freedom movement
testing grounds, railways, conservation projects, etc. is a well known example in this respect.
Today, it is a major social problem, affecting multiple (iii) Organisational Structure- The organiz-ational
levels of human organizations, from tribal and village structure is another aspect of a social movement.
comrnunities to well developed urban areas. Because distribution of tasks is required in every
According to Michaei Cernea, a sociologist, who movement. These tasks are assigned to different
has researched development induced displacement persons and units of the group depending upon
and resettlement for the World Bank, points out that personal qualities and commitments of individuals.
being forcibly ousted from one's land and habitat In this manner, some kind of organizational
carries with it the risk of becorning poorer than before structure emerges to fulfil the goals of a movement.
displacement, since a significant portion of people don't In organizational'structure system of local and
il receive compensation for lost assets and lacking effective regional level units and branches are established to
assistance to re-establish themselves productively. Apart strengthen the movement. These units are required
from making people landless, homeless and margin alized, for mobilizing the people, communicating messages
these displacements have serious repercussions for school and implementing action programmes. But such
going children and also loss of civil rights or abuse of organizations are devised on the basis of movement's
human rights. aim and objective. rr
 CHAPTER PAPER.II

a. Highlight the significant features of A. R. ous exploitative mechanisms used by the British led
Desai's 'Dialectical Perspective' to study to unintentional unification o{ Indian society.
Indian Society. (CSE 2023) o He saw peasant struggle as a result of introduction
Ans: A. R. Desai is pioneer of the use of Marxist of new mode of production in Indian agriculture.
perspective of Indian society. His seminal work,sociai He attributes it to the introduction of an exploitative
Background of Indian Nationalism' generates a detailed capitalist system as a result, new classes emerge in
view of Indian society by using this perspective. agricu lture.
o He used the dialecticai-historical approach in under- Therefore, the "Dialectical Perspective', by A. R.
standing of Indian society. He understood society in Desai offers a thorough and analytical frarner,i oik for
terms of process of historical development in terms researching Indian society. It provides a sophisticated
of a dialectical materialist basis. grasp of the complexity of Indian society by higidighting
o the importance of economic considerations, class strife,
The study of productive relations is used to inter-
and social transformation.
pret social siructure and institutions. Indian soci-
ety is and its traditions are seen as influenced by
economic infrastructure i.e. culture is rooted in the a. Are Tradition and Modernity antithetical to
economic infrastructure. each other? Comment. (CSE 2023)
o The systemic view of Indian society is drawn after Ans: Tradition and modernity are sometimes
Marxist model. Desai highlighted the conkadictions viewed as opposing ideas, signifving tvl,o distinct
and con{Iicts present in India during the turbulent worlds-the ancient and the contemporary. But in the
decade of 1970s in wake of apparent failure of Indian setting, these two ideas coexist ancl interact in a
planned growth. His main focus areas were - state, dynamic fashion rather than being inherently opposed
nationalism, vlllage, peasant struggle, caste, etc. to one another.
o Villages evolved historically in the pre-British era The Relation between Tradition and Modernity
and it was a reiatively self-sufficient unit in eco- o Indian society exhibits coexistence of tradition and
nomic relations. It never had considerable exchange modernity in a number of areas, inclrrding social
relations with the outside world and relations structure, family, religion, and education. Ferr ex-
within the village were feudal in nature. ample, the modern nuclear family s-,,stern and the
o He saw the Jajmani system as an exploitative one. traditional joint family system coexist.
According to him, land revenue and tenure led to o Process of modernization of Inclian tradition
formation of new classes and a capitalist mode of started during British rule, but it was not a linear
production was introduced by the British. unidirectional process as it happened in \4/est, but
o He saw nationalism as a result of materialistic con- it also involved a dialectical relationship between
ditions created by the British. Exploitation leads modernity and tradition and modern was alsc tra-
.sq
to.unification of society as there is identification ditionalized in the process, though in less significant
of common enemy. Thus, instead of a pure socio- manner.
cultural explanation of rise of nationalism, he put o Modernization of tradition includes change irr tra-
forwards an economic explanation. ditional institutions, values and processes like caste,
o New means of communication like - Railways, family, kinship, political and social organization,
press, post office, etc. brought people together. Vari- religion and so on.
212 ::::"' SocloLoGY Q & A
o Literature and art made cultural and psychological o India's cultural heterogeneity is fundamental to the
impact. A new type of scientific and rational think- country's literature, music, dance, architecture, and
ing made ideological and value impact. Universal- arts. This rich legacy includes, but is not limited to,
ism, individualism and secularism questioned the traditional music traditions, unique food, and clas-
existing beliefs of hierarchy, particularism etc. In- sical Indian dance styles.
dustrialization and urbanization changed the social o Exposure to many religious and cultural perspec-
structure. tives can enhance one's intellectual development.
Flowever, in India, tradition and modernity do not It helps people develop critical thinking skills, em-
always live together. These inconsistencies frequently pathy, and a wider viewpoint, which helps them
serve as a catalyst for conflict and strain within society. comprehend the complexity of the human experi-
For example, the modern ideas of equality and social ence.
justice are incompatible with the ancient caste skucture. Even though many cultures cohabit peacefully in
The custom of child marriage also runs counter to the India, there are still a number of obstacles facing cultural
current law about the legal age of marriage. diversity. These include, among other things, language
M.N. Srinivas contends that "Sanskritization" and chauvinism, regionalism, and conflicts within communi-
"Westernization" are the processes driving modernity ties. If these problems are not resolved, India's national
in India. Westernization is the assimilation of western cohesion and cultural heterogeneity may be seriously
culture and ideals, whereas Sanskritization is the accep- jeopardized.
tance of upper caste rules and behaviors by the lower Cultural diversity is an essential component of
castes. According to him, social tensions and conJlicts India's societal structure. It is essential to fostering
are frequently the result of these processes. national integration and is the secret of India's unity in
Thus, by recognizing that modernity is not a diversity. However, in order to maintain and improve
universal phenomenon, the idea of "multiple cultural plurality, it is imperative that the difficulties it
modernities" was developed. Rather, it is formed by a encounters be addressed and that a mutually respectful
multitude of cultural, historical, and societal circum- and understanding culture be fostered among India's
stances, giving rise to a multiplicity of adaptations and many ethnic communities.
expressions. i
a. Critically examine Yogendra Singh's thesis
a. Examine the concept of 'Cultural Pluralism' on'Modernization of Indian Tradition'.
in the context of India's Unity in Diversity. (csE,2022)
(csE 2023)
Ans:,According to Yogendra Singh, modernization
Ans: A societal state in which groups from many is a form of cultural response, involving attributes which
cultures live side by side and appreciate one another's are basically universalistic and evolutionary; they are
differences is known as cultural pluralism. It's a theory pan-humanistic, trans-ethnic and non-ideological.
that supports the notion that distinct cultural identities Modernization of tradition includes change in
should be preserved by smaller groups living in bigger traditional institutions, values and processes like caste,
societies.
family, kinship, political and social organization, reli-
In India, the well-known idea of "Unity in Diver- gion, and so on.
sity," which denotes harmony among individuals with
various cultural, religious, and geographic origins, is Modernization of Indian Tradition
frequently used to illustrate cultural plurality. . lntroduction of new means of communication
'Cultural Pluralism' and India's Unity in Diversify like - railway, telephone and telegram hastened
the process. New administrative and judicial sys-
o India's national cohesion, progress, development,
tem changed the social outlook. New types of jobs
and international recognition depend on cultural
changed occupational stance. Literature and art
plurality. In spite of their varied linguistic, cultural,
made a cultural and psychological impact. A new
and religious origins, Indians are bound together by
type of scientific and rational thinking made ideo-
a shared sense of national identity.
logical and value impact.
o The Constitution of India maintains the notion of
. Early carriers of modernization were urban middle
cultural plurality by providing for the preservation
of the cultural and educational rights of minorities. class elite who first came into contact with western-
Smaller communities within the greater community ers. Education became a big symbol of moderniza-
are guaranteed the ability to preserve their own tion and it inJluenced all aspects of tradition - food
cultural identities because to this protection. habits, dressing, Ianguage, and so on.
 INTRODUCING INDIAN SOCIETY '""I 213
a According to Yogendra Singh, it not only impacted concepts like Sanskritization and Westernization
culfural aspects, but also structural aspects as well. only.in the context of social change and wishes
New social classes emerged. Power situation was for thern to be examined even in the context of
i altered. New political systems and new economic
practices led to formation of new elite classes and .
'tradition'.
Yogendra Singh's work has been noteworthy in
new deprived sections. essentially transforming the dynamics of Indian
a Due to industrialization and urbanization, the Sociology through the inclusion of a thorough histo-
professional class and working classes emerged. riography of Indian society. His work is considered
Trade unions emerged as new organizations. Older . a classic reader on modernity and social change
economic institutions like the Jajmani system per- in India and reading it completely can be quite a
ished with the arrival of the money economy. rewarding experience.
Singh's imagination of modernization in the Indian o However, as it is with any classic writing, his work
context is rooted in the twin phenomena of 'social may appear to have sorne dated interpretation of
structure' and 'tradition'. Following a critique of religion in India, especially in terms of the Muslim
erstwhile sociological interpretations of Indian community in India, a detail that cannot be ignored.
modernization as being simply blinded by national- . The terming of Islam in India as'heterogenetic, or
ist agenda, he proposes the study of modernization being an'outsider' has been deemed problematic
from a socio-historiographical point of view. in several instances. In this context, Irfan Ahmad
For ease of understanding, Singh further divides (2020), who happened to be a student of Singh has
both social structure and tradition into ,macro-skuc- remarked that this was the tendency of ,alienation,
tures' and 'micro-structures' and 'little traditions, that most sociologists, Singh included, like to study
and 'great traditions', respectively. This enables us and conduct discourses about. But thev would
to engage with the complex historiography of Indian refuse to see it arising in their own the#ies and
society more holistically and comprehensively. classroom experiences.
Inducing his ideas from the works of sociologists Thus, changes in tradition started to manifest in
like Louis Dumont and Talcott Parsons as well as considerable sense ordy after contact with West as earlier
several otheiearly thinkers of Indian sociology like contact with Islam didn't bring about modernization as
G.S Ghurye, M.N Srinivas, D.P Mukherjee, Singh
it also cherished values which were rooted in tradition.
So, there was social change, but not modernization"
offers a mostly sbructural-funciionalist and positivist
depiction of Tndian modernization. Further, all changes due to contact with the West
were not modernizing and some of thern even reinforced
To explain modernization in the Indian context,
traditional institutions. So; there is no ciear contrariety
Singh employs a method of looking at ,internal,
between modernization and tradition.
and.'external' developments in the socio-cultural
and political history of the Indian subcontinent.
Within both social structures as well as tradition, a. Examine the social background of the growth
he believes that modernizationoccurs through a se-
of Indian nationalism. (CSF,,20221
ries of 'orthogenetic' or the'internal' socio-cultural Ans: It was in the colonial period that a specifically
transitions as well as'heterogenetic' or the'extemal, pan-Indian consciousness took shape. Colonial rule
transitions. unified all of India for the first time - economically,
Accordingly, Singh believes that for understand- administratively, and through a vast communicatir,n
ing Indian modernization, it is necessary to study network, and brought in the forces of modernization
the cultural synthesis of both orthogenetic as well and capitalist economic change.
as heterogenetic forms of social change and their The economic, political and administrative unifica-
respective impacts on Indian society. tion of India under colonial rule was achieved at great
a He uses an integrative approach by criticaly expense. Colonial exploitation and domination scarred
reviewing and incorporating previously studied Indian society in many ways and different sections had
dichotomies such as'sanskritization' vs.' Islamiza- their own reasons as well to get rid of the foreign rule.
tion','Sanskritization' vs.'Westernizatior:r',, Great, Social Background of the Growth of Indian
and'Little' traditions as well as'universalization, Nationalism
vs. 'parochialization'to study the nature of social o { R Desai considers Indian nationalism is a product
change in Indian society. of material conditions in India and nationaiism was
a However, he believes that it is inadequate to study non-existent before the arrival of the British.
 214 ' socloLocYe&A
a New material conditions were a result of indus- boosted morale of nationalists in colonial countries
trializatirrn, new land policy and modernization' iike India. Communist nationalism also grew in
British ru.ie led to economic disintegration as well as the meanwhile in 1930s both within and outside
economi, reforms which led to birth of new social Congress.
consciou.;ness and class structure through which . Historians like Romila Thapar, K M Panicker and
nationalism followed. Stevenson argue that despite iltvasions, mixing
\
Different classes like industrialists, peasants, and confrontation a single dominant culture never
etc. have their own grievances which along with existed in India and even no culture threatened the
common desire for freedom led to the birth of other to subjugation. As a result composite culture
nationalism. According to him, the role of evolved. In such an environment, nationalism in
educatior, in the birth of nationalism is overplayed India evolved not out of a commori single cultural
and instead.change in material conditions was the heritage, but developed under the same colonial
real cause. ideology which it fought with.
a Class based inequalities and contradictions, . National leaders like Nehru realized that to fight
according to Desai, determine the nature of colonialism, first regional aspirations have to take
social change. A common exploitative land tenure a backseat and the spirit of nationalism needs to
system, a uniform emer$ent pan-Indian working come to the forefront. Thus, to unify divided India
class and new classes were other contributing and prevent its Balkanization, nationalism was a
factors" prerequisite.
a First move r.t in the form of establishment
as made
Therefore, the British tried their best to divide
of Indian National Congress in 1885. It was real- the population and prevent modernization fearing the
ized that way to achievement of nationalistic goal
development of a common feeling. But paradoxically,
is through political power. Political struggle 1ed to
the same actions of colonialism Save birth to its own
gradual reforms and it also led to mobilization of
enemy - nationalism.
InasseS.
+ Contradictions of British rule were exposed for the
first time'ir-i tire economic field and it was exposed Q. What is identity politics? Discuss the main
trends in Dalit movements in India.(CSE 202L)
in the writings of manv prominent nationalists like
Dadabhai Naroji and R C Dutt. Unequal control Ans: Identity politics refers to politics in which
orrer.forces of production and export of surplus was groups of people having a particular racial, religious,
exposed by early nationalists. ethnic, social, gender or cultural identity tend to promote
Indians in the colonial period read about western their own tp".ifi. interests or concerns. In other words
liberalism and freedom. Yet they lived under a when different identity markers become the basis of
lvestetn, colonial rule that denied Indians liberty political mobilization, it is known as identity politics.
and freedom. It is contradictions of this kind that Examples include Dalit political mobilisation,
shaped many of the structural and cultural changes. womens' movements, Dravidian political movement,
Indian nationalist leaders were quick to grasp
this irony.
'"tT:;:1".:tof various caste groups, religious and eth-
t The emerging middle classes begary with the aid of nic diversity makes India a fertile ground for identity
western style educatiorL to challenge colonialism on politics. Identities such as LGBTQ, migrants and women
its olt n ground. Ironically, colonialism and western are emerging as new avenues for identity politics in
education also gave the impetus for the rediscovery lndia.
of tradirron.
Main Trends in Dalit Movements in India:
a Colonial interventions also crystallized religious
and caste based communities. These too became Yogendra Singh classifies Dalit movements as
major players. In fact, attack on cultural identities 1. Integrative and
became the basis of the first war of independence 2. Alienating
, of 1857. Cultural arrogance and a sense of superior- Sanskritisation is an example of integrative Dalit
ity of white British also provoked Indians to prove movement whereas mass conversions undertaken by B R
them wrong. Ambedkar is an example of alienating Dalit movement.
a Events like the Russian Revolution aroused the Historically Dalit movements have witnessed vari-
revolutionary spirits in India as well' Defeat of im- ous trends. In the early pre-independence phase, it was
perial powers like Italy at the hand of Ethiopia also aimed at removing untouchability and social reform as
 INTRODUCING IND|AN SOCIETY .,,i,, 2$5
well as developing self-respect among Dalits. Satyas_ Hence according to Dipankar Gupta, in present
hodhak Samaj, SNDP movements, Self-respect Move_ times it is the principle of differentiation arrd not the
ment are some of its examples. in the later phase, Dalit principle of hierarchy that defines Indian society. T,his
. assertion and political mobitisation began under B R transition from principle of hierarchy to principle of dif_
Ambedkar. He established All India Schedulecl Castes ferentiation can also be seen in areas beyond the caste
Federation. system. Women who were traditionally ranked lower
Post-Ambedkar phase began with the formation of than men in gender hierarchy have
come to acquire im-
Republican Party of India in 1957 thataimed at political portant positions in various
fields. Rise of syrnmetrical
mobilisation of Dalits. It was followed by Dalit intel_ families (Willmott and Young)have
further diiuted this
lectual movement in the form of Dalit panth ers (1972) hierarchy in domestic sphere,
and men and women play
under Namdeo Dhasal. It aimed at developing Dalit di-fferent yet important role in a famiiy.
Furthermore, thl
literature, poetry and Dalit narratives as a form of Ou[t modern division of labour in
capitalist economy is now
intellectual assertion. based upon differences in skills and credentials and not
This phase was followed by establishment of Bahu_ necessarily upon caste hierarchies.
jan Samaj Party by Kanshi Ram which over the time suc_ However, hierarchy is still prevalent. Caste_based
ceeded in unifying the Dalits under a common political discrimination and untouchability,
based upon hierar_
barrner and also succeeded in establishing governments chy, continue to linger.
n Gender hierarchy can still be
led by Dalit leaders. observed in families where men dominate over women.
In recent times however Dalit movements have Apart from this, hierarchy can also be observed in
mocl*
acquired new shape. New Dalit outfits such as Azad ern bureaucratic organisations such
as in civil services,
Samaj Party, Bhim Army and new leaders with modern in corporate world and in political
parties among others.
outlooks hal,e come to lead Dalit movements_
Additionally, social media such as Twitter, you_ a.
Discuss in detail the major eontribution of
Tube, etc. have become dominant platforms for Dalit Prof. Yogendra Singh in theorizing India,s
assertion. This has helped expand the reach of Dalit
movement as it has now gone beyond India. Dalit as_
modernization. (CSE 2021)
sociation in foreign countries like the US and the UK Ans: Prof. Yogendra Singh, in his work Moderni-
highlight the emelging trends in Datit movement. sation of Indian Tradition, defines modernisation as ,,a
form of cultural response involving attributes that are
a. Is Indian society moving from ,,Hierarchy,, basically universalistic and evolutionar|; they are pafl
humanistic, trans-ethnic and non-ideological,,.
towards "differentiation,,? Illustrate your He begins by distinguishing between social change
answer with suitable examples. (CSE 2021) and modernishtion.
According to him, social change can
Ans: Louis Dumont in his seminal work ,Homo be both progressive and regressive whereas modernisa-
Hierarchicus' considers Indian society to be based tion is a value loaded term that is evolutionary in nature
upon the principle of hierarchy. He defines hierarchy and signifies progressive social change.
as a principle in which the elements of a whole are He distinguishes between two sources of social
ranked in relation to the whole. According to him, the change, namely orthogenetic (e.g. sanskritisation) ancl
basis of this hierarchy is the mutual opposition between heterogenetic (westernisation, Islamic conquest, etc.).
the purity and pollution. This hierarcny based upon According to him, modernisation in India primarily
purity and pollution is manifested in the Indian caste commenced as a result of heterogenetic changes brought
system. about with its contact with the west w,hich biought r.,ast
Dipankar Gupta however disagrees rvith this changes in the Indian social structure.
monolithic hierarchical structure based on purity and He sees the changes brought by modernisation at
pollution. He argues that Indian society is not based on two levels, namely cultural and structural. At cultural
a single hierarchy rather it is based upon the principle level modernisation took place in the form of western
of differentiation. According to him, different castes or education, spread of English language, scientific outlook,
Jatis have different origin tales or jati puranas through etc. while at structural level he sees changes at macro
which they justify different hierarchies and in them the and micro levels. At macro level, development of mod_
Brahmins are not always at the top. For instance, in his ern bureaucracy, democratic system and ernergence of
study of Jats of north India, he found that Jats consider middle class are its impacts. At micro level, institutions
Brahmins as idle, lazy and greedy and therefore inferior such as family, caste and village were largely left un-
to them. He argues that "constitutive elements of differ_ touched by British for fear of revolt.
ences are not arranged vertically or hierarchically but Therefore, according to him, modernisation in
horizontally or even separately',. India has been selective and sequential and developed
216 si socrolocY e &A

as a sub-structure and sub-culture rather than as an all- Exploitation leads to unification of society as there is
encompassing change. These modernising changes were identification of common enemy. Thus, instead of a
therefore adaptive in nature. In fact certain traditional pure socio-cultural explanation of rise of nationalism,
institutions also got further strengthened, e.g. politicisa- he put forwarcls an economic explanation' New means
tion of caste. Therefore instead of all out modernizatiorL, of communication like - Railways, press, post office,
it led to Neo-traditionalisation. etc. brought people together. Various exploitative
Additionaliy, he sees modernisation as a dialecti- mechanisms used by the British led to unintentional
cal process between tradition and modernity. On one unification of Indian societY.
hand, it led to modernisation of Indian tradition and He saw peasant struggle as a result of the
on the other hand, it also led to traditionalisation of introduction of a new mode of production in Indian
modernity. ag;riculture. He attributes it to the .introduction of
Therefore Yogendra Singh expanded the scope of exploitative capitalist systems as a result, new classes
study, of modernisation in India by not onll' focusing on emerge in agriculture.
cultural changes but also on structural changes. Further- A. R. Desai was criticised for ignoring organizational
more his r.vork on modernisation has helped explain the aspects of sociai institutions like caste and ignoring
persistence of traditions along with modernity. religion and culture
Despite criticism, he contributed in the development
a. Elaborate A. R. Desai's perspective to the of sociology as acdiscipline in India by bringing
study of trndian society. (CSE 2020) materialistic conception in the study of Indian society.
.Ans; {r"rdian Marxist scholars use basic assumptions
a. Ftrow do youjustify Dumont's deliberate shess
of Marxian anai,vsis of understanding of society' In India,
tiris r,,iew fcr:nd favor among nationalist leadership
on ideology that produced intellectualized
after Russian Re.rolution. This new leadership favored account nf Indian society? (CSE 2020)
this approach -within the context of freedom struggle. Ans: French sociologist Louis Dumont in his
Before indepenclence, this perspective was used by serninal wolk'F{omo Hierarchicus: Caste System and
D P Mukirarjee by combining it with the Indological Its lrnplication, 1966' synthesized macro perspective
perspective,.to develop a Marxological perspective to of Ghurye with micrci perspective of empirical studies,
analy ze social charLge. thus combining'text' with'context'. His theory of caste
A. R. Desai pioneered the use of this perspective hierarchy locates its basis in'pollution and purity'
since 1940s and it is best exemplified in his - 'Social distinction ancl it is a special tvpe of inequality according
BackgrouncX of indian Nationalism,1946' . to him.
He also used the dialectical-historical approach in Fle,borrowed theoretical framework from Levis
understanding of lndian society. He conducted his village Stuauss which calls for identification of binary opposites
studies in order to identify the contradictions present and applied it in Indian context as caste being the
in Indian society. He also ernphasizes a comparative opposition of pure and impure.
appraach in his w'ritings. F{is approach witnesses He was also deeply inJluenced by Bougle's cultural
a transition from an emphasis on understanding to explanation of caste and his ideas that division of labor
suggestion of alternatives. Like other N4arxist scholars, in the caste system is not on economic basis, but cultural
he aiso tried to expose the contradictions and anomalies basis and hence not exploitative
in the process of change in Indian society. Thus, he sees caste from an'ideological perspective'
He understood society in terms of the process and not just an empirical realty. Louis Dumont
of historicai development in terms of a dialectical constructed a textually-inJormed image of caste which
materiatrist basis. The study of productive relations is according to him is a combination of Indological and
used to interpret social structure and institutions. Indian structuralist approach with dual focus on ideology as
society is and its traditions are seen as influenced by well as stiucture.
from economic infrastructure i.e. culture is rooted in the According to him, caste plays an integrative role
economic i n{rastructure. in Indian society and is distinctive of India and he sees
Systemic view of Indian society is drawn after caste system in terms of ideas and values' i.e. caste
Marxist model. Desai highlighted the contradictions system is an ideology. Ideology of Indian society is in
and conflicts present in India during turbulent decade binary opposition with Western ideology - modern
of 197As in wake of apparent failure of planned growth' against tradition, holism against individualism,
His main focus areas were - state, nationalism, village, hierarchy against equality, purity against pollution and
peasant struggle, caste, etc. He saw nationalism as a status against power. Dumont emphasized on ideology
result of materialistic conditions created by the British. as it is reflected through ancient texts.
 INTRODUCING INDIAN SOCIETY ffi 217
He also analyzed caste in changing times and He emphasized on many topics related to religion
according to him, the overall framework has not changed. and village. Ho* religion plays an important role to
'There is change in society and not of society'. One formulate Indian society. Religion, therefore, carries
significant change that has taken place is that traditional caste system which again produces subdivision of these
interdependence has been replaced by competing castes. He discusses how these castes affect different
interests which he termed as'substantialisation of caste'. caste groups differently. Each caste carries its position
However, critics question his approach for being in society and treated on the basis of those ranks. He
too textual. Andre Beteille says his views are much on further talks about how these caste differences bring
what caste ought to be and not what caste today is. out more differences among people like occupational
Beteille blames Dumont in particular for encouraging a differences, a hierarchy in society, the system of pure
'caste-view' of Indian society. His critics compare him and impure, caste panchayats and assemblies. Although
to'new Manu' and his idea of Homo-hierarchicus as his concept of village is overburdened with'the caste, he
'new Manusmriti'. also sees marriage, family and Jajmani system as central
In order to understand the so-called Indian to understanding of caste.
traditional society, Dumont rejected the framework of
the village, which was then favoured by most scholars, a. Illustrate the contribution of the Tebhaga
\ and focused on the caste (or the sub-caste), emphasizing Movement to the peasants struggle in India.
the hierarchical social organisation which encompassed (csE-201e)
a territory wider than a village.
Ans: Tebhaga Movement was the sharecroppers'
The comparative sociology that Dumont developed movement demanding two thirds of the produce from
was quite often reduced to a binary opposition between land for themselves and one third for the landlords.
individualism and holism, or to a radical confrontation Tebhaga literally means 'three shares' of harvests.
between the equalitarian West and the hierarchical Traditionally, sharecroppers used to hold their tenancy
traditional pre-modern societies, like India, towards on fifty-fifty basis of the share of the produce.
which the anthropologist publicly con{essed to having The traditional system of dividing the produce
a nostalgic inclination. Despite criticism, his approach between the sharecroppers and owners came under
to caste study is unique and thought provoking. In the challenge in1946-47, when the sharecroppers called the
words of T. N.Madan, 'Indian.sociology must have traditional systen-r unjust and claimed two-thirds share
been poorer to a great extent without the conkibution of of the whole produce on the grounds of their investment
Dumont'. The Indian part of his work stands for a rare and labour input. During the winter or'Aman' harvest
coherent sociological enterprise that cannot be ignored of 1946, sharecroppers of some north and northeastern
or brushed away if one wants to understand the social districts of pengal and their supporters had gone to
making of contemporary India. fields and cut down crops and thrashed them on their
own khalan (harvest processing field).
a. Elaborate Srinivas's views on religion and Tebhaga movement was organised mainly
society among the Coorgs. (CSE,20191 by the communist cadres of the Bengal Provincial
Ans: M. N. Srinivas is considered to be the Krishak Sabha. Under their leadership, the'Barga'
first sociologist who systematically used structural (sharecropping) peasants were mobilised agains[ the
functionalism perspective for the understanding of landlord class. Tebhaga movement spread out to
Coorgs of Mysore. Srinivas's perspective was different nineteen districts of Bengal.
from another sociologist as he did not want to rely on a All these developments led the government to
westem textbook to study about his own counhy people. initiate a bill in the Legislative Assembly in early 1947.
Therefore, he himself participated and started The bill intended to reform the'Barga' system in the
with observation and fieldwork. He did a vast field country in the light of the latest agrarian unrest.
work on Coorgs. He further talks about the unitv and Therefore, Tebhaga movement provided the much
interaction among different castes present in Coorgs. needed legal support to peasants' cause which helped
Caste he covered was Brahmins, Kaniyas and Panikas. them in post-independence India in the form of land
He also discusses in villages where we can see many reforms.
independent castes. Most of the years, Srinivas only
".:
conceirtrated on studying caste and religion. F{e covered a. Do you think that the Indian saints have
all the dimensions of the caste and religion prevailing in brought about social reform and awareness
the society. He came up with the terms dominant castes, in Indian society? Exp1ain. (CSE,2019)
westernization, secularization and sanskritization. This Ans: Bhakti movement was a revolution started
all was the impact and outcome of the caste system. by the Hindu saints to bring reforms by adopting the
218 s socrolocYe&A
method of devotion to achieve salvation. This movement Desai highlighted the contradictions and conflicts
resulted in various rites by practising rituals of devotion present in India during turbulent decade of 1970s in
among the Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs in the Indian wake of apparent failure of planned growth. His main
subcontinent. focus areas were - state, nationalism, village, peasant
Later, many temples were built that became the struggle, caste etc.
sacred places for pilgrimage. Villages evolved historically in pre-British era
Some historians also believed that the Alvaras and and were a relatively self-sufficient unit in economic
Nayanars initiated a movement of protest against the relations. It had less materialistic exchange with the
caste system and the dominance of Brahmanas or at outside world and relations within villages were feudal
least attempted to reform the system. in nature. He considered the ]ajmani economic system
For example, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu was an ascetic (lower castes performed various functions for the upper
Hindu monk and social reformer from the 16th century. caste and received grain in return) hs exploitative.
Guru Nanak is the first Sikh Guru and the founder of According to him, land revenue and tenure led to a
Sikhism, and also a Nirguna Bhakti Saint and social formation of new class and capitalist mode of production
reformer. He opposed the discrimination on the basis was introduced by the British. He viewed Indian village
of caste, religious rivalries and rituals. as isolated entity at least in economic terms.
S o cial imp act of reform.moa ements- He considered nationalism a by-product of
1. Improvement in the social relation between the materialistic conditions created by the British. Economic i
I

Hindus and Muslims Exploitation by Britishers led to unification of society \

against a common enemy. Thus, instead of giving a
2. The better social status of lower castes pure socio-cultural explanation to rise of nationalism,
3. Promotion of social service he came forward with an economic explanation. He
4. Development of composite art in the society saw the rising peasant struggle in India as backlash
5. Enrichment of literature to introduction of new mode of production in Indian
Many reformers like Dayanand Saraswati and agriculture and emergence of an exploitative capitalist
Vivekananda upheld Indian philosophy and culture. system which created a new class in agriculture.
This instilled in Indians a sense of pride and faith in Historically,land in India was not private property
their own culture. Female education was promoted. and was held as a matter of traditional right. According
Schools for girls were set up. Even medical colleges were to A R Desai, kings were only partial owners as he
established for women. This led to the development, handed the rights over land to certain groups like
though'slow, of girls' education. The cultural and officers, priests etc and this was carried on even in the
ideological struggle taken up by the socio-religious Sultanate period.
movements helped to build up national consciousness. However, British rulers made significant changes
They, thus, paved the way for the growth of nationalism. in Land tenure system and land was for the first time
linked to market. British introduced three broad systems
of land tenure or land reforms viz. - Zamindari system,
a. Analyse A.R. Desai's views on India's path
Ryotwari system, Mahalwari system. A new Feudal
of development. (CSE,2018)
mode of production was imposed from above during
Ans: A.R. Desai was a pioneer who used the Marxist colonial times and this was qualitatively differtint from
perspective to conceptualize the Indian society. His the feudalism present in Europe.
seminal work'Social Background of Indian Nationalisrn' Industrial Class Structure in west focused on
generated a detailed view of Indian society by using Industrial as well as class growth. However in the Indian
this perspective. historical context growth of class structure was highly
He also used the dialectical-historical approach voluntary.
in understanding of Indian society. He conducted his According to A R Desai, British dumped their
village studies in order to identify the contradictions surplus factory produced goods in India and stifled
present in Indian society. Like other Marxist scholars, he growth of indigenous entrepreneurs on one hand and
also tried to expose the contradictions and anomalies in destroyed domestic handloom industry on the other.
the process of change in Indian society. He understood Thus instead of industrial class, a new merchant class
society in terms of process of historical development and evolved as a result of colonial mercantilism.
on lialectical materialist basis. The study of productive A R Desai viewed caste systgm as legitimization
relations is used to interpret social structure and of unequal economic relations. He claimed that since
institutions. Indian society and its traditions are seen wealth, land and resources were limited in the hands
as influenced by economic infrastructure i.e. culture is of upper castes, caste was used just as a tool to mask
rooted in the economic in-frastructure. this inequality.
 INTRODUCING INDIAN SOGIETY IIII 219
However, Marxist perspective is criticized for His view on tribes is also influenced by his
focussing only on the material aspects. He ignored the Hindu tradition view of life. He rejected the "Policy of
importance of religion and culture in the lives of Indian Isolation". For him, tribes have always been in contact
people. Religion occupies an important place in Indian with Hindus and have assimilated themselves into
society and world view of people is influenced bv it. mainstream in varying degrees. He called these tribes
Another limitation to his theory is he ignored 'caste' as "Backward Hindus".
as the basis of traditional Hindu social organization. According to him, villages are the main centre of
Caste was often equated with class which generated an Indian social life, but he rejected the self-sufficiency view
over-simplistic view of the pattern of social inequalities. of western scholars. His understanding of village draws
Despite criticism, A R Desai contribution to Indian mainly from the caste.
Sociology is very significant as he added Marxist Ghurye is however criticized for his over Hinduized
perspective in understanding the development of Indian view of Indian society. He takes a favoiable view of
society. caste and fails to see its de-humanizing effect. He fails
to recognize qualitative changes that have occurred
Q. Write a note on G.S. Ghurye's Indological during colonial rule within the caste system. He also
perspective of understanding Indian society. fails to explore the structural implications of various
(csE,2018) social institutions like caste and focused just on cultural
aspects.
Ans: To develop his perspective of Indian society,
G.S. Ghurye profoundly studied Vedas, Shaastras,
poetry of Kalidas, etc. along with other indological texts. a. Give a critical analysis of Andre Beteille's
In Ghurye's Indology, culture is the central study of Taniore village. (CSE, 2018)
element throughout his works. He understands society Ans: India has historically been deemed the land of
in terms of Sanskritic texts, historical documents and villages. Villages in India are not merely a spatial unit,
other archeological material, but supplements it with but miniaturized version of Indian society. According to
theoretical perspectives as well. Methodology of Ghurye Andre Beteille -'Village was not merely a place where
is based upon a large number of texts. people lived...It had a design which reflected the basic
His view on Indian society should be seen in terms ethos and values of Indian society'.
of his overall view of society as well as his specific views Andre Beteille in his study'sripuram: A Village
on various elements of society. His general view of in Tanjore District, 1962' stated that - 'At least as far
society was that Indian society is unique and should be as living memory goes, there was no reason to believe
understood in terms of concept and theories particular that village was fully self sufficient even in economic
to Indian society. sphere'.
According to him, Indian society is a'Hindu Society' Andr6 B6teille's Caste, Class and Power is an
and cannot be understood without understanding intensive study of the changing patterns of social
Hindu tradition. He emphasized on understanding stratification in a multi-caste village in South India. This
Hindu tradition first rather than suggesting solutions study provides the background for unusual description
to problems faced by Hindu society. Indian society is of contemporary change in a traditional society while
viewed as a continuity from past in form of its historical reacting to outside pressures.
moorings. The transformation in the village takes the direction
He also emphasized on understanding of order of a more open social system. Previously, village social
and change in society. Order is understood in terms of life was shaped by its division into three caste groups:
specific aspects of society like - caste, religion, village, the Brahmins, the middle-level Non-Brahmins, and
tribe, urbanization etc. He took a dynamic view of Indian the Adi-Dravidas. The caste of a villager determined his
society, not only in terms of continuities from the past, position in the class system and power hierarchy, and
but also in terms of understanding the process of change caste itself was acquired only by birth.
in terms of British influence. Beteille shows how new forces disrupt the existing
His'specific views about caste are mentioned in pattern and helps evolve economic and political system
his various works. He took a "diffusionist approach" that no longer depend entirely on caste. He concludes
as evident by his theory on origin of caste where he that the caste structure, once the basis of traditional
emulated that caste originated from Gangetic plains and order does not afford an adequate framework for the
spread to other areas. He also talks about religion and analysis of Indian village society toddy.
wrote many books on it including'Indian Sadhu, 1952', He seeks to provide a more differentiated analytical
'God and Men, 1962' etc. He saw religion as a dynamic scheme for the study of social change in India.
entity in the Indian society. Understanding of Beteille is diffusive as he adopts an
220 t::':'::1':1
soclolocY Q&A

interactional approach rather than uni-dimensional o Lack of empowerment of women: Women do

approach to describe caste. not enjoy opportunities as men do. Due to lack of
His multi-dimensional view affords us a better view education, women are unable to establish their roles
of society as a whole and caste in relation to other social in many places.
dimensions. For example, according to his study, he o Infant and Maternal Mortality: Due to female
concluded that Kinships also play an important role as foeticide, the sex ratio declines terribly. Maternal
individuals often chose the occupation of their parents. mortality also contributes to the declining sex ratio
This influence of kin is evident in Industry, cinema and as most of the women die during the childbirth due
politics as well. His focus of study was not limited to to improper care and less facilities.
hierarchy of caste, but also on stratification in general.
Solutions to tackle Declining Sex Ratio:
His understanding of caste is reflexive, as it doesn't
take a stereotypical approach. In his study of Sripuram, o There should be better regulation sf the PCPNDT
Beteille observed that not only did Brahmins maintain Act to check illegal sex determination tests. Such
distance from other castes, but even Adi-Dravidians (so clinics are rampant in the country today.
called depressed classes) avoided mixing with Brahmins o Govt should promote positive environment to save
as they believed it would attract misfortune. and protect the girl child.through gender sensitive
Thus, Beteille study rejected the view of Ghurye, policies, provisions, and legislations.
Dumont and others which saw caste as a uniform o There should be promotion of schemes like Beti-
phenomenon with implicit superiority of Brahmins. Bachao- Beti-Padhao and Sukanya Samriddhi
The study highlights the concerns of lower castes Yojana that can create a positive effect in the
about intermingling as they were too were not keen attitude of the people especially in the North-Indian
on Sanskritization. He also noticed that relationship states.
between sub-caste Brahmins were also unequal. For Hence, there is a need of silent social revolution
example - Iyenger Brahmins deem themselves ritually that can be developed on the foundations of attitudinal
purest. He was criticised for narrow empiricism i.e. A change and responsible governance that can provide a
single village study cannot be generalized for whole suitable ecosystem to the females of the society for the
of India. Despite criticism, Beteille's contribution is promotion of their well-being and also of the society.
important fo| giving Weberian perspective of Indian
society in terms of caste, class and power. Q. Writea critique of the structural and functional
perspective used by M.N. Srinivas in the
Q. What are the causes and solutions for the low understanding of Indian society.
female sex-ratio in the DEMARU States of (csE,20171
Punjab, Haryana, Himachal, and Gujarat? Ans: Structural-Functional approach to the study
(csE,20Tn of society views society in terms of its constituent
Ans: No natiorL society or community can hold its parts and their relationship with each other in order
head high and claim to be the part of civilized world if to maintain the society as a whole. M.N. Srinivas is a
it condones the practice of discrimination against one famous sociologist mostly known for his work on caste
half of the community. Declining sex ratio is a silent and caste system, social stratification and sanskritization
emergency. But the crisis is real. in southern India. He is also famous for his ideas on the
concept of "Dominant Caste".
Causes of lo# female sex-ratio in the DEMARU states
o Education: Child marriages are a common part of Sanskritisation and Srinivas
the Indian society. Most of the girls are prone to the According to M.N. Srinivas "Sanskritisation is a
issue of child marriage at a very early age. Due to process by which a"low" Hindu caste, or tribal or other
illiteracy, people are unaware about the power and group, changes its customs, ritual, ideology, and way of
role of women in today's era. life in the direction of a high, and frequently, a " twice"
o Poverty: There are states wherein due to poverty, born caste. It is followed by a claim to a higher position
a lot of girls are denied of nutritious food. This in the caste hierarchy than traditionally concealed to the
deprives the women and girl child from a living a claimant caste by the local community."
' healthy life. Concept of Dominant Castes and Srinivas
o Social status of women: In most parts of India, The concept of dominant caste has been used for the
women are merely considered as an object. People first time by M.N. Srinivas in his essay 'Social System
are worried about the dowry issue with the birth of a Mysore Village', which was written after his study
of a girl child. of village Rampura.
 INTRODUCING INDIAN SOCIETY Si 221
The concept occupies a key position in the process Tribal Traditions
of 'Sanskritization'. According to his study of Indian Each tribal group is endogamous. And, there is
Society, he emphasised various constituents of society- no hierarchy in the tribal society. Each tribal group is
religiory caste, occupation, etc. autonomous and has its own identity. The social structure
Religion, Society and Srinivas of the tribal community is egalitarian though the forces
of modernization have created stratification and new
Srinivas' work'Religion and Society among the
traditions. In the book on Essays on Modernization in
Coo"l. of South India' (1952) led him to formulate the
India (1977), Singh has analysed the varied and complex
concept of Brahminization to represent the process of the
processes involved in the modernization in India, the
imitation of life-ways and ritual practices of Brahmins
forces released by it and their bearing on the stability,
by the lower-caste Hindus.
creativity and development in India as a dynamic nation
M.N. Srinivas was criticised for only examining and composite civilization.
and representing the good aspects of the caste system
and ignoring the exploitative nature of caste system, Its applicability in the present context
for example, Untouchability. But, his study of Indian The emphasis on historicity in preference to
society has given a wider perspective for the later day universality defining the context of modernization, the
sociologists and sociai anthropologists. pre-eminence of structural changes in society to render
the adaptive process of modernization successful in the
a. Discuss Yogendra Singh's thesis on developing countries particularly India and the eclectic
Modernization of Indian Tradition, and nature of cultural and ideological response of India
evaluate its applicability in the present-day to the challenges of modernization, represent some of
the unifying principles that bind these essays into a
context. (CSE,10T[
composite cognitive approach to modernization that is
Ans: Yogendra Singh, in his book'Modemization very significant in the present day context.
of Indian Tradition', identifies three major streams of
iraditions in Indian society, namely, Hindu, Muslim and
Tribal. Though there are several ethnic communities in
a. Salient Features of A.R. Desai's Marxist
India, the three groups constitute major and primary
Sociology (CSE,2016)

traditions of thetlndian society. Ans: Among Indian sociologists one who has
consistently advocated and applied dialectical-historical
All Indian social phenomena and realities get their
model in his sociological studies is A.R. Desai. Desai
manifestations in these three streams of traditions.
closely studied the works of Marx and Engels and the
The sources of modernization are either internal or
writings of Leon Trotsky by whom he was very much
endogenous or from outside the society.
influenced. He may be regarded as one of the pioneers in
Yogendra Singh says that it is not neiessary that introducing the modern Marxist approach to empirical
the processes which bring social change in the society investigations involving bibliographical and field
also bring change in the traditions and vice-versa. He research. In the above context, Desai alone among Indian
writes: "The conceptual framework of most studies of sociologists has consistently applied Marxist methods in
social change in India is such that the focus is either on his treatment of Indian social stuucture and its processes.
social structure to the exclusion of tradition or on the He is a doctrinaire Marxist. He rejects any interpretations
latter without proper treatment of the former." of tradition with reference to religion, rituals and
Hindu Traditions festivities. It is essentially a secular phenomenon.
The Marxist perspective became popular during the
According to Yogendra Singh, Hindu society
eventful 1970s after an article written by A R Desai titled
consists of certain traditions which are in fact value
'Relevance of Marxist Perspective in the Understanding
\ themes. Before the emergence of modernization, the
of Indian Society' on account of two reasons:
Hindu society was based on hierarchy, holism, Karma,
Transcendence. In such a scheme of value components, I. Two decades of planning was inadequate in meeting
there is no place for rationality. the aspirations of people and their problems still
remained. It was felt that there is some deficiency
Islamic Traditions in interpretation of Indian society.
;i
Islam is founded on a worldview which is II. Although, initially it was felt that the academic
a
apparently non-hierarchical. Despite the rigidity of perspective has to just provide inputs for the
Islamic traditions, it is found that the religion as a whole planning rather than just suggesting ideological
is favourable to the acceptance of modernity. What is alternatives. After 1970s, whole conception of
interesting to note here is that the upper hierarchy of planning came under serious doubt for its apparent
the Muslims has very comfortably adopted modernity. failures.
 222 Yt?i soctolocY e & A
In this context, Marxist perspective attempts to Gandhi categorically insisted that "the English
understand society in following ways: have not taken India; we have given it to them. They
I. Marxists approach understands society in terms of are not in India because of their strength: but because
a process of historical de.zelopments in dialectical we keep them". He was one of the earliest to realize
materialistic terms. Causative factors are the that colonialism was something to be overcome in
changing material conditions. For example, A R our own consciousness first. He was acutely sensitive
Desai in his book -'Social Background of Indian to how machinery can dehumanize and technology
Nationalism, 1946' takes historic materialistic view alienate. Gandhi would test his faith with his reason,
and understands the process of historical change but he would not allow his reason to destroy his faith.
in Indian society in terms of changing economic \A/hat makes such technological rationalism even more
activities. destructive in Gandhi's view, is its flawed materialism.
II. The social structure and institutions are seen That is, the negation of the spiritual, the transcendent,
as rooted in productive relations. The dynamic or in other words, the denial of a religious worldview.
conception is also based in changing production For Gandhi, truth was much more than could be grasped
relations. For example - Kathleen Gough in bv science or reason.
the context of 'caste, class nexus' uses Marxist Gandhi radically re-interprgts 'swNaj' and gave it a
perspective for generating an understanding of dual meaning. The first as self-control, rule over oneself,
Marxist perspective. was the foundatiori for the second, self-government.
III. While understanding society, primacy is given to The foundation of 'swaraj' in both its senses had to be
economic infrastructure, culture is seen as rooted threefold: self-respec! self-realisation and self-reliance.
in economic infrastructure. This amounts to This is what Gandhi tried to symbolise with the chakra,
rejection of pure Indological view and the faulty khadi and village. For Gandhi khadi "is the spnbol of the
interpretation it generates. unity of Indian humanity, of its economic freedom and
equality. He believed that real rights are legitimated by
IV. Society is seen in systemic terms conforming to
duties they flow from, for both are founded on satya and
model of economic interpretation of superstructure.
dharma. Gandhi's Hinduism was ultimately reduced to a
For example - Marxist village studies emphasize
few fundamental beliefs: the supreme reality of God, the
more on u4derstanding of socio-political setup on
the basis of\ network ,Jutio.r, *or.u., around land.
ultimate unity of all life and the value of love (ahimsa) as
a means of realizing God. In sum, "Gandhi's Hinduism
V. Indian society is studied in terms of conflict and had a secularized content but a spiritual form and was
social institutions are seen as exploitative and
at once both secular and non-secular". This is why his
existin'g for the benefit of the few. For example
appeals for Hindu-Muslim unity were rejected, by the
- ]ajmani system was interpreted as coercive Muslims aS being too Hindu, and questioned by the
and exploitative institutions by Marxists like
Hindus for not being Hindu enough.
Berreman. A R Desai was critical of harmonious
and cooperative picture of Indian village. Similarly,
Gandhiji's policy of Satyagraha was a politic
strategy too. In Hind Swaraj Gandhi defines 'passive
various village studies, a number of them compiled
resistance' as he called it then as "a method of securing
in his book'Rural Sociology in India, 1959' studied
rights by person su{fering". Satyagraha was an ingenious
various other social institutions from Marxist point
combination of reasorl morality and politics; it appealed
of view.
to the opponent's head, heart and interests". This was a
A R Desai is pioneer of using Marxist perspective
vernacular model of action that the people understood.
of Indian society. His seminal work iSocial Background
But it was Gandhi who first used it so effectively to
of Indian Nationalism' generates a detailed view of
mobilize them and to appeal to their oppressors. In fact
Indian society by using this perspective" This perspective
he was the first leader to bring non-violence to centre
was further popularized through his one of articles
'Relevance of Marxist Perspective in Understanding of stage in the struggle for freedom r,r,ith the British.
Indian Society' in 1970s. He was well aware that adopting "methods of
violence to drive out the English" would be a "suicidal
policy" . Gandhi sought to reverse the damage to our
a. Anaiyze Gandhi as a moralist, ascetic and
collective psyche by his l'redefinition of courage and
man of action through his 'Hind Swaraj'.
effective resistance in terms of, or through non-violence"
(csE, 201s) Gandhi would constantly critique.faith to ascertain
Ans: Candhi's Hind Swaraj is "a proclamation of whether it was meaningful and reasonable in terms
ideological independence" he never compromised, his of basic human value commitments. And so too he
"confession of the faith" he never abandoned, "a rather would demand of reason the same fidelitv to these
incendiary manifesto" to enkindle his revolution. values as well.
 INTRODUCING INDIAN SOCIETY :* 223
Thus, we see one of the great contributions of analysis, they mainly relied on texts of past history to
Gandhi was precisely his centering of the periphery: interpret it with the recent development to understand
in politics with 'antyodaya'; in religion by de- Indian society.
brahamising Hinduism, de-institutionalizing practice G.S Ghurye considers that India is not a colonial
and personalizing belief; in education by his proposal construct, the people of India living in different territories
for'nai talim' or basic education as it came to be called; speaking in distinct language were internalizing to
in the economy by symbolically urging khadi. Not all of their distinctive values central to their cultural life.
these efforts were successful or perhaps even practical, Their common faith in three gods, three Vedas, three
but they did make a contribution which is still valid distinctive quality, three different ashrams and three
today. distinctive discourses of life were regulating to their
everyday life of man in India.
a. How far Srinivas' Sankritization is Ghurye as a nationalist and Indologist looks Indian
modernizing force or haditionalizingforce in unity on the basis of common cultural and value
understanding the changes in caste system? consensus for cultural revivalism in India, to promote
(csE,2015) Indian unity.
The biggest limitation of Ghurye's understanding
Ans: M.N. Srinivas introduced the term of India is that he never acknowledges to the cultural
'Sanskritization' to describe tfre cultural mobility
pluralism in India coming out of the contribution of
in the traditional caste structure of Indian society. Islam and Christianity.
Sanskritization is a process by which a lower caste or
G S Ghurye's Sociology is a product of his time
tribe or any other group changes its customs, rituals,
and training, therefore, elements of Indology, search
ideology and way of life in the direction of a higher
for nation building are the hallmark of G S Ghurye's
or more often twice-born caste. In this process a caste
sociology of India.
is only trying to change the status and not the social
His approach is mostly criticized as a culture bound,
structure.
myopic, textual and brahmanic view of India. However,
Srinivas has used Sanskritization not only as a
the other approaches to India are coming as a reflective
modernizing force facilitating the adaptation of new
critique to the writing of Ghurye.
customs and habits but also exposure of new ideas
Hence, while studying India, one should start
and values whicli have been widely present in Sanskrit
literature.
with Ghurye's understanding of India, though one
cannot conclude his understanding of India putting his
These ideas reach corunon people through Sanskrit
approach as endnote in his thesis.
myth and stories. Thus, Sanskritization means the
adaptation of the values of a cultured society.
Sankritization helps in understanding the social a. Limitatlon of the dialectical approach to the
mobility associated with positional changes in the study of Indian society. (CSE, 2012)
caste system. Srinivas points out that varna hierarchy Ans: The use of Marxist perspective in analysis of
is clear and immutable. It is, therefore, evident that Indian society is majorly observable in mid-20th century.
Sanskritization as a traditionalizing force reinforces or Mu.y social scientists like Ramakrishna Mukherjee, A.R.
consolidates the'immutable varna hierarchy' rather than Desai, D.P. Mukerjee etc. by using conflict approach
dislodges it or modify it. presented their analysis of Indian society based on study
However off late because of reservation and of changes occurring in the society.
political mobilization correlated with the caste identities, D.P. Mukherjee has explained Indian society on the
the trend has reversed. In recent past, agitation by basis of conflict between Islam of Indian and Western
Patidars in Gujarat and Jats in north western part of the tradition whereas Ramakrishna Mukherjee has studied
country seeking backward status exemplifies this novel Indian society based on class struggle, strain and
trend. This is exactly opposite to sanskritization, thus exploitation. A.R. Desai using conflict historical model
can be termed as de-sanskritization. in his study exposed changes of social& economic
policies and contradiction and discre-pancy inherent in
a. G.S. Ghurye's Indological approach to structure of state in India. But conflict approach has its
understand society in India. (CSE,2014) own limitation. Based on it, totality of Indian society
cannot be studied.
Ans: Indological approach is not a theory in
Major shortcoming of this approach lies in the fact
Sociology it is a form of methodology used by early
that this study focuses on struggle, stress & deviation
sociologist like G.S. Ghurye to explain Indian Society.
This kind of methodology was used by Indian Sociologist
only, and ignores value consensus, harmony and
cooperation existing in Indian society. Study of Indian
when there was no field study approach for social
224 rffi socroLocY e &A

society based on conflict between only tradition and Cognition is the process of acquiring know-ledge
modemity by D.P. Mukherjee con{irms above limitation. throught thougtu experience and the senses. India is an
In the study of human society, conflict approaches accept ancient civilizatton. Right from the time of Vedic Aryans,
economic system as base of society whereas other system Indians have had a wealth of Philosophy and have
in society are determined by this economic system. In obtained information and knowledge encompassing
this way conflict approach is criticized as economic all the fields including Science, Philosophy, Religion,
deterministic. Polity, etc. Esta-blishment of cognitive structures can be
Conflict approach considers change & deve-lopment seen cleariy in the social organization of Indian society.
in economic system and accepts inherent conflict & For example, the need to have division of labour which
struggle in this system of society as central factor would cause a smooth functioning of society can be seen
responsible for this change whereas the change in in the formation of castes during the time of Manu, the
india has been majorly facilitated by state, law, modern ancient law-giver. Cognitive skuctures can be seen in the
educatiory means of communication etc. Ifindu religion too. The Hindu religion which is one of
Thus conllict approach is not holistic analysis of the most ancient has a liberal outlook, which has helped
Indian society. The abstractness of reality cannot be us to adopt secu-larism easily in modern times.
possible due to one sided explanation of social incidents. Another cognitive structural aspect of Hindu
Thus the blend of conflict approach with functional religion which has stood the test of time is its Religious.
and historical approach should be used to study Indian Despite the onslaught of materialism and modernism,
sociefy in better way. Despite above limitations, it has the Indian masses, by and large observe various rites and
significant place in sociology. It has brought changes rituals. These rites and rituals have been observed since
in sociology by highlighting struggle aspect of social ancient times to the present day. The participation of
structure. crores of people during the Kumbh Mela is an excellent
example.
The cognitive structure concerning the position of
a. Positional change and the structural change.
women in Indian society is another example. Despite
(csE,2012)
modernization and wester-nization, the condition of
Ans: M.N. Srinivas presented the concept of women in India is not of a desired level. Over the ages
Sanskritization to exlain the social cultural mobility in it has been the same, though exkeme vices like sati have
traditional cast! system. According to him Sanskritization been removed. Thus, Indian society can be understood
is a process, by which a low Hindu caste or tribe or other as a system of cognitive structures.
group try to change their tradition, rituals, ideology or With the above explanation about cognitive
lifestyle in the direction of any high or twice born caste. structures in Indian Society we can understand the
Generally with the Sanskritization and a consequence meaning of this cognitive structures and how it can be
of it, related castes mobilize upward but due to u-"ed to understand Indian society. Cognitive structures
Sanskritization, there is only positional change, not provide a lens to the people to understand the society.
any structural change. Which means a caste rises above For example culture, religion, ideologies, mores etc
against surrounding caste and other comes down. all provide a sight to understand society. Cognitive
In this way structural change is complex process structures are base of Indian society so for the study of
as compared to positional change. There is no change Indian society, cognitive structures are must. Without
in structure due to positional change. Positional change these cognitive structures we will be unable to under-
takes place at lower level whereas structural change stand Indian society.
causes change in whole system.
a" How have social reform movements in
a. 'Indian society may be understood as a system colonial India contributed to modernization
of congnitive structures.' How far do you of Indian society? (CSE,2012)
agree with this statement? (CSE, 2012) Ans: The main aim of social reform movements in
Ans: Cognitive structures are the basic mental colonial India was to develop feeling of nationalism in
processes people use to make sense of information. indians by uniting Indians from social, religious and
Other narr-res for cognitive structures include mental political angle. To fulfill.this aim, different social reform
structures, mental tools, and patterns of thought. Those movements made an effort to remove superstition,
working in this area use a lens to explore the ideas and abuses and other social evils present in Indian sociefy.
schematizations, the symbols, artifacts and meanings, To some extent, success has been achieved in this. These
the norms and practices, and the institutions and movements have given sufficient contribution in process
pattems of interactions by which society is constructed, of modernization to change traditional Indian society
sustained, and transformed. into modern society.
 INTRODUCING INDIAN SOCIETY :::W, 225
Traditional Indian society has been based on Indologist like G.S. Ghurye represented book review
religion and governed by it. Religion has been dominant phase ilr Indian sociology while Andre Beteille, M.N.
in all aspects of life. On the basis of religion, caste system Srinivas represent field view aspect of Indian sociology"
was supported in society. Castes situated at lower level The field study of the Indian village during 1950s and
in caste-system has faced so many social disabilities. On 1960s took in a big way. This marked the beginning
other side, condition of women was miserable. Social of a new and important phase in the study of Indian
reform movements like Arya Samaj, Satya Sodhak Samaj, village and played a crucial role in institutionalising
Prathana Samaj, Ramkrishna Mission have made people the discipline of sociology in India. Srinivas' Rampura
aware about reality of orthodoxy & exploitation of social village, S.C. Dube's Samirpet village and Andre Beteille's
and cultural system. Sripuram village became legendry in field study.
In this way these movements have expanded
attitude of rationality, scientific inquiry and equality a. "Tradition and modernity are.misplaced
in society and awakened people.about traditional polarities in the study of social change in
assumptions of religious superstition, rites and rituals lndia." Elucidate. (CSE,2011)
and social evils. As a result, modern values has
Ans: Modernity in India, its prospect and retrospeet
expanded among people.
is greatly being discussed by both sociologists and
From effort of Brahma Samaj and Arya Samaj,
historians. Social change in India has been mostly
many social problems related with sati tradition, child
analysed by sociologists taking modernity as a frame
marriage, parda system, widow re-marriage, divorce
of reference. National scholars like G.S. Ghurye, B.K.
and dowry were opposed and laws enacted against
Mukherjee, R.N. Sharma, Utpal Dutta advocated that
them. Karve, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Ranade
modernity in India has been an effective instrument for
etc have supported widow re-marriage. Due to these
the progress and development of Indian society.
reformist movements, betterment has come in the status
They are sceptical of the colonial attempt of
of women. In this way, in colonial India, social reformist
modemify that driving people away from their tradition.
movements have tried to establish an egalitarian society
Hence they conceptualise a synthesis between tradition
by raising voices against evils and super-stitions present
and modernity in India.
in society. Formation of many educational institutions
Mahatma Gandhi while reflecting his view on
for the development of modem education has been done
modernity indicated that man in India should be open
by fathers of theie movements.
to diverse thoughts without compromising with his
Further, this development of education, by potential Indianness. The same view point was also
expanding modern values & ideology, has formed
given by Vivekananda who spoke in favour of synthesis
the base for the formation of a modern society. The
between western materialism and Indian spiritualism.
social reform movements led to the setting up of Arya Samaj rnovement in India also spoke in favour of
colleges for higher studies, especially in large cities judicious mixture of English and Sanskrit.
like Bombay, Calcutta, and Madras. The role played by
F{owever, the call for modernity in India by
Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Sir Syed Ahmed Khan can
nationalists or reform leaders were never in favour
be appreciated.
of involving modernity by replacing Indian tradition
but interlinking them. About the modernisation of
Q. The book- view and field- view in Indian Indian tradition, Marxist sociologists like A.K. Desai
sociology. (CSE,20L1) offer a different view from his intellectual mentor
Ans: Book view approach in sociology was popular D.P. Mukherjee and opined that modernity in India
in India during pre-independence period where accelerated during British through the introduction of
indologists and orientalists used Hindu scriptures modern trade, modern education or through the rise of
and the historical record to study Indian society. This liberal thinking which gave way to the growth of Indian
sociological tradition was gradually replaced by the field middle class who are neither traditional nor modern.
view of sociologists in post-independence period. The In case of West, modernity gave way to the growth of
post-independence field study is based on participant capitalism, rise of new class and dialectical correlation
observation. This study threw new light on the nature between the classes. But in case of India middle class
of the village community particularly in relation to caste, arose without capitalism and are more engaged in
gender and political faction. This work is important in transforming politics to exhibit their stake over it.
the context of development since traditional society was Yogendra Singh contradicts dialectical approach
and remains in a state of flux. to Indian modernity on the grounds,that this theory
One important result of the field view is that India's explain modernisation of India without much of
villages appear to have been well integrated into the empirical substance. An attractive view of modernisation
broader economy and society for long period of time developed by Milton Singer who developed the
rather than being isolated communities. theory of orthogenetic and heterogenetic change and
 I

226 v: soctoLocY e & A

conclude that in India there is Indianisation of modern movement, he looks at the freedom struggle from
tradition than the modernisation of Indian tradition. economic and materialistic perspective. For Desai,
This is contradicted by S.C. Dubey who advocates British iule in India was an introduction of capitalism
that social change in India is not always synchronise, in a hitherto feudalistic society.
establishing a harmony between little tradition and great Introduction of railways, roadways, flooding of
tradition in many spheres of Indian life. M.N. Srinivas Indian markets with machine made food and products,
considers that modernisation is a value loaded concept new land-tenure systems, new legal system, market
because it conceptualises everything modern is good. economy were all indicators of expanding capitalism.
Hence he prefers the concept of westernisation over And, it was against these rising capitalist forces, that
modernisation to explain change in India. L. Dumont Indian feudal society waged its first war in 1857,
considers that India is a classic example of hierarchy popularly known as first war of India's Independence.
where modernisation is not absolutely acceptable. He Desai is equally sceptical of nationalists' perspective
also advocates that tradition and modernity are not who believe that independence struggle was a mass
clearly distinct in India. According to faith in Brahmanic movement. According to him, it was the emergent
supremacy/ commitment to caste based occupations and middle class and the new industrial class which, eyelng
spontaneous social distance between the castes, driven the administrative position and better remuneration
by traditional values stand in the way of western model initiated the mass mobilization against the foreign
modernisation in India. rule, which is called the freedom struggle. Nationalist
In his most famous book'Modernisation of Indian leaders like Gandhi and Nehru adopted various policies
Tradition' Yogendra Singh explained the process of not to wipe out class inequalities rather to glorify
modernisation in India. He contradicts all approaches nationalism in the minds of all in order to get support
to modernisation on the grounds that they lack from the hungry and speechless masses to transfer
precision, objectivity and integration. Hence he goes power from the hands of external colonisers to the
for an integration approach. He borrows the approach intemal colonisers. Thus hrdia got political freedom with
of little tradition and great tradition from Milton Singer economic independence for its masses.
to explain orthogenetic and heterogenetic change in
India. According to him Buddhism, |anism and Bhakti a. The heterogenic features that influenced
Movement were successive attempt to promote social Indian tradition, according to Yogendra
change in micrtrscopic but subsequently contributed to Singh (CSE,2010)
macroscopic changes bringing reform in Hindunism. In Ans: Yogendra Singh talked of process of
regards to heterogenous change he considers that people modernisation at two levels-cultural and structural. In
of India received modern value not only from Britain cultural sphere, the changes came either from the'great
but also from all progressive religious and dynamic tradition' or the'little tradition . It is at the level of great
societies of the world. He also explains modernisation tradition, that Singh talks of hecterogenic changeJthat
in terms of economic modernisation emphasizing on ushered in political, economic, social and technological
commercialisation of agriculture, expansion of trade, modernity in India. The first of the heterogenic factors
industry, rise of new class, expansion of capital. He also that in{luenced Indian tradition was the introduction of
explains political modernisations in terms of growth of uniform legal code in the country. Traditionally, there
democrafic institution, expansion of individual freedom, were different laws for different castes in Indian sgciety.
balance of power between organs of government. In With IPC, rational laws like Succession Act, Widow-
case of social modernisation he talks about the rise of Remarriage Act abolition of untouchability, a new era
nuclear family; decline of caste system, improvement in of modern legal system was ushered in, dismantling
status of women. traditional hierarchics, privileges and discrimination.
Yogendra Singh also considers that in some situation, Modern education system based on western liberal
the impact of modernisation is clearly visible as against values as oppossed to 'esoteric' and overwhelmingly
other. This should not be considered as the resistance religious education also triggered the process of
of tradition and rejection of modernity. As people modernization of Indian tradition.
adopt process of modernisation selectively depending Yogendra Singh further talks about political
o.t ,-r""dr. Hence Indian society preferrld to go foi modernity in terms of diffusion of values like equality,
modernity through internalisation of modernisation. freedom, democrary, nationalism, electoral politics, adult
franchise, etc. Further modern means of communicatiorL
a. A.R. Desai's characterization of leadership of roadways, railways, sprcad of mass media also a-ffected
Indian freedom movement (CSE, 2010) traditional Indian society in a big way. According to
Ans: A.R. Desai, being a Marxist, sees any social Singh, all these forces of modernity were supported
reality as rooted in material history. Contesting to by values like individualism, achievement orientatiory
the cultural and nationalist view of Indian freedom rationality, secularism, liberty, etc. rr
 CHAPTER

a. Analyse the differences between the attribu- o It also emphasises how caste-based prejudice and
tional and interactional approach in studying exclusion contribute to the continuation of social
the caste system. (CSE 2023) injustice and inequality.
Ans: Caste is viewed from two broad perspectives Therefore, the interactional approach offers a dy-
namic view of the caste system, whereas the attributional
- attributional and interactional perspective. Attributes
are considered as inherent inalienable qualities associated approach offers a structural explanation of it. Both meth-
with the caste system. Interaction approach takes into ods are critical to a thorough comprehension of the caste
account how castes are actually ranked with respect to system. Nonetheless, the interactional method appears tc
one another in a local empirical context. be more pertinent in the current environment given the
changes brought about by modernization, industrializa-
Athibutional Approach tion" and democratisation.
o The attributional approach focuses on the salient char-
acteristics of the caste system as a system and how it a. Do you agree with the view of Andre Beteille
differs from other social stratification skuctures. that India's.villages are representative of
. The interaction approach considers the actual rank- Indian socie$r's basic civilizational values?
ing of castes in relation to one another within a Present a sociological overview. (CSE 2023)
specific ernpirical setting.
o The interactional approach, represented by F.G. Bai-
Ans: According to Andre Beteille, Indian viJlages are
ley and L. Dumont, examines actual caste relation- the real embodiments of Indian society's fundamental
ships within particular contexts like commensality
civilizational ideals. This viewpoint is based on the idea
i'hat Indian villages, where Indian civilization originated,
and food types, emphasising the role of rituals and
have managed to preserve the core elements of Indian
religious values in determining caste hierarchy.
o customs and culture.
The attributional approactr, championed by scholars
like S. Ghurye and M.N. Srinivas, focuses on inher-
o According to Beteille -'Village was not rnerely a
place where people lived. It had a design in,,vhich
ent caste attributes like hierarchy, endogamy, and
were reflected basic values of Indian society'.
traditional occupations, seeking to define caste based
on these characteristics.
o India's villages have been the birthplace of the
country's civilizatiory culture, and customs, which
Interactional Approach to Caste System supports Beteille's point of view.
o The dynamics of caste interactions and the processes o Village life is strongly ingrained with Indian civili-
of change u.ithin the caste system are the main top- zation's core ideals of harmony with environment,
ics of research for the interactional approach to the community living, tolerance, and respect for elders.
study of caste systems. o According to him, the village serves as a microcosm
o According to this perspective, the caste system is of Indian society, capturing its power structures,
fluid and opery allowing for the status of individuals social stratification, and caste system.
and groups to shift throughout time. o Beteille emphasised thebalance of power in Indian
ij o The interactional approach places emphasis on how villages. He pointed out that social standing and
caste relations are shaped by economic, political, and political clout are just as important in Indian com-
power dynamics. munities as financial prosperity. This is a reflection
o It makes the case that the caste system is a social and of the power dynamics in Indian society, where dif-
economic construct as well as a religious and cultural ferent social groups are allocated power according
one. to their political connections, caste, and class.
 228 ffi socrolocYe&A
o Indian customs and culture are preserved in Indian equality, purity against pollution and status against
villages. The ancient rituals, customs, and folk tradi- power. Dumont emphasized on ideology as it is
tions that are the foundation of Indian civilization reflected through ancient texts.
have been preserved. India's rich cultural past is o According to Dumont, caste hierarchy is a peculiar
demonstrated by the festivals, fairs, and customs feature of Indian society and argues that hierarchy is
observed in the villages. of status and hence is independent of power. Accord-
Although Beteille's perspective provides a useful ing to him even kings were subordinate to priests.
understandiirg of Indian society, it has come under fire o This hierarchy, and hence separation of pure and im-
for romantici:ing rural life. Critics argue that socio eco- pure, is evident in other fields of Hindu life as well.
nomic ills such as poverty, gender inequality, and caste |ajmani as an economic system is also dominated by
discrimination are equaily prevalent in Indian villages. hierarchy and not principles of economics. Similarly,
They argue that these problems do not accurately reflect aspects of civil life such as marriage, e.ating, socializa-
the fundamental civilizational ideals of Indian society. tion are governed by hierarchy.
Andre Beteille provides a useful sociological per-
o Louis Dumont conceptualized caste as'opposition
spective in his belief that Indian villages embody the fun-
of pure and impure'. Three elements are central to
his analysis
damental civiiizational characteristics of Indian culture.
Nonetheless, it's critical to recognize the intricacies and
(i) Division of labor on basis of pure and impure
paradoxes that characterise village 1ife. Indian villages
(ii) Superiority of pure over impure
serve as the archives of Indian culture and customs, but (iii) The separation of the two
they also serve as a mirror for the power imbalances and o He identified a number of pure and impure prac-
social injustices that characterise larger Indian society. tices which are attached with notions of purity and
impurity. Endogamy, cleanliness, vegetarianism are
considered pure and superior.
a. Contextualize Louis Dumont's concept of
o He also analyzed caste in changing times and ac-
'binary opposition' with reference to caste cording to him, overall framework has not changed.
system in India. (CSE 2023) 'There is change in society and not of society'.
Ans: French sociologist Louis Dumont in his seminal Dumont's theory of 'binary opposition' has been
r.tork'Homo Hierarchicus: Caste System and Its Implica- criticised for oversimplifying the intricate social realities
tion, 19 66' syn\hesized maclc perspective of Ghurye with of India, even iJ it offers a helpful foundation for compre-
micro perspective of empir,ral studies, thus, combining hending the caste system. Dumont's model is criticized
'text' with'context'. His theory of caste hierarchy locates for failing to take into consideration geographical dif-
its basis In'pollution ancl purity' distinction and it is a ferences, the dynamics of caste, the role of power, and
special type of inequality according to him. economic considerations in the caste system. Beteille
blames Dumont in particular for encouraging a 'caste-
Louis Dumont's Perspective on Caste System view' of lndian society.
o He borrowed theoretical framework from Levis Dumont's theory of 'binary opposition' has been
crittcized, but it nonethbless makes a substantial addition
Strauss which calls for identification of binary op-
to our understanding of the Indian caste system from a
posites and applied it in Indian context as caste being
sociological perspective.
opposition of pure and impure.
o He was also inJluenced by Bougle's cultural explana-
tion of caste and his ideas that division of labor in a. Critically examine the concept of Sanskritiza-
caste sysiem is not on economic basis, but cultural
tion with suitable illustrations. (CSE 2023)
basis and hence not exploitative. Ans: The process through which members of lower
o He sees caste from an'ideological perspective' and castes in India try to rise in social rank by taking on the
not just an empirical realty. customs, beliefs, and way of life of those in upper castes
o Louis Dumont constructed a textually-in{ormed im- is known as "SanskritizatiorL" a word that was first used
age of caste which according to him is a combination in the 1950s by Indian sociologist M.N. Srinivas. This
of Indoiogical and structuralist approach with dual practice is perceived as a means by which lower castes
focus on ideology as well as structure. get social acceptability and economic benefit, and it is
o According to him, caste plays an integrative role in frequently associated r.\aith upward social mobility.
it . Indian society and is distinctive of India and he sees Criticism of Sanskriti zation
caste system in terms of ideas and values' i.e. caste o Critics contend that the Sanskritization notion over-
system is an ideology. looks the tangible components of social mobility,
o Ideology of Indian society is in binary opposition such as wealth, occupational mobility, and political
with Western ideology - modern against traditioo power, in favor of concentrating solely on the cul-
holism against individualism, hierarchy against tural aspects.
 CASTE SYSTEM 229
o
"
There is no guarantee that the Sanskritizationpro- within a larger
.-he context of Indian society. In his study
cess will lead to advancement in politics and the of Coorgs, described the concept of functional
economy' unity and established interpretations ,n the context
o As Sanskritization entails copying the customs and of various rituals followed ty Coorgs.
way of life of the upper castes, it frequently seryes rr:^_..
to perpetuate caste inequalities. It lJ;ti;;;;h; view on Indian Sociery
current caste structures rather than Jontesting or ' He took a comparative view of Indian society by
upending them. - studying the same phenomenon within a specific
o Due to its exclusive application to the Hindu social regional context. He understood order and change
',1
structure, the idea of Slnskriti zation has a narrow as well. Order is understood in terms of - caste, vil-
reach. It is insufficient to explain India's non-Hindu lage, religion, etc'
populations' socioeconomic mobility He is known for understanding the dynamics of
o Sanskritization was also not a new concept and just a Indian society. He emphasizes upon understanding
cosmetic makeover of universal proc"m bf .efeience cultural changes, leading to change in Indian society.
groups. ' Study of Indian society through the institution of
For example, to improve their social standing, the caste dominated his writings. His concept of 'Domi-
Nadars, who were formerly a lower caste group that nant Caste' in his study of'village Rampura, his
tapped tapados, took up vegetarianism and other Brah- concept of 'Sanskritization' in his study of Coorgs
minical customs. In addition, they engaged Brahmins to of Mysore highlight it.
carry out rites and constructed temples. The Ezhavas, a
lower caste community in Kerala, adopted Sanskritization --';
View on Social Change
as a strategy for upward social mobiiity. '- He studied the process of change in detail in his
jocial Change in Modern rndia,1962' through his
Thus, sanskritization has its limitations, even if it
has been a crucial factor in understandi"g twin concepts of Westernization and Sanskritization.
"i;;r-;;;ility
in Indian culture. Rather than questi.""i; ;;";ii;; Apart from the above general view of Indian society,
social hierarchies and injustices,'it seeks # ,?;";i# he also had a specific view of various social institu-
them. Therefore, a more sophisticated approach beyond tlons'
Sanskritization is needed to gain a thorougn undersiand- ' Iit understanding of caste is primarily driven from
ing of socioeconomic mobillty in India. " his numerous field studies. He combines theory with
practice. His uhderstanding of caste though has some
a. Elaborate on M. N. Srinivas's structural- Indological elements also, but it is more oriented
functionalist approach to the sfudy of Indian towards its operational aspects'
sociery. 'rcs',,20.,) '+,il;:Rg:::;?::.HH:*?JJffiX,,SlX,*
. , .
Ans: M. N. Srinivas pioneered structural-function-
alism in India through his path breaking work among View on Indian Village
Coorgs of Mysore in 1940s. It was a holistic study of Coorg ' He views Indian village as a prototvpe of Indian soci-
society and he analyzed how different cultural elements ety or microcosm of Indian society and like Ghurye,
contribute to solidarity of Coorg society. He developed he also rejects the colonial notions of self-suf{iciency
his perspective by deviating from a pure Indological oflndianvillage.Villageexogamyisoneof theprime
perspective. examples that villages were interdependent.
MN Srinivas's structural-functionalist Approach ' He considers village as integrated with the wider
. Hisstructurarrunctionarismwasaurenalrafll?,it
ll!i!1;#lij:[T:::j;l?f;]j::;"*#:lfi,]:1:
es used by Radcliffe He
Brown and Evans Pritchard. ::
system as central to understanding of caste.
used structural functionalism of Br"r*;;;;i;il
view of pritchard. He blended tt-,"oruti.ui;;; ^ ' Like its original framework in the West, structural
functionalism with empirical work. tunctionalism in India also suffered from several
. FIe used a method of direct observation to studv limitations and was criticized for several reasons.
Coorg society and introduced elementr^;;h"r;- Perspective ignored conflict in Indian society.
lnis
pny. iris approach also took into u..or.,t-t.,iot;;il ' Social institutions may be dysfunctional and caus-
,.ie-r u, -"ill, influence of which i*r.olJ. ilg conflict in society. For example - caste is more
. srinivas had "r",.,oiUu
a systems view of Indiu",o"i"ty"u.a r-r"
dysfunctional than functional.
studied Indian society in terms of patterns of rela- Criticism of Srinivas's Structural-functionalist Approach
tions, social institutions and their working in society rhis perspective is also considered status quolst.
in a holistic manner' Generally, social patterns were considered desirable
. Srinivas interpreted particular social phenomena and functional in i broader context. It iacked purity
in
like - caste, family, religion, etc. in functional terms its application owing to influence of other
perspectives.
230 ..ir SOCIOLOGy e & A
. Cultural influence was quite marked in the study of disharmonic: there is in them a lack of consistency
structures. A number of studies become too much betweenthenormativeandtheexistentialorder'.The
empii iral that there were nothing more than expla- ciash between ideology and practice, and even within
naticins of empirical generalizations. the ideology, is shown even more clearly when the
'West' dominated much of Asia and elsewhere.
a. In the context of the changing Indian society, In present Indian society, where the Constitution
howdoyouviewAndreBeteille'sconceptions prescribes equality, prevalence of caste-based, gender-
^rtrrr.- based, religion-based inequalities present disharmonic
of harmonic and disharmonic social
relationships. Also, certain caste-based inequalities are
tures? ( CSE,2O221
' accepted as natural, and considered harmonic'
Ans: Andre Beteille defines stratification,as either th"r"fore, Beteille,s ideal types of harmonic and
harrnonic (where the norms legitimise inequality; caste disharmonic are valuable becausl-they.show that.while
system) or dis-harmonic (where norms legitimise equality remaining ,pure, in principle, an ideai type can contain
but inequality is the reality)' within itselfi structuial contradiction or opposition. 'Dis-
Andre Beteille's Conceptions of Harmonic and Dishar- harmonic' systems are essentially unstable; they contain
rnonic Social Structures a clash of ideology. Beteille frequently acknowledges
. Andre Beteille has proposed a distinction between in relation to both'India' and the'West', the prevailing
tr.vo kinds of social system whlch he calls 'harmonic'
contradictions'
and 'disharmonic'.
(i),f{armonic, systems a. Criticaily examine G.s. Ghurye's Indological
n approach to the understanding of Indian so-
He defines a'harmonic' system as follows: it is one
in which there is consistency between tn"
ciefy' (CSE' 2022\
"ott""ti""
order and the existential order: society is divided Ans: Ghurye developed his Indological p,erspective,
into groups r,vhich are placed high and low, and studied Vedas, Shastras, poetry of Kalidas and so on.
the divisions and their ordering are considered as Flowever, he was also greatly influenced by Western
right, proper and desirable or as a part of the natural scholars like W H R Rivers as well. He pioneered Mod-
r.t1*1n" oi things. ern Indology which improved upon the narrow view of
. He then\describes India as a good example of such a Indian society taken by Classical Indology.
system; there is a premise and a practice of inequal- In Ghurye's Indology, culture is central element
iiy, there is no fundamental contradiction. throughout his works. He understands society in terms
r { second form of ,harmonic' system can be envis- of Sanskritic texts, historical documents and other ar-
aged'in which there is equality in both principle and cheological material, but supplements it with theoretical
perspectives as well.
" Beteille does not give any worked examples of such Methodology of Ghurye
a harmonic system, though he does consider the . upon a iarge number of texts.
His methodorogy is based
question generally' . His upprou.hi*as a combination of historical, dif-
' The most obvious examples are some-:1
l-h: |lT i"rio"irt and descriptive ethnography.
simplesthunter-gathererbands'o"ttl::T*:* . Hu attempted to study Indian society in a specific
estabiished settied agrarian civilizations it is difficult historical context. Indian traditions were seon as dif-
to examples'
see
fusion from one place to another resulting in unity
(ii) 'Disharrnonic' Systems of societv.
. Beteilie suggests a further distinction that is the idea . His d"rcriptirr" ethnography was very much rooted
of 'disharmonic' systems which'by contrast show a in empirical reality.
lack of consistency between the existential and the
n'rmative orders'. Ghurye's view of Society
. One form is r,vhere,the norm of equality is contra- Hisgeneralviewof societywasthatlndiansocietyis
dicted by the persuasive existence ofinequality'. This unique and it should be understood in terms of concept
seems to characterize much of modem'western' civi- and theories particular to Indian society.
lization, including America in its later history, where ' According to him, Indian society is a'Hindu Society'
'Despite the ideaH2ation of equality, the class structure and it cannot be understood without understanding
continues to be an important part of Western social Hindu tradition.
reality, some would say it's most important par/. . He emphasized upon undersfanding Hindu tradi-
. Beteiile quotes Raymond Aron to the effect that tion first rather than suggesting solutions to the
'Modem hdustrial societies are both egalitarian in problems faced by Hindu society. Indian society
aspirationandhierarchicalinorganization andadds is viewed as a continuity{rom past in form of its
the comment that'Modem societies are in this sense historical moorings.
 CASTE SYSTEM ?:' 23TI
. FIe also emphasized on understanding of order and a He fails to recognize qualitative changes that have
change in society. Order is understood in terms of occurred during colonial rule.
specific aspects of society like - caste, religion, vil- o He also fails to explore the structural implications
lage, tribe, urbanization etc. of various social institutions like caste and he only
. He took a dynamic view of Indian society, not focused on cultural aspects on1y.
only in terms of continuities from the pas! but also
in terms of understanding the process of change in
terms of British influence. The process of change is
a. Elaborate on changing nature of caste system
understood in terms of changingHindu tradition and
with suitable illustrations. (CSE,2A22l
he refrains from mentioning any great modernizing Ans: Caste is closely connected with the Hindu
influence of British rule. philosophy and religion, customs and traditions. It is
. He gave a theory of origin of caste as well and believed to have had a divine origin and sanction. trt
said that caste originated from Gangetic plains and is a deeply rooted social institution in India. The word
spread to other areas - it highlighted his diffusionist caste signifies race or kind. The Sanskrit word for caste
approach. He understood caste in terms of its various is'Varna' that means color.
features and he mentioned six features of caste as - Changes in Caste System
division of labor, principle of purity and pollution,
Changes in caste are happening due to various factors
hierarchy, civil and religious disabilities, hereditary
and have changed various aspects of the caste system:
nature and endogamy. Endogamy is regarded by . Urbanization and the conditions of inclusive lir.ing
Ghurye as the key principle which maintains bound-
in the cities made it difficult for the caste-segregated
aries in caste.
. patterns of social interaction to survive.
He also draws a parallel between caste and tribe
and calls tribals as'backward Hindus'. He also
. Modern industry created all kinds of new jobs for
talked about status of caste in modern times. He sees which there were no caste rules. Traditional caste
formation of caste associations as spreading of caste based services are no longer there and there is free
consciousness and he calls it as 'caste patriotism'. choice for everyone. IVIoney economy has weakened
FIe was opposed to caste system firmly, but he talks the Jajmani system. In his studies, Beteille shows
of its disappearance with time due to influence of how Adi-Dravidians undermined the authority of
urbanization, ed ucation etc. Brahmins in Tanjore village.
. He also talks about religion and he wrote many
. During the last few decades, as a result of the forces
books on it including 'Indian Sadhu, 1952','God of modernization, the ideology of caste has become
and Men, 1962' etc. He sees religion as dynamic as less pervasive in an individual's day to day life. Caste
Indian society.He didn t see religious diversity as rituals have become increasingly a personaT affair,
contradictory. For example, in his 'Indian Sadhu', rather than public due to changed circumstances of
he sees Sadhus as a social link between the spiritual living, forces of industrialization, and urbanization.
persons and common people. Concept of purity and pollution has significantly
. His views on hibes are also influenced by his Hindu declined.
tradition view of life. He rejected the policy of isola- . Because of land reforms like, Permanent Settlemen!
tion. For him, tribes have always been in contact of introduced during British rule, land came into the
with Hindus and they have assimilated themselves market and thus ceased to be tied to caste. Market
into mainstream in various degrees. He called tribes economy also broke the ]ajmani system which was
as'Backward Hindus'and differentiated them as - an economic arena of caste.
Hinduized tribes, Partially Hinduized tribes and Hill . The breakdown of the traditional economic system
section. and the emergence of lower caste groups in economic
. He also expresses his views on village life in India. rivalry rather than cooperation undermined the
According to him, villages are centre of Indian so- Brahman dominance found inTanjore, Tamil Nadu"
cial life, but he rejected the self-sufficiency view of Similar observations have been made by F G Bailey
western scholars.He has totally ignored the actual in his study of Bisipara village of Orissa.
structures operating within the villages which are . In his study 'Caste, Class and Power: Changing
highlighted by various other scholars in terms of Patterns of Shatification in a Tanjore Village,l97l, ,
dominant castes, caste class nexus etc. Andre Beteille wrote that earlier (i.e. in pre-British
Criticism period) education was a virtual monopoly of the
. Brahmins who dominated this area. But at the time
Ghurye is however criticized for his over Hinduized
of his study, the educational system had become far
view of Indian society.
. more opery both in principle and in practice. Many
He also takes a favorable view of caste and failed to
non-Brahmin and even untouchable bovs attended
see its dehumanizing aspect.
the schools at Sripuram.
232 irrrrrr' socloLocY Q&A

. According to Beteille, in the towns and cities white-collar caste groups and inequalities thereof. Andre Beteille,
jobs were relatively caste-free. Non-Brahmins from Sri- Dipankar Gupt4 etc. subscribe to this perspective.
purarn could work as clerks or accountants in offices at If ihe institution of caste has been of gteat value to
Thiruvarur and Tanjore along with the Brahmins. Hinduism, it has also been responsible for a good many
. Within the village land had come into the market evils. According to Ir. N. Bose, "The caste system has
since, due to several factors, some of the Brahmans acted essentially to impose that attitude of mind, needed
had to sell their land. This enabled the non-Brahmans to raise men from savagery but to stop them half way
and even a few Adi-Dravidas (lower castes) to buy it. on progress." The caste system has literally split up the
Thus, as land came into the market, the productive Hindu society into hundreds of hereditary castes and
organization of the village tended to become free sub-castes and thus encouraged a spirit of exclusiveness
from the structure of caste. and class- pride, narrowed the outlook and created wide
n Traditional occupation based classification is slowly gulfs between the various sections of the tommu4ity.
losing its significance. Now even a Brahmin can be The caste system is a check on economic and
seen operating a salon shoP. intellectual advancement and a great stumbling block in
SocieV is evolving from ascription to achievement the way of social teforms, because it keeps economic and
" intellectual opportunities con-fined to a certain secticin of
based one, so caste is gradually disappearing. Srinivas
in his study of Mysore found out that over the period the population only and denies them to others.
of time attitude of villagers is changing and they attach In the economic field, the caste system undermines
less and less importance to the ritual status as demo- the efficiency of iabour and prevents perfect mobility
cratic and modernvalues started to show their impact. of labour, capital and productive effort. As a result,
. Social movements and campaigns against evils of neither are the large scale industries developed nor are
caste system have led to its considerable change in the economic resources of the country exploited to the
South India. Arya Samaj, SNDP Yogam, Self Respect best advantage of the people.
Movement, Satyashodhak Samaj etc made a consid- The caste system perpetuates exploitation of the
erable dent in caste. Sanskritisatioru Modernization economically weaker and socially inferior castes. It
and Westernization also lead to change in the cul- protects the privileged castes and thus it builds up
tural sphere. economic discontent and social prejudices. The caste
Thus, in case of upper castes, caste as an identity is system has inflicted untold hardships on women
less promin"iit us successive generations in prosperity through its insistence on practices like child-marriage,
tend to attribute their well-being to their education, oc- prohibition of widow-remarriage, seclusion of women
cupatiory etc. and caste tends to become invisible. etc. These have made the life of women miserable.
It is also said, the more the caste is weakening, more The caste system has condemned large groups of
it is becoming stronger. \ trhile in a ritual sense, it may be people to a life of degradation without any hope of
becoming weaker; in the secular sphere it is also becom- redemption. It has created untouchability, an evil that
ing stronger when it comes to garner the caste associated has been sapping the very vitals of the Hindu society.
interests like reservation, political gains. Democracy is based on the principle of equality,
fraternity and liberty. On the other hand, the caste
system is based on inequality of status and opportunities,
a. "Indian caste system is unique and has been which often creates conflict and tension in the society. It
unhealthy for the growth of sociolo 8y of in the normal and smooth funetioning
acts as an obstacle
India." How f,ar do you agree with this view? of democracy. The caste system obstructs the process
(csE 2020) of modernization. Modernization necessitates a change
Ans: Caste system is a closed system of strati-fication in outlook and mentality along with socio-economic
which is peculiar to India. It existed from centuries development. But the caste system by compelling an
and its exact origin is still not known. Primarily, it is a individual to act strictly in accordance with caste norms
system called 'Yarna' system under the Hindu fold of stands in the way of modernization.
Indian society which divides society into four groups Modern Indian intellect is, therefore, burdened
or 'Varnas' based on the birth - Brahmin, Kshatriya, with a sense of contrition over the matter. Passions
Vaishyas and Shudras. overwhelmingly carry us to a position of hostility
Caste is considered as both a cultural and structural towards any compromise, and the entire caste skucture
phenomenon. Culturall!, it is a system of value, beliefs has as a result been plhced in the docks.
and practices associated with a particular strata. G. Despite this it cannot be gainsaid that the caste
S. Ghurye, M N Srinivas, etc. have understood it in system offers a place in the society into which any
cultural terms. Structurally, it refers to a specific pattern group-racial, social, religious or occupational can fit in as
of inter-related structures along with interaction among a cooperatingpaftof the social whole without sacrificing
the various castes on the basis of various disabilities and its own individual identity and distinctive character.
restrictions" It also studies actual power relations between What the caste system provides in India in terms of
 CASTESYSTEM * 233
integrating disparate forces may have its analogue in Therefore, caste dimension still remains important
other social contexts, but it remains uniquely effective and India has gone for only'selective modernization and
in the Indian conditions, without a paraliel elsewhere. not complete modernization as explained by Yogendra
Singh neither has it remained totally traditional as
a. Discuss Whitehead's contention that caste Dumont has put it. Andre Beteille observes that power
has potential to displace class and colonial has shifted from one dominant caste to another and it
conkadiction. (CSE 2020) has shifted from the caste structure itself, and come
to be located in more differentiated structures such as
Ans: Caste system is a closed system of stratification
panchayats and political parties.
which is peculiar to India. It existed from centuries and
its exact origin is still not known. Caste is considered as
both a cultural and structural phenomenon. Culturally, Q. Write a note on Ghurye's conception of caste
caste is a system of values, beliefs, and practices - in India" (CSE,2019)
associated with particular strata. G. S. Ghurye, M N Ans: In his work'Caste and Race in India 1932',GS
Srinivas, etc. have understood it in cultural terms. Ghurye has examined caste from a historical indologicaf
Structurally, it refers to a specific pattern of comparative and integrative perspective. According to
interrelated structures along with interaction among the him caste and kinship in India has played an integrative
various castes on the basis of various disabilities and role.
restrictions. It also studies actual power relations between He was initially influenced by the reality of
caste groups and inequalities thereof. Andre Beteille, diffusionist approach according to which, caste
Dipankar Gupta, etc. subscribe to this perspective. originated in plains of Ganges and then spread to other
M N Srinivas tried to capture the tluidity of the caste parts of India - of British social anthropology, but
system through concepts of Sanskritization, Dominant later shifted to both Indological and anthropological
Caste and Brahminisation. He predominantly used the perspective.
field studies to explain working of caste, but also resorted Further, he also relates caste and race as well.
to Indological sources. He used a multidimensionai According to him, whoie Indian society is caste-based
approach and focused on not just tradition, but he and even tribes are also part of this system as opposed
1 understood it in terms of status, wealth and power. to Western notion that tribes and castes are two different
1
French sociologist Louis Dumont in his seminal concepts. According to him, tribals are 'backward
work 'Homo Hierarchicus: Caste System and Its Hindus' who are at various levels of assimilation in
Implication, 1966' synthesized macro perspective of Hindu society. FIe, thus, also opposed the colonial view
Ghurye with micro perspective of empirical studies, of isolating the tribals.
thus, combining'text'with'context'. He sees caste from His definition emphasizes six features which were
an 'ideological perspective' and not just an empirical deriaed froru aqrious Indological studies done by him:
realty. Louis Dumont constructed a textually-informed I. Caste is an institution based on segmental division.
image of caste which according to him is a combination This means that caste society is divided into a
of Indological and structuralist approach with dual focus number of closed, mutually exclusive segments or
on ideology as well as structure. According to him, compartments. It is closed as caste is decided by
caste plays an integrative role in Indian society and is birth - the children born to parents of a particular
distinctive of India and he sees caste system in terms of caste will always belong to that caste.
'ideas and values.
II. Caste society is based on hierarchical division. No
Whitehead explaining the relationship between two castes aie ever equal.
social development, development models, democracy
and social policy offer valuable insights and lessons
III. The institution of caste necessarily involves
restrictions on feeding and social interaction,
on the type of social policy that can foster democratic
especially the sharing of food. These rules are
and rights based models of social development. Social
governed by ideas of purity and pollution.
stratification in the form of class or caste can influence
the social development according to wealth and status of IV. Following from the principles of hierarchy and
individuals.in this way, \A/hitehead examined the lines of restricted social interaction, caste also involves
interaction between democracy and development, their differential rights and duties for different castes and
"connectedness" and "elective affinity" .
civil and religious disabilities and privileges.
i,
Andre Beteille says his views are much on what V. Caste restricts the choice of occupation, which, like
caste ought to be and not what caste today is. Superiority caste itself, is decided by birth and is hereditary.
of Brahmins claimed by him is also questioned by others Vi. Caste involves strict restrictions on marriage. Caste
who see power concentrated in hands of kings. Beteille 'endogamy', or rnarriage only within the caste, is
blames Dumont in particular for encoulaging a'caste- often accompanied by ruies about 'exogamy' , or
view' of Indian society. whom one may not marry.
234 ie SOCIOLOGY Q & A

His critics accuse him of relying too much on decision of Caste Panchayat or their leaders. They prefer
text and not going for empirical studies. According to a candidate of their own caste irrespective of the merits
Beteille, his understanding of caste is con{using as he or demerits of the candidate. \Alhen a single caste is not
continuously changes his goal post from Indological to likely to be effective, alliances are made and that too on
diffusionism to comparative to outright nationalism. caste basis. Even the office bearers of a political party
Ghurye is also accused of taking a Hindu-centric view are appointed on the basis of caste.
of society which is apparent from his calling of tribes as Caste has become a determinant factor of 'political
'backward Hindus'. elite' status. Studies conducted on political elite by
However, he will alrvays be known for challenging scholars like Sirsikar, Sachchidananda, Ram Ahuja, S.K.
the colonial notions of caste as unchanging and he was Lai, etc. have all pointed out that in the emergence of
the first to approach caste from sociological point of elite, higher castes have an extraordinary advantage over
view. the middle and the lower castes. Before. independence,
generally the upper caste groups occupied the centre of
Q. What is caste politics? Substantiate your the political stage in the Congress party engaged in the
answer with examples of how identities are freedom struggle but after independence, individuals
from the middle and the lower castes also entered
defined by caste dynamics. (CSE, 2019)
political power field.
Ans: The caste systern has traditionally had The reservation policy enabled individuals from
significant influence over people's access to power. The the lower castes to emerge as leaders, while elite from
privileged upper caste groups benefit more by gaining the middle castes emerged due to their improved
substantially more economic and political power, while educational and socio-economic status. Thus, caste
the lower caste groups have limited access to those system which had only ritualistic function (including
powers. The caste system distributes to different castes determining occupation and social status) assumed the
different economic strengths. new role of regulating political behaviour of the people.
In India, caste is one of the main determinants Flowever, in the present times, development-based
of voting behaviour in India. It has a decisive role in .\
politics is replacing the caste-based politics upto certain :
political matters, particularly voting. Voting provides extent, and voting behaviour of the people is based more
an opportuni{y to castes to assert their inJluence. }ust as on the merits of the candidates than his/her caste.
in Britain, voting is class determinant, in United States,
it is race determinant.
The very fact that a caste is capable of functioning
Q. What do you understand by discrete castes
and muddled hierarchies? Substantiate your
as an effective pressure group, places it into a position of
political power, which cannot be ignored by the political answer with suitable illustrations. (CSE, 2018)
parties depending on their mandate on the goodwill Ans: There is no single, universally accepted caste
of the voters. Politicians mobilize caste groupings and hierarchy that unites all those who belong to the caste
identities in order to organize their political power. system. I

Bhikhu Parekh, Professor at the London School of Instead, Dipankar Gupta believes that there are t
Economics (India Today, December 26,2005) observed, many competing hierarchies within the caste system. He
'it is hardly surprising that according to the 2004 national shifted his focus of viewing castes away from thetop - or
election surveyr nearly 40 per cent of the people voted as one united system - to various rungs of the system by
for their castes'" Long ago, Rudolph and Rudolph (1967) looking from perspectives of individual castes.
noted that democracy has entrusted caste an important He defined caste system as a form of di-fferentiation
political role in lndia. wherein the constituent units of the system justify
Caste thus provides an extensive basis for the endogamy on the basis of generally accepted biological
organization of democratic politics in India. It is the most differences which are re-emphasised by the ritualisation
convenient means of political mobilization. Elections are of multiple social practices. Hierarchies that may then
always fought utilizing the resources of caste loyalties. develop are an expression of politico-economic power
The selection of candidates for a constituency is and may change with alterations therein.
made on the basis of caste, having a significant voice Gupta further argues that notions of purity and
and who can muster a good number of votes in the pollution are relatively recent additions ih the history of
conr;tituency. Erzery party takes utmost care to see that the caste system. They emerged mainly to separate the
its candidate in a particular constituency belongs to the r.rntouchables from the rest and became operative at various
caste which has a majority in the area. planes of the caste system much later. His argument is
People of a caste vote en bloc for a candidate of clear: "Castes existed first as discrete categories. Hierarchies
the same or different caste either in pursuance of the come later."
 CASTE SYSTEM i.i 235
Gupta believed Individual castes are discrete In today's scenario, caste system has not been
entities with well-developed views and ideologies. very rigid due to modernisation, industrialisation,
Castes that are lower down the scale do not accept the migration, factory system, transport and communication,
degrading status accorded to them by what he calls the urbanisation, and the change in the social relations
"sacerdotal" view of caste. He cites myths of origins, taking place due to these dynamic processes. Hence,
caste revolts and movements of caste mobility in support the principle of hierarchy has lost its relevance and the
of this contention of discreteness. principle of difference has become more relevant.
In present day, castes are represented as unified
identity when it comes to the debate of reservation. Q. What are the changes in the cultural and
Various caste groups like Patels, Jats, etc. are demanding structural aspects of the caste system since
'other backward classes' category despite knowing very
well that it goes against their well defined social status
independence? (C9E,2017)
and hierarchies.
Ans: The caste system still exists in our society, but
Thus, in an Indian society where castes are
itis not as rigid or irrational as once it was. A number
of factors are responsible for bringing about changes
considered discrete and exclusive, there is no universally
in the system like Industrialisation and Urbanisation,
accepted social hierarchy that places all the castes within
Westernisation, Sanskritisatibn, Secularisation,
its ambit.
Legislative measures and Reform Movements.
The following are some of the changes in the
Q. Which is more significant, the principle of cultural and structural aspects of the caste system after
'hierarchy'or the principle of 'difference'; in independence:
inter-caste relations in the present day? o The ascriptive status loses its importance. In the
(csE,2017) industrial urban sector, the low caste people hold
Ans: Caste system has been a very significant higher positions and vice versa.
component of Social Stratification in Indian society. o In the industrial colonies, the residential
Dumont says caste system is an extreme form of Social accommodation is usually so allotted that there is
Stratification in India that coexists rvith occupational no distinction between high and low caste people.
stratification, linguistic stratification, sexual stratification Thus, they have social intercourse tl'rrough inter-
and religious stratification. mixing and inter-dining. This strikes at the roots of
caste system.
The Principle of Hierarchy
Dumont says Hierarchy implies the regular o Srinivas defines "Sanskritization" as the process
by which a low Hindu caste or tribal or any other
ordering of a phenomenon on a continuous scale'such
group changes its customs, rituals, ideology and
that the elements of the whole are ranked in relation to
way of life in the direction of a high and frequently
the whole'. Caste System in India has always followed
"twice-born" caste. The process of secularization
the principle of hierarchy separating the four castes
diminishes the religiosity of tradition-bound people
in a hierarchy (Brahamanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas,
and simultaneously promotes rationality, scientific
and Shudras) on the basis of following the concepts
attitude and differentiation.
of purity and pollution. Hierarchy is but one form of
social stratification and it certainly does not constitute
o Prof. M.N. Srinivas has rightly pointed out; "What
was previously regarded as religious is now ceasing
the essence of social stratification.
to be such and it also implies a process of different
The Principle of Differences creation which results in the various aspects
Differences rather than hierarchy are dominant in of society, economic, political, legal and moral,
some stratificatory systems. Such an aruangement can becoming increasingly discrete in relation to each
be easily illustrated in the case of language, religion or other."
nationalities. Secular India again provides an example o Law has two important functions to play in a
of religious stratification where religions are not society, first, to rein-force social control and secondly
hierarchizeid or unequally privileged in law, but have to bring about a social change by influencing the
the freedom to exist separately infull knowledge of their behaviour, values and beliefs of people"
intrinsic differences. o Institutionalized inequality, which was the basis
In the case of intercaste relations, in the present of caste system, came under attack. Caste-based
context the principle of difference is more significant education and occupation became meaningless
than the principle of hierarchy because the rigid caste and traditional social forces were struck by radical
system that existed in ancient India has loosen its roots. changes in the law of this land.
236 il,,, SOCIOLOGY Q & A

Hence, Caste System has undergone a great is on the decline. But it is still strong in some regions of
transformation but still holds relevance, especially in the country especially in the rural areas.
the rural areas, and also in the caste-based politics and
vote-bank politics in the Indian Political System. a. Anti brahmanical movements during colonial
period (CSE,2016)
a. Explain the concepts of 'dominant caste' and Ans: The social divisions in society in different
'vote bank' giving examples from specific parts of colonial India were rooted both in culture and
regions. (CSE,20l7l economy. The emergence of early nationalist feeling
Ans: The removal of the boundaries between among some of the middle to upper class Indians
"civil society" an:rd "political society" meant that caste coincided with the emergence of revolts against the
now played a huge role in the political arena and also social divisions.
influenced other government-run institutions such as Some of the early social reformers like ]yoitiba
police and the judicial system. Phule and Sri Narayan Guru questioned these
Though caste seemed to dictate one's access to social divisions and became the pioneers of anti-
such institutions, the location of that caste also played Brahminical politics of early Twentieth Century in
a pivotal role. India. The nature of the movement for social equality
The hierarchy of caste and its role in politics and became anti-Brahminical because Brahmins were widely
access to power and resources has created a society perceived to be both the founders of these divisions and
of patron-client relationships along caste Iines. This its main beneficiaries.
staunchly rigid structure was most prevalent during the Caste' has been present in almost all religious
Congress-dominating period. groups in India. E Ramaswamy Naikar Periyar's led
This eventually led to the practice of vote banking, Vaikom Satygraha demanded temple entry to all
where voters back only candidates that are in their caste, untouchables in L924. Periyar later led the Justice
or officials from which they expect to receive some kind Party in Tamil Nadu which was struggling against the
Brahmin dominance in government jobs and education \
of benefits.
sectors. The 'self respect movement' launched and
Dominant Castes and vote bank across various regions led by Periyar and his followers was a movement of
Caste id'often specific to a particular area. These backward castes for equality in social, economic and
caste pockets create locally dominant castes. Because cultural spheres questioning any form of hierarchy and
of the political structure in India, local dominance can religious privileges.
translate into regional dominance. This concentration of The fight against caste system took its anti-Brahmin
caste population has meant that smaller, less inJluential form on$ by the late Nineteenth Century simultaneously
castes have the opportunity to stake claims in the in Maharashtra and Tamilnadu or Madras. According to
political power arena. Sumit Sarkar, "first signs of political movement among
The dominant castes and the strength of their vote so called 'low caste' people began after the first round
bank vary across various states. In Andhra Pradesh, the of Census in India in1871." a

politically important castes are Kamma, Reddy, Velama, According to him "it first started in south India
and Brahmins. where some of Shudras started movements for social
In UP, Pandit, Rajputs, ]ats in Western Uttar recognition and dignity."
Pradesh, Dalits, Muslims, Brahmins and Yadavs, who He gives the examples of Tamilnadu where newly
supported Samajwadi party recently. emergent mercantile class of among lower ranked
In rural North India, upper and middle-ranking Shanans and Pallis castes "claimed Khatriyas status"
castes dominate the ownership of land. They were some of them began calling themselves as Nadar which
able to transfer this control over wealth into political was a term so far conJined to "the owners of land and
dominance over the Panchayat decision. This means, Palmyra trees". What was different in these movements
"Localised concentration facilitates a space for contesting from the earlier social reform movements is the class
the domination of State-level dominant caste". For and sections which led it were from the lower castes
instance, the Maratha-Kunbi caste has concentrations and classes.
of populations ali over the Indian states. They thus The rigid caste'system, hierarchically graded
managed to receive maximum representation at the and based on birth, was the principal target of
state legislature. umbrella of the socio-reform movements in which anti-
Though" due to increased awareness and education Brahmin (extreme form of non-Brahmin movements)
about the role of citizens as voters in developing took the revolutionary shape under the leadership of
democracies like India, the relevance of caste- politics the Jyotirao Phule (1827-1890) and Ambedkar.
 CASTE SYSTEM i\. 237
a. How has B.R. Ambedkar identified the caste exercises authority over the whole village. M.
features of caste system? How is it different N. Srinivas gave this concept of 'dominant caste'.
from the mainstream treatment of caste (f) Village Economy and Caste: In rural society, caste
features? (CSE,2016) determines the economic life of people. Though
the village economy is diversified, the traditional
Ans: It is said that the roots of Ambedkar's
village occupations determine the status and wealth
philosophy were not in politics but in religion, particularly
the Hindu religion which laid the foundation of caste
of rural people. The habitation pattern is also
determined by the clusters of the caste.
system. His socio-political thought began with his
criticism of Hindu religion because of its evil practices (g) Social and Occupational Mobility: In any rural
of caste system and seeking (or presenting) solutions for society, the social and occupational mobility is
untouchables to free from this evil practice. Ambedkar being analyzed on the basis of caste. Economic
himself was anuntouchable and faced manyhumiliations mobihty of a person or a family is determined
as one. As such, the liberation of 'depressed classes', by the caste, to which he/she belongs to. Though
the awakening and organisation of untouchables, and there are some castes that have given up their
safeguarding their rights and interests centered to traditional occupations, other castes follow their
his political and social ideas. The political and social caste occupations rigidly.
thoughts of Ambedkar therefore are found in his fight (h) Hierarchical Relations are based on Caste: Caste
to uplift the untouchables, the 'depressed classes'. It is is a system of hierarchical relations, where the
aptly described that the political philosophy of B. R. Brahmins occupy the highest position and Sudras
Ambedkar was often shaped by the politics of social as lowest. In between these castes are the Rajputs,
reform and by India's special brand of minority politics. artisans and such other caste groups. All the
interactions among the members of the village
Features of Caste System
are based on the status of caste. The status of the
(a) Rules of Endogamy and Exogamy: There exist a individual is determined by his birth in a particular
number of rules with regard to marital relations. caste.
One cannot marry a person, who belongs to the (i) Caste and joint Family System: It is generally
same gotra og who is related by blood. In certain argued that caste and joint family system are related
tribal communities, there also exists the practice of to one another. In a village, it is the caste, which
village exogamy, as tribals consider that marrying determines the nature of the family. The caste in
within their own village is a loss of status. village in India is essentially a cluster or group of
(b) Interdependence of Occupations: Division of joint families.
labour on the basis of caste is an essential feature of Ambedkar contended that caste. system is graded
caste system in rural societies. The economy of the inequalities. The four varnas are not only different but
village was earlier based on the jajmani system. In also unequal in status - one stands above the others
this system, the occupational castes render services and accordingly the distribution of social benefits are
to their jajmans on an exchange basis, either in cash unequal. The occupants of the higher status get more
or in kind. benefits than the lower status occupants and the lowest-
(c) Importance of Caste in Various Stages of Life: The the untouchable get nothing.
life of an individual passes from various phases, Secondly, the occupation of a person is prescribed
such as birth ceremonies, marriage and death. Each for a caste is graded from highest to the lowest. The
of these phases is associated with a set of rituals. priestly occupation is the highest assigned to the
All such rituals are officiated by a Brahmin. Brahmins and the menial and the filthiest and degrading
(d) Caste Associations: Though the power of caste occupation to the lowest that is to the Shudras and
is losing its prominence, caste associations are the untouchables. Thirdly, restriction on inter-dinning
becoming much stronger, especially in political between and among the castes is a design to keep the
matters. The caste war, which is found in Bihar higher caste exclusive to its own group and to avoid
today,,is due to the power gained by th6se caste inter mixing with the law castes.
associations. The caste associations make most of On Varna Theory: Ambedkar viewed Vama system
the political decisions in rural society. as class. Because an individual is not treated on his or
(e) Dominant Caste: The caste that has greater her merit but as class like a member of a Brahmin or
numerical strength than the other castes, which Shudra or Dalit, etc. even in family, as inan or woman.
holds the majority of the land and makes important So, it was a great injustice to a merit of an individual. So,
decisions pertaining to the village, is the'dominant he questioned "Does the Hindu Social order recognize
caste'. This concept explains clearly that a single equality?"
 238 ::tt::t SOC|OLOGY e & A

Genesis of Caste System: On the genesis of caste Because of the introduction of democracy, land reforms
system Ambedkar refutes all the theories of caste and many other measures, change has been an important
origin put forward by different thinkers. In his view feature of this relationship over the last few decades.
the caste system has either been imposed upon the The distribution of power has acquired a very dynamic
docile population of India by a law-giver as divine character over the last two decades. In some ways
dispensation or it has developed according to some law the traditional relationship between caste and power
of social growth to the Indian people. has been reversed. Whereas in the past power was
Caste and Division of Labour: Ambedkar says concentrated in the hands of Brahmins, today the village
that the caste system assigns task to individuals on the panchayat is controlled by non - Brahmins and the
basis of social status of the parents- and not on merit or traditional elite is being pushed into the background.
aptitude of the individual. It is predestined by birth; and Thus the traditionally dominant higher castes now
unchangeable. This is against the principle of division of face new challenges to the power they used to hold. In
labour. This is an artificial device to keep some people the study of Sripuram village, Andre Beteille observed
to serve other. that "power has also become independent of class to a
Therefore, Ambedkar wanted annihilation of caste greater extent than in the past. Ownership of land is no
system. In his view caste divides men into separate longer the decisive factor in acquiring power. Numerical
communities and it places, the communities in a graded support and strategic position in the party machinery
order- one above the other. The higher the grade of a play an important part."
caste, the greater is the member of religions and social The process of differentiation between caste, class
rights. This is not only inequalities but also injustice. and power may be attributed to the introduction of
Therefore, Ambedkar wanted annihilation of caste land reforms. Andre Beteille's study of Sripuram
system at all. village reveals that economic and political structures are
Having analyzed the exploitative nature of Hindu increasingly being differentiated from caste structure.
social order born out a varnas, caste and sub-caste Andre Beteille's study of Sripuram village in South
Ambedkar gave his own vision of an ideal social order India reveals a structural analysis of the interrelationship
based liberty, equality, fraternity. Accordingly he between caste, class, and power in a changing society.
incorporated the provisions which do away the casteism
It is based on a study of Sripuram, a village bordering
and ensure the fundamental rights to citizens of India the town of Thiruvaiyar in Tanjore District, South India.
irrespective of caste, creed and sex. The right guarantees
As is usual in South Indian villages, Sripuram's physical
the eguality of all Indians in social Iife.
structure reflects its social stratification: the agraharam
is inhabited by Brahmins only, the kudiana by non-
a. Discuss Andre Beteille's account of the Brahminp, and the cheri by Adi-Dravidas. Dr. Beteille
relationship between caste, class and power as a lived in the Brahmin settlement, and he therefore tends,
change from symmetricai to asymmetrical one. at times, to view the village through their eyes. Thus, he
(csE,2016) consistently lumps the Maratha Kshatriya family with
Ans: As a traditional basis of stratification, caste is the rest of the non-Brahmins.
a distinctive category in the Indian social system. Caste However, this does not diminish the value of his
is a community as it is based on Kinship and primordial analysis; on the contrary, it adds to his political insight,
affinity, whereas class is an occupational and economic since the Brahmins were after all politically dominant in
category and hence limited in social interaction. The caste this community. The author gir,,es a lucid account of the
system is a segmental division of society. Social scientists segmentation within the Brahmin caste, the principles
use class as the powerful concept of stratification for of which appear to be doctrinal, geographical, and
explaining social organization, social movements and linguistic. Moreover, he helps to clarify the somewhat
power structure. Power is a relative matter. A man nebulous concept of " caste" or " jati" by establishing that
who has power in one situation will not necessarily be " caste" refers to a multiplicity of things rather than to
powerful in all the situations. Thus power differs from any one single aspect of social relationships; therefore, it
situation to situation. The extent of one's power may is quite legitimate to use " caste" for each of the various
determine the status of the person exercising power. levels of segmentation" In the days when the Brahmins
A person may exercise power because of his status were the generally dominant caste in the area, fission
;i
and position which he enjoys in the social structure. among them was preponderant. F{owever, since the
Caste, class and power are three major dimensions of decline in their overall power, fusioh of segments, rather
stratification in Indian society. than fission, has become the order of the day. Until
The relationship between caste, class and about the turn of the last century, caste stratification in
power has to be examined in the context of change. Sripuram was not only related to ritual differentiation,
 CASTE SYSTEM ;, 239
but was in line with the distribution of economic roles a. Louis Dumont's perspective on Indian caste
and political power. The Brahmins, on the whole, system. (CSE,2015)
were landlords and at the same time controlled the
Ans: Dumont's perspective on caste system was
village panchayat; non-Brahmins were either tenant
primarily concerned with the ideology of the caste
farmers or small owner cultivators with little say in
system. For him caste is set of relationships of economic,
political matters; while the landless Adi-Dravidas were political
and kinship systems, sustained by certain
subordinate agricultural laborers. There was thus a high
values which are mostly religious in nature. Dumont
degree of coincidence between caste, cIass, and power. says
that caste is not a form of stratification but a special
Owing to the impact of external economic and political form of inequality. Here he identifies
hierarchy as the
variables over the past 60 years, this clear-cut picture essential value underlying the caste system
supported by
has become blurred. The Brahmins, the traditional elite, Hinduism. FIis analysis is based
on a single principle-the
were the first to be attracted by the new educational and opposition of pure and impure. According to Dumont
professional opportunities in the growing towns. Some caste divides the whole Indian society into a larger
of them became absentee landlords, others sold their number of hereditary groups distinguished from one
village lands. This meant that the landholding pattern another and connected together by three characteristics:
in Sripuram became more fluid: non-Brahmins, too, 1,. Separation on the basis of rules of the caste in
could and did become landowners. At the same time, matters of marriage and contact whether direct or
the town-based political parties shifted their attention indirect (food).
from the Brahmins to the numerically more important 2. Interdependent
of lt ork or division of labor each
non-Brahmins and Adi-Dravidas. in this context it may
group having in theory or by tradition, a profession
be important to examine the comparative population from which their members can depart only within
growth of the three major sections in the community, a certain limits
variable that Dr. Beteille ignored. In any case, some of the
Brahmin economic influence and most of their political
3. Gradation of status or hierarchy which ianks the
groups as relatively superior or inferior to one
power became vested in the non-Brahmins. Since India's
another.
independence, several legislative acts have been passed
Dumont highlights the state of mind which is
that aim to democratize village economic and political
expressed by the emergence in various situations of
institutions. The study of Sripuram throws into relief the
castes. He calls caste system as a system of ideas and
difficulties involved in trying to introduce democracy in
values which is a formal comprehensible rational system.
a society with a segmental hierarchical social structure
whose values are basically inegalitarian. Although class
has become dissociated from caste, "it is the anti-Brahmin
a. How far was Gandhi trusted by the
movement rather than class conflict between landowners
untouchables? (CSE,20151
and the landless that has dominated political life in this Ans: Post-Poona pact Gandhi was looked on as
area over the last forty years". Classes in Sripuram are one of the strongest enemies of the Untouchables by
mere categories, whereas castes are communities. The Arnbedkar and his followers. Ambedkar, born into the
"untouchable" caste of Mahars, found himself in con{lict
latter, therefore, provided more convenient instruments
for political action than the former in his examination of with Gandhi, who had declared himself an untouchable
Sripuram's d;mamic social system.
by choice. While Ambedkar argued for a broad iivil
The distribution of power creates a hierarchy
rights organizatron which would focus on gaining
civic rights for Dalits - entry into public places, use of
which is different from the hierarchies of caste and
public facilities, broad civil liberties - and he wanted
class. Sripuram constituted an agraharam village. One
can obtain a variety of class positions with different
it under control of the Dalits themselves, Ganclhi saw
untouchability as a sin of Hinduism and envisaged
degrees of probability, whatever one's position in the
an organization of upper-caste Hindus atoning and
caste structure may be. Several factors were responsible
working for the "uplift" of Untouchables. On Harijan
for the power and influence of the old landowning
Sevak Sangh, Ambedkar said "the whole object of
class in Sripuram. The changing relationships between
the Sangh is to create a slave mentality among the
the Brahmins and a variety of political parties are
Untouchables towards their Hindu masters." It was seen
explored. The processes of economic change and political
i1
as a major thrust of paternalism by Ambedkar. While
modernization have led the productive system and the
Ambedkar and his followers stood for the annihilation
organization of power to acquire an increasing degree
of caste, Gandhi was a fervent believer of "varnashrama
of autonomy. It would appear that a certain measure
dharma". Gandhi did not see untouchables as individuals
of "discreteness" is enjoyed by each of the three orders
born into a particular community; rather as somewhat
considered: caste, class, and power.
unthinking members of an existing Hindu community.
240 :ii, soctoLocy e &A

Ambedkar in contrast put the individual and his/her reservations that makes it easy to compete and landing
development at the center of his vision. elite jobs at lower merit. The caste divide has only
Gandhi is actually one of the most hated Indian deepened with increasing conflict.
leaders in the hierarchy of those considered enemies of
India's Dalits or "untouchables" by the Ieadership of a. Features of caste system (CSE, 2014)
India's Dalits. Ans: Ghurye considers presence of caste in dilferent
parts of country at different parts of time, inter-
a. Is caste system changing, weakening or relation between different castes and forms of different
disintegrating in India? (CSE, 2015) entitlements of dilferent caste groups.
Ans: The caste system is stiil relevant today Features of Caste
though the rules are not as rigid as they were in the
Segmental division of society: Ghurye considers
past. People have become progressive in many aspects
that Indian society is divided into multiple localized
with western education, contact with foreigners, media,
communities called as caste, people belonging to a caste
globalization and modern communications. Although are largely dispersed cutting across a village. Historically
casteism was outlawed after Independence and in speaking culture unified India.and caste divided India.
1962, a law was passed making it illegai to discriminate
Flence, Indian society driven by caste is not a society
against the untouchable castes. In practice however,
rather it is society o{ societies.
discrimination still continues today. This can be seen in
ftrierarchy: Ghurye's understanding of caste is
continuing opposition to inter-caste marriages especially
hierarchical but it is not absolutely fixed because in
with lower classes, personal practices of not sharing food
middle position of caste structure there has always been
utensils with lower castes in particular untouchables etc.
flexibility. Hence for Ghurye, like class some elements of
In India, both the worids exists - one, who continues to
mobility are present in caste system but unlike.class, all
preach and practice caste discrimination and other, who
position of the caste are not equally subjected to upward
doesn't care about castes at all.
and downward mobility.
But now, all castes are equally treated by the law.
Restrictions of food, drinks and social common
Education is free and open to all castes. The social
ability: There are sets of rules by which a person
injustice of pagt was sought to be rectified by providing
belonging to caste is forbidden to take food with the
reservations to SC, ST and OBCs to the ceiling of 50% of
members of another caste. A Brahmin cannot take food
total seats in educational instittitions and government
cooked with water in a Kshatriyas' house but he can
jobs and was referred to as positive discrimination. This
take food prepared and cooked in full ghee.
was aimeil at development and upliftmer-it of the socially
Disabilities and privileges of different castes: Each
backward classes to help them get out of clutches of
caste is solially desired to perform certain occupations.
backwardness, but today these same castes are fighting
Thus Brahmin cannot choose the profession of weeper
hard to hold on to their backward status to keep getting
and vice versa. In Hindu caste system, Brahmins are
the benefits of reservations in education and jobs rvhich
the most priviledged castes and Shudra are worst
is considered an easy and important tool for upr,vard
priviledged casts.
social mobility.
Endogamy: Endogamy or marriage within one's
The country has witnessed many protests aiming
own caste or sub-caste group is an essential fiature
at getting their castes classified as backr,rrard, for getting
of caste system. It is one of the main reasons for the
or increasing.reservation quotas, the latest in picture
persistence of caste system.
being the "lat" agitations in Haryana. There exist small
Thus, basically caste refers to people belonging to
pockets of groups who resent the system - the general
the same breed. Castes are inscriptive groups, in Indian
category representing the "higher" castes. This is in
caste system there is prominence of ideas of party and
effect to frustration due to injustice as getting into a
pollution and notions of hierarch.
top university or elite government jobs, a student with
a backward caste certificate needs a lower grade than
the others. The ongoing protests in Gujarat agitating for Q. Write some of the important social reforms
a removal of the government's system o{ caste quotas in India for the removal of untouchability.
demand "either free the country from reservation or (csE,2014)
make everybody a slave of reservation." Ans: Social reforms made ceaseless efforts for the
True, the discrimination against the Dalits and other removal of untouchability and the niaterial progress of
backward classes still exists in Indian society. But caste untouchables. The reform movement of untouchables
system has also molded into a system that needs to firmly believed that the progress of the nation could
be continuously bred to maintain grip on propagating not be realized without first removing untouchability.
 CASTE SYSTEM H 241
Neo-vedantik movement was initiated by Hindu inter-penetration of caste and class has proceeded with
religious and social reformers. These movements the development of capitalism and exploitafion in society
attempted to remove untouchability by taking them into leading to exkeme poverty in indian society.
the fold of the caste system. Poverty and the poor are always associated with
Dayanand Saraswati the founder of Arya Samaj (a) resourcelessness, (b) choicelessness, (c) insecurity
believed that the caste system was a political institution and (d) deprivation which creates incapacities in the
created by the rulers for the common good of society pursuit of dignified life in a given society for a person,
and not a natural or religious distinction. household, #oup or community. Alex Ninian in his
The Satyashodhak Samaj and the self-respect study of untouchables, he writes, the caste system that
movements in Maharashtra and the Tamil Nadu, the was established in India forced many people who belong
Adi Dharma and Adi Andhra movement in Bengal and to the lower castes into poverty. These lolt er castes or
Adi-Hindu movement in Uttar Pradesh are important Dalits are essentially shunned from society: Opposition
anti-untouchability movements which were Iaunched to inter-caste marriage has helped in preserving the
in the last quarter of the 19th and the early part of 20th poverty level in India as weli. Marxist scholars from
century. The movement did not pose a direct threat to their class and capitalistic perspective analyse problem
the caste system. It was in essence, conceived as and of mass poverty in India is a standing testimony to
remained a protest against the attribution of low roles the enduring forms of old exploitation which are now
and functions to the untouchable by means of a claim combined with ner.r,er vl.rieties of globalised capitalism.
not to be Aryan Hindus. Thus in India it is caste system offering legitimacy
The Nadars organized movements in the late 19th to exploitation of lower section of society and they
century against the civic disabilities they suffered. They are more vulnerable to extreme poor and on the other
formed their caste organization in 1903 called SNDP hand the same caste system also provide class based
Yogam. According to it, the low social status of the stratification to increase the rate of poverty in India. As
Iravas is due to their low social and religious practices. K. V. Verghese rightly observes, "Caste system acted
The association launched activities for Sanskritising as a springboard for class exploitation with the result
the norms and customs of the Iravas. They launched a that the counterpart of the poverty of the many is the
Satyagraha for temple entry in the 1920s.They bargained opulence of the few. The second is the cause of the first."
with a governrhent for economic opportunities and
political positions.
A major anti-touchability movement was launched
a. Andre Beteille's definition of class.
(csE,2013)
by Dr Ambedkar in the 1920s in Maharashtra. He saw
the opportunity and possibility of advancement for Ans: Andre Beteille conducted his fieldwork
the untouchables through the use of political means to in Shripurain village in Thanjavur district of Tamil
achieve social and economic equality with the highest Nadu. He adopted the Weberian approach to study
classes in modern society. stratification in the Indian society.
Ghanshyam Shah classifies the Dalit movements
into reformative and alternative movements. The
former tries to reform the caste svstem to solve the Power
problem of untouchability. The alternative movement
attempts to create an alternative socio-cultural structure
by conversion to some other religion or by acquiring
education, economic status and political power.
Weberian model consists of three dimension of
Both types of movements use political means to stratification. These are class, status and power. The
attain their objectives.Social reforms fought for a society
stratification based on economic inequality leads to
free from caste-domination and class-exploitation. So
different classes. The stratification based on caste
long as these two machines of exploitation - caste and
inequality leads to different status and the stratification
class - are in existence, social movements would be
based on political inequality leads to unequal power.
relevant to fight against them.
As Beteille has ado.pted Weberian model, his
definition of class is also weberian in nature. It is the
a. How do caste and class come together in market situation of a person which defines his class
creating the category of extreme poor? position. It is the ability of a person'to derive benefits
(csE,2014) from the market which determines his life chances. But,
Ans: In Lrdia there is a distinct feature of class structure the market situation is also affected by the caste and
is the overlapping of caste structure and consciousness that power a person has.
 242 ::'i. socloLocY Q & A

When these three inequalities overlap there occur has talked about various ways in which Hindu religion
cumulative inequality and when they don't exactly can be reformed to end the iniquitous caste system.
overlap we have dispersed inequality. Gradually we In this book he has questioned the ethics and
are moving from cumulative to dispersed inequality. morality of Hindu religion. To quote him: "The effect of
For example, Other Backward Classes have captured caste on the ethics of the Hindus is simply depiorable.
political power in many Indian States whereas Dalits Caste has killed public spirit. Caste has destroyed the
have gained it in Uttar Pradesh. sense of public charity. Caste has made public opinion
impossible. A Hindu's public standing is based upon
a. M.N. Srinivas/s concept of westernization. his caste. His responsibility is to his caste. His loyalty
(csE,2013) is restricted only to his caste. Virtue has become caste-
riddery and morality has become caste-bound. ,,
Ans: Westernization is a process of adopting certain
According to him, the Hindu Dharmashastras
ideals, beliefs, practices and culture in areas such as
gave legitimacy to the doctrine of Chaturvanya and the
industry, technology, law, politics, economics, language
caste system. The inJamous Manusmriti dehumanized
and values.
the Sudras and untouchables, ruled the Hindu psyghe
This western culture developed in the west over a for centuries and created the greatest obstacle to any
long period of time and is people of West have imbibed serious attempt at eradicating the caste system. He gave
that culture in them. But, when we borrow and apply illustrations of how they were deprived of education
them to India it leads to mixed results i.e. both positive and {reedom of occupation and were subjected to
and negative. stigmatized manual labor. This all resulting in their
The biggest positive contribution of westernization virtual economic slavery, how they were segregated and
is our constitution. It is a forward looking document deprived of basic rights such as drinking water even
based on ideas of equality,libefiy, fraternity and from public wells, and above all how they were made
freedom. By using western technologies and discoveries, victims of social persecutions.
Indians have benefitted immensely from fighting polio to He rejected th" d"f"rre of caste on the basis of
sufficiency in food production. In educatiory the English division of labor and argued that it was not merely a
education has opened new avenues for Indian students. division of labor but a division of laborers. The former
In short, westelnization has brought about modernizing was voluntary and depended upon one's choice and
changes in Indian society. aptitude and, therefore, rewarded efficiency. The latter
But, it has also led to many negative and undesirable was involuntary, forced, killed initiative and resulted in
changes. Gradually, the attitude of consumerism is job aversion and inefficiency. He argued that caste could
growing dmong the young people. It is manifested in not be defended on the basis of purity of blood, though
terms of increasing wastefulness, degrading environment pollution is a hallmark of the caste system.
at the cost of poor and degrading portrayal of women Therefore, he suggested inter marriages between
leading to her commodification. different castes as a way to destroy caste system. In the
Family structure is changing from joint to nuclear. end he adopted Buddhism as there is no caste system
Youth are taking to evils like drinking of liquor, frequent in Buddhism and asked his followers to convert to
break ups in relationship and are resorting to live-in Buddhism. He has also talked about the destruction of
relations. Thus, the collectivism is being replaced by
Hindu religion but by that he only meant to reform it
individualism.
in such a way that caste system gets destroyed. Thus,
guided by ideals of equality and freedom he aimed
As there are contradictory norms of tradition and
to challenge the traditional notion of inequality as
rnodernity a state of anomy has built up. The youth
perpetuated by the caste system.
must be guided and educated so as to make better and
inJormed choices.
Though we can't stop westernization but the
a. Critically evaluate Louis Dumont,s Homo
existing changes must be acceptable to all.
Hierarchicus. (CSE,2013)
Ans: Louis Dumont was an indologist and
highlighted the role of ideology to understand the caste
Q. What are the main features of Dr. B.R. system and its interactions. This ideology is of purity
Ambedkar's views on annihilation of caste.
and pollution and there exists hierarchy of castes based
i; (csE,2013) on their level of purity.
Ans: Annihilation of caste is a book written by According to Dumont, inter caste relations are
Ambedkar where he has suggested the ways in which maintained in such a way that the purity of each caste
caste system can be ended. As he thinks that the caste is maintained" Based on Bougle's classification he
system derives its legitimacy from the Hindu religion, he identified three principles of caste system.
 CASTESYSTEM ffi* 243
1. Separation in the matters of marriage and contact:
Because marriage between two people of different Numerical
purity will affect the purity of upper caste. Strength

2. Hierarchy: Ranking of castes is done in the order

of decreasing purity.
Political
3. Division of labor: Castes of low purity are given Strong Caste Power
the polluting work so that they absorb the pollution
of upper casters and keep them pure.
Dumont further argues that these castes rankings Ritually
must be seen from the perspective of holism as these are High
ranked with respect to the whole and contributes to the
well being of society. It is not advisable to evaluate this According to Srinivas, those castes w'hich are
system from the egalitarian values of the west such as
economically well off, politically powerfui and
equality and freedom. Thus, hierarchy based on purity numerically strong are considered as dominant castes.
and pollution provides moral justification to those who
The dominant caste may not be ritually high but enjoy
live in it. high status because of wealth, political power and
But, Dumont has somewhat overemphasized the numerical strength. The presence of educated persons
role of ideology in his study. By neglecting the empirical and high occupation rate also play an important roie
ground realities it provides only a partial explanation in deciding its dominance over other caste groupings.
of reality. Various objections to his observations in book Sometimes a single clan of dominant caste controis a
Homo Hierarchicus are: number of villages in areas. The dominant caste settles
1. With rise in modern means of transportation and dispute between persons belonging to their on n and
inter dining in restaurants, the concept of purity other castes. The people of other lower castes iook at
and pollution is difficult to practice and is losing them as their 'reference group' and try to imitate their
relevant. behavior, ritual pattern, custom and ideology. The
2. It is a kind of Brahiminical view as hierarchy is not members of the dominant caste particularly those from
orLly justifiqd but is seen to be functional. the wealthy and powerful families are representative
3. Dumont seems to be more interested in system of this village in dealing with the government officials.
maintenance and integration. He ignored the To a large extent, this concept helps us in
conIlict and change happening in the society. understanding the reality. For example, |ats in Haryana
became dominant caste after getting benefits from
4. It is difficult to rank the middle classes based on land reform and green revolution. Ihen they assertecl
this ideology.
themselves politically. Land ownership over a period of
5. There is no empirical study to prove his theory. time moved towards dominant caste.
Thus, to have an overall and comprehensive But, Dumont has challenged this concept as
analysis of reality both ideological and empirical views sometime even a numerically insignificant caste can
must be considered. become dominant if it is powerful in the nearby
region. Sometimes, with physical proximitv to poiitical
Q. What are the features of M.N. Srinivas' leaders they wield more influence. A1so, r.atinus castes
concept o{ dominant caste? How effective is it are faction ridden and there occurs fragmentation of
in understanding today's reality? (CSE,20L3) dominant caste. Thus, we can say that Srinivas's analysis
Ans: Srinivas used the term dominant caste for through the concept of dominant caste has enriched the
the first time in his essay'Social System of a Mysore sociological analysis.
village'. The concept of dominant caste says that in a
social setting of rural India, there is sometimes a caste a. Perspectives on the study of caste by M.N.
which dominates the social, economic and political Srinivas and Andre Beteille. (CSE, 2011,)
affairs of the village. Ans: In his book'Religion and Society Arnong the
The members of a dominant caste have an upper Coorgs of South India', M.N. Srinivas has provided a
ir
hand in all the affairs of the locality and enjoy many methodological alternative to caste study and indicated
special opportunities as well as privileges. Without the that caste should not be studied as a system of values
acceptance of this dominant caste it is not possible to differently attached with different grbups to formulate
perform any task in an independent manner. Therefore, a hierarchy as spelled out by indologists rather caste is
there exists unequal power relationship between the a product of real empirical relationship among people
dominant caste and the other castes. in a contextual plain.
244 ::::l:::. SOCIOLOGy Q & A

F{ence caste must be studied in terms of structure, Dalit or the downtrodden have been referred
comparison shouid be made betw,een caste structure to in history as people without history of their own
and caste relation in one situatiolL lvith that of another and they have been marginalised a lot in their own
to develop a generalised understanding of caste. In his land and treated as mere objects. The anti-Brahmin
work'Caste in Modern India and other essays', he writes movements and dalit consciousness had started during
that to understand caste structure one has to look into colonial period. Though till 1960s, dalits were not
ritual and secular structure present within the caste. aware of their numbers. Tracing the history of the dalit
The ritual position of caste is determined by dialect, consciousness Ghanshyam Shah says that the anti-caste
manner/ language, codes of conduct, ceremonies, rules movement which began in the 19th century under the
of marriage. To its contrast, the secular structure of caste inspiration of ]yotiba Phule and was carried on in the i
is defined in terms of access over land, wealth" education 1920s by the non-Brahman movements in.Maharashtra
and power. In the ancient times, ritual hierarchy of Caste and Tamil Nadu developed under the leadership'of
had been dominant over secular hierarchy over caste. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar. But the social consciousness of
He cites the example from Ramayana, Dasharatha paid dalit shows a particular characteristics and cannot
respect to Vashistha and got his patronage. He also be explained satisfactorily by reference to economic
considers mobitrity in the caste. exploitation or political oppression. Dalit movements
According to him caste mobility is possible have set themselves wider and fundamental aims. Their
through the adoption of variety of procedures including inner motive can be conceived best as a struggle for
migratiory carrying new caste name/ status rituals, etc. recognition as fellow human beings. On the one hand,
He considers that caste mobility has different kinds it is a struggle for self-confidence and space for self
of consequences that inciudes readjustment of caste determination, on the other hand, a struggle target has
structure, re-allocation of caste position, tension and been the abolition of all discriminations connected with
conflict between various caste groups, it. For example-violence, sexual harassment, forced
However, the Anclre Beteille understanding of caste labour, exclusion from certain profession.
is highly reflexive, diffusive in comparision to other Modern dalit social movements reached their
sociologists. He never looked into caste as structural peak in the first half of the twentieth century. They
organisation iike M.N. Srinivas. His observation on caste used the space provided by an emerging restructured
are mostly related to the question like stratification, public sphere for regional self organisation and trans-
social change, democratic politics, structure of inequality, regional networking. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar's movement
developmental planning, future of society. Hence he occupies the most important place in the modern dalit
offers variable explanation to caste in India. He stand movements. Dr. Ambedker also organised and led one of
committed to Weberian wisdom that caste must be these movements, popularly know as Mahar movement.
studied as a historical and empirical rathel than being It was largely confined to a lower untouchable castes
viewed as institutional good or bad for society. His liberation, rejecting the leadership and ideological
reflection on caste in India is being depicted in his book hegemony of non-dalit.
'Caste, Class and Power'. He considered that village He was also influenced by Marxism. His movement
society in India is stratified on the basis of 3 multiple continues to inspire the dalit leadership even today and
criteria and caste is one of them. Caste is determined by the entire political mobilisation of the Bahujan Samaj
the work indicating the status differences among people. Party which became the ruling party in Uttar Pradesh
Class determined by unequal control over agricultural was based on it. From about late 1960s the deprived
land and pourer is concelned with unequal distribution have started taking matters into their own hands with
of power on the basis of political networking and the realisation that only their own activism will undo
political position in rural economy. injustice. The militant among dalit tend to completely
reject the Gandhian model of tackling their problems
a. Analyse the term 'dalit' and the evolution and they have been reshaping the political awareness
of the related concept as a reflection of the of the dalits in Ambedkarite mould. Building on
changing consciousness and self-assertion of Ambedkar's policies and the new identity provided by
the dalit community (CSE,2011) Ambedkar, the Dalit Panther Movement and the Dalit
Ans: Broadly speaking, the untouchables of Sahitya Movement gave expression to dalit experiences
the Hindu caste system are officially known as the of expression.
scheduled castes. The same category of castes is also The Dalit Panthers Movement is typical of the
called Harijana, the children of god, a term coined by increased aggressiveness of untouchables who are
Mahatma Gandhi in 1933. However, the word'Hariljan' proud to be called dalit. This organisation was born in
has now acquired a negative meaning. The members of 1972in Bombay emphasized the need to fight for basic
these castes now prefer to be called as dalit. rights and held that every atrocity must be avenged.
 CASTE SYSTEM .:: 245
Further, Kansi Ram and Mayawati's Bahujan Samaj have pushed the ritual determinants to background.
Party represents new forces among dalits challenging In the sphere of irLter caste and interpersonai relations
old powers. Smaller numbers of restive poor are also different ritual statuses have come together in modern
stepping the banner of radical groups like the Naxalite occupational settings. On secular occasions the non-
and Marxist Communist Centre which dispense justice Brahmin caste also occupy a higher place. Democratic
in the countryside. decentralisation of power has also led to increased
VWrat has emerged in the last two decades or so is participation of lower caste and access to political power
first, dalit coflsciousness has travelled a long distance. has become another means of status enhancement.
Several, mainstream parties which earlier called the But even after six decades of Independence, caste
shots in alliance with the dalits are vying for the continue to be a major form of discrimination. Caste
attention of the increasing ascendant dalits. As a whole, continue to be a major theme in Indian politics and
the dalit movement todav is the main force of the anti- many political parties try to make caste an issue in the
caste democratic movement. Dalits are also getting electoral arena and cash it. The government in the name
benefits for themselves rather than amelioration of the of creating a casteless, secular society and to compensate
early deprived. the injustice meted out by the so-called higher castes
to the oppressed, downtroddqn, economically poor,
a. 'Casteism is the modern edition of the caste educationally backward masses of India, created a
\ system'. Do you agree with this statement? plethora of new castes. These new castes are classified as
i
Discuss with arguments. (CSE, 2011) Backward classes, Schedule Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
These new castes are protected by the quota system or
Ans: The phenomenon of caste has raised more
controversy than any other aspect of Indian life and reservation policy for widening their educational and
thought. Some see India's caste system as the defining employment opportunities. These people are preferred
feature of Indian culture and some have dismissed it to all other groups for getting admissions to schools,
as a colonial artefact. Since the days of the British rule universities, and getting selected for jobs. The caste like
both historians and a anthropologists referred to India discriminations have unintentionally entered into the
as a caste society. country which is causing conflict and discrimination
Caste is alto explained as a system of elaborately
among different sections of societv.
stratified social hierarchy that distinguishes people
of India into different segment. Traditionally caste a. The Parsi community and its contribution to
hierarchy has been ritual hierarchy in terms of one's Indian society (CSE,2010)
status on the basis of degree of purity and impurity Ans: Parsis and Mar.rvaris were, for long known as
and the secular or material attributes of status ranking collaborators and middlemen with the British who then
were secondary in nature. These secular attributes were ventured into setting up of industries anil established
wealth or ownership of land, access to political power, some of India's first industries. The Parsi community
etc. However, the certain processes of change which were the collaborators o{ the British and sympathised
began during the British rule but acquired momentum with them. They partly financed the militarv defence of
after independence have promoted charges in the system the Bombay fort and were loyal to the British during the
of ranking of castes. Urbanisation also gave serious blow mutiny of 1857, financing the British military apparatus.
to the ritual dimension of the caste. Also, a part of the Parsi community was fast to recognize
After independence it was thought that the that it was very useful to learn English, to adopt British
traditional discrimination of caste and caste conflict customs and to intensify their relation with the British
will be eliminated from the society with the manifold in order to improve the socio-economic position of the
increase in secularisation of inter-caste and interpersonal community.
relations. The economic development, education and The Parsis were among the first to build up the
political participation of different caste groups will Indian cotton textile industry in Bombay. Unlike
facilitate elimination of caste based discrimination from Marwaris, they did not face stiff opposition from British
the society. in their venture. Parsis owned nine of ten mills built
With the manifold increase in secularisation, the in Bombay between 1854 and 1863. Thus, we see the
ritual and social distance between castes have narrowed Parsi community played a crucial part during initial
;i
down and people's concern for improving the quality phase of Indian industrialisation. Today, looking at
of life have also promoted level of consumption. The Tata industries and various fields ir\to which it has
increased economic development have promoted diversified, one feels that they not just initiated the drive
occupational opportunities which were considered but are still conkibuting significantly in India's economic
ritually neutral. Thus, the new determinants of status development.
 246 * socrolocYo&A
a. Dumont's concept of Homo Hierarchies provisiory Parliament passed Untouchability (Offences)
(csE,2010) Act, 1955. Despite all these measures, Dalits are still
subjectbd to segregation with little access to temples,
Ans: Lor s Dumont in his book Homo Hierarchies:
water sources or upper caste areas. Majority of them
The Caste S. stem and its Implications, developed a
are still stuck in degrading occupations like tanning,
theory of caste hierarchy that locates its basis in the
shoemaking, manual scavenging, sweeping, carrying
nation of purity and pollution. He approaches the
dead animals or removing human corpses and ashes.
Hindu caste system from a structuralist perspective that
More than 90% of the agricultural labourers in India
focuses on the underlying structure of idea of a system.
belong to this class of untouchables which includes the
Dumont rejects the idea that caste is just another form
Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribes. Indian economy
of strati{ication like class or estate. He asserts that caste
might be growing at an enviable rate with thousands of
is peculiar to india and it cannot be explained in terms
jobs being generated every year, but these people have
of politico-economic factors where it is seen as a system
of domination and exploitation.
little choice, if any, to do some other work than that
traditionally assigned to them. In U.P. almost every
Caste, Dumont argues, is above all an ideology, 'a
village has a'Chamar toli', a place segregated for them.
svstem of ideas, beliefs and values'. It is only via ideology
Then there are separate crematoria for upper castes
that the essence of caste could be grasped and true principle
and Dalits. Segregition and discrimination is blighting
behind the system could be krlown. And the underlying
even the next generation. Dalit children are made to sit
ideology of caste system is hierarchy. Hierarchy is not
separately in schools. They can't wear shoes in the
merely another name for inequality or an extreme form
presence of upper caste people. Also there are separate
of social stratificatiory but a totally different principle of
utensils for them in schools where they are provided
social organisation. Hierarchy, for Dumont is the principle
mid-day meals. Human Rights abuses against them are
of 'the opposition of the pure and the impure'. For him,
common.
castes urere not merely ranked hierarchically in a vertical
,.rrder, they were also mutually related through this system A random sampling of headlines is inainstream
of oppositional structure. Thus caste is founded on the national newspapers tells their story-"Dalit tortured by
necessary and hierarchical coexistence of the two opposites-
cops for 3 days" , "Dalit witch paraded naked", "Dalit
the pure and the impure. Another important aspect of the killed in lock-up at Kurnool", "5 Dalits lynched in
Hindu caste sybtem in his theory is the specific relationship Haryana". There have been large scale abuses by the
that exists betr,veen status and power. The distinguishing police acting in collusion with upper castes, including
feature of caste society is that status as a principle of social raids, beating in custody, failure to charge offenders or
organisation is superior to power. Unlike the class society, investigate reported crimes. All this single handedly
in caste system, power is operated within the framework point to the fact that legislations alone cannot do away
of status hierarchy. with the'evil of untouchability, The whole society
needs to stand together and work towards wiping this
A. eritically assess the forms in which menace off the Indian society. Deprived of their right
to education, right to land, right to property, these ex-
untouchabitrity continues to be practised.
untouchables have given in to life of servitude and object
(csE, 2010)
humiliation. Thus, one agrees with Sachchidanand that
Ans: Mole than sixty years of Independence and the combination of factors like ameliorative efforts of
Untouchability is still alive and thriving in India's the government, the growing consciousness of the dalits
hinterland. Pockets of social change have been but and the liberal attitudes of caste hindus will only help
mere drops in this vast ocean of casteism, prejudice in diminishing the disabilities and discriminations with
and discrimination. Untouchability has not only the passage of time.
survived the constitutional ban but taken new avatars
in many parts of the country. It might be a legal offence,
punishable under Indian law, however millions of dalits-
a. Discuss the inter-relationships between caste,
class and power. (CSE,2010)
ex-untouchables by law but untouchable in practice,
across the country who account for roughly 1/5th of the Ans: Weber talked of social stratification in three
population continue to suffer birth based discrimination terms-class, status and power. Class refers to group
and humiliation. formation based on economic criteria on petson's
it
Article 17 of the Indian Constitution states the position in the market situation. Status, on the other
"untouchability is abolished and its practice in any form hand stratifies society in terms of prestige, honour
is forbidden. The en-forcement of any disability arising and respect. Caste system is based on this principle of
out of untouchability shall be an offence punishable status ascribed by birth. And lastly power signifies the
in accordance with law". And in pursuance of this political power.
 CASTE SYSTEM ii# 247
According to Weber, all these three forces are not a. Indological perspective of G.S. Ghurye.
exclusive and often work in relation to each other.
(csE,2009)
Present day Indian-society is an apt example of interplay
of class, caste and power. Ans: Govind Sadashive Ghurye's explanation on
castes, evolution of influenced the Hindu culture etc.
Andre Beteille, in his book Caste, Class and power,
exhibit indological elements. But his writings are greatly
contesting to view of other sociologists who see Indian
influenced by historicity.
society as primarily stratified in terms of caste, argues
that village society is stratified on the basis of multiple
However, the indological position of G.S. Ghurye
can be beet explained by his insights into the origin of
criteria i.e. caste, class and power. According to him,
caste in India. He believes that Aryans are the original
not only caste system is hierarchic a7, but within caste,
inhabitants of India who evolved an unique culture ar-ld
hierarchy is present.
this culture was transmitted from one generation to
In his study, of Brahmins of Sripuram, he finds
another by great saints of India. Citing the illustration
out that they are largely divided into two types-Sri
from Vedas, Smritis, Puranas, Upanishadas he indicated
Vaishnevs and Smartha. Smartha are further divided
that how the great rishi like Bhardwaj, Gautam, Vashista,
into many segments like Ashta Charanam, Brihada
Vishwamitra, Patanjali etc. transmitted the value of
Charanam, Vriheta Charanam, Pancharya Charanam
hindu culture to different sectiori of society. Brahmanic
etc", which can still be further divided into rnore
gokas got association with the hindu gods and goddess
sub-divisions. According to Beteille, caste is not the
which led transformation of Brahman values into Hindu
only factor responsible for social exclusion. Smarthas,
values. He considered that Hindu values crystallized
besides these, many divisions and subdivisions are also
by different Indian saints and reached to the mind of
categorised into three major types-upper class, middle
masses. These masses disperse in different part of the
class and lower.
country. He also opined that the great saints of India
Along with caste, poverty is also a major {actor of
are also founder of different gotras. Explanation of these
social exclusion. Beteiile also talks about the changing
gotras subsequently gave rise to the origin as caste.
nature of caste, class and power in the hierarchical
Ghurye has considered that Sanskritic text indicateci
structure.
that during ancient times there was no difference
In the past, there was a strong correspondence
between Aryans and Dasyus. Dasyus .r.t ere not culturaily
between caste hierarchy, class hierarchy and power
derogatory groups but they were the groups have not
hierarchy i.e. brahmins were subjected to cumulative 'accepted, Brahmanic Hindu ways of life. Ttre process
privileges as against shudras, who were subjected
of acculturation of Hindu values for a long period of
to complete seclusion and cumulative deprivation.
time brought different peripheral groups into the fold
However today, as a result of geographical mobility,
of Hinduism. Those groups divided occupations among
western education, new occupational structure, process
themselves in a complementary manner consequently
of modernisation and political factors, a dislinkage
hierarchial division came into Indian society. He
has occurred between the three. For example, political
believes that Hindu religion, and Sanskrit language
reservation has contributed to the rise o{ lower caste in
were the lifeline of integration of Indian society. He also
political sphere.
contradicted to the colonial perceptions of india that
M.M. Srinivas and Rajni Kothari also talk about considers, the dominant Brahmins are enforced their
politicization of caste. Today, caste,has become values and ideas on non-Aryan communities to exhibit
an inseparable aspect of our politics. Selection of their cultural domination. He also advocated that Hindu
candidates, voting analysis, selection of legislative party
Brahmanic value through the process of acculturation
leaders distribution of ministerial portfolios, etc. are very
reached to different groups in India and binded them
much done on the basis of caste.
into a single fold.
M.N" Srinivas, making a distinction between caste
As an indologists he considered that religion and
at the ritual level and caste at the political level argues
language has always been the source of unity in India.
that caste at the ritual level is a smaller unit than caste
He also cites the textual evidence indicating that how
at the political level.
Brahmanic and Sanskritic values got expansion into
Thus' econornic opportunity, administrative
different parts of the country through different Hindu
patronage and positions of power offered by the new
saints like Tukaram, Ramdas, Adi Sankaracharya.
j{
institutions and the new leadership have completely
As an indologist he also contradicted the view of
changed the face of these three forces and how they
those scholars who believed that Indian nationalism
work or are being worked orL on Indian soil. It is no
only evolved during Mughal period with the rise of
longer a system based on ideology rather a matter of
centralized state. He argued that India as a nation
utility and convenience.
evolved since the Vedic period.
 248 ,..,,.,,. SOCIOLOGY Q & A

a. In the context of caste system, critically considered that scavenging and beef eating make a caste
examine Louis Demont's concept of purity group untouchable found everywhere in India. Hence
and pollution. (CSE,2009) caste hierarchy shows regional variations.
Louis Demont has considered that the inequality
Ans: Louis Demont looks upon indian society as
based on caste system is a special type of inequality for.rnd
caste society. According to him ideological basis of
in India. According to L. Dumont due to this pollution
Hindu society is reflected through the caste system. This
and purity hierarchy in indian society has remained
caste system in is totality based on the notion of purity
static. He also pointed out that change has occurred in
and pollution. The relation between pure and impure
society but change of society is absent. This notion of
is fundamental principie underlying the Hindu caste
caste is follow'ed in every aspect of society like, match
system. This principle is implicit in three predominat
for marriage, sharing food, cultural identity and even in
features of the caste system. According to Louis Demont
cooperation for common good particularly in situations
caste system comprises a series of hereditary groups
of crisis. He also opined that there is no mobility in caste
characterized by
because it is defined by birth. But this perspective of L.
(il hierarchy or gradations according to ritual status Dumont on the caste system have been criticized by many
(ii) mutual repuisiory implying rules governing contact scholars
ensuring their separation -
(i) Commenting on this Andre Beteille has said
(iii) division of labour. that L. Demont sociology of caste is no less than
Demont opined that purity and notion is clearly Manusmrity because it simply narrates the caste
irnplicit in ali the three attributes. This notion of pure system without mentioning mobility in it.
and irnpure is the basis of division between superior
and inferior castes. In india vegetarian castes have been
(ii) M.N. Srinivas also criticized Louis Demont view on
caste. M.N. Srinivas by his theory of Sankritisation
placed above the non-vegetarian castes.
has shown dynamicity in Indian caste system.
Among the vegetarians those who prohibit widou,
According to Srinivas caste status in Indian society
remarriage are superior to those who permit it. Similarly,
cannot be considered stable in nature. Because there
among the non-vegetarians further differentiations
are examples that have been found in India which
have been estabiished between the beef eaters and
has shown mobility in the caste.
non-beef e&ters and later further gradation have
been made between those who eat only mutton, (iii) Several other sociologists also criticized the notion
bird and who eat pig. This attributes of purity and of purity and pollution as given by L. Dumont.
pollution can be identifjed in the caste hierarchy They have argued that a vegetarian caste in some
existing between Brahrnins and untouchables. But cases have been found below a non-vegetarian caste.
the precise determination of the highest and lorvest It is also not clear how the various attributes of
among Brahmins and untouchables is conditioned by pollution combine together to form an unambiguous
local interpretations of the pollution concept. He also hierarchy of values etc.

.!.*i.{.

.{rl
a. Elaborate the salient features and the role of Revolution, farm mechanizatton, transport, coopera-
the middle class in India's democracy and tive movement, etc.
development. (CSE 2023) Role of Middle Class in India's Democracy and Development
Ans: Middle Class as a conceptual stratum in urban . According to T. K. Oomen, Indian middle class is
strata of class structure emerged only after industrializa- a harbinger of silent revolution as it has through
tion when the concept of,class itself emerged in its cur- NGOs, PILs and Social Movements, etc. has raised
rent sense and it's placed in between the dichotomous the muted voice of the poor. It is successfully acting
property owning and working class. Structurally the as a watchdog of functioning of democracy_.
middle class is placed in the middle and has character- . According to Amartya Sen, in his 'Argtimentative
istics of both upper and lower classes. Indian, 2006', it scrutinizes public policy, leads
Salient Features of Middle Class in India public debates and discourses and also acts as a
. In'Theories of Surplus Value', Marx goes on to public think tank.
argue that As capitalism develops there is an expan-
. The middle class is often at the forefront of social
sion of the middle class. This happens because there change in Tndia. They advocate for progressive
is a rising surplus and middle class rises to consume social values and norms, such as gender equality,
that surplus. Growth of middle class is a roadblock environmental sustainability, and social justice.
for proletariat revolution according to Marx. . Gurucharan Das in his'India Unbound, 2002' indi-
. Functionalists view middle class in terms of differ- cates that in post-liberalization Lrdia there has been
ential occupational rewards. Expansion of middle massive growth in rniddle class which is outgoing,
caste in post-independence period is due to diver- risk taking, and innovative and has the potential to
sification of occupation, economic liberalization transform socio-economic landscape of India.
and expansion of educational and entrepreneurial . The post-independence middle class was dedicated
opportunities. to social inclusion and equity on an ideological
. The middle class values education. They value level. The Middle Class was dedicated to socialism
their children's education and are well educated. and strategic self-determination, as embodied by
This focus on education frequently results in social the Non Alignment strategy.
mobility upward. Thus, India's middle class is essential to the democ-
. They belonged to castes which were educationally racy and economic growth of the nation. Their impact
forward traditionally, but they exhibited their caste on society, politics, and the economy determines the
identities to lesser degree. In fact, they were the pio- course of the nation. But in order to make sure that the
neers of social reforms and donned a liberal and secu-
advantages of progress are distributed fairly, it is also
lar outlook. Thus, though, it had caste origins, but it critical to address the issues that the middle class faces,
was not hesitant to shake its roots for a liberal outlook. such as social exclusion and economic inequality.
. The members of the educated class such as govern-
ment servants, lawyers, college teachers and doctors a. Explain Leela Dube's concept of 'Seed and
' constituted the bulk of the Indian middle class. Earth'. (CSE,2O22\
. Middle class today is not only urban centric, it is a Ans: Leela Dube on'Seed and Earth: The Symbol-
phenomenon of rural areas also due to expansion of ism of Biological Reproduction and Sexual Relations of
administrative machinery, market economy, Green Productions', she says that when we equate woman's
250 socroLocYe&A
\ns: Caste system refers to a closed system of social
one can chart out the production relations between the stratification where people or groups are hierarchically
two genders wherein the rights over the crops and land arrang€d on the basis of factors that are ascribed and
remains with the man, and not the woman. hereditary in nature. ln the early stage caste system
This is similar to how in patriarchal, hetero-norma-was primarily studied by British administrators and
tive families, the children are said to belong to the man,
indologists such as Metcalfe, Max Muller, William Jones
as they have been born out of the "man's-seed", while alo,",g ivith lndian indologists such as C S Ghurye who
the woman only provided her womb or "earth" for the used book-view to understand the caste system. They
"man's seed" to grow. understood caste system through religious scriptures
In an important article 'On the Construction of and puranas. For instance, Max Muller translated vari-
Cender: Hindu girls in Patrilineal lndia' Dube (1988) ous Sanskrit texts into English that became the primary
traces the mechanisms through which girls develop a source of understanding caste system.
gendered identity by examining the rituals and ceremo- The book-view saw caste system as fixed, unchang-
nies, language and practice of families. ing, closed and having little scope of mobility. G S
Her focus was on Hindu girls as she examined her Ghurye, Dumont, etc. even considered caste system as
own socialization as well. She begins by emphasizing functional and integrative. Studies by W H Wiser of
that gender differences that are culturally produced are jajmani system in a Uttar Pradesh village highlighted
always interpreted as being rooted in biology. the unity-reciprocity aspect of caste in economic sphere.
'Seed and Earth'Analogy Post-independence field studies by M N Srinivas,
. She explains this by using the 'Seed and Earth' Andre Beteille, F G Bailey etc. helped establish the field-
analogy. This analogy has been examined by her view of caste system. Their study showed that caste
in several other papers and is very important in system in practice differed widely from caste system
understanding gender relations. This concept is in theory. Srinivas' study of coorgs showed that caste
extrernely powerful and has been extensively dis- system was not as rigid as showed by the book-view"
cussed in Women's Studies in various piaces. Sanskritisation was one method of secular mobility in
. The reason for the secondary stafus given to women caste system. Furthermore, he distinguished between
comes from the understanding of women as passive Varna (book-view) that represents an all India hierar-
receptaclbs" "Man provides the seed the essence- chy and caste or jati (field-view) representing the local
while the woman provides the field which receives empirical reality that has a hereditary association with
the seed and nourishes it. an occupation.
o d child shares the father's blood. Within the natal Similarly Beteille's study of Sripuram village high-
group a woman's transferabiliry a.d non-functional lighted the dynamic nature of caste hierarchy through
nature is empathized while within the marital fam- his concept of disharmonic system, whete a group
iiy her instrumentality is emphasized. This unequal placed low in caste hierarchy may be placed higher on
sociaX affangement is perceived as the arrangement class or power hierarchy. F G
of nature which gives different roles to men and Bailey in his study of Bisipara village criticized the
women in procreation. unity reciprocity thesis of W H Wiser and highlighted
* Stre further explains how gender roles are lived out the exploitation within the jajmani system. Therefore
in terms of family structures and kinship which these field-views provided context to the text view that
rnak,es rules about recruitment, marital residence previously dominated the study of Indian cast system.
and reariangement of the family. These in turn are
impacted by the institution of caste. Q. What does Dr. B.R. Ambedkar mean by the
Thus, Leela Dubey discussed more about issues of concept of "Annihilation of caste"?
power and hierarchy and the status accorded to women (CSE 2021)
in dilferent kinds of societies and kinship systems. Her r Dr' B R Ambedkar emersed as one of the most
work helped in gendering sociology ,"a -lan .p.rrsy ,*^}tt

lld
tes'
brgurht anthroporo gical insiglt,,. ffi,:"';? :1r,::H:::ll,f tH:;iffi?;:ff ilTI" pTJ:I
of Indian society in ge"n"eral ani of the Dalits in-particu-
this he called for the annihilation of the
e. eas,re system studies in rndia.l":"
!_""r, :::,]Ul*:ss
dominated by the "book-view" initially. How For Ambedkar caste system originated from the
did the entry of "field-view" bring about d shastras and puranas that piovided a religious justifica-
balance in the sfudy of Indian caste system? tion for ,r, sysLm. He believed caste system
Discuss. ""ploitutive
(CSE 202L) persists because of the divine beliefs attached to them
 SoctAL cLASs srRUcruRE tN tNDtA t;ttt 251
such as the concept of karma, theory of origin of caste a. Discuss the salient feafures of 'new middle
in purusha sukta, etc. Therefore for annihilation of caste class'in India. (CSE 2021)
system first the belief in the sanctity of the shastras must
Ans: Middle class, according to Anthony Giddens
be destroyed.
refers to a group of people who owe their position in a
Various measures proposed by Dr. B R Ambedkar for stratified social structure on the basis of their credentials
the annihilation of caste are as follows: and skills.
. Hindus must have a single standard book for all The old middle class in India developed as a result
castes that is acceptable by all Hindus. of British economic policies. According to B B Misra,
. Priesthood should be abolished, if not it should they emerged as a class of intermediaries to fulfill British
interests. They mainly comprised upper caste individu-
cease to be hereditary.
als and were characterised by modem English education
. Priesthood should be open to all Hindus and must
and modern liberal outlook. Post-independence, gradu-
be regulated by the state. He proposed an examina-
ally, anew middle class emerged with distinct features.
tion conducted by state for priesthood.
Number of priests should be limited by the state. Features of New Middle Class in India
. FIe also proposed inter-caste marriages as a way of . The new middle class comprises skilled, white collar
annihilation of caste boundaries. workers unlike the old middle class which primarily
These, according to Dr. Ambedkar, would provide the comprised petty bourgeoisie.
basis for the establishment of a new social order based on . The new middle class also comprises SCs and STs
liberty, equality and fraternity, in short, with democracy due to factors such as reservatiorL and modern edu-
and would lead to the annihilation of the caste system. cation, among others. The new middle class seeks
job satisfaction instead of job security.
a. Caste-like formations are present in Non- . They are not emotionally attached to their place of
Hindu religious communities as well. Discuss birth. Therefore they exhibit higher geographical
with examples. (CSE 202L) mobility. They are generally r".rla in outlook.
Ans: Caste system refers to a closed system of social . They exhibit entrepreneurial prowess, which can be
stratification wlrere. people or groups are hierarchically seen in the fact that many of the successful startups
arranged on the basis of factors that are ascribed and have been started by members of the new middle
hereditary in nature. Traditionally it has been a feature class. They are a1so. characterised by faceless rela*
of Hindu social order; however, with the coming in tionships and impersonality in social interactions.
contact of bther religions with Indian society, they too Flowever, according to Yogendra Singh, this new
have developed caste-like formations. middle class continues to be led by conservative narrow
Among Muslims caste-like formations can be seen utilitarian ethos. Andre Beteille argues that middle class
values are still in transitory phase in India. Therefore it
is difficult to give one single definition of new middle
Syeds, The Arzals or Ajlafs class in India.
caste groups such as
etc. According to M N Srinivas, it was a. Discuss the changing dimensions of family
Islam that brought structure in urban India. (csE 2021)
Ans: Family refers to a social institution comprising
individuals who are related to each other by blood, mar-
riage or adoption. Today in urban India a wide variety
of family shuctures have emerged.
intermarriages among them are rare. Sikhs
(agrarian castes), other caste Changing Dimensions of Family Structure in Urban India
Mazhabi Sikhs, Khatri, Nihang Sikhs, etc. Organisational Changes: In urban India there's an
increasing prevalence of structurally nuclear farnilies
although according to I. P Desai, they continue to be
discriminations among Buddhists as well. functionally joint.
Despite the presence of caste-like formations and Changes in Authority Structure within Families: I-n
' the associated discriminations, those groups do not get urban areas there's an intreasing trend of syrnrnetricatr
the benefit of aJfirmative actions such as reservations. families (Willmott and Young; wnere both male and
Therefore, there's a need to identify and study these female m"*b"r, exercise eq#i authority. Majority of
caste-like formations that go beyond Hindu social order. the families though continue to be patriarchal.
252 ffi soctolocYe&A
Changes in Stability of Families: Decline in taboo Greatest hurdle is the attitude of people. Caste is still
associated with divorce, especially in urban areas, has alive in mental systems especially in rural setups where
led to increasing incidences of marital breakdown which custorns still outweigh rationality.
leads to unstable families.
Increasing Diversity of Family Structure: Various a. How does Andre Beteille justify 'middle class
family forms such as weekend families, Iive in partners, in India,? (CSE 2020)
same sex families, double income no kids (DINK) fami-
Iies, etc. have emerged in urban areas in il;;;. '
For sociologist Andre Beteille' the key to
,,rr^l"t
differentiating the middle class from the working class is
Changes in Functions: In urban ,r"uJiiuaitiorur
to look at whether they work with their hands or
functions of family such as economic f"";;; ;;il: :':'1"' a study in Bhilai by anthropologist jonathan
sation of children, protective functions, ;. ;fi;; :'::n'"t spoke of people disting-uishing kaam
overtakenby other bureaucratic orgrnirutio'r'r;.ffifi; l-^!::"'which
(work) from naukri (ob)' Beteille says' In India' how we
affective function of families t urr" ,"*uirrl;J".r'#;
the middle is a composite of many factors' like
to ogburn and Nimkoff (defunctionurirutioJJitr*i;): -ofl"
Despite these changes majoritv
*"^tlliilx"':'JfJ:uli1""*"11?l;
"".::.11t:11i+
continue to maintain their traditional structure such
that while
UK and Europe' the middle class has expanded
as jointness, patriarchal authority ,trr"tr.l, ir;;;-; :1tS so as to become coterminous with society,
ot elders and are stl'il organised around ;;',;il;;i, ::,^1"n
this has not happened here. Andre Beteille writes that
Hindu concept of pitri Rin.
the middle class is not only very large but also highly
differentiated internally to such an extent that it may
'iGffi;il
e. what are the various forms of untouchabiliw
in rndia? Criticauy examine. in""f:;",ifrJ:fii:'il:,'l,iilo',t^,'H#:li:r',lX',T:
Ans: The institution of 'untouchability' refers not heterogeneous nature of its social composition
just to the avoidance or prohibition of physical contact The recent shifts in the economic policy in favour
but to a much broader set of social sanctions and social of privatisation, liberalisation and globalisation have
disabilities which are ascriptive in nature within the generated a wide interest in the middle class, its size,
ritual framework of the caste system. According to B composition and its social values. Andre Beteille views
R Ambedkar,'it i, a case of permanent hereditartstain *raif" class in India as part of a relatively new social
which nothing can cleanse. formation based on religion, caste and kinihip.
Amit Thorat and Omkar Joshi in their study found In Beteille,s opinior; middle class values in India
that2To/o of Indians continue to practice untouchability. are difficult to characterise because they are still in the
Various Forms of Untouchabilify in India process of formation and have still not acquired a stable
. Habitation Segregation: Even today, in villages form. As such, they are marked by deep and pervasive
Dalits live in separate areas. Often Oaiits are forced antinomies meaning contradictions, oppositions and
to live on the periphery of villages. Even in urban tensions inherent in a set of norms and values.
areas Dalits are concentrated in slums leading to There is no single criterion for defining the middle
their ghettoisation according to Victor D'Souza. class. Occupational functions and employment status
. Occupational Segregation:9g% olmanual- scaven_ are.the two most significant criteria although education
gers continue to come from lower and income are als_o widely used. The new middle class,
. :T:::yq:Trntermarriase
"";;.
between upper and ;::',1::"fr':r1".ffiliJiir:fl^:",iffi1lJr[:i:ffiT
rower caste ls sull rare'
class derive not so much from an industrial revolution
' civic segregation: In villages there are still pro- or a democratic revolution as from colonial rule.
hibitions on commensuality, social mixing, In the last 50 years, the middle class has grown
common wells' separate dwelling and so on,.lhe "ll8
steadily. Andre Beieille contends that idea of middle
Puruda varnar of Tamil Nadu are most strikinS class is often highly romanticized as an outcome of
example of this segregation
liberal democraJy, a vibrant capitalist economy and
. Ritual Segregation: In various places across India individual freedom, but middle in itself has sub_ciasses
Dalits still continue to face restrictions on temple en- which fight for scarce resources in a country like India
' try. Dalits have separate burial/cremation grounds
and this struggle can be unhealthy at times. Thus,
for their dead' Conceptualirulion of middle class ih India is complex
To address various forms of untouchability, Un- because of caste as hierarchy of caste and economic
touchability Offences Act, 1955 has been enacted which status doesn't necessarily coincide and there can be
criminalizes practice of untouchability in every form. challenges in determining the status.
 SOCIAL CLASS STRUCTURE lN INDIA ,,:i1 253
a. Give an account of the cons and free medicines. Focusing on adolescent girls,
remedies of chronic maln utrition before they become mothers, is critical to break India's
(csE 2020) intergeneiational cycle of malnutrition.
Therefore, [n lndia, to combat the malnutrition
Ans: Malnutrition
levels both immediate and long term interventions are
eating a diet in which
needed. There is still a need for a more humane-cum-
too high
holistic approach and this can only be achieved by an
responsible for nearly 45 per cent of deaths
active multi-sector approach, reinforced with a new set
of national-level policies or guidelines around the usage
of a community-based approach of addressing acute
malnutrition in India.

a. Colonial adminishators helped to construct

the very traditionalism which marked the
Indian society as "backward'. Comment
(csE 2020)
Ans: Indian society is a multicultural society which
is marked multiple com plexities and efforts to
scholars were on even before beginning
of sociology as a formal discipline n1920.
Although
an understanding of society since ancient times, but
retreat from society with little or no contribution efforts were made onlv after establishment
towards nation building. Malnutrition administrative rule of the British. Earlier
increasing disease & the understanding of society was contained in religious
of manual productivi scriptures, political works. There is
services seqtor can distort the expected economic a'marked writings creating a
output substantially. It causes shear wastage of human challenge in understanding of society
capability while being a burden on the economy Colonial rulers started to pursue social
Various government initiatives have been launched understanding of society to rule the country better in
over the years which seek to improve the nutrition areas of law ind order, revenue collection etc. During
status in the country. These include the Integrated the early period, say till the 1850q, understanding o1
Child Development Slrvices (ICDS), the National i{ealth i"arr. l"ii";y ;;; ger"rut"a primarily by Briiish
Mission, the Janani Suraksha Yojana, the Matritva administratois and not schola^rs. During 1820-80,
Sahyog Yojana, the Mid-Day Meal Scheme, and the many books and works Were done. They developed an
National Food Security Mission, among others. orthodox view of India society, having broad features
To end hunger, food producers must be supported like - self-sufficient and closed village economies, caste
to receive adequate remuneration. There is a need for based social structure, primitive tribal communities.
sound nieasures to protect farmer incomes, including After the 1850s, India came under direct
income transfers to farmers, minimum support-price adminiskation of British crown. Now, the understanding
guarantees and crop insurance, and a massive expansion of lndian society was supplemented by writing!
of farm credit. of Christian Miisionaries,-Academic theologisti,
Hunger can't be combated without addressing ethnographists and industry experts. The process was
the burgeoning job crisis. It also entails labour reforms supplimented by establishmeni of western education
which Protect job security, fair work conditions and and tremendous expansion of administrative framework
social security of all workers. in India.
The P, ublic Diskibution System must be universalised During this period a few educated Indians also help
in understanding of Indian society. Many other elements
family, jajmani system customary laws,
raj, etc. were studied along with previous

out-patient
 254 ,::r SoctoLocy e &A

According to Classical Indologists ,which were This history is designed to be a contribution made
mainly Britishers, India was considered as a land by people on their own, that it, independently of the
of villages which were considered as self-sufficient, elite and elite records, like those at the home office or
isolated, static and orthodox. Religion was considered foreign office could still be used, but you had to read
central to understanding of other social institutions. them with a different pair of lenses.
Social relationships were guided by traditionalism and According to Guha, Indian history was
caste system. Caste system was considered as closed contemporaneous to modernity, though it looked
and a symbol of feudal and backward character of very stagy and reminiscent of a feudal past from an
Indian society. Gradually, joint families, panchayats and orthodox Marxist point of view. In societies where
Jajmani system, etc. were considered other elements of modernity arrived through colonial conquests there
Indian social life. were dual modes of oppression that the subaltern
However, later on, Classical Indology was modified classes experienced, both under the yoke of colonial
by combining it with various sociological perspectives legal institutional power and under local elites, who
leading to development of Modern Indology. Modern dominated them coercively as well as culturally.
Indological perspective criticized orthodox picture of Thus, the subaltern classes were defined as.a
Indian society. Villages were not seen as isolated or staticresidual category. In these polarized social categories,
or self-sufficient. Religion was considered the central a sense of antagonistic and ippositional mentality
institution, but nowhere as hindrance to dynamism prevails. The subaiterns are oppressed and subjugated
of Indian society. The present changes on account by the elites in their everyday life. However, ihere
of colonial rule were also studied. The relevance of are moments of outburst when they rebel against
joint family, panchayats, etc. was emphasized with an their subjugation. The notion of subaltern
politics was
Indological view. therefore centered on "resistance to the domination of
Therefore, it can be said that the traditional and the elites".
orthodox view of Indian society, which was projected
by colonial administrators was modified and corrected a. Has caste system hindered democracy
and
by modern indologists and structural functionalists. adult franchise in India? Discuss. (CSE, 2018)
\ Ans: The first danger which is particularly relevant
a. Give an account of Ranajit Guha's approach to Indian
instudying'subalternclass' (CSE,2019) measures Parliament is Ambedkar's realisation that the
adopted by Mahatma Gandhi to resist British
Ans: Subaltern Studies emerged around 1980s as a rule might be misused. Ambedkar said in a democracy
series of joumal articles published by Oxford University unconstitutional methods like civil-disobedience,
non-
Press in India. Its main goal was to retake history for cooperatioh and satyagraha were "nothing
but the
the under-classes, for the voices that had not been heard grammar of anarchy."
before. Scholars of the subaltern hoped to break away Politicians encourage Indians to vote on the basis
from histories of the elites and the Euro-centric bias of of their caste encouraged by psephologists. This shows
current imperial history. the reality of 70 years of democracy as a system where
The term "subaltern" in this context is an allusion caste still plays a major role in elections and is perceived
to the work of Italian Marxist Antonio Gramsci. The by society at large as unequal and hence undemocratic.
term's semantic range has evolved from its first usage Ambedkar pointed out that caste brought about
by Ranajit Guha, following Gramsci, to refer solely to separation in social life and generated antipathy and
peasants who had not been integrated into the industrial jealousy between castes. He went on to say, "We
must
capitalist system. overcome all these difficulties if we wish to become a
It now refers to any person or group of inferior rank nation in reality."
or station, whether because of race, class, gender, sexual Ambedkar maintained that if his warnings were
orientation, ethnicity, or religion. ignored there would be a danger that Indians would
R.anajit Guha attempted to formulate a new narrative lose their faith in democracy, that they would ,,prefer
of the hi'story of India and South Asia. His ,Elementary government for the people to government by the people.,,
Aspects of Peasant Insurgency in Colonial India, is Democracy does not come easy. And Indian democracy
widely considered to be a classic. Aside from this, his has been built in the most difficult circumstances.
founding statement in the first volume of Subaltern Many expected it to fail even after the introduction of
Studies set the agenda for the Subaltern Studies group, universal adult franchise and constitutionally mandated
defining the "subaltern" as "the demographic difference institutions. A culture of equality is believed to be crucial
between the total Indian population and all those whom to democracy but India inherited a social structure
we have described as the 'elite'^" replete with hardened gender and caste inequalities.
 SOCIAL CLASS STRUCTURE IN INDIA t;|tt 255
Successful democracies need a fair degree of Anthony Giddens identifies middle class as one
cultural, linguistic and religious homogeneity but India of the social classes in his three-fold classification of
has deep cultural, religious and linguistic diversity. advanced'capitalist society. One is upper class based on
Most Western democracies have high levels of literacy the'ownership of property in the means of production',
and education but a substantial section of the Indian a middle class based on the'possession of educational
population was illiterate, with virtually no formal and technical qualifications' and a lower or working
education. class based on the'possession of manual labor power'.
Yet Indian democracy has survived; indeed, The members of the educated class such as
democratic mechanisms have been deployed to attack government servants, lawyers, college teachers and
\ gender and caste inequalities, bring millions out of
\ doctors constituted the bulk of the Indian middle class.
t poverty/ and to nurture its famed diversity. Besides, Expansion of middle class in post 1991 period is due
lack of education has not lessened popular enthusiasm to diversification of occupation, economic liberalization
in its favour. And this brings us to the most admirable and expansion of educational and entrepreneurial
feature of Indian democracy: born amidst forms of social opportunities. Middle class today is not only urban
sickness exacerbated by colonialism and new diseases centric, but has been observed even in rural areas due
fomented by it, it has had to fight these and incessantly to expansion of administrative machinery, market
reproduce its own conditions of survival. economy/ Green Revolution, farm mechanization,
transport, cooperative movement etc.
a. How has the New Economic Policy (1991\ New Middle Class is of recent origins in post
affected the lifestyle and life chances in new independent India. Rise of white collar jobs, emerging
middle class in India? (CSE,20L8) public sector, IT as well as service industry gave rise
Ans: India opened up the economy in early nineties to this new middle class. While the rural middle class
following a major crisis that was led by a foreign exchange which had its interests in agriculture has seen,a decline
crisis that brought the economy close to defaulting on its post the Green Revolution and many farmers have
loans. This compelled the govemment to announce a New witnessed downward mobility, urban middle class has
Economic Policy in 1991. The new policy deregulated been continuously growing. Similarly, Ananda Kumar
industrial econo+y in a substantial manner. in his'Indian Middle Class' argues that'while urban
The major objective of the new policy was to couple middle class is 'market' bound, rural middle class is
Indian economy as part of the world economy. The 'power'bound'.
policy aimed at: Andre Beteille contends that idea of middle
o Utilizing the indigenous capabilities of entrepreneurs. class is often highly romanticized as an outcome of
o Fostering research and development efforts for the liberal demqcracy, a vibrant capitalist economy and
individual freedom, but middle in itseif has sub-classes
development of indigenous technologies.
which fight for scarce resources in a country like India
o Raising investments in private sector and opening and this struggle can be unhealthy at times. Another
up of technologies to Indian sector.
characteristic of the 21st century Indian rniddle class
r Increasing efficiency, productivity and improving is its strong identification with consumerism. Acts
the competitiveness of Indian sector. of consumption are taken as critical indicators of a
o Limiting monopolistic power of government to few modern status by this emerging middle class in the post
critical sectors. liberalization era.
o Ensuring self-reliance and assigning right areas for According to T K Ooman, Indian middle class is a
public sector undertakings. harbinger of silent revolution as it has through NGOs,
o Providing employment, skills and facilities to the PILs and Social Movements etc has raised the muted
workers. voice of the poor. Today it is successfully acting as a
o Retaining capacity to eam our own foreign exchange watchdog of functioning of democracy.
through exports. According to Amartya Sen in his 'Argumentative
It has been more than 25 years since the Indiaru 2006', the new middle class scrutinizes public
liberalization process was initiated. A new business policy, leads public debates and discourses and also acts
class, entrepreneurs and rise of middle class is visible as a public think tank.
t
who are not at the mercy of public sector at large. Gurucharan Das in his 'India Unbound, 2002'
Estimates of new rising middle class size vary from indicates that in post liberalization India there has been
under 100 million to over 250 million persons and have massive growth in middle class which is outgoing, risk
been defined as a class that structurally lies between taking and innovative and has the potential to transform
upper and lower class. socio-economic landscape of India.
256 *r soclolocY Q & A
a. Discuss the growth of religious sects in India. a. The main objective of socio- reli'gious
(csE,2018) movement during the colonial rule in India
Ans: Sects are the more organized form of religion were reforming and synthesizing Hinduism.
than cults and in this type of social organization, Write on any two such important movement.
institutionalization of social roles starts. Urge for (csE,20tn
change and reinterpretation of religion are at the heart Ans: The beginning of the nineteenth century
of the sects and they are defined as new religious heralded the beginning of a new dawn on India. The
movements which break away from orthodoxy of movement described as the "Indian Renaissance" or
dominant religion. "Indian Awakening" grew in enormity in the latter half
The sect is often intolerant toward other religious of the century.
groups. It is marked by a desire to disassociate from This peiod heralded the phase of tire'great socio-
the existing social order. Sects are seen as an attempt to religious reform movements in India. A few notable
rationalize the dominant religion. Sects also, generally, movements, are Arya Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, Aligarh
promote brotherhood, equality and common goals for movement etc.
its members. Sects tend to arise during a period of rapid The two most important movements whose main
social change. More sects indicate a relatively open aim was to synthesize and reform Hinduism were
society. Brahmo Samaj and Arya Samaj. They are discussed. in
According to Weber, Sects are most likely detail in the following section:
to originate within those groups which are (i) Brahmo Samaj and Raja Ram Mohan Roy
marginalized in society and he terms this phenomenon
Ram Mohan Roy's main pre-occupation was
as "theodicy (religious justification) of disprivileged"
how to rid of the Hindu religion of image worship,
as they provide an alternative explanation or path of
sacrificial rites and other meaningless rituals. He
redemption.
condemned the priestly class for encouraging these
For example - Sects like Dera Sacha Sauda of
practices. He opined that all the principal ancient texts
North India promises a casteless society to its members
of the Hindus preached monotheism or worship of one
who are generally from rural areas or from depressed
Cod.
castes. \ His greatest achievement in the field of religious
Modern sects, however, have varied membership
reform was setting up in 1828 of the Brahmo Samaj. It
and marginalization is not just limited to economic
forbade idol-worship and discarded meaningless rites
terms, but it can also be in form of relative deprivation
and rituals.
as well. ISKCON is another sect which has a wider
Study of the Vedas and Upanishads gave him
appeal and is not limited to economically weaker
ground tci show that monotheism was the original
sections.
Hindu belief and hence he denounced polytheism and
Complexities of life, stresses, anomie, and alienation
idolatry.
are leading people to explore peace in spirituality.
Dysfunctions of the sects should be seen in context of (ii) The Arya Samaj and Swami Dayanand Saraswati
crimes committed by self declared godmen in the name Dayanand Saraswati founded the Arya Samaj.
of religion or sect. For example, cases registered against He held that the Vedas contained all the knowledge
Asaram, and Dera Saccha Sauda's leaders in recent past imparted to man by God and essentials of modern
for exploiting poor. science coutrd also be traced in them.
On the other hand, even yrhere religion seems to He was opposed to idolatry, ritual and priesthood,
lose its hold in the sense of decreasing attendance in particularly to the prevalent caste practices and popular
church ceremonies, a growth of invisible or'private Hinduism as preached by the Brahmins. Arya Samaj
religion' is seemingly emerging. In order words, a tried to inculcate the spirit of self-respect and self-
personal interpretation of religious doctrines is tolerated. reliance among the people of India. This promoted
Luckman observes that religion today is invisible as nationalism.
individuals carry it out in their private space and not At the same time one of its main objectives was to
in institutions. prevent the conversion of Hindus to other religions. It
"Growth of civil religion" was stated by also prescribed a purificatory ceremony called "shuddhi
.Similarly,
Robert Bellah in his 'New Religious Consciousness and movement" for those Hindus who had been converted
the Crisis in Modernity, 1976';hile arguing that'Civic to other religions like Islam and Christianity.
Religion' is emerging as a new form of religion where These two movements increased the self respect of
civic symbols and nationalism are accorded same respect the Hindus to a great extent which inculcated the spirit
and faith as of religion. of the fight for independence in the later years.
 SOCIAL CLASS STRUCTURE !N INDIA 257
Q. What are the emerging concerns on women's where they want to be; studies show that the number
reproductive health? (CSE,20l7l of people identifying themselves as middle class has
Ans: Women in any country is the greatest asset gone up considerably in the post-liberalization period.
as she is the one responsiblefor initial socialisation and Studying the practices of individuals, families and
adult stabilisation in the smallest unit like a family. groups who are aspiring to be middle class or wish to
However, despite achieving great innovations in medical further consolidate their middle class status, allows us to
science, women's reproductive health is still a cause of
understand the dynamics of social mobility. Many argue
concern in a country like India. that consumption is central to the performative aspect
of being middle class and is the site of reproduction
Emerging Concerns of Women's Reproductive Health:
of power relations in modern societies. The formation
e One of the key social changes occurred in the Asian of middle class in colonial India was the. result of
region is the increase of age at marriage for both long historical process. Its beginning could be traced
males and females. since arrival of industrialization and trading economy,
o As a result of delays in age at marriage, the but concrete observation could be made after 1,857
proportion of unmarried adolescents are on the rise revolution. The formation of middle class could be
in the region, therefore, the period during which explained by understanding tl.re nature of national
premarital sex can take place is getting longer. movement. The historical context of the development
o At the same time, age of menarche is generally of middle classes in India is quite different from those
falling in the region, partly related to reduction in western world. In Europe, it came through industrial
in malnutrition and inJection and to the change of revolution. In case of India, it was 19th centaury under
culture. Thus the period of risk-taking behaviour the patronage of British colonial rule that the middle
associated with adolescence has lengthened. classes beginning to emerge.
o Modernization, decline of parental authority, and Post 1991 as a reverberation to the liberalized
'rampant
increased gender equality in education, has given economy India embarked on the road of
rise to a culture that makes sexual activity more economic growth. India succeeded in bringing
appealing and acceptable to adolescents, without the millions of people out of the desperate poverty
putting much weight or responsibility on sexual and placed them in Middle class now largely settled
activity. i
in cities.
o Poor nutritional status of many female adolescents India's household income is likely to triple in next
leads to incomplete skeletal growth that may have two decades and would become Sth largest consumer
serious consequences for child bearing. economy by 2025.It illustrates the fact that India is
o Both married and unmarried adolescents are making headway economically which is resulting in the
vulnerable to being unprotected frorn sexually formation and consolidation of a strengthened middle
transmitted in{ection. hr many areas HfV infection is class. Middle class for any country is very important
increasing faster among young women than among as it renders new ideas,.innovations, human capital,
young men. and struggle. People started transforming themselves
International agencies and NGOs can play a key according to the changing trends of the time. Job
role in encouraging counties to adopt needed policies opportunities were created.
and programs that support adolescent reproductive It not only resulted in the accumulation of "the
health services. Laws and public policy can be used capital but transformed the socioeconomic condition
to formulate programs that are intended to improve at ground level which in its long run dawned a strong,
reproductive hea]th status. aware and strengthened middle class. India in its history
remained dominated as a populously rural country. This
Q. What accounts for the growth and middle class is largely getting settled in the urban areas
consolidation of the middle classes in modern of India where in past India as compared to its counter
rivals china and Indonesia was far less urbanized. It has
India? (CSE 20L6)
brought a major shift in Indian polity where trends of
Ans: ,The last three decades have seen significant ruralization are getting reversed.
growth in the size of the Indian middle class. This Access to means of information and modern
middle class, however, is extremely heterogeneous, education are vibrantly socializing the masses and
forcing us to think about middle classes rather than are resulting in a mass awareness at large. Three
'a' middle class. Recent sociological literature has structural changes occurring in India - service-sector
emphasized the importance of taking seriously people's led economic growth, rapid expansion of urbanisation
"self-identification" of themselves as middle class and higher education - are undoubtedly resulting in a
as it reflects their imaginaries of who they are and massive expansion of the middle class, however defined.
258 ffi socloLocye&A
The political and social consequences will depend This idea became more relevant when capitalistic
on whether this middle class emerges simply as a social transformation of agriculture happened during green
formation or as a self-conscious political force, whether revolution. Traditional system such as Jajmani system
progressive or possibly even reactionary. broke down and class based hierarchy staried becoming
visible. Daniel Thorner made first attempt to identify
a. Discuss the status of women among the class structure in rural India. He did it by iaking degree
emerging urban middle class. (CSE, 2014) of hired labor as his basis of classification. He divided
Ans: Some uppermiddle and middle classwomenin
rural agricultural society into 3 classes
urban India have reaped some benefits of modernization 1,. Malik They work totally by hired labor.
through educational opportunities provided by 2. Kisan: They primarily rely on family labor but
educational institutions and the tertiary sector of urban sometimes go for hired labor.
industrial India is need of kinds of these skills women 3. Mazdoor: they are marginal land owners or landless
can provide. laborers who sell their land or work on other's land
Though it has provided benefits to urban women or their survival.
but their status still low in Indian society is still Utsa Patnaik modified this criterion and suggested
patriarchal and male dominant society, which becomes the ratio of hired labor to the'family labor as criterion
a subject matter of sociology ip contemporary India. R. for classification. She has divided the agrarian structure
Bhatia indicates that status of women in India can be in five different classes. These are big landlords, rich
understood from how men and women spend their time peasants, middle peasants, small and marginal farmers
and on what is a crucial indicator of gender relations, and landless laborers. Later on, she was criticized by
and thus the allocation of housework reflects power Swedish sociologists Djurfeld and Lindberg. They say
relations between women and men at the smallest scale. that apart from control of land we must also look at the
S. Mukhopadhyay in his study on Urban middle class nature of exploitation too to classify the agrarian classes.
women in Kolkata finds that the relationship between They suggested that usurious capital must also be added
working status and maternal health among the urban as another dimension for classification and argued that
middle-class women do not support the hypothesis that commission agents and money lenders should be treated
working womer are under greater stress and hence suffer as big Iand lords.
from ill health. He further emphasize with the increase
of employment opportu"ity i" the name of globalization a. Other Backward Classes. (CSE,2013)
is affecting women, especially in urban areas. Ans: Other Backward Classes refers to the shudra
A working woman may face difficulties in attempting to
group in the four fold classification of Indian caste
fulfil the demands of both worlds, at home and outside, system. They must not be confused with the scheduled
while a housewife may feel tired and irritated with her castes or dalits or untouchables which were placed
household chores and financial dependence.
outside the four fold chaturvarna system. It was the
Patriarchy perpetuates a social structure wherein British administrators who called them as backward
though a level of independence is gained by middle class classes as they failed to take to western education
working women, they are still considered subordinate and government employment in a significant way. As
to their husband/father. Whatever advances in social Rudolph and Rudolph has pointed out these are the
position are achieved by women stand nullified by the castes whose ritual rank and occupational status was
entrenched patriarchal mentality. The reins of power above untouchables but in the lower reaches of caste
in the household still remain with the male head of order of traditional society.
the family, despite the fact that the women shoulder as
It is a heterogeneous category which consists of
many, if not more, responsibilities.
landowning & dominant peasant castes at one end and
the poor & near untouchable groups such as artisans
a" Classes in agrarian society in India. and servicing classes at the other end. Various upper
(csE,2013) shudra castes in northern India are Jats, Yadavs,
Ans: Historically, Indian society was not divided Koiris and Kurmis while the lower shudras include
in classes. It was the caste system which was central to Hajjam, Kumbhar, Lohar, Teli and Mallah. It is the
the Indian social arrangement. The application of class upper shudras who got benefitted by our process of
model to understand the inequalities present in rural development at the cost of lower shudras. For example,
India is a relatively new phenomenon. it is the upper shudras who got land rights under the
Karl Marx pointed out that there is class dimension policy of land reforms.
hidden behind the caste system. As most of the poor It was the upper shudras who were benfitted
belong to lower castes, this assertion can't be neglected. by green revolution. It was the upper shudras who
 SOCIAL CLASS STRUCTURE IN INDIA ffi 259
demanded agricultural subsidies and dominated the According to social development report, ratio of
political sphere by their numerical strength. Finally, output per worker in formal employment to that in
they got special status under constitution and benefitted informal employment were 10.4 in 2004-05. Output per
from it. worker decides the income of laborers and therefore
It was the Other Backward Classes who replaced higher gap in output per worker is leading to economic
congress at the centre in1977. But, because of internal inequality. Moreover, the liberalization of economy is
contradictions and struggle for power these classes have also leading to rise in in-formal sector than the formal
affected the politics of north India in a big way in the sector.
form of coalition politics. It is generally the upper caste, educated and skilled
Though not coherent enough to capture power on people who go for formal sector employment. On the
their own, they are powerful enough to prevent others other hand, in-formal sector is occupied by the people
from forming a rival stable order. from disadvantaged sections of society such as SCs,
STs, Muslims and a section of OBC. Formal sector is the
a. Distinguish between formal and informal characteristic of urban areas whereas informal sector
sectors in India. (CSE, 2013) is present in both rural and urban areas. Agriculturg
Ans: Formal sector is a sector where the working constitutes around 55% of informal sector.
hours are regulated, wages are fixed and employees Thus, it is important to make modern sector more
get some benefits. The relations here are contractual. employment centric. Output growth in the traditional
It is characterized by high productivity and efficiency. sector needs to be increased. For this we need to divert
As opposed to this, the informal sector consists of investment from modern to the traditional sector. Then
economic activities characterized by small scale, low only the majority of people will be benefitted truly from
capital intensity, inferior and simple technology, low the development of the country
productivity, reliance primarily on family resources and
labor. These are largely unregulated by labor legislation, a. Examine the influence of industrialization on
have no formal training, and have easy entry and limited caste. (CSE,2013)
clientele. Thus, it is unorganized and unprotected sector. Ans: Industrialization has to be seen in the overall
Labor relations qre social and personal rather than context of modernizatiory urbanization and spread of
contractual. secular education. It means the movement of society
lnformal Sector from agricultural society to non-agricultural society.
no/
//o With industrialization, people from different castes
come together and work together. It is difficult to
maintain the'caste based segregations in an industrial
setting. Therefore, industrialization has weakened the
caste system. Traditionally, the occupation of a person
Formal Sector was associated with his caste. There were many artisans
93% and potters who used to make earthenwares. But,
with the arrival of machine made cheap goods such as
stainless steel pots, they were unable to compete with
Various kinds of formal sector employments are the industries and moved away from their caste based
managers/ lawyers, doctors, engineers and many more. occupations. Feudal economy was replaced by market
Examples of informal sector employment are stall economy.
holders, lottery ticket seller, parking, house maids, Different castes were economically dependent
potters, repairmary newspaper seller, rag pickers and on each other through ]ajmani system. According to
scavengers. Beidelmary this system was exploitative in nature as the
Only 7% of total employment is there in formal upper castes gained at the cost of lower castes. But, with
sector and 93% is in informal sector. industrialization the people of lower caste could easily
Unable to get formal sector employment, people get a job in industry and come out of the exploitative
enter the in{ormal sector. Also, the growth of formal system. People became mobile and started challenging
sector is negative so there is movement of people from the caste hegemony. Thus, the relations changed from
formal to informal sector. Formal sector employment obligatory to contractual ones.
provides mobility to the people and raises their standard With industrialization, transportation also
of living. People enter the formal sector with their choice. developed and people from different castes started
But, people enter in informal sector without a choice and travelling together. This led to the weakening of the
enter the web of poverty. purity and pollution attached with the castes.
260 :),::::,., SOCIOLOGY e & A

Moreover, the system of caste pachayats also broke The phenomenon of working women is a
down as the industrial disputes were solved in courts recent.phenomenon in India. Traditionally, there
and not in panchayats. existed a sexual division of Iabor where women are
Though, the caste system got weakened by the expected to fulfill their household duties of washing,
industrialization but not the caste consciousness. The cooking, cleaning and child rearing and men are
caste based recommendations in recruitments are still expected to work outside home. This made women
going on at the lower level as it gives a certainty and more dependent on men and led to a social stratification based
loyalty to the employer. on gender.
By coming out of their homes and contributing
a. Discuss the salient feafures of Indian middle to the development of country, women are asserting
class. (CSE, 2013) themselves. They are challenging the age'old patriarchal
of the society leading to enriched and fulfilling
Ans: Middle class refers to a heterogeneous group l:ti]"
hfe' But' because of this assertiory they are facing many
of castes bound together by common ltf""/;."il;;
problems too' These problems can be broadly classified
derive their income from modern prof"rrl'J* ;;';"
into categories:
lawyers, journalists, managers and other white collar lwo
workers in government and the private sector. L. Problems within household: She has to take
The Indian middle class owe their origin to the the dual burden of work which includes both
British rule in India. As B.B.Mishra has pJinted out; household work and the outside work. This leads
the middle class developed as an intermediary and a to more stress and builds frustration in her. There
junior ally of British. They were the middle man and the occur frequent disputes among the couple in
Zamindars that got the land rights during permanent sharing of work leading to strained relationship
settlement. SprLad of education also gave rise to and finally divorce. According to the Parsons,
professional middle class in India. women fulfill two important functions,i.e. of adult
After independence, India adopted the socialistic personality stabilization and socialization of child.
pattern of development and the middle class was the So, these functions also suffer.
most benefitted by this. They were involved in trade, 2. Problem outside household: This can be further
production ef goods, higher education and almost classified into various categories:
everywhere. In this way they helped in the nation Women in agriculture: This is the most vulnerable
building after the independence. lot of women as they are involved in manual hard work
Middle classes stand for liberal democratic values and are most vulnerable to various kinds of exploitation
and were'secular in outlook. They stood for intellectual in the fields. With feminizatron of agriculture happening
freedom, social mobility, individualism and political this lot of,women requires more attention.
democracy. They promoted to the spread of modern Women in informal sector: Those women who
education and became the largest user of consumer work in urban informal sector face the problems of
goods. low and irregular wag6s, wages, sexual
se exploitation and other
Thus, middle class represents a new social order hardships.
based on alternate set of values than the traditional They also face the wrath of their drunk husbands
societies. But, the education which they preferred was who beat them and snatch their earnings.
English education having urban bias. This led to the Women in formal sector: They are the least
exclusion of poor and rural people. With their demand disadvantaged section among the working women.
of consumer goods the goods related to the poor are But, an emerging problem among them is of sexual
not given importance. There is more tolerant attitude harassment at workplace. Also, a recent survey by
towards corruption and demand for dowry which is led ASSOCHAM shows that 78 pet cenf of the women in
by the consumerist attitude adopted by these classes. the age group 32-58 suffered from lifestyle, chronic
Gradually, these classes are becoming self centric which and aiute ailments such as obesity, depression, chronic
is detrimental to the poor of the country. backache, diabetes, hypertension, high cholesterol, and
' / heart and kidney diseases.
a. Discuss the problems of working women in These problems of working women can t be solved
. India. (CSE,2013) in isolation. We need a comprehensive approach of
Ans: Working women are those who work both women-centric developrnent so that women can also
in household as well as outside the household. This reap the benefits of growth in a peaceful manner.
led to a dual burden on them and which affects them Though we have enacted various laws conceming Sexual
badly leading to psycho, social and even economic Harassment at Workplace, there is need for civil society
deprivations. efforts too for sensitizing the young people.
a. Analyse the role of market and modern forces Therefore, the Indian marriage system has seen sub-
in understanding the changing trends in mar- stantial changes as a result of the impact of the market
riage systems in India. (CSE 2023) and contemporary pressures. It's crucial to remember
Ans: The institution of marriage has traditionally that these adjustments are not occurring nationwide.
been connected to a number of soclo-cultural customs These influences have differing effects on virious groups,
and traditions in India. Religion, caste, and kinship are geographical areas, and socioeconomic strata.
the three main pillars around which the Indian *u.iiug"
system is built. However, the impact of modernity and a. Define the concepts of 'Descent, and,Alliance,.
market pressures has significantly altered India,s matri_ Differentiate between North Indian and South
mony systems. Indian Kinship systems with examples.
Market and Modern Forces Impacting Marriage Systems (csE 2023)
o Oneofthemostsignificantearlychangeswas,widow Ans: An imagined or real corunon ancestor is the
remarriage' {acilitated by social reformers like Raja basis for membership in a descent group, a type of social
Ram Mohun Roy. grouping. It is the idea that a person is socially connected
I Raising of marriageable age through Sarda Act of to the group that includes their parents, grandparents,
1929 was another major step in this direction which and so on. The person may concurrently be a rnember of
aimed at curbing the menace of ,child marriage,. two or more descent groups, four or more grandparents,
o Post-independence period also saw enactment of eig-ht great gtandparents, and so on. Descent hai special
Hindu Marriage Act,19SS and Special Marriage Act, influence when rights to succession, inheritance, or resi-
1954 to rationalize the institution of marriage and rid
dence follow kinship lines.
it of certain social evils. In the context of kinship, alliance refers to the
o Polygamy has been banned for Hindus. Divorce and bonds established via matrimony. This kinship system
widow re-marriage are no longer social stigma. highlights the bonds that arise from matrimonial ties.
. Concerns for career and spread ofhigher education
It is predicated on the ideas of mutual trade and reci-
are leading to rise in age of marriage.
procity. The alliance hypothesis was put out by French
. anthropologist Levi-Strauss, who thought that ihe main
Manner of mate selection are also changing and love
purpose of kinship systems in many civilizations was to
marriages are more common. Inter-caste marriages
form alliances through marriage.
are also becoming a norm. Some hybrid form of mite
selection like'arranged love-marriage, is also emerg- North Indian Kinship Systems
ing. With greater intrusion of technology and scienc-e, o In North India, there is a clear distinction between
it was expected that a secular-scientific outlook matrilineal and patrilineal kins.
would emerge and, consequently, the non-essential o Persons belonging to a given generation and sex are
rituals and customs will be done away with leading addressed by a particular terminology and hence kin-
to reduction in wasteful expenditurei as well. terms are very specific and non-repetitive. There are
o The marital system has been impacted by the devel_ also primary terms for three generations and terms of
oppent in consumerism. Aspects of marriage such one generation are not exchangeable with the other
as wedding planners and the dowry system iave all generation. Sapinda rule is extended to 5 generations
become commodities in the market. on the mother side and 7 on the father side.
o Emergence of matrimonial websites has on one hand o Mother and father village exogamy is also followed.
made marriage as a more liberal process as young o There is no concept of preferential marriage in the
couples meet online, date and get married North and marriagewith primary kin is notillowed.
 262 ffi socroLocYe&A
o Generally, a four-gotra rule is followed in marriage such acts of violence against the females of the com-
in which four gotras are avoided - mother's, self, munity are given since the females are believed to
grandmother's and maternal grandmother's' bring dishonour to the communitY.
South Indian Kinship Systems Linkages between'Patriarchy' and'flonour killing'
o Patrilineal and Patrilocal systems dominate, but in India
matrilineal and matrilocal traditions are also there o Both originate from a society that prizes male su-
among the Nayars and Mopalahs in Malabar region premacy over female subjugatiorg and they both
which is collectively known as Tharawad. support and feed off one another. Because honor
o Village exogamy is not a fixed rule in the south and killings are common in India and the country has a
different clans within a village marry each other. long history of patriarchal rules and behaviors, the
o Like North, castes are divided into exogamous clans relationship between patriarchy and. honor killings
in South as well. Preferential marriages are followed is particularly clear in India.
in the South. Marriages with elder sister's daughter, o Patriarchy is reflected within family as well in wider
father's sister's daughter, and mother's brother's society and is reflected at manifest as well as latent
daughter are preferred. level. Within family, authority structure, inheritance
o Levirate is also a taboo in South, while it is practised rights and other entitlements, rituals, division of
in some areas in both North and Central India. labor reflect it.
o There is no distinction between family of birth and o In society, gender discrimination, and division of
family of marriage. labor - some jobs are now stereotyped as women's
o Kinship terminology overlap. For example,'Ai' is job and others as men's jobs, physical and sexual
used for elder sister as well as for mother; Anna is violence against woman, etc. reflect it.
used for both an elder brother and father. As a result, o The patriarchal attitude leads to honour killing. It is
there is also no clear cut classification of kin on the an extremely harsh type of discipline used against
basis of generation. women, who are thought to have brought shame
The cultural, social, and economic environments of to their family or society. A person may be seen as
North and South India inlluence the kinship networks in dishonored for a number of teasons, including being
these regions. In addition to being important for social married outside of their caste or religiory \aving sex
organizatiory marriage customs, inheritance rights, and before getting married or after getting married or
other facets of social life, they also serve as a reflection simply clothing in a way that is considered improper.
of cultural norms and values. o In 2018, ayoung couple in Telangana was killed by
the woman's father for marrying against his wishes.
a. Exirlain the thematic linkages between'Pa- The father, a caste Hindu, was against his daughter
triarchy' and'Honour killing' in India, citing marrying a Dalit man. This case underscored the
some recent cases. (CSE 2023) interplay of caste, patriarchy, and honour killing.
Therefore, in India, there is a clear thematic connec-
Ans: Patriarchy is defined by Sylvia Walby in her
tion between honour killing and patriarchy. Both have
'Theorizing Patriarchy, 1990' as 'a system of social struc-
their roots in a society that prizes male supremacy above
tures and practices in which men dominate and oppress
female subjugation. Honor killing is a brutal means of en-
women'. According to her, patriarchy operates through
forcing the rigid gender rules that patriarchy esJablishes
multiple structures like - production relations in the
and upholds. Promoting gender equality and women's
household where women is subjected to unpaid labor,
rights as well as challenging and undermining patriar-
discriminatory allocation of occupations in labor market,
chll practices and attitudes are essential to ending this
capture of political power by patriarchs, male violence
vicious cycle.
which is often patterned and systematic, patriarchal cul-
tural institutions like education, media and so on'
a. Discuss the material basis of pakiarchy as an
Honour Killing ideological system. (CSE,2O22)
o Honour Killing is the term givento thekilling of men Ans: Patriarchy is defined by Sylvia Wulby in her
or women in the name of honour. It includes crimes 'Theorizing Patriarchy, 1990' as 'a system of social struc-
luch as homicide, murder and assault. hr such crimes, tures and practices in.which men dominate and opPress
the perpetrator iswithin the family or a group belong-
women'.
;r ing to a particular clan/lineage in a community.
o Such crimes are corrunenced to instill a sense of fear Patriarchy
within the people of the society and to ensure they According to Sylvia Walby, patriarchy operates
adhere to the patriarchal norms. through multiple structures like -
o Thevictims of honour killing are mostlyfemales and . pioduction relations in the household where women
the perpetrators are mostly males. The sanctions for is subjected to unpaid labor,
 SYSTEM OF KINSHIP IN INDIA ffi 2E3
. discriminatory allocation:of occupations in labor . Earning of a husband is gradually proving to be
market, insufficient for the upbringing of the wholelamily,
especially in the case of the middle class.
. male violence whichis often pattemed and systematic, o Traditional masculine jobs are now taken by women
. patriarchal relations in sexuality which ire mani- also.
fested in sexual double stand.ards for males and o As the hold of religion weakens, accompanying no-
females, tions like -'streedharma', 'pativrata' and so on are
. patriarchal cultural institutions like educatiory media also weakening.
and so on. . Romantic love is the new basis for marriage.
Role of Women in Marriage and Family . Further, as functional roles of family change, rela-
. Role of women in marriage and family also follows tions of members are also affected.
a broader division of labor. Constitution of India denies sexual division of labor
. According to Jessie Bernard in her ,The Future of on discriminatory terms and other laws like Factories
Marriage, 1976' ,benehtsthathusband and wife draw Act provide for equal treatment of men and women at
from the marriage are radically dilferent or unequal. workplace.
. Compared to single mery married men are likely to Skeptics on the other hand argue that such laws have
have more successful careers, but compared to single brought theoretical'liberation', but not,emancipation,
womery wives are more likely to suffer depression. of women.
Material Basis of Patriarchy
. Hoschild in his'The Second Shift,1989,has argued a. Discuss different fotms of kinship system in
that employed women are doubly harassed by men India. (CSE 202L)
- one during their'first shift' at their workplaie and Ans: Kinship refers to a set of p"rro.r, ,".ogrrir"d
secondly in their'second shift' in form of housework.
as relatives either by virtue of marriage (affinity) or
According to W Yeung, as women move into paid
blood relationship (consanguinity)" Iravati Karve, in
employment in increasingly larger numbers, mlen,s
contribution to domestic tasks and child care does her extensive survey of the Indian kinship system, had
not seem to be increasing at the same pace. identified four main types of kinship organisation in
. Uma Chakrqvarti argues that the establishment of India, namely northern, southern, central and eastern
private property and the need to have caste purity with following characteristics:
required subordination of women and strict cbntrot
over their mobility and sexuality. Female sexuality
1. North Indian Kinship System:
was chanrneled into legitimate motherhood within a) Kinship groups are unilineal, following
a controlled structure of reproduction to ensure mostly patrilineal descent b. Kinship termi_
patrilineal succession. nolcigies are descriptive in nature, i.e., even the
. Karuna Ahmad explored four characteristics of most distant kin relationship can be accurately
women's employment in India in her article ,Stud- described
ies of Educated Working Women in India: trends b) Rules of marriage are negative in nature
and Issues, 1979' whichalso reflect the larger sexual c) Status of women on marriage is inferior to the
division of work in Indian society. man; she's a sfuanger
. TSPapolainhisstudyoflucknowwomeninemploy-
ment shows that women were discriminated against at
d) in her husband's house
the time of promotions and tended to be crowded into 2. South Indian Kinship System:
lower status clerical and primary school jobs. a) Kinship groups are unilineal, but matrilineal
. Vina Maiumdar (Feminist sociologists) views agrar_ descent also exists, e.g. among the Nairs
ian class structure from feminist perspective and she b) Kinship terminologies are not as descriptive;
argues that with economic growth, gender based
they are used to distinguish between cross and
exploitation gets institutionalized and agrarian so_
parallel cousins
cial structure should also be studied with a gender
perspqctive. According to her in agrarian skucture
c) Rules of marriage are positive in nature, e.g.
women assumes role of home maker and men as preferential marriage is also allowed
bread wirrrer curtailing economic freedom of women. d) Status of women is usually equal; she,s usually
E known to the family as she's often from the
Breaking Down of Patriarchal System
same village
. Patriarchal system with its unlimited restrictions
on women and its comparative freedom for men is 3. Central Indian Kinship System:
gradually breaking down under the impact of new a) It acts as a region of transition between north
civilization and culture. and south India
264 . SOCIOLOGYQ&A
b) Cross cousin,marriage is practised in some that in 1817 only,700 widows were burnt alive in Bengal
castes, for example, among kumbis and Kathis alone. From 1812 onwards, it was Raja Rammohan Roy,
c) Terminologies have a marked northern influ- who siarted his own campaign against the'Satf practice.
ence His own sister-in-law had been forced to commit'Sati'.
d) Lack of uniformity in kinship relationships, e.g. Raja Rammohan Roy used to visit the Calcutta cremation
jats follow two gotra exogamy while baniyas grounds to persuade widows not to die in this way. He
follow 4 gotra exogamy also formed the watch Sroups. In'sambad Kaumudi'
he wrote articles and showed that it was not written in
4. Eastern Indian KinshiP SYstem: any Veda or epics to commit this crime.
a) Existence of matrilineal families among kha- It was on 4 Decembet 1829, when the practice was
sis; they follow inheritance through youngest formally banned under Bengal sati Regulatiory 1829, in
daughter all the lands under Bengal Presidency by Lord William
b) Presence of dormitory system before marriage Bentinck. By this regulation, the people who abetted
c) Cross cousin marriages exist with certain pre- 'Sati' were declared guilty of "culpable homicide."
conditions, e.g. among Ho tribes cross cousin Lord William Bentinck became the Governor-
marriage is only done after the death of father's General of India in 1828. Hb helped Raja Rammohan
sister or mother's brother Roy to suppress many prevalent social evils like'Sati',
d) Bride price, bride kidnapping are other cultural polygamy, child marriage and female infanticide.
practices peculiar to eastern kinship system The ban was challenged in the courts. The matter
Apart from this kinship system isn't necessarily went to the Privy Council in London. The Privy Council
limited to the relationships of marriage or blood rather upheld the ban in 1832. After that other territories also
there may also exist kinship bonds among unrelated started following banning, but it remained legal in
individuals who may behave like kins. For instance S C princely states, particularly in the Rajputana where it
Dube in his study of Shamirpet village found the pres- was very common. Under the British control, Jaipur
ence of fictive kins which further expands the scope of banned the practice in1846.
study of kinship system in India. Therefore, during the 19th and 20th centuries some
laws were enacted with the sincere efforts of social
"Banning practice of 'Sati' is attributed to reformers, humanists and some British administrators
a.
annihilation of a maior social evil in colonial to improve the condition of women in Indian society
and many prevalent social stigmas for women of
Inilia." Comment. (CSE 2020)
Indian qociety were abolished by the British through
Ans: One of the landmark moments in the history legislations.
of India was the abolition of the practice of 'Sati' - the
self-immolation of the widow on the funeral pyre of her
husband. It is said that it was more prevalent among
a. Discuss the conceptual issues about
lineage and descent in India. Give suitable
the higher castes and among those who considered
themselves to be rising in social status.
illustrations. (CSE 2020)

Though the act is despicable, some Brahmin Ans: Descent (Vansha) is the principle ivhereby
scholars, supported by scriptures, tried to iustify it. a child is socially affiliated with the group of his or
Chief among them have been Vijnanesvara of the 12th her parents. The individual belongs simultaneously to
several descent groups - those of the two parents, the
-century Chalukya Court and Madhavacharya of the
Vijayanagara Empire. Though justifications are given in four grandparents, the eight great-grandparents, and
Vishnu Smriti, however Manu Smriti does not mention so on.
or sanction'Sati'. The Reform and Bhakti movements as If this chain is not limited, decent principle will
well as the Alvars and the Virashaiva movement also connect everyone on this globe into a single descent
condemned'Sati'. I group. However, in reality some limitations are placed
The Practice of 'Sati' was first banned in Goa in and this link is generally limited by memory or by some
1515 by the Portuguese, but it was not that much conventionally deterririned cut-off point at, say, four or
prevalent there. This evil practice was banned by the five degrees removal or a few generations.
Dutch and French also in Chinsura and Pondicherry It is a method of limiting the recognition of kin-
respectively. group on the basis of some common identity. One
The Bengal Presidency started collecting facts and method of common identity is - common ancestor. In
figures on the practice of 'Sati' in 1813. The data showed different societies different principles might be used.
 SYSTEM OF KINSHIP lN INDIA ,,,1: 265
Descent groups can be of various types. Most common Household dimension of family can be understood
is'family' which is also the smallest descent group. at three levels -
A number of families which are linked by a common I. Nuclearization of family in wake of globalizatiory
ancestor whose identity is known form a group called migratiory urbanization, modernization etc - This
'lineage'. is a classicai view given by likes of Tonnies,
Louis Wirth, etc. which however has been found
Lineage is understood in fwo-terms:
only partially correct in Indian context.
As a principle on the basis of which alignment or
[. Fusion and Fission - Sociologists like A M Shatu
inheritance is chosen. Such an arrangement is called a
Kapadia, Kolenda and Gore and others observe
'line' or'lineage' (Vanshavali). Most common forms of a cyclical change from nuclear to joint to nuclear
them are - patrilineage and matrilineage. It gives rise to family within a period of time. According to A
descent groups which are linear in character, however, M Shah in his famous 'Household Dimension
there are non-lineal principles too. of Family, 1973' studied villages of Gujarat and
Lineage refers to a particular type of kingroup remarked 'A household in itself is neither joint
(called Kula) in which members have a corrunon ancestor nor nuclear, but becomes either of these by virtue
whose identity is known. It is a corporate group which of its being under progression and regression in a
is recruited on the basis of descent. In lineage, the developmental process'.
common ancestor of lineage members is usually an m. Relationship between household and family in
actual remembered person (unlike in case of clan where terms oI degree and jointness.
it is more likely to be a mythological figure). Rapoport in his study of industrial families across
For example, in India lineage is often considered the regions found that organizational characteristics of
frorn3-7 generation on male side as ours is a patrilineal household is largely inJluenced by factors like - class,
society. It is sometimes known as Sarika/Sapinda group ethnicity, life course and particular context. For example
in Northern India. - for middle class household is a nucleated household,
Therefore, Descent groups are formed on principle for upper class it is usually a ioint household. Similarly
of lineage groups and most common one is patrilineal South Asians predominantly prefer joint household.
groups. In case of lineage, one can trace one's ancestors Rapoport in his study of industrial families across
whereas in descent one often fails to kace one's ancestors the regions found that organizational characteristics of
and the ancestor could be substituted by a mythical one household is largely influenced by factors like - class,
symbolizing the origin of one's descent. ethnicity, life course and particular context. For example
- for middle class household is a nucleated household,
for upper class it is usually a joint household. Similarly,
a. Analyze household dimensions of family in South Asians predominantly prefer joint household.
India. (CSE 2020) Therefore , today, the household dimension is becoming
Ans: Household is a dwelling unit and is often an overshadowing dimension of family as a unit of
termed as the 'residential unit of the family' or ghar. demographic analysis and even sociological studies.
A household may be a family household, a non-family
household, an institutional household like a hostel or a. Define patriarchy. Does it have bearings
dormitory and so on. on women's entitlement in Indian family
Similarly, a family may exist without a household. system? Explain. (CSE,2019)
Household is an important dimension of family because Ans: Patriarchy is defined by Sylvia Walby in her
it is considered an important criterion in terms of 'Theorizing Patriarchy, 1990' as'a system of social
'common residence' in defining a family as either a joint structures and practices in which men dominate and
family or nuclear family. \A/hile a family may still remain oppress women'.
joint in terms of its orientation, but it may already be a According to her, patriarchy operates through
nuclear family. multiple structures like - production relations in the
The members of a household have a set of relational
household where women are subjected to unpaid
labor, discriminatory allocation of occupations in the
ties amongst them linked with the statuses held and the
labor market, capture of political power by patuiarchs,
role rnembers of the family are expected to perform.
male violence which is often patterned and systematic,
All the members of a family may not live in the same patriarchal relations in sexuality which are manifested
household all the time. Geographically distanced homes
in sexual double standards for males and females,
may be occupied by a few of the members of a given patriarchal cultural institutions like education, media
family. and so on.
 266 .:,1;',:t
soctolocy e & A
Walby distinguishes patriarchy as - private were discriminated against at the time of promotions
pakiarchy - which is practiced in household; and public and tended to be crowded into lower status clerical and
patriarchy - which is collective response of a patriarchal primary school jobs.
society to women. However, patriarchal system with its unlimited
Patriarchy is reflected within family as well in restrictions on women and its comparative freedom
wider society and is reflected at manifest as well as for men is gradually breaking down under the impact
latent level. of new civilization and culture. Earning of husband is
Within family, authority structure, inheritance gradually proving to be insufficient for the upbringing
rights and other entitlements, rituals, division of labor of the whole family especially in case of middle class.
reflect it. In society, gender discrimination, division of Traditional masculine jobs are now taken by women
labor (some jobs are now stereotyped as women's job also. As hold of religion weakens, accompanying notions
and others as men's jobs), physical and sexual violence like - 'stree-dharma', 'pativrata' and so on are also
against woman/ etc. reflect it. weakening. Romantic love is a new basis for marriage.
Further, as functional roles of family change, relations
Patriarchy and Women's Entitlement in Indian Family
of members are also affected.
System
In India, girls after school are more likely to be sent Western patriarchy which surrenders feminine
for medical education than for engineering. In dental
Q.
principles is the development proiect in India.
colleges of Haryana in 2012, 65% enrollments were by
girls and 98% enrollments in mechanical engineering
Do you agree with this view? Why?
were by boys. (csE,2018)
In Indian society, patriarchy as a social institution Ans: Patriarchy is defined by Sylvia Walby in her
gives rise to other social values such as male child 'Theorizing Patriarchy, 1,990' as'a system of social
preference, sexual purily, monogamy, fasting by women, structures and practices in which men dornihate and
and abstinence of women from public discourse, etc. oppress women'. According to her, patriarchy operates
\A4rile her status on one hand is of 'Devi' in scriptures, through multiple structures like - production relations
she is given keatment of 'Dasi'. Bina Das calls it as'Devi in the household wherc women are subjected to unpaid
dichotomy'" \ labor, discriminatory allocation of occupation in labor
Caste is also viewed by feminists as a patriarchal market, capture of political power by patriarchs, male
institution as across the castes, role of women is of violence which is often patterned and systematic,
domestic worker. patriarchal relations in sexuality which are manifested
Together with religion, it defines the role of women in sexual double standards for males and females,
in Indian society. According to Uma Chakravarti, patriarchal cultural institutions like education, media
Brahminical traditions glorify obedient women as and so on. Walby distinguishes patriarchy as private
'Pativrata' and hence put a veil on gender discrimination. patriarchy which is practiced in household and public
Patriarchy legitimizes motherhood as primary role of patriarchy which is collective response of a patriarchal
w0men. society to women.
Position of women in Indian society is often Patriarchy is reflected within family as well as in
associated with virtues like commitment to family, wider society and is reflected at manifest as well as latent
loyalty to husband, humility, forbearance and so on to level. Within family, authority structure, inheritance
disguise the iniquitous nature of entitlements and sexual rights, rituals, division of labor reflect it. In society,
division of labor. gender discrimination, stereotyping of labor, physical
Uma Chakravarti argues that the establishment and sexual violence against woman etc reflect it. For
of private property and the need to have caste purity example, in India girls after school are more likely to
required subordination of women and strict control over be sent for medical education than for engineering. In
their mobility and sexuality. Patriarchy was established dental colleges of Haryana in 2012, 65% enrollments
as an ideology and women had internalized through were by girls and 98% enrollments in mechanical
'stri-dharma' or'pativarta-dharma'to live up to the ideal engineering were by boys.
notion of womanhood constructed by the ideologues of In Indian society, patriarchy as a social institution
the society. gives rise to other social values such as male child
.it
Employers also discriminate against women. There preference, sexual purity, monogamy, fasting by womery
is a well recognized phenomenon of an invisible'glass abstinence of women from public discourse and so on.
ceiling' present in professions which prevent women India's development path like west surrenders feminine
from reaching the top jobs. T S Papola in his study of principles while continuing centuries old patriarchy in
Lucknow women in employment shows that women terms of Sexual Division of Labor where work is divided
 SYSTEM OF KINSHIP IN INDIA ]]]ir 267
on the basis of gender. It is now acknowledged that a. Illustrate the importance of 'Kanyadan' and
sexual division of labor is socio-culture in nature and 'Kulavadhu' in changing institutions of
not biological.
marriage and family. (CSE,2018)
However theories by Lionel Tiger and Robin Fox,
Murdock and Parsons have attributed - for various Ans: Marriage is considered an institution that is
reasons - sexual division of labor on biological factors.
universal and defines human society. It saves the society
from being promiscuous and random. Its definition and
Feminist sociologist Ann Oakley in her'Housewife,
importance as a practical and logical set-up to function
1974' has vociferously rejected biological theories and
as a seed of family is undeniable and is considered
through empirical evidences argued that it has a strong
absolute, but the challenge lies in realizing the relevance
cultural basis. According to her 'sex' is natural or
of marriage in the current setting of Hindu society and
biologicaf but gender is cultural construct which assigns
culture and its undisputed continuance.
different social roles for both genders. Differential
rewards are attached to these roles which create gender Hindu marriage, with its rituals and ceremonies of
inequalities and gender stratification. She cites numerous the Vedic age, was relevant in the social circumstances
examples in which women take stereotypical so called
of those times. Girls were married off before attaining
'masculine' roles. According to her, pre-industrial society puberty, and hence the ritual gained its naine
"Kanyadaan". The responsibility of a girl was completely
had equal space for both men and women in all kinds of
works. It was orLly during industrialization that changes transferred to the family she was married into and as
were brought to role of women and was branded as couple used to have many children, there was a social,
'housewife'. Housewife role, according to Oakley, has moral, and economic balance within families. It was
following characteristics - it is exclusively for women coupled with an emotional sensitivity that was of
and dependent on men, it has the status of 'non-work'. give and take that is receiving Daughter-in-law for a
daughter.
Compared to real economic productive work of men,
housework is unpaid, privatized and isolated. Times have changed. The No-son norm is not
Role of women in marriage and family also follows
uncommon. Today in the liberal world debate on family
broader division of labor. According to Jessie Bernard in planning, gender equality, rights of girls to food, clothes
her'The Future of Marriage, 1976',ienefits that husband and education to share in property etc are evident. The
and wife draw.from the marriage are radically different role of girls has changed tremendously. They are not
or unequal. Hoschild in his 'The Second Shift, 1989' has just limited to household chores and child-rearing but
argued that employed women are doubly harassed by are also getting educated, contributing to family finances
men - one during their'first shift' at their workplace and and taking care of their parents. Therefore earlier
secondly ih their'second shift' in form of housework. acceptance of kanyadaan has not found resonance in
Further, in Indian context, caste is also viewed today's soqiety.
by feminists as a patriarchal institution as across the Similarly; the concept of 'Kulavadhu' has undergone
castes, role of women is of domestic worker. Together a change after institutions of marriage and family
with religion, it defines role of women in Indian society. changed with evolution of nuclear families. These
According to Uma Chakravorty, Brahminical traditions changes have diluted the concept of 'Kulabadhu' in
glorify obedient women as'Pativrata' and hence put a present times.
veil on gender discrimination. Patriarchy legitimizes With India's independence, several changes^were
motherhood as primary role of women. In Indian observed in the structure of society and patterns of
society, patriarchy as a social institution gives rise to marriage. The new perspectives on marriage and family
other social values such as male child preference, sexual have questioned many of the assumptions of traditional
purity, monogamy, fasting by women and abstinence of views and highlighted the fallibility concept of family.
women from public discourse. While her status on one The new opportunities for education and
hand is of Devi in scriptures, she is given treatment of employment, the emergence of new socio-economic
Dasi. Bina Das calls it as'Devi dichotomy'. patterns, and the privileges of new and equal legal
However, patriarchal system with its unlimited and political rights to women has slowly changed the
restrictions on women and its comparative freedom traditional concepts of role and status of women in
for men is gradually breaking down under the impact con temporary lnd ian soc.iety.
of new civilization and culture. Earning of husband is Individual's attitudes have also changed from
.il
gradirally proving to be insufficient for the upbringing viewing marriage as a sacrament solemnized primarily
of the whole family especially in case of middle class. for the fulfillment of one's religious and social duties,
Traditional masculine jobs are now taken by women to believing marriage to be a social contract which is
also. As hold of religion weakens, accompanying notions entered primarily for the good of the individuals and
like -'streedharma', 'pativrata', etc. are also weakening. for the personal happiness and satisfaction.
268 i\il SOCloLocY Q&A

a. Clarify the distinction between "household" a. Compare the North Indian Kinship System
and "family" and evaluate whether ioint with the South Indian Kinship System.
families have completely disintegrated. (csE,2017)
(csE,20L7) Ans: Kinship is a relationship among people
Ans: Distinction between Household and Family: driven by relationship based on consanguinity (blood
According to Goffman's Dramaturgical Notion, relationship) and alfinity (relationship based on
family is the back stage as well as the front stage for a marriage).
substantial part of the people's behaviour throughout Kinship is an institution that transforms
their lives. Family may be large or small depending individualism to collectivism. Irawati Karwe has studied
on the organization of descent relations between the the regional variations in kinship system:
dependents of married persons. Family is based on o North Indian Kinship-Aryan Kinship System.
kinship whose members usually share a common o South lndian Kinship-Dravidian Kinship System.
residence. They reside in a house/homestead. This is o Central lndia Kinship-Mixed Kinship System.
known as "household". Members of household have
some relational ties between them. Household is a
o Eastern India Kinship-Exclusive Kinship System.
residential and domestic unit composed of one or more Distinction between North-Indian and South-Indian
persons living under same roof and sharing a common kinship
kitchen. Kin and Residence rules distinguish between a o Terminological merging takes place in South India.
family and a household. For example-merging of Father's Sister's Husband
Are the joint families completely disintegrated? and Mother's Brother. Hence, kinship terms are
The Indian census data on household size revealed exclusively different in South India than the North
Ind ia.
that the Indian household size is decreasing in size
compared to the textual Indological image of the family. o Territorial exogamy rules are not applicable to South
To the evolutionists and Euro-centrists, the census data India unlike North India.
and in{erences on the Indian family were evidence of all o Family of birth and family of marriage is not
roads leading to Rome, i.e. monogamy and the nuclear unknown to a girl in South India, there{ore a{ter
family is the final destination. marriage a girl is moving from one home to another
home, therefore status of women is comparatively
Talcott Parsons's Views
higher in South India.
The well-known Parsonian Thesis of the fit between
the nuclear family and the American industrial society
o According to Louis Dumond, in South India,
Kinship relationship changes on the basis of
which other societies would eventually follow was not
conteit whereas in North India, the kinship system
only an evolutionary thesis but was also delegitimizing
is fixed.
of other family patterns.
o Dumond considers that South Indian kinship
Singer's Views promotes social solidarity and exchange of wealth
Fitting in the nuclear family with industrialisation between two families. Therefore, South Indian
was not a straightforward thesis in terms of Indian data. Kinship is not ritualistic and integrative in character
Singer's work on the adaptation to the western values as against north Indian kinship.
and ways in a neatly compartmentalised manner to suit Regional variations in Kinship largely reflect on the
the public domain without being allowed to permeate socio-cultural diversity on the Indian society and hence
into and affect the private domain of industrialists are very significant to carry out the unique concept of
in South India revealed the resiiience of traditional unity in diversity in India.
family values and norms. Adapting to western ways
and yet supporting joint family and caste values was a. Patriarchy as a form of,dominance. (CSE,2015)
characteristic of Singer's Indian industrial family.
Ans: The word patriarchy refers to any form of
Field study in North-India social power given disproportionately to men. The
Sharma's and Vatuk's field study in North India word patriarchy literally means the rule of the Male
also suggest a different picture. They find a branch of the or Father. The structure of the patriarchy is always
joint family residing separately in the city and acting as considered the power status of male, authority,
the buffer for members of the joint family to join them control of the male and oppression,.domination of the
for studies and urban jobs. Hence, it cannot be concluded man, suppression, humiliation, sub-ordination and
that joint families have completely disintegrated into subjugation of the women. "Patriarchy originated from
nuclear families in the Indian society. Greek word, pater (genitive from patris, showing the
 SYSTEM OF KINSHIP lN INDIA .r,lrlll 269
root pater-meaning father and arche- meaning rule), is The family within the household, a concept of
the anthropological term used to define the sociological particular interest, is defined as those members of
condition where male members of a society tend to the household who are related, to a specified degree,
predominate in positions of power, the more likely it is through blood, adoption or marriage. The degree of
that a male will hold that position. The term patriarchy relationship used in determining the limits of the family
is distinct from patrilineality and patrilocality. Patrilineal in this sense is dependent upon the uses to which the
defines societies where the derivation of inheritance data are to be put and so cannot be established for
(financral or otherwise) originates from the father's line. worldwide use.
Patrilocal defines a locus of control coming from the From the definitions of "household" and "family" , it
father's geographic/cultural community. Most societies is clear that household and family are different concepts
are predominantly patrilineal and patrilocal, but this is that cannot be used interchangeably in the same census.
not a universal but patriarchal society is characterizecl The difference between the household and the family is
by interlocking system of sexual and generational (i) that a household may consist of only one person but
oppression. a family must contain at least two members and
According to Gerda Lerner, patriarchy means the (ii) that the members of a multi-person household need
manifestation and instihrtionalization of male dominance not be related to each othei, while the members of
over the children in the family and the extension of male a family must be related.
dominance over women in society in general. it implies
Moreover, a family cannot comprise more than one
that men hold power in all the important institutions household; a household, however, can contain more than
of society and that women are deprived of access to one family, or one or more families together with one
such power. It does not imply that women are either
or more non-related persons, or it can consist entirely
totally powerless or deprived of rights, influence and of non-related persons.
resources. One of the most challenging tasks of women's
Therefore not all families are households and
history is to trace with precision the various forms and
neither are all households families.
modes in which patriarchy appears historically. The
shifts and changes in its structure and function, and the
adaptations it makes to female pressure and demands. a. Give some of the important studies relating
Feminists use the concept of patriarchy to describe the to the structural changes in the Indian family
power relationship between men and women. The term system. (CSE,2015)
literally means, rule by the father and can refer narrowly Ans: In India, family is the most important
to the supremacy of the husband/father within the institution in an individual's life. The family has
family, and therefore to the subordination of his wife contributed to the stability of Indian society and culture.
and his children. Indian family system has undergone drastic change in
response to development in terms of industrialization,
a. Bring out the significance of the difference education and urbanization. The old traditional
between family and household. (CSE,2016) joint family system has given way to nuclear family
system. According to an UNESCO study, growth of
Ans. A household is classified as either:
industrialization has radically changed the employment
(i) A one-person household, defined as an arrangement
structure with the possibility of individuals going
in which one person makes provision for his or beyond their caste and family occupations. Factors like
her own food or other essentials for living without family feud, property divisions etc has led to further
combining with any other person to form part of a weakening of the joint famill, structure. But joint family
multi-perlon household or' is still capable of meeting the needs of its members. So,
(ii) A rnulti-person household, defined as a group of two though joint family system seems to be on its way ou!
or more persons living together who make common the Indian family is far from going completely nuclear.
provision for food or other essentials for living. The joint family or extended family in rural areas is
The persons in the group may pool their incomes surviving in its skeleton or nominal form as a kinship
and ha*e a common budget to a greater or lesser group. A review of the national census data and the
exten! they may be related or unrelated persons or a National Family Health Survey (NFHS) data suggests
combination of persons both related and unrelated. This that, gradually, nuclear families are becoming the
. arrangement exemplifies the housekeeping concept. predominant form of Indian family ipstitutior; at least
In an alternative definition used in many countries in urban areas.
exemplifying the so-called household-dwelling concept, Other important kends include a decrease in age of
a household consists of all persons living together in a the house-head, reflecting change in power structure and
housing unit. an increase in households headed by females, suggesting
.
 270 ril SoctoLOGy Q & A
a change in traditional gender roles. The spread of In hldian families, gender roles are well differentiated
education, openness to new ideas from the west, ideals and inftruence the socialization process from birth
of equality, recognition of women's rights and general onwards. From early in life, children begin to experience
process of modernization have all contributed to gender based differentiation in their reiationship
transformation in the Indian family system. with others, in distribution of family resources and in
entitlement to family membership like, nukitiory health
a. Broadly compare the kinship system of North care and education etc. Both boys and girls grow up with
and South India. (CSE,20L5) the knowledge of the special value attached to the male
Ans: The system of kinship defining the way in child. The socialization of adult roles is influenced by the
which relations between individuals and groups are overpowering notion of male supremacy..
organized through blood, adoption or marriage, are of In India, patuiarchal society dominate$ the northern
vital importance in all human societies. There exists a region, while matrilineal society is prevalent in some
distinct regional contrast in kinship, marriage, and parts of South and North-East India. In most cultures,
female status between north/north-western regions men are more likely to have a successful career outside the
and the large southern peninsula of India. In this view, household than women which is atkibuted to men being
the 'north' has more starkly patriarchal kinship, with more competitively inclined drie to nature, or nurture,
such concomitants as exogarhous marriages, lower or both. An important open question in understanding
female status/autonomy, hefty dowry, son preference the sources of the gender gap in competitiveness is at
and related anti-female discrimination. In contrast, what stage the difference first arises and whether this
the'south'-roughly, the entire region lying south of interacts with the socialization process. The research
Satpura hills - is seen as less staunchly patriarchal, with studies don't show any gender or socialization effects
greater toleration of endogamous marriages, higher on competitive behavior in children below the age of 13.
levels of female status/autonomy, and more balanced By comparing competitiveness of children in matrilineal
gender relations. This north-south socio-cultural divide and patriarchal societies, it becomes evident that the
corresponds to a distinct demographic divide marked by difference starts around puberty, a period when cultural
comparatively lower levels of fertility, in{ant and child forces might interact with biological changes to influence
mortality, and trnasculinity in the population of India's decisions. According to the gender intensification theory
south as compared to those of the north. Some other in psychology the physical changes of puberty reinforces
differences are as follows: socialization agents to increase pressure for sex-typed
behavior. Moreover, most of the changes during this
period of life occur within the patriarchal society, in
which boys become more competitive with age while
girls become less competitive. There is a strong gender
gap in the patriarchal society that is similar to the one
found with adults.
Thus, there is a clear distinction between feminine
and masculine roles which comes early in childhood and
becomes sharper as the child grows up.

Q. Ufhy is it necessary to implement PCPNDT

Act in India? (CSE, 2015)
Ans: The Census 2011 reported a940/1000 sex ratio
Q. What is patriarchy? How does it affect the for the country. The practice of sex selective abortion has
child socialization pattern in India? been critically influencing skewed sex ratios. In a country
(csE,2015) like India, widespread illiteracy and poverty enmeshed
Ans: Patriarchy is a term for societies in which in strong socio-cultural and religious biases and a
male is the favored gender, and in which men hold preference for sons in some communities, have shaped
power, dominion and privilege. It is characterized by societal attitudes in favour of the son. In many parts of
+i
current and historic unequal power relations between India, community customs such as the practice of dowry
women and mery whereby women are systematically are perceived as a financial burden on,the bride's family
disadvantaged and oppressed. This is particularly during and after marriage. Government and its several
reflected in women's under-representation in key partners, civil society, and a plethora of organizations
state institutions, in decision-making positions and in responded to this trend by first acknowledging that
employment and industry. prenatal diagnostic technologies - a vital pillar of
 SYSTEM OF KINSHIP IN INDIA > 271
women's sexual and reproductive health and rights - deeply rooted and has continued. Several Islamic
needed some watching because sex selection was being countries. such as Egypt, Iran, Jordan, Morocco, Yemen
increasingly practiced in various parts of the country, and Sudan have barured the instant triple talaq, as have
mainly as a serious fallout of the low status overall of neighbouring Pakistan and Bangladesh. The Board has
women in society over the years. The PC-PNDT Act was said it would oppose any move to alter family laws of
enacted on 20 September 1994 with the intent to prohibit Muslims as it stands and would approach the Supreme
;\' prenatal diagnostic techniques for determination of Court to be made a party in case such as move was afoot.
the sex of the fetus leading to female feticide. That is The judgements delivered by the Supreme Court are
to say the preliminary object was to put a check on rejected by the Board, feigning interference with Shariat.
female feticide. It is a powerful legal instrument to There hasn't been much change since Shah Bano case,
foster positive change in this modern sociological trend though progressive Muslim women's groups continue
of recognizing women empowerment and rights. It is advocating the urgent need to either reform or abolish
imperative for the country to continue implementing the Muslim Personal Law.
this Act until it grows out of its pakiarchal mindset and
religious-cultural biases. The country needs to consider a. Types of kinship systems in India. (C58,2014)
the rights of a girl child as equal to male child and stop
Ans. Kinship provides the framework of social
female foeticide.
relationship. Kinship means relationship of the
individual with the other members due to either a
a. To what extent the Muslim Personal Law bond of marriage or through blood. According to
Board is in agreement with Islamic feminist Murdock, "It is a structured system of relationship in
agenda? (CSE,2015) which individuals are bound to one another by complex
Ans: Gender equality exists in the Qu'ran. During interlocking and ramifying ties". Radcliffe-Brown says
the early Islamic times, women had a great deal of power that Kinship system is a part of social structure and
in the religious and political spheres. It is a militant and insists upon the study of kinship as a field of rights and
mechanical feminism that falls prey to the belief that obligations.
"Islam is deeply anti-woman" and it is the fundamental North Indian kinship systems: The kinship system
cause of the repression of women. Islam as a religion present in Hindi speaking belt including West Bengal,
is not birthing this oppression, rather the men who Orissa and Bihai, the terminology used for father's
are interpreting the Qu'ran are manipulating the true brother is not used for mother's brother, therefore,
meaning and using it as a tool to further oppress women. Patrikins are distinguished from Matrikins. In North
Islamic feminism has taken on the two-fold task India kinship systems, exogamy is quite exhaustive and
to expose and eradicate patriarchal ideas and practices marriage involves not intra-family ties but inter-village
glossed as Islamic- 'naturalized' and perpetuated ties. Reside-ntial system is very virilocal (bride lives with
in that guise--and to recuperate Islam's core idea of husband's father's group) type and marriage involves
gender equality. The term'Islamic feminist' invites us a series of presentational obligations. The father - son
to consider what it means to have a difficult double relationship precedes over husband - wife relationship.
commitment: on the one hand, to a faith positiory and South Indian kinship systems: In southern India
on the other hand, to women's rights both inside the kinship systems, no distinction is made between
home and outside. It aims to help women fight illiteracy, patrilineal or matrilineal, therefore father's brother is
poverty, and gain control over their own lives and child equated with mother's sister's husband and both their
rearing. children being parallel cousins so no marriage is allowed
India allows communities to be governed by their between them. To its contrast father's sister's group is
religious norms in family matters such as like marriage, equated with mother's brother's group, hence mother's
inheritance and divorce. For Muslims, the Shariah Act brother is equivalent to father's sister's husband.
of 1937 applies. Though the Muslim Personal Law has Thus in South India specific patrilineal kins are
changed in other countries, the clerics in India have equated with specific matrilineal Kins, emphasizing
remained resistant to change. The All-India Muslim love for younger, respect for elders cutting across
Personal Law Board, an organization that lobbies for generational principles. In case of South India iross
Shariah or Islamic law in family matters is viewed to cousins marriage take place and se exogamy is not
be tiltbd against women. exhaustive like in North India. The relationship
The most evocative symbol of this view is triple between husband and wife is not subdued to father -
talaq, namely, that Muslim men can divorce women son relationship as in case of North India. Hostility of
by simply pronouncing talaq three times. This practice relationship between the in laws driven by suspicion is
was not introduced by Islam but the custom has been also weak in South India.
272 ***i socroLocy e & A
a. Define Patriarchy. How does it impact the marriage i.e. marriage of male or female with same sex
overall entitlement of a girl child in India? and sexual relation have questioned the conventional
(csE,2014) marriage of two heterosexuals. The legal approval of
homosexual marriage in many nations like Belgium,
Ans: In the social perspective, patriarchy is viewed
Netherlands, Spain and USA etc. has further changed
as a process that institutionalizes and legitimizes male
the situation. In post modernism, this abnormality is
domination in the social fabric. It also privileges men
seen as a normal situation.
over women in society.
Another important challenge before marriage
Femininst sociologists raise voice against patriarchal
institution which has grown fast is high rates of divorce
approach where women continue to perform unpaid :i
as compared to previous situation. The clashes betWeen \
work within the household and in family farms and
mindset of masculinity of the male and process of self
enterprises.
sufficiency of female in terms of econornic status iS its
Despite its obvious economic and social worth, j
main reason. Today due to expansion of awareness
much of the work that women do remains'invisible'
and education, women are opposing any types of
in national accounting and the census, as well as exploitation and have an independent mind.
unrecognized and unpaid within the family. "This
Today, the tradition of live-in relationship and
constrains women's equal opportunities in life and
conducting lifestyle by adopting child has increased
discourages their participation in labor market".
in cities. Today, post-modern women regard marriage i
D.N Konar in his study of Female-Male ratio of
as a biggest barrier in their way of freedom. Today,
census, he indicates that death of female children by
marriage has become only a paper of contract which
abortion, inJanticide and neglect has actually increased
can be molded any time. Radical feminist movement
at a time when India's per capita income has continued
and Marxist thinkers, by exposing marriage as a
to rise. In fact, it seems that females may have been
institution made for exploitation of womerL have created
disadvantaged by India's economic growth in terms of
a problem before marriage. Today, due to problems in
their chances (prior or after birth) of surviving to six
the institution of marriage many modern young people
years of age.
are motivated to spend life without it.
Thus in conclusion as C. Tisdell propagated the
Above statements represEnt main challenges
process of uplifting the economic and social status
before marriage as a social institution. Despite this no
of females and of empowering women in classical
alternative of marriage-like institution could be searched
patriarchal societies, such as principally occurs in India,
till now. Even today, marriage is a most traditional and
is likely to be a slow one.
recognized form of social institution.

a. Challenges to Institution of marriage.

a. Affinal kin and Consanguineous kin.
(csE,2012)
(csE,20L2l
Ans: Marriage is a socially approved, formal and
Ans: Social structure and system of Indian society is
comparatively stable system of sexual relationship or
structured by kin or kinship. Kinship system has been a
aggregate of rules and ethics between two or more
main organizational theory of society which establishes
than two heterosexuals bounded by responsibilities
relationship between parents, children, siblings and
and rights, necessary for family life. In terms of social
married couple. There are two types of kinship-Affinal
institutiory a rapid change is coming in nature, forms,
kin and Con- sanguinous kin.
types and objeitive of marriage. Pre-marriage and extra
Affinal relation is first type of relation in kins-hip
marital affairs, marriage without sexual relations, child
which is valid on basis of society or law. Kin based on
bearing without marriage, high rates of divorce and
this is called affinal kin. When a person gets married,
homosexual marriage etc. have formed the background
then his relation is established with other person e.g.
to rethink about future of traditional and prominent
husband, sister-in-law, aunt etc.
social institution of marriage.
Second type of kinship is Consanguinous kin who
The process of modernity has attributed a fast pace
are related by birth, blood or adopted relation e.g. father-
to social change and due to which all social institutions
son, brother, sister, uncle, grandfather etc.
get affected directly or indirectly from this accelerated
social change. In modern times, the traditional definition
of marriage i.e. a social approval for sexual intercourse O. Marriage as sacrament and marriage as
and procreation to heterocouple by tying in responsibility contract. (CSE,2012)
and rights, is blurring. The process of globalization has Ans: In Hinduism, marriage is treated as sacrament.
explained individual freedom in new context by giving In Hindu marriage, from beginning to end there is
importance to individualism. Today, a changed form of predorninance of mhny religious rites, acts and norms.
 SYSTEM OF KINSHIP IN INDIA . 273
The importance of religiousness is seen in the aims a. Has nuclear family existed in traditional
of Hindu marriage. In Hindu, mar-riage is treated India? Discuss with reference to the views of
as sacrament & indestructible bond and breaking it I.P. Desai. (C58,2012)
according to own will is taken as a sin.
Ans: Family is the smallest structural unit of
Hindu marriage provides opportunity to step
Indian society. Family is made up by the insti-tution
towards spirituality by purifying the life of person and
of marriage. Traditional Indian society is basically a
according to religious assumptions it motivates to follow
society of joint family. According to some sociologists,
path of karma. Due to these reasons, Hindu marriage is
Indian family in the past meant a joint family. In India,
treated as sacrament.
I.P.Desai keeps important place in India for family
Opposite to Hindu marriage, Muslim marriage is
related studies. Desai has put forward major hypothesis
treated as contract. According to Muslim law, marriage
that when we talk about family in India, its real meaning
is a social or condition-less civil contract having aim of
is joint family. I.P. Desai has considered only one criteria
establishing family, child bearing and legalizes them.
and that is jointness. This jointness is found in fractions.
For Muslim marriage a proposal is placed from For example, in patriarchal family father's brother has
boy's side and girls accept this proposal in presence of
closeness with the family, and in matriarchal family,
either two male lvitnesses or one male & two female
closeness is given to mother's 6rother or sister. This
witness. Boy's side gets promises_from girl's side to pay jointness i.e. who is close in what amount, decides joint
some money i.e. Mehar in the form of compensation.
family.
Here marriage may be ended easily by returning Mehar
Desai is of opinion that joint family has always
during process of divorce.
been present in traditional Indian society. Process of
In this way, marriage is seen as sacrament in industrialization and urbanization, due to coming of
Hindu and contract in Muslim. But in this time of British and post-independence changes has presented
globalisatior; increasing rate of divorce has ques-tioned
many challenges before form o{ family. In the context
its sacrament form.
of recent changes in the size of family I.P.Desai, from
his concept of Family Cycle, has tried to establish that
a. Comment on the social and cultural moving towards nuclear family under joint family is
determinants of sexual division of labour. a cyclical and natural process in which nuclear family
(csE,2012) changes into joint family by marriage and birth of
Ans: All societies of world necessarily have some children. Again nuclear family gets formed #ter death of
form of labor division. Labor division based on sex is old people and separate home made by children. Under
one of them. thls sexual division of labor is derived this cyclical process, again nuclear family converts into
from authoritative structure of different societies. For joint family. .
example, in patrilineal society male has prominent role kr this way, Desai in his study has found that feeling
in public affairs whereas role of female is negligible. of individualism has not fully developed in India and
Family head, social, econo-mic and public governance feeling of jointness is presbnt even today.
related work are given to male whereas female work are
limited to caring of children and domestic work. a. Distinction between the concepts of family
Social and cultural determinants have main role and household. (CSE,2m1)
in deciding sexual division of labor. For example, Ans: Most of the familiy studies in India wishfully
in tribal society; females are given relatively equal ignore the significance of household in studving the
status. Conventionally, they have rights equal to male nature of social and demographic composition of family.
in all types of works. In recent years due to process Irawati Karve has given a famous definition of joint
of modernization, extensive changes has come in family emphasizing on joint family as a residential
sexual division of labor. Today, condition of women unit where people holding property in common. It is
is relatively much better. Due to increasing level of a multigenerational agnatically related social groups
education, women are working with men equally in where the authority is centered around the eldest male.
the public'domain too. Today, females have dbcreasing Joint family means joint household where people are
economic dependency on man. So a new scenario has holding property commonly and performing ritual
come under sexual based division of labor. together. Hence joint family is a small community
Today, equal role of women and men are being where emotional integration is stronger. But A.M. Saha
established in activities of house. Today due to expan- has made a distinction between household and family.
sion of new modern cultural values a new form of divi- In many cases people may share a joint household but
sion of labor is emerging in place of old norms. Role of necessarily not constitute a joint family. In case of joint
women has increased in family related decisions. family one should look into several aspects-
 274 i$ SoctoLocye&A
(i) people living in different families which are Therefore, the problem of looking children hardly
dispersed having their own economic and political arose. Flowever, with the rise of globalisation and
interdependence but still they practice and profess indusirial society the notion of familiar bond is
jointness regularly. weakening.
(ii) people may be sharing a joint household but fighting The joint family is also disintegrating due to
with each other over the question of ancestral inequality of incomes among family members, increasing
property where the jointness and emotion.al number of women going out to jobs. In recent years the
integration is missing out. westem type of nuclear family is also increasing in India.
(iii) people sharing a household may not be agnatically There is also report of increasing single parent families as
(bloodly) related. F{owever they share strong well. The number of divorce peoples are also increasing.
emotional ties. Emigration and relocation have assumed a dominant
.'
Thus, there is quite difference between the family part in Indian homes, causing a disruption of fdmily
and household. In a household people may not have life. Rapid change in technology and economy under
blood relation but still share household. In case of family influence of globalisation, has made a great impact on
linkage of blood is essential. people's attitudes and values. With the increased earning
power and the entry of western consumer culture in
Q. What has been the impact of globalisation on India has forced both children and parents to alter their
the cultural aspects of the family? (CSE,2009) family life. Urban India now clearly exhibits the changing
situation. For example many youngsters going abroad
Ans: Globalisation has emerged as one of the most
important phenomenon of present age with its social,
for studies and jobs leaving old parents behind. The
influence of globalisation has also brought individualism
economic and political dimensions. It is a process by
which social life within societies is increasingly being in Indian society. Now like western women Indian
affected by international inJluences covering every thing women have also learnt to assert themselves within the
from political, economic, trade ties, mass media, cultures family and participate in the same professional sphere
etc. with the improvement in communication and the as men. Under the influence of inisualism ideology
entry of radio, television, internet etc. in the domain of collective human values have been given backseat in
public life, its impact on social life has increased manv Indian society.
fold. With the help of modern communication system The moral values that a grandmother inculcates in
the global culture and ideologies are reaching inside a youngester while telling a story have been lost. There
the country. is also loss of authority in family which had earlier
Today inJluence of globalisation has not only made conflict solving power. Relationship among family's
impact on economic and political institutions but also member are increasingly based on mecenary terms. The
on social institutions like family, marriage, culture i.e. atmosphere of globalization in India has given more
cloth styles, music, way of thinking, etc. freedom and inquiry among family members. The idea
The family system which is considered as the basic of individualism has increased to such an extent that
unit of Indian society has witnessed various changes families which once dined together now eat at different
under the influence of globalisation. The process of times. Even holidays which were once a combined
globalisation is imparting western familial values into aflair are now taken differently. Under the influence of
Indian society. As a result familial values in India in globalisation, the western concept of co-living without
on the way of various changes. The idea of family as family is also on rise in various part of country. This
institutions is weakening in such a way that the United can be clearly watched in urban society. There is also
Nations declared 1994 the International Year of the change in rural family as member of these families are
Family. Earlier India was identified with joint family migrating to cities and town and as a result they also
system and those who have lived in such a family look being inlluenced by the individualistic culture of urban
back nostalgically at joint family. Not just parents but places. Thus, influence of globalisation on the culture of
grandparents, aunts, uncles and cousins shared their family is increasing gradually and there is continuous
happiness and grief, helped children to grow up and change in the life style, way of thinking, behaviour
played with them. pattern among family members.

***.:.
 CHAPTER

.t!!:

a. Discuss the main features of Land Reforms o Up-gradation of Land Records: It was also taken
in post-independence India. (CSE 2023) up as lack of land records was one of the biggest
Ans: From the 1950s to the 1970s, a series of land
hurdles in implementation of land reforms and
conferment of titles.
reform laws were passed by the welfare state to im-
prove condition of farmers, bring food security, bring
o Granting of Homestead Rights: It provided for
construction of homes on agriculture land.
agriculture out of colonial backwardness and improve
efficiency of Indian agriculture and so on. Therefore, the agrarian system of post-independence
India was greatly impacted by land reforrns. Ftrorvever;
The goal was not only to bring about social justice,
the effectiveness of these policies varied depending on
but also to improve productir.ity of land. Social justice
the location and type of reform. Administrative ineffi-
was planned by eliminating intermediaries, conferring
ciencies, opposition from the ruling classes, anci a lack
land rights on landless and removal of taxes.
of political will frequently made it difficult to carry out
Main Features of ,Land Reforms these reforms.
o Abolition of Intermediaries: The first important
legislation was the abolition of the Zarnindari sys- a. Examine whether rural bondage still con-
tem and elimination of intermediaries. Revenue sys- tinues to be a social reality. Give your afgu-
tem and taxes were abolished. This was relatively ment. (CSE,2022)
successful as there was general negative perception
Ans: Bondage is a condition when a person or
towards Zamindars and intermediaries.
laborer sells himself/herseif to his/her employer for
o Tenancy,Reforms: Laws were introduced for the
certain economic privileges for a specific or unspecific
tenancy reforms, security of tenure and rent regula-
period.
tion. In West Bengal and Kerala, there was a radical
This sounds very unjust and inhuman. This can be
restructuring of the agrarian structure that gave stated as part of a system of slavery where a person^is
land rights to the tenants. not free to share his will.
o Land Ceilings and Redistribution of Land Hold-
Types of Bonded Labor
ings: The third major category of land reform laws
were the Land Ceiling Acts. But Only 2% of the op-
. According to the National Commission on Rural La-
erational area could be brought under it. J&K, West bour, there are 4 types of bonded labor practices in
Bengal and Assam were a few exceptions. Flawed India. These are intergenerational bondage, loyaltv
laws, frequent litigations, collusion of landlords, ad- bondage, bondage through the aiiotment of land
ministrators and politicians marred these reforms. and bondage of the distressed widows.
o Reorganization and Consolidation of Land Hold- Exploitation in Bondage Practices
ings: Rborganization of agriculture was carried out . The agreement between landlord and debtor once
in form of consolidation of land holdings, coopera- entered, lasts for quite'some time and the debtor
s; tive. farming etc. Small uneconomical landholdings continues to render services for years together or
were grouped together and redistribute to make sometimes for generations.
cultivation economical. . The ignorance of the bonded laborers anrj
o Cooperative Farming: It was mooted on the pattern their vulnerable position without any alternative
of socialist economies to gain from economies of ailable makes them subjugated to the money*
scale, but remained almost a non-starter. lenders.
 276 ......... SOCIOLOGY Q & A
a This svstem of bondage is basically due to economic . British rule led to an increase in suffering of the
factors that are further supported by social and re- tribals as the whole economic base was eroded.
ligious factors. People are extremely poor and they Tribals were forced to give up their traditional oc-
are unable to find work for their livelihood. cupations. They were pushed into poverty and often
a The landholdings are not adequate to support their into bonded labor. Many tea and coffee plantations
family system. The people are not educated enough had bonded tribal labor. Over-exploitation led to
about loans and the constant rise in prices leads to many uprisings as well.
other uncertainties. Natural calarnities and disastert
Irritiutirres taken to tackle Bondage
make it more awful.
23 prohibits bonded labor as Constitution
a The social wrongs like caste-based discrimination "lit]"
and the dowry system have put people i"t,;;;;; ffiffiffi;:*JH7'trjfi1,1];t?1il;;Tilfi$,t*:i
debts. The Indian education system is unequal and
some qrEar
not compulsory therefore in DUrrtE generations
areas E;srtrrq(rvrru
fi;;; rugf,,, Commission (NHRC) also takes suo_
motu action in cases of bonded labor. The Supreme
are left uneducated
. Court's iudgment in Swami Agnivesh led Bandhua
a Religion references are used to make people con- Mukti Morcha case has also called for affirmative action
vinced about the legitimacy of the upper class and against bonded labor.
lower class differences' Many schemes are also there f or their
o These arguments are supported by using religious rehabilitaiioni for example, Indira Awas yojna pro-
texts. Such customs banned lower class people from vides free housing for them. Many nongovernmental
owning land' organizations like Bachpan Bachao Aandolan led by
a A1l these factors make rural laborers more im- Dr. Kailash Satyarthi, who also won the Nobel Prize
mature, illiterate and unstable. The existence of for Peace in2014, have also made significant prcigress
feudalism is heavily responsible for the continuity in this direction.
of bondage in the agrarian system. Child labor and
sexual exploitation are other miseries of bonded a. Examine the factors responsible for the rural
labor. ( unrest in contemporary India. (CSE 2021)
a Accordingto Utsa Patnaik' Persistence of Feudalism Ans: According to the Census of Tndia zo11, z2%
in Indian agriculture is greatly responsible for the poPuatlon
--^---t-L:^- ot Inora llves ln.rura' utlut:. T,
tne malnstay
continuitvJ of bondase
o in the countrvside. In the ru-
- ol rural economy contlnues to De agTlculture.
raIsectorfeudaIismispersistentbecausekaditjonal
Factors,responsible for the rural unrest in contempo-
landlords clo come from the upper caste and hence
the relationship betweerr .uri" qrlu
srr LqDrE agriculture is rary India are:
and o6rrLL--
Economic Factors: The mainstay of rural economy
absolutely profound.
to beagriculture-' with declining share of ag-
I surinder ]odhka opines that bonded labour prac- "3"ti:""t
riculture C{ along withhigh employment pressure
tice in the country is the product of the ,rr.rriiulirt in
on agriculture has led to widespread rural unrests' This
necessity of the rural poor corresponding *tin ,n"
with slow growth in ag-
'------a----
innovative saving techniques identified by rural problemhas been compounded
rich. ' ricultural productivify which has made agriculture non-
as a profession' According to Christopher
a The Green Revolution and other regional dispari- :"I'":1itt"e
ties promoted rural to rural migration i" brg ;;. Iefferolett' qlt:tT:" ha,s become economically unviable
" post-L991 liberalisation policies as priority has
These migrant workers have been termed'r#r"rl" 1l: ':
shifted to industrial and services sector'
labour' by ]an Breman,' but this ao", ,',oi i^piy L'
Social Factors: Introduction of capitalist relation-
freedom.
shipsinagriculturehasledtobreakdownof traditional
o Labor from backward regions like Bihar, eastern
social structure' According to Jan Bremary the nature of
Up, Bengal, etc. migrates to prosper.rr r"rt;;r;i"
relationship has shifted from patronage to exploitation.
Huryu^i punjab eic.
a Bonded labour system has been enlisting in Indian
*|if t: tne hand' l"arge landowners became enter-
the tenants' on the other hand' became
;r society among agriculturar labourers i" th";;;; l']t]|8 -fiTers'
labourers and were subjected to exproitation.
of beggars and ryots. lmdless
tn:,11:: t1 rural,inequality has fdrther contributed in
a Today it has extended to workers working in brick
rural unrest' Furthermore the breakdown of traditional
kilns, bidi factories, stone quarries, glass f;r;;;
of.castes with certain occupations has led to
and in detergent, carpet,
--r --' gem - --
o---' stones ;;;; - i::::i1]1":
caste conflict in rural areas.
otner tactofles.
 RURAL AND AGRARIAN SOCIAL STRUCTURE * 277
Political Factors: Introduction of Panchayati Raj In- G S Ghurye argued that the religious pilgrimages
stitutions and political empowerment of Dalits through to important religious places linked villagesind regions
reservation has led to rise in antagonism between the with each other. Beteille and Srinivas argued that need
kaditionally powerful upper castes and the newly rising for weekly markets and village exogamy were other
lower castes. According to Rajni Kothari, use of caste factors that linked one village with another. Similarly,
in politics has led to rise in resentment and antagonism McKim Marriott showed cultural contact between the
between high entrenched caste and high ascendant caste. little tradition (Indian villages) and the great tradition.
This has led to increase in caste conllict and has had a S C Dubey in his study of Shamirpet village showed
disintegrating impact on rural social structure and has how the village economy was linked to urban economy
contributed to rural unrest in India. through remittances
Rural-Urban Inequalify: According to Yogendra In modern times' the coming of in{ormation and
communication technology' modern transportation and
singh, stagnation in rural economy, decline in agricul-
political unification of the country through democratic
tural productivity, fragmentation of landholding along
processes has further integrated Indian villages with
.-::'-:*"".*l:"'
with favourable policy of government towards urban the rest of the country. yet villages
population ,has:,^t_,".:r-;^:::^-:,:-.-'
,-__-__,,,: continue to main_.
led to r ise antagonism and conflict be-
tain their independence in certain contexts' Panchayati
tween rural and urban populations
Ecorogicar Factors: Ecorogicar variab,ity in mon- HJ:1i{:'[:Jlt#:':'"Hili""ttiTffff:,T:
soon patterns and climate change has deeply impacted httle republics.
agrarian economy. Frequent droughts, flooding and heat
waves have further reduced agricultural productivity a. "Indian rural society is a faction-ridden
and often led to crop failures. This has led to rise in societ5r." Discuss. (CSE 2020)
rural misery which is often manifested in rising farmer
Ans: Rural India is conventionary synonymous
suicides.
Government poricies: Recent rarm blrs, MSp XJt*ff:f,;'J:1[fr;"1[ 'ilHt"i,|]ffi,T""|il#:
policy' and delay in payments for FRP for sugarcane irrespective of their caste and vocation
contribute to the
among others have led to large scale farmers protests unity of the village through
peaceful co-existence and
across India' \ mutual support. ihey take p.ia" ir-r the image of their
Apart from this other factors such as bonded labour, village. Oitate unity of the vlllage has been threatened
ineffective land reforms, distress migration, disguised by factionalism.
unemployment, etc. have also contributed to increase Peace of the village has been affected by various
in rural unrest' small groups.called factions. Ruralites no longer look
forward to the leadership of a single individual called
a. Critically examine briefly the phrase "Little the headman of village. The headman is no longer the
Republics" as used to denote India's villages. centre of power and authority in the village. Factional
(CSE 2021) leaders are enjoying dominating positions and the
Ans: rndian villages have atways been a subject of n"^T?lii#i",t:t:*fi tJ;fi'f;:l'., ,n" basis^of
interest for British Indologists, British administrators and
rndian sociorogists arike. British rndorogists rike Metcarre
viewed Indian villages as independent and disconnected ",:lllfl;f:; ::ffi,"|]'L::ffi1'.'f}ffi
::j,jX?:
social units while india,., so.iorogi"t,'ilr*ffffi :jr? ;Ii';'"Ii::"Jl,:::i:':ffitffi lj :ff ffI
self-sufficiency thesis'
communities on account of natural rivalry and conflict
According to Metcalfe, Indian villages were or clash of personality.
"little republics having nearly everything they need- The family is a miniature form of a faction.
ed within themselves". He saw Indian villages as Structurally, the faction is an organisation
that centres
monolithic, atomistic and unchanging. British-Indologi- around a single individual
or a group of families,
cal view sai,v Indian villages as practically independent with a .o**o1 interest. For
example, peasant families
from the outside world. fhey ri"*ed Indian viilages as owning vast landed property in a village may combine
self-sufficient community with communal ownership themselves into a faJtion. Similarly families with small
of land. holdings rnay organise themselv"i i.,to a faction.
The self-sufficiency argument was later questioned The third faction in a village may consist of the
by Indian sociologists like Ghurye, Andre Beteille, and families who have no land and eirn their livelihood as
M N Srinivas among others. labourers. It may so happen that people belonging to
278 ii, soclolocY e & A
one caste or supporting one political party or following a. Examine the changing initiatives of the land
one religious ideology organise themselves into a faction tenure system in India. (CSE,2019)
to fulfill the mutual interests of its members. In villages Ans: Historically, land in India was not private
families and persons also form factions on the basis of property and was held as a matter of traditional rights'
dependence on each other in addition to some common According to A. R. Desai, king r,vas only partial owner
interest. as he had given rights over land to certain group like
Ho'it'ever, there are some families in the village who officers, priests, etc.
are self-dependent. They neither seek others' help nor do British rule made significant changes in land
the\r care for anyone in the village' These families remain tenure system and land was for the first time linked to
neutral or indifferent. They are keen on maintaining market. British introduced three broad systems.of land
their independent identity. tenure or land reforms viz. Zamindari system, Ryotwari
Thus a village is divided into factions depending on system, Mahalwari system. In this bdckground; land
the relationship among the families, which may be either reforms were required to both ameliorate the condition
of (i) animosity and hostility, or (ii) friendly cooperation, of farmers as well as introduce a scientific outlook in
or (iii) indifference. Indian agriculture.
There are several causes responsible for the From the 1950s to the 1W0s, a series of land reform
formation of a faction in the village. These causes are laws were passed by the welfare state to improve
based on needs of the people. They can be grouped the condition of farmers, bring food security, bring
under four categories, such as social, economic, political agriculture out of colonial backwardness and improve
and psychological depending on the fulfillment of the efficiency of Indian agriculture and so on. Thus, the goal
needs of the ruralites. was not only to bring about social justice, but also to
Social causes are related to caste feuds, family improve productivity of land. Social justice was planned
disputes etc. Rural societies can never be ridden of these by eliminating intermediaries, con{erring land rights on
sociallv disturbing factors. Economic well-being of a landless and removal of taxes.
particuiar group of the village leads to the formation of
Major areas of reforms included:
a faction. Since people need the help of other people for
the fulfilhnent or their financial needs they are bound I. Abolition of Intermediaries: The first important
to form a small group. legislation was the abolition of the Zamindari
Villages constitute an important source of political system and elimination of intermediaries. Revenue
strength in India. So, political parties try to woo the system and taxes were abolished.
ruralites into their fold. Political parties interfere in II. Tenancy Reforms: Among the other major land
village politics. As a result elections to Gram Panchayats reform laws that were introduced were the tenancy
are ridden with party politics and divide the rural reforms, security of tenure and rent regulation Acts'
society into different factions. III. Land Ceilings and Redistribution of Land
Oscar L,ewis has made a significant study of the Holdings: The third major category of land reform
faction in Indian villages. On the basis of his study he laws were the Land Ceiling Acts.
has mentioned the various causes of factionalism: IV. Reorganization and Consolidation of Land
. (]uarrels and disputes over inheritance of property; Holdings: Reorganization of agricultpre was
. Family feuds over adoption of a male child for also carried out in the form of consolidation
succession; of land holdings, cooperative farming, etc.
. Disputes over the land and irrigation rights;
Small uneconomical landholdings were grouped
together and redistributed to make cultivation
u Llisputes and feuds caused by sexual offences;
economical.
. Murders; and V. Cooperative Farming: It was also mooted on
. Rivalries among various castes, etc. the pattern of socialist economies to gain from
Factions are governed by their individual leaders' economies of scale, but remained almost a non-
Hence inter-factional relationship is either cordial or starter.
bitter depending on the quality of leadership. If the VI. Up-gradation of Land Records: It was also
leader is good and considerate, benevolent and generous, taken up as lack of land records was one of the
a reiationship with rival factions is good. On the other biggest hurdles in implementation of land
hand, if the leader is mean, intolerant and selfish, an reforms and con{erment of titles. This activity is
inter-factional relationship is bitter. An understanding still going on.
of the institution of factional leadership helps us in VII. Granting of Homestead Rights: It provided for
properly understanding inter-factional relationship. construction of homes on agriculture land.
 RURAL AND AGRARIAN SOCIAL STRUCTURE iS 279
However, there were marked hurdles in . There is a lot of duplication in data collection.
implementation of land reforms. The old system resisted Village studies are not often representative in
the new. Many big Zamindars took the benefits of the natur'e.
loopholes in legislation. . There is no real comprehension about village
studies. There is lack of coordination among the
a. Critically examine Dube's contributions to the scholars of village studies.
study of Indian villages. (CSE 2019) . Village studies have tried to study village
Ans: Shyama Charan Dube (1922-1996) was a well-
community in a biotic frame of reference. They
known anthropologist and sociologist in India. His practically ignore a basic reality that Indian village
application of the structural-functior.ral approach for is a synthesized community.
studying the Indian village community brought him
. Most of the village studies are of mechanical nature.
in repute. Although he recognizes semi-autonomous These do not add much to the existing knowledge
character of the Indian village, he does not regard it as about villages.
"stattc, timeless and changeless" as described by classical Despite few shortcomings in S.C. Dube's
Indologists.
methodology, his contribution to Indian sociology is
important as he provided the much needed tools to
He viewed that it is difficult to say any one village
understand the Indian society through village studies.
as representative of rural India as a whole; it cannot
be representative in its cultural area. His study of
'Shamirpet'provides description of social, economic and a. Is induskial development in India a bane or a
ritual structure, family level living, etc. boon to agrarian class strucfure? Substantiate
S.C. Dube played a key role in his study on'India's your answer with suitable examples.
Changing Villages'. Dube had been an advocate (csE,2019)
of interdisciplinary orientation and a promoter of Ans: Different countries have different approaches
research interest. Thus, he had vision of looking to economic development; some focus on economic
things from different perspectives, which reflects his development through industrialisation while others
multidimensional personality. fbcus on high-value agricultural production. In countries
Dube's 'Ind{an Village' (1955) was a significant like India, industrial development helped agrarian class
work in the post-1950 period in the sense that it was structure in both positive and negative ways.
the first full-length account of a village social structure. Contribution of lndustrial Sector towards the
Dube depicted rural social structure and institutions in Dea elopment of Agricultural Sector
his characteristically lucid style, and the work served as . Industry Provides Market for Products of
a model for descriptive-exploratory account.of several Agriculttrral Sector: In the initial stages, industrial
other macro-settings that came to be studied later. But he sector develops through the help of the agricultural
did not offer any analytical insights, nor did he propose sector. However, once it has reached maturity in the
any alternative conceptual framework for studying technical sphere and i.s able to use minerals as raw
Indian rural society. materials, its dependence on agriculture for supply
of capital or labour or even for raw materials goes
Village Study
down. The expansion of the industrial sector will
Dube's book on'Indian Village', first published strengthen the commercial motives of the farmers
in 1955, and was a milestone in the study of Indian and they are likely to shift from food crops to cash
society. In this book, he made a significant contribution crops.
in understanding the Indian society through structural- . Provision of Modern Agricultural Inputs: This
functional perspective.
is the most important contribution of industry
The study presents a comprehensive picture of the
to agriculture. It has been found that industrial
functioning of village institutions although it is one of sector has provided a new technological base to
the earliest monographs on a village. Dube asserts that
agriculture. The use of these inputs has brought
the economic system of rural India is founded mainly about a spectacular increase in agricultural output.
on caste's functional specialization, interdependence All these inputs have been provided by the
and occupational mobility. He also observes that the industrial sector. For example: Green Revolution
iJ
elements of classical Hinduism of an all-India spread are - industry provided chemical fertilizers and high
mingled with the regional religious beliefs and practices yielding seeds.
of Hindus of Deccan Plateau. . Reduction in the Pressure of Population on Land:
There are also some problems related to oillage Labour was initially drawn from the agricultural
studies in India: sector for the development of the industrial sector.
280 i: SOGIOLOGY Q & A

However, this withdrawal of labour has helped . Rise of New Classes and Interest Groups: Paul
agricultural sector also, especially in heavily Brass also links increasing participation of affluent
populated countries excessive population in the f,irmers' class to the success of Green Revolution.
agricultural sector, too, has been responsible for Today, farmers group of North India are acting as
low productivity in agriculture. powerful lobby.
' Supply of Consumption Goods: The developing . Change in Cropping & Agricultural Patterns - In
industrial sector supplies not only modern inputs to these areas there has been a significant shift from
the agriculturists but also the consumption goods. dry to wet (irrigated) cultivation, along with changes
Their consumption pattern is diversified. Some in the cropping pattern and type of crops 8row11.
comfort and luxuries also find their way into their Increasing commercialization and dependence on
consumption schedule and their standard of living the rnarket in these areas (for instance, where cotton
rises. cultivation has been promoted) has increased rather
. Provision of Infrastructure for Agricultural than reduced livelihood insecurity, as farmers who
Development: Modernization of agriculture once grew food for consumption now depend on
depends upon the use of modern agricultural the market for the incomes.
inputs. But, for their use, many supportive services . Change in the Mode of Production of Indian
are required. We need, for example, good means of Agriculture: It is also said to have introduced
transport for carrying the inputs to the farms and capitalist orientation in Indian agriculture.
the products of the farms to the market. . Ecological Impacil Excessive groundwater use and
Consequences of Industrial development were excessive use of fertilizers contaminated ground
economical and social. It transformed the traditional water. Water logging and saiinity were other
ritual based agriculture to modern, secular and profitable problems. Use of pesticides led to loss of many
activity. Increased production led to self sufficiency and endemic varieties of farm friendly insects and birds.
food security. It led to rural affluence in many rural areas
Flowever, as Hanumantha Rao and World Bank
and also led to industrial growth and self reliance in reports show, there has been improvement in food
terms of agricultural equipment manufacture.
security of the nation and it has also led to the
H ow ea er, industri al deo elopment proa e d h armful
development of around 5-10 million additional direct
to agrarian vlass structure in following uays: or indirect employment. It also promoted rural-rural
. Unequal Benefits to Farmers: In most of the Green
migration, thus reducing the burden on already
Revolution areas, it was primarily the medium and
overburdened cities.
large farmers who were able to benefit from the new
technology as it was costly, therefore inequality
a. Hap'Green Revolution'led to the formation
increased.
. Displacement of Tenant Cultivators and Rise
of new power elite in rural India? Elaborate
in Agricultural Laborers - In many cases, it your answer. (CSE, 20L8)
led to the displacement of tenant-cultivators. Ans: Traditionally rural elite were ritually pure
Landowners began to take back land from their castes and due to lack ofmobility among masses retained
tenants and cultivate it directly because cultivation their position invariably across the regions. Traditional
was becoming more profitable. rural elites were specialists in their respective fields -
. Migtation: Migration led to increased demographic cultural, political or econornic. In intellectual sphere,
pressure in cities and demographic distortions in Brahmins dominated, in field of power, Kshatriyas
rural areas. As often only male laborers migrated, dominated economic elites were mainly Vaishyas and
sex ratios skewed and often women and children Kshatriyas. So, Brahmins were at the top followed by
of laborers were forced into grinding work back at Kshatriyas. Among Brahmins also there were sub-
their homes. hierarchies. For example - Dwivedi, Trivedi, Chaturvedi
. Green Revolution, Caste & Breakdown of was indicative of their respective Sanskritic tradition
Traditional Economic Structure: In addition, and knowledge of Vedas. Thus, agricultural power elite
the introduction of machinery such as tillers, were never a unified group even in past as men in power
tractors, threshers, and harvesters (in areas such always had asymmetrical relations. Similarly, Rajputs
as Punjab and parts of Madhya Pradesh) led to the who dominated Central and Western India and Vaishyas
displacement of the service caste groups who used and were economic elites were not unified.
to carry out these agriculture-related activities' In comparison to traditional elite, there is some
Thus, organic linkages of ]ajmani system broke degree of congruence in some aspects of elite culture.
down. It also contributed to agrarian unrests. For example - there are chances that political elite today
Dominant castes also emerged. is also economic elite and vice versa.
 RURAL AND AGRARIAN SOCIAL STRUCTURE # 281
With spread of education, technology, legal reforms, Thus, along with Green Revolution various others
communication, transport democracy, PRIs, introduction factors led to the formation of new power elite in rural
of adult franchise, abolition oI Zamindari, social reforms India and change the social stratification in the rural
etc, a new breed of rural elite has emerged. New rural Indian society.
elite have been studied by Srinivas, Beteille and Desai at
national level, while empirical studies have been done at a. Significance of Village Studies in Indian
village level by Iqbal Narain, Oscar Lewis, etc. Sociology (CSE,2016)
Success of Green revolution made agriculture
Ans: If the village studies during the colonial times
a commercial profitable activity for a section of were made for consolidating the British Raj, in the post-
rich farmers. They had their own agendas to retain independent era these were conducted for basically lwo
agriculture as a profitable activity so they had specific reasons, namely, village development or reconstruction
demands and wanted concessions from state. This and Panchayati Raj. Village studies, thus,'became ah
group of farmers became new rural elite. According to urgent task for nation-building.
Beteille, change in land ownership, spread of education
Village studies have enriched the knowledge of the
and dispersal of political power has led to breakage of
Indian Society in general and rutal India in particular;
Brahminical hegemony and as a result their grip over
These have given great encouragement to the growth
power is loosening and new elites are emerging.
of rural society. After independence, planners in India
Beteille came to the conclusion that change in realized that unless Indian villages were properly
distribution of powers was the most radical change in studied, no real progress could be made.
traditional social structure. He said that the traditional
Scholars now began to pay more and more attention
elites of Sripuram, comprising Brahman landowners lost
to village studies.
its grip over the village and new leaders of the village
depend for power on many factors in addition to caste.
(i) Village studies help in planning rural
reconstruction: According to M.N. Srinivas, village
Dominance of particular castes or groups by Srinivas,
Kothari, etc. - Srinivas studied dominance in terms of studies provide detailed information regarding
various aspects of rural life. In these studies, either
numerical strength, land ownership and political power
as key factors. According to him dominance is a group
the holistic nature of the village communities is
discussed or certain specific aspects of rural life are
phenomenon. He explains group mobility by concept
focused. The Planning Commission gave maximum
of Sanskritisation.
attention to solve the social problems of rural India
Green revolution made agriculture profitable in
Green Revolution areas. Lando-t-r"rr began to take back
by the help of village studies also. From village
studies, various aspects of rural life, for example,
land from their tenants and cultivate it directly because
the extept of sub-division and fragmentation of
cultivation was becoming more profitable. This made
holdings, the nature of rural credit, the conditions
the rich farmers better off, and worsened the condition
of landless labourers etc. are derived. It helps in
of the landless and marginal holders.
planning rural reconstruction.
Land reforms altered the relations between
landowners, tenants and labor as well. Many tenants (ii) Village studies provide useful information to
were dislodged from the land fearing claims of other disciplines: The sociologists and social
occupancy rights by the tenants. anthropologists collect data to study different
Commercialtzattonof agriculture altered the relation villages - its several aspects, its problems, etc.
between landowners and traditional service castes and The collected data are more accurate, reliable and
unbiased. Hence these are highly useful for other
Jajmani system declined. A shift from payment in kind
(grain) to payment in cash happened, but payments social scientists. These are raised by economists,
were often very low. Purchasing power of marginal political scientists and others. Village studies also
sections of rural economy declined and inequalities provide the historians with lot of in-formation about
increased. As a result of land sale in market and rural social life.
marketization of land -lot of intermediate classes (iii) Village studies provide useful knowledge
emerged. This and other events like Green Revolution about Indian social reality: The significance of
and land reforms have led to differentiation of class/ the village studies is.such that sometimes their
social structure in rural areas. value may extend beyond national boundaries.
Apart from economic factors, rural social stuucture But it is true that an understanding about
was also affected by political participation of various different aspects of social reality is highly influenced
sections. Arrival of Panchayati system also affected by the indoJogical literature. Village studies have
power dynamics. Attempts by lower castes to become assumed sociological and socio-anthropological
assertive were met with violent retaliation in manv cases. importance.
 282 .:: socrolocY e & A
a. Analyse the major components of Land disparities. Concentration of incomes in a few hands
Reform Acts. Show their effectiveness in generates undesirable socio-economic consequences.
curbing rural inequality. (CSE, 20L6) Nowhere is this strain between growth and growing
inequality more relevant than in the agriculture where
Ans. Land reform constitutes the most important
distribution of resources has long been viewed to be
package of measures to improve the economic condition
skewed. Most of the rural poor, on an average, hold
of agricultural tenants. It aims at the redistribution of less than five acres only enough to sustain and survive
land-ownership in favour of the cultivating class (so as
or work as share cropper and remain at the mercy of
to make them feel themselves a part of the rural life), the tenancy arrangements with the land owners. The
regulation and rationalisation of rent, improving the
decision to grow food or more remunerative cash crops
size of farms and providing security of tenure in order
such as sugarcane depend on the size of.land holding
to transfer in traditional agriculture and raise cultivators
and restrict the freedom of choice for the poorer.
to new heights. Programmes aimed at poverty reduction failing to
Growth and social justice are the two basic objectives address the issue of skewed land distribution, will be
of land reform in India. Various land reform measures inadequate. Any land reforms, no doubt, would face stiff
have been adopted in India during the plan period. resistance by the land owning class, enjoying enormous
These can be classified as fgllows: political clout.
(0 Removal of intermediaries between the State and There is robust evidence of a link between poverty
cultivators; reduction and two kinds of land reform legislation
tenancy reform and abolition of intermediaries. Another
(ii) Providing security of tenure and ownership to the
important finding is that land reform can benefit the
tenants;
landless by raising agricultural wages. Although the
(iii) Rationaiisation of the rent structure; effects on poverty are likely to have been greater if
(iv) Fixation of ceiling on land-holdings and the large-scale redistribution of land had been achieved,
redistribution of surplus land among landless results suggest that partial, second-best reforms which
cultivators; and mainly affect production relations in agriculture can
(r) Consolidation of holdings to transform agriculture play a significant role in reducing rural poverty. As
into a plofitable activity. well as being important to policy debates in India, such
findings may help to diffuse the more general pessimism
Outcomes of Land Reforms:
that can undermine redistributive effort in developing
(i) Abolition of Jamindars and Jagirdars countries. In a study [World Bank1997), much emphasis
(ii) Imposition of Land Ceiling to promote economic was placed on the role of economic growth in explaining
growth with social justice the decline of poverty in India. While our results
(iii) Land possession and social power: It is observed are consistent with this finding, they emphasize that
that the land is not only the source of production redistributive effort has also played its part. The effect
but also for generating power in the community. of implementing a land reform on poverty reduction is
In this framework, the government had made it a 10 percent increase in per capita income, or around
mandatory to register all tenancy arrangements. four to five years growth at the all-India average growth
Rural poverty is rooted in the asymmetrical rate over this period.
distribution of land, which is the main asset in an
agricultural economy. a. Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment
Big landlords have been reaping the benefits of price Guarantee Act for rural development
policies while small landholders are only growing the (csE,2016)
staples, to put food on their tables. Disparities between
Ans: The National Rural Employment Guarantee
rich landlords and poor peasants in terms of r,t'ealth,
Act 2005 (NREGA) is a social security scheme that
rents from land, capacity to grow cash crops and ability
attempts to provide employment and livelihood to
to obtain education remains stark.
rural labourers in the country. The MGNREGA is an
Land ownership is highly concentrated and feudal
entitlement to work t\at every adult citizen holds.
lords are obstructing any meaningful reforms tor,vards
The Standing Committee on Rural Development
+1 fairer distribution of land" What is there in our rural
highlighted several achievements of MGNREGA in the
ar,:as is a perpetual deprivation of the majority and
seven years of its implementation,'especially:
a huge income inequality. Huge income disparities
serve as a drag on the economic growth and poverty
o Ensuring livelihood for people in rural areas.
reduction. Scarce resources get diverted to eliminating o Large scale participation of women, Scheduled
poverty instead of focusing on reducing income Castes and Scheduled Tribes (SCs/STs) and other
 RURAL AND AGRARIAN SOCIAL STRUCTURE W: 283
traditionally marginalized sections of society. SCs/ The government agriculture policies did not touch upon
STs account for 51% of the total person-days redistribution of the agriculture produce, the condition
generated and women account for 47% of the total of small and marginal farmers deteriorated drastically.
person-days generated. Further, constant oppression and exploitation by the
o Increasing the wage rate in rural areas and rich farmers became rampant. So the rural agrarian
strengthening the rural economy through the society is seething with discontent, economically after
creation of infrastructure assets. independence. Their general demands include increase
Facilitating sustainable development, and in public investment in agriculture, low input cost,
and higher cost for agricultural produce, remunerative
o Strengthening PRis by involving them in the
price or minimum support price, easy availability of
planning and monitoring of the scheme.
institutional loans and of late guaranteed procurement
According to a report, the Mahatma Gandhi
of farm produce.
National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme
Tebhaga movement of crop sharing in Bengal, Worli
(MGNREGS) reduced poverty by up to a third and gave
revolt against forest contractors and money lenders in
a large number of women their first opportunity to earn
Maharastra, Anti-betterment levy in Punjab, agitation
cash income. Introduction of a large scale scheme like
against food hoarders and seizing food-grains, prices
NREGS has significantly brought down the migration
in Bihar, movement for implementation of land ceilings
levels in rural areas, thus, retaining the rural labor for
in Bihar, agitation for fixing higher prices for sugarcane
use in the local areas.
The wage earnings from the Scheme have been used
are some of the movements to be noted as peasant
movements. The Telangana, the Naxalbari and the land
mainly for meeting expenses toward food, education
of the dependents, health care etc indicating that it has grab movements were against the monopoly ownership
helped in bringing don'n poverty in rural areas. The of land by landlords and demanded redistribution of
indicators of monthly per capita expenditure for the pre land to the poor and landless. In Kerala the struggle for
and during the NREGS period also point to significant land reforms, in Andhra for rehabilitation of landless
raise in the living standards of the rural populace, in the labourers on wastelands, for higher wages of agricultural
states where the'scheme was implemented on a large labourers in Tamil Nadu and Maharstra to be noted
scale. Although it is a common knowledge that during as important farmers movements. The Bhoodan and
peak agricultuial seasons, there will be a mismatch Sarvodaya movements also took up peasants' interests
between the labor supply and demand,,introduction but they were taken up not by the peasants themselves
of NREGS has certainly widened this gap. Obviously, but by Vinoba Bhave and Jayaprakash Narayan.
due to labor scarcity and higher wages, the farmers
have been compelled to either postpone or stagger the a. Describe the impact of land reforms on the
agricultural operations. peasants of Indian society. (CSE,2014)
Thus it may be stated that the scheme has in a Ans: National movement in India is largely a
way brought in a paradigm shift in the rural labor product of Kisan Sabha movement that was founded
opportunities and livelihoods in India. Sustaining the on the farmer and peasant movements in colonial
momentum depends to a large extent on innovations India. Bardoli movement, Eka movement, Moplah
in work opportunities, organization of the labor force movement, Champaran movement, Kedha move.rnent
and community planning and execution with greater were instrumental in bringing peasants together. The
involvement of the farmers at all stages. cause of Indian peasantry, their plight and suffering was
highlighted by the leaders of Congress and Communists
a. Discuss the main features of farmer's and that offered a form of integration among the masses
movements in Independent India.(CSE,2015) in India.
Ans: Post - independence era witnessed the The peasants of the country strongly backed the
uninterrupted continuity of the agrarian movements independence movement and the "Land to the Tiller"
due to the failure of the ruling party to resolve any of policy of the Congress Party because of the prevailing
the basic problems of the working masses of rural India. agrarian conditions. Land-reform policy in India had
The peasant struggles in this period were led two specific objectives: Qn one hand, it aims to make
predominantly by left political parties like the Communist more rational use of the scarce land resources by
Pard of India (CPI), Praja Sociologist Party (PSP), and affecting conditions of holdings, imposing ceilings and
Socialist Party (SP), through'their Kisan organizations. floors on holdings so that cultivatioh can be done in
The land reforms and community development the most economical manner/ i.e., without any waste
programmers meant for promoting capitalist farming in of labour and capital. On the other hand, it is a means
India have succeeded in intensifying the agrarian crisis. of redistributing agricultural land in the favour of less
284 sH socrolocY e & A
privileged classes, and of improving the terms and 'field view' have come to realize that representations
conditions on which the land is held for cultivation by are as much part of social reality as lived experience.
the actual tillers, with a view to end exploitation. The As Andre Beteille advocates, people do try to
reforms aimed to eliminate all forms of exploitation and conform to the design of social life that they regard as
social injustice within the agrarian system, to provide worthy of their collective efforts.
security for the tiller of the soil and to remove such
impediments to increase in agricultural production as a. Changing rural power structure. (CSE, 2012)
arise from the agrarian skucture inherited from the past. Ans: Dr. Yogendra Singh has explained that there
One of the major aspects of the land reforms in India were three bases of power structure in traditional rural
has been the tenancy reform. The legislation attempted India- zamindari system, village panchayat, caste
to provide security of tenure to tenants, to fix land rents panchayat. In this power sttucture, on one side landlords
and condition of tenancy. were representative of physical & economic interest
Also, in order to enable tenants to obtain institutional and expectation of villagers, on other side form of rural
credits, tenants should have the right to pledge their politics is decided by village and caste panchyat. System
interests in land taken on rent by them. Some states have of inter relation between zamindari system and rural
taken steps in this area of tenancy legislation. The most power structure was dependent mainly on owner-ship
important beneficial result of the reform is that it put an of property and land.
end to the system of parasitic intermediaries. But conflict approach has its own limitation. Based
Hence land reform gave rise to new form of on it, totality of Indian society cannot be studied. Major
inequality in Indian countryside that destroyed old shortcoming of this approach lies in the fact that this
inequality by creating'the provisions of equality of study focuses on struggle, stress & deviation only, and
opportunities. ignores value consensus, harmony and cooperation
existing in Indian society. Study of Indian society based
Q. What is the idea of 'Indian village'? Explain. on conflict between only tradition and modernity by D.P.
(csE,20L4) Mukherjee confirms above limitation.
Ans: Indian village not only occupied a pride of In the first stage of this process, many land related
place in colonial social morphology, but also became programs have been operationalised. As a result of this,
enmeshed in the leading theoretical and histographical middle class related with land rights has been abolished
debate of the day. Sociologist like Karl Marx, B.H. and farmer gets freedom from exploitation of Landlord,
Banden Powel looked Indian villages as a unit of moneylender and headman. Power of Panchayat has
knowledge than unit of coloniasl administration. grown and by declaring common places, ponds and
Breman noted that idea of Indian village in the 19th pasture as.a common property, authority of it is given
century had many meanings like anarchic and primary to Panchafat. Changes in the social and economic power
nucleus of Indian society, an autonomous political structure of villages are important. Due to expansion
administrative unit, an economically self-sufficient of process of democratization and education, the
entity. The demands of national identity necessitated the importance of achieved status compared to aspiration
has started to increase which has changed the basis of
projection of village as repository of civilisational ideals,
as Louis Dumont advocated, indian village became an
rural power structure.
national emblem of nationalist movement. In India, after independence, many efforts have
been taken to develop the secular and egalitarian power
Barbara Harriss- White believes village studies are
structure but except some external change, the rural
far too important to our understanding of economy and
power structure exist in same traditional form. Even
society as a whole. In the modern era, the village has
today groups formed on caste is base of politics and
become a marker of social difference in over al1 contexts
election in the village. From last2-3 decades, the process
of development and modernization. It is employed as a
of political polarization is becoming clear.
term of social classification with connotation of presence,
Despite this, increasing level of developmental
absence or degrees of development.
program, education and mass media has speeded the
No,twithstanding the eminence that,the village
process of democratizattonby creating awareness among
studies acquired in the discipline in the past, it has
backward castes in rural power structure.
undergone a definite decline in contemporary times.
'For
rnuch of sociological research, the village
a. Impact of Green Revolution on rural class
remained a convenient setting for field work generating
substantive discussions around caste, occupations,
structure. (CSE,20L1)
kinship, religion, landholding patterns and the like. Of Ans: Green Revolution during the period 1970s
late, though, even the most articulate proponents of was aimed at making Indian agriculture an effective
 RURAL AND AGRARIAN SOCIAL STRUCTURE 't/:::: 285
contributor for national economy. The new technology However, based on the nature of rights in land and
especially high yielding variety seeds were introduced the type of income derived from it, Daniel Thorner has
to the feudal dominated agricultural regions. Earlier, the identified three major agrarian classes in India. They
spread of new technology was confined to the wheat are (a) Maliks, (b) Kisans and (c) Muzdoors. The big
belt of Haryana, Punjab and Westem Uttar Pradesh. But landlords and rich land owners are included under
by mid 1970s a breakthrough was achieved in paddy the category of Maliks. Kisan are inferior to TV{aliks
cultivation. During 1980s there was a further spread to comprising self cultivating owners of land. They are
tlie eastern states. Overall the programme emphasized small landowners and tenants. Mazdoors earn their
on high yielding variety seeds, multiple cropping, Iivelihood from working on others land. This category
irrigation, fertllizers, establishment of cooperative and includes poor tenants, sharecroppers and landless
witnessed a remarkable increase in agricultural produce. labourers.
It was believed that progressive development in rural Agrarian movement in India generally can'be
areas became possible through Green Revolution. T.K. divided in terms of pre-British/pre-colonial and post-
Oman has highlighted the phenomena of organised independence period. The agrarian movements occured
mobility in rural peasantry. with some objective such as restorative rebellions-to
He also argued that many agrarian class have drive out the British and restore earlier rulers and social
organised themselves to get the benefit of different relations/redress of particular grievances, etc.Flowever,
programmes and this has led upward mobility in them. D.N. Dhanagare argued that the agrarian uprisings were
But contrary to it the different empirical sociological mainly related to agrarian con{licts between tenants and
works establish this fact that the regional imbalances landlords.
and inequalities among classes have increased due According to D.N. Dhanagare, the term peasant
to Green Revolution. Usha Patnaik with her work on movement refers to all kinds of collective attempts of
Haryana revealed that on the one hand rich and middle different strata of the peasant$, either to change the
peasants who has control over substantial landholding system which they felt was exploitative or to seek redress
have managed their accessibility to new technologies. It for particular grievances without necessarily aiming at
was enabled them to bring their products to the marked overthrowing the system. Agrarian movements thus
through which they have received more benefits. On the include all kinds of movements, violent and non-violent,
other hand, the poor and marginalised did not receive organised and sporadic. India has a long history of
benefits. In the Indian journal of Labour Economics, agrarian movements. The nineteenth century India is
Sucha Singh and Ranjeet Singh Ghamon also remarked considered a treasure house of movements. The most
that the capitalist farming has penetrated in almost militant peasant movement of this period was the Indigo
all states. Differentiation in peasantry has sharpened, Revolt of lengal in 1859-60. Only a decade Iater similar
employment opportunities in agriculture has decreased violent disturbance took place in Pabna in Bengal. These
due to mechanisation of agriculture and the block of struggleswereagainstZamindrswhowerethesymbols
surplus by the capitalist tendency in the farmer of of exploitation and atrocities.
Tndia has increased. The big and middle-class farmers One such revolts also occured in Deccan regions in
prospered through Green Revolutiory whereas poor and 1875. A series of Moplah uprisings in Malabar regions
marginal farmers were depeived of the benefits. Bhalla of Southern India also took place throughout the
with his work on Punjab and Satyadev Choudhary nineteenth century. Peasants grievances also became a
with his work on Haryana has revealed that inequality component of the India's freedom struggle during the
has further increased among rural classes as a result of twentieth century. The Champaran Movement in 1917,
Green Revolution. The Kheda Satyagrah in 1918 and the Bardoli Satyagraha
f 1928 were the major non-violent anti-British struggles.
a. Critically examine D.N. Dhanagare views on Since Mahatma Gandhi was involved in these Satyagra-
aglarian movements in India. (CSE, 2011) has, they are popularly known of Gandhian agrarian
Ans: Agrarian movements have been an important movements. Most of these movements took up relatively
area in the study of social movements in India. India minor agrarian issues but they succeeded in arousing
is essentially an agrarian country having complexity politicallwareness among the masses. Some agrariai
of landownership, tenancy, use and control of land, movements also took pIa'ce in other parts of the country.
all reflect the complex nature of agrarian structure. The They were equally restive and raised their grievances.
' complexity of agranan structure is also manifested in Between 1920 and 1946 several peasant organisations
agrarian class structure which has existed since long in and movements emerged in Bihar and Bengal which
rurul areas. The diversity of land systems and agrarian protested against the deplorable condition of the middle
relations has produced an elaborate structure of agrarian and poor peasants. But just before independence, it was
classes. Tebhaga struggle of 1946-47 in Bengal which was most
 286 l!j. soclolocy e & A
effective and widespread of all peasant movements. Extensive facilities and resources such as supply
It was a struggle of sharecroppers to retain two-third of high yielding variety of seeds, fertiTizers, improved
share of the produce for themselves. The movement implements, irrigation as well as facilities of credit and
was the outcome of the politicisation by the Communist improved transport and communication all have been
Party of India and The Kisan Sabha. The Telangana fully utilised by these farmers. The capitalist farmer
peasant struggle which occured on the eve of India's hires labourers for accomplishing her/his requirements
independence, was another important struggle of and appropriating suppling generated in agricultural
peasants. production that is reaching to the market. However,
the size of the class of capitalist farmers is still small in
a. Comment on the factors responsible for the the country today. But its emergence reveal a significant
growth and consolidation of middle level aspect of change in the agrarian social structure.
peasantry in rural India. How is it related to
capitalism in Indian agriculture? a. Emergence of middle class in India.
(csE,2011) (csE,2009)
Ans: The impact of the land reforms and the Ans: The emergence of the middle class is an
Green Revolution has not been uniform throughout the interesting development in'the era of economic
country. In certain regions somb sections have benefited liberalization in India. The studl, of middle classes by
more than the others. Flowever the owners of large a scholar named as B.B Mishra has suggested that the
landholdings have pocketed the maximum profits in members of educated professionals, such as government
every region. servants, lawyers, college teachers and doctors constitute
The share of benefits to the small peasants has the bulk of Indian middle class. He also included the
been limited almost everywhere. But it is the middle body of merchants, agents of modern trading firms,
peasant who have been the real beneficiary all over salarised executives in banks, middle grades of peasant
the country. Middle peasants ordinarily telong to proprietors etc. under this fold. This notion of middle
the middle caste groups. All those castes which are class has continued for years but in the early years
below the upper castes but above the lower castes and of independence the material pursuits of the middle
scheduled castes, constitute the category of middle class were subsumed in a moral and ethical and moral
castes. Though there is no all India hierarchy of castes responsibility to the nation. There was a restrain on
but it is possible to locate certain layers that may be materialistic exhibition of middle class in the country.
characterised as middle. It is the middle castes which The emergence of these middle class can be traced
have emerged as dominant middle peasantry. They have to British rule in India which promoted industrialisatiory
derived maximum advantages from the land reforms modern edircation also various government services in
and the Green Revolution. At the time of abolition of the country such as teachers, lawyers, clerk etc. But the
intermediaries like Zamidari, the Jagirdari, etc. large number of these middle class in British rule was less.
scale land transfer took place. But after independence, the process of liberalization,
The members of these castes purchased most of economic development and the globalisation etc.
these lands. Secondly, when the upper caste village provided an economic opportunity to make more gain
dwellers started migrating to the urban areas in large for a large number of people as result the number of
numbers, the members of the middle castes bought middle class has increased to a extent.
their land. Finally new programmes of the agricultural The current culture of consumerism has also given
development further helped the middle castes to rise to the new middle class. The economic liberalization
improve their economic condition and their peasant initiated in 1990s potrayed the middle class as a
background provided them with an added advantage. sizeable market which has attracted the attention of
Middle castes have, thus, achieved economic affluence multinational corporations. Images of the urban middle
within a short time. class in print media and television has shown as affluent
The growing economic prosperity of the middle consumers in terms of usig cellphones, cars, washing
castes Was also instrumental in the emergence of machines, colour television.
capitalist farming in India. A capitalist-form of F{owever, the critics of this middle class have
i; wagg - labour agrarian system has replaced the pointed out tow,ards negative impact of this class
traditional customary land relation. Introduction of in terms of environmental degradation, growing
new technology along with several other schemes of in difference towards socio-economic problems of
agricultural development have facilitated a small section the country. But proponents of liberalization have
of rich peasantry to emerge as powerful commercial and projected this middle class as an idealized standard for
capitalist farmers. a globalising India.
 RURAL AND AGRARIAN SOCIAL STRUCTURE ,irlll 287
a. Comment on the changes in the household Marxist sociologiest LP. Desai opined that Nuclear
dimensions of family under modern economic Families are mushrooming both in rural and urban
reforms. (CSE,2009) areas in India due to economic reforms initiated by
the government. S"C. Dubey, M.S. Ghurye, Yogendra
Ans: Most of the familial studies in India wishfully
Singh have conceptualized that traditional joint family
ignored the significance of house hold and its dyrramicity
under the influence of migratiory modernity, economic
under various changes. But Iravati Karve has considered
reforms, employment, adoption to new employment,
this aspect.
acceleration of cross cutting relation among the people
According to Iravati Karve Indian society is beyond the house have given rise to nuclear family. But
recognized by joint family and its existence. It is a these nuclear families in India can be considered as a
residential unit where the people are holding property in
form of extended family which is different frorn Nuclear
conunon. It is also a social unit where multigenerational Family of Europe. Thus, it is quite evident that modern
people are living together under the authority centred economic reforms introduced by the government have
around the eldest male, and holding property jointly and brought change in the household dimensions of family
performing ritual together. It is also a small community i.e. Jointness of family, kinship relation, emotional bond
where emotional integration is stronger. and common property relation but it has not altogether
But this notion of household is undergoing various replaced the traditional pattern of family, kinship
changes due to introduction of new modern economic relation among family members. Because jointness of
reforms like liberalization, and privatization. The family and kins still can seen on various social occasion
modem economic reforms introduced by the government like marriage, ritual functions, and in various crisis
have also initiated the process of industrialization and situation.
urbanization. Due to influence of industrialization,
social and economic life has witnessed tremendous What are the main principles of the structural-
change. For example the traditional joint family as earlier
Q.
functional perspective. Comment on the
was a multifunctional institution, having innumerable
suitability of applying this perspective to the
economic, educational, recreational, socializational and
biological functions. Norv except for the biological and
study of Indian society. (CSE,2009)
sociolisational ftrnction of family, most of the other Ans: Structural-functional perspective is the
function have been taken over. approach developed by the scholars belonging to
The new economic reform has also provided British Anthropology. This perspective is based on
opportunity.for women to work in farms, factories and the principles which visualise society as a functional
firms to perform different tasks. The new economic unit. This perspective considers a society as a system
role has placed women in a changed status. The in which theie are multivarious structure" This method
renewed status of women in turns has brought greater was generally used to study small community indicating
participation of women in decision making within the that within a community there are different facets of life
family. Development of transport and communication which are organized, repetitive and continuous.
have resulted in increased spatial mobility and large However, the structural part of the society are
number of people leaving their rural joint family house organized on the basis of cultural, religious, socio-
for urban areas to taken new occupations. political relationships manifested by people. This
The process of urbanization has also declined the structural-functionalist perspective is more suitable to
functions of family and kinship. The traditional family the study of society like India which is very diversified in
norms are relaxed and interpersonal relationship have matters of culture, religions, socio-political relationship.
become more formal. An urban child now grows within By considering all these facts various sociologists
much smaller world and no kinsmen are available in including M.N. Srinivas introduced this perspective for
nuclear family to take care. The nature of love and the study of Indian society.
personal affection among family members have also Under the influence of British rule how the
changed. structural part of society are experiencing change are
The division of domestic duties between wife and explained by Evan Pitchcard and A"R.R. Brown in his
husband is changing in the urban settings. Several ties study of structure and function in prirnitive society. They
that formerly bound members of the family are now advocated in most of the primitive societies, structural
broken. The central authority of elderly person has also parts are interrelated. Every structural parts contributes
been undermined in joint family. In joint family now to the gratification of both societal and individual needs.
central authority is no more determined by age but by Keeping this frame of reference in mind M.N. Srinivas
the capacity of a member in terms of more earning and made attempt to study India. His approach to study
intelligent. India indicated that-
288 ffii socroLocY e & A
(i) It is very difficult to study Indian society empirically He also indicated that intra-caste variations, intercast
as a whole because all empirical data would become conflicts, relative upward mobility, downward mobility
incomprehensive and unreliable for sociological have largely influenced the social structure of caste in India.
explanation of reality. M.N. Srinivas as a structural functionalist never
(ii) Therefore field stud,v, village study method should be considered caste in India as stereotype institution. He
introduced to understand the social structue of caste, believes that backward caste movement, contemporary
kinship, power and politics, production relation in reservation policy have contributed in introduction of
the microscopic structure of Indian society. new elements of dynamism in the social structure of
(iii) He also admitted that the conditions present in caste. M.N. Srinivas as a structural functionalist also
micro-structure of village may not be the reflection looked into Indian society from the door of village and
of the condition present in macro-structure. Flence windows of caste. It is evident from his understanding
that Indian villages are not isolated units rather they are
sociologists must admit that it is not possible to
study macroscopic India as a whole.
part of larger Indian society.
In his famous articles, "The Myth of Self Sufficiency
However, the M.N. Srinivas position as structural
functionalist is greatly being reflected in his writing of Village Communities in India", contradicted the
on caste in India. He also argued that social shucture British scholars who believed that Indian villages are
of the caste can be understood in relation to ritual little republic and self sufficient unit, hence enjoy
economic and political autonomy.
dimension to caste and secular dimension to caste. He
has defined ritual dimension of caste by food, manner, By drawing empirical data from different part of
speech, dress, symbols, rituals etc. related to them. But the country he has shown that how people living in a
he has defined secular aspect of caste in terms of access village use the services, skills and product gathered from
to educatioru wealth power etc. Looking into these two different part of the country. M.N. Srinivas also argued
dimension of caste he advocated that how various caste that Indian identity is not coming from religions rather
group strive for mobility to get achievement in ritual from three distinctive structural agencies caste, village,
position. According to Srinivas some caste group in family and kinship.
India directly go for ritual mobility without achieving Thus, M.N. Srinivas has used structural-functionalist
secular chargcter, in some situation their attempt is perspective most suitably for the study of Indian society
challenged leading to con{lict in village life. He has also as a whole. Subsequently this methodology was used
considered mobility in the caste as a dynamic process by Andre Beteille, F.G. Balley etc. for field study related
which has produced different pattern of changes in the to Indian agriculture, caste, power and politics family
caste structure of India" and kin groups.

**n,
 CHAPTER

ON

a. "The decade of the 1950s was the golden pe- village society remained a life-long focus of inter-
riod of village studies in Indian Sociology. est for Srinivas. Srinivas also published another
Explain the statement. (CSE 2023) important work'India's Villages' during the 1950s.
o Andre Beteille in his study'Sripuram: A Village in
Ans: Though some field'work was done in the Tanjore District, 1962' staled that - 'At least as far
pre-independence period also, village studies became a
back in time as living memory goes, there was no
prominent feature of studv of Indian society in 1950s- reason to believe that village was fully self-sufficient
60s. Earlier they were either led by colonial administra-
even in the economic sphere'.
tors or Indologists. o A. R. Desai on the other hand viewed Indian villag-
Golden Period of Village Studies es as isolated at least in economic terms. He added a
o Since sociologists consider villages as the foundation new dimension by using Marxist perspective in his
of understanding of Indian society, village studies works'Rural Society in India' and'Peasant Struggle
are important. in India'.
o Village stu{ies were important to gauge the true However, village studies were constrained by a
picture of villages to properly plan and implement number of factors. They were limited in their focus and
developmental policies in a newly independent na- didn't develop any new theoretical perspective which
tion whose population was predominantly rural. could be applied in other villages as well.
o The'village community' was identified as the social Thus, the 1950s were undoubtedly the heyday of
foundation of the peasant economy in India. Village Indian sociology's village research. The research done
during this time not only improved the field of sociology
studies also meant study of caste and inequality.
o but also had a significant impact on how India's rural
After independence, the major agenda was to study
development would proceed in the future.
villages so as to find out the socio-economic makeup
so that realistic policies may be formulated by the
Q. What actionable measures would you suggest
government.
o In the 1950s, many anthropologists and sociologists,
to curb the recurrent child labour menace in
both Indian and foreign, began working on village India? (CSE 2023)
life and society. Village studies were important be- Ans: ILO defines child labor as 'child labor in-
cause they provided Indian sociology with a subject cludes children permanently leading an adult's lives.
that was of great interest in newly independent Working long hours with low wages under conditions
India. which are detrimental to the physical and mental healttu
o Among the first works on the subject, 'Village In- sometimes separated from family'. Chiid labor is both
dia: Studies in the Little Community' by McKim an exploitative social practice as well as a deep rooted
Marriott, 1955, was brought out under the direct social evil. Worst forms of child labor, according to ILO,
supErvisiort of Redfield. M.N. Sriniva's compiled include - bonded labor, mining, child prostitutiory and
many essays in the form of a book with the title drug-trafficking.
;lt
'India's Villages' in 1955.
o Well known example of field work is reported in Child Labour: Social Causes and Related Factors
M.N. Srinivas's famous book,'The Remembered Vil- o Bondage - Children are pledged due to poverty
Lage,1976' . Srinivas spent a year in a village near My- o Gender discrimination - Girls are more prone to
sore that he named Rampura. The Indian village and be forced into child labor
290 llrri: SOCIOLOGY e &A

o PovertY -Poor parents find it difficult to take care Q. How do you view the $owth of the informal
of children due to lack of resources and child labor sector in India? (C9F,,20221
is used as a survival strategy by poorer households
Ans: Informal sector is that part of the economy
c Family size and population - Large family size which is not covered by formal regulations, statutes and
leads to depletion of meager incomes of earning rules. Here, employer and employee are not bound by a
hands and children are pushed into labor
formal contract, but on mutually agreed terms. Informal
o Vulnerability of children is also a cause as they sector is sometimes also referred to as the unorganized
rarely protest and are even considered as suitable sector and it includes casual labor and contract labor.
for certain works like carpet weaving, bangle indus-
try and so on. Categorisation of Informal Sector
e Poor welfare and social security measures taken The Union Ministry of Labour under the Government
by the state of India has categorised the unorganised labour deployed
o Poor wages of adult parents in the informal sector, under four groups in terms of:
a Low levels of female literacy (i) Occupation: Small and marginal farmers, landless
o Small uneconomic land holdings of the parents agricultural labourers, sharecroppers, fisherman,
r Poor legal framework those engaged in animal husbandry, beedi rolling,
o High proportion of scheduled caste and scheduled labelling and packing, conskuction workers, leather
tribe population areas workers, weavers, etc.
o Administrative and civil society apathy and corrup- (ii) Nature of Employment: Agricultural labourers,
tion is to blame equally. bonded labourers, migrant workers, contract and
o Non-implementation of universal education agenda casual labourers.
has forced millions of children into work. (iii) Distressed Categories: Toddy tappers, scavengers,
o Lack of education and empowerment put the chil- head loaders, animal cart pullers, porters, etc.
dren into a vicious circle of illiteracy and poverty. (iv) Service Categories: Domestic workers, fish workers
and women barbers, vegetable and fruit vendors,
Measures to Curb the Recurrent Child Labour Menace newspaper vendors, etc.
in India
Characteristics of Informal Sector
o Strong enforcement of the Child Labour (Prohibi-
tion and Regulation) Amendment Act,2016, which " The informal sector is characterised by excessive
forbids the employment of minors under the age of seasonality of employment and preponderance of
14 in all processes and professions and of teenagers
casual and contractual employment.
in dangerous processes and vocations.
. The workplace is scattered and fragmented and
o A strong weapon for ending the cycle of poverty working hours vary accordingto the informal agree-
and child labor is education. All children should ment between the employer and workers.
have access to high-quality education, according
. There is no formal employer and employee relation-
to the goverrunent. This may be achieved by suc- ship.
cessfully putting the Right to Education Act into
. Workers in the informal sector are usually subject
practice. to indebtedness and bondage as their income is not
o One of the primary causes of child labor is poverty. su{ficient to meet the requirement of livelihood.
As a result, steps should be done to help families'
. The workers working in the informal sector are
financial Situation. This may be accomplished by subject to exploitation.
offering adult job opportunities, implementing skill
. The in{ormal workers do not receive sufficient at-
development programs, and implementing different tention from the trade union.
poverty reduction measures. . The informal sector usually includes economic
c The local, state, and federal systems for protect- enterprises and employment that are not protected
ing children need to be reinforced. This entails or regulated by the government laws and social
establishing child rights groups, child welfare security system.
committees, and child protection dephrtments at Growth of Informal Sector
educational institutions. . Significance of the iriformal sector in Indian context
Therefore, all parties involved, including the gov- is huge as a major chunk of population earns its
ernment, NGOs, civil society, and the community, must livelihood from this type of economic activity. The
work together in concert to achieve this. We can envision contribution of the unorganized sector to the GDP
a day where all children are free from forced labor and has been over 30%. Informal sector also involves
have the chance to develop, study, and prosper if the low capital investment and hence, it is highly labor
correct laws and policies are put in place. intensive and spreads quickly.
 INDUSTRIALISATION AND URBANISATION 291
. India's informal economy has shrunk to around . Post-Independence industrial class structure was
15-20 per cent of the formal GDP as against 52 initially largely governed by a state driven socialist
per cent three years ago following the adoption of economy. According to Sharat Bhowmick, the rise
GST, enhanced digitalisation, and demonetization of the public sector gave birth to multiple classes,
(according to a report by the State Bank of India's but they carried a distinct status of 'government
economic research department) employees' and not of industrial employees' in a
. The government has laws to monitor conditions strict capitalistic sense.
in the unorganized sector, but in practice they are . Further, at the top of hierarchy of these state run
left to the whims and fancies of the employer or enterprises were political appointees cum admin-
contractor. The Unorganized Sector Workers' Social istrators and not elite capitalists. At the same time,
Security Act has also passed in 2008. emergence of the organized sector through these
. Recently,'National Social Security Board' has been public undertakings and other industries, a distinc-
setup for the unorganized sector which shall recom- tion between organized and unorganized sector
mend schemes for the unorganized sector. 'National emerged representing a structural divide between
Social Security Fund was established for the orga- the two.
nized sector in 2011.'New Pension Scheme' is also . Government's policy of import substitution and
now open to workers in the in{ormal sector. quantitative controls on the other hand led to growth
There are other schemes as well. 'Janshree Bima of the capitalist class also. As industrialization gained
Yojana' is a group insurance scheme; Indira Gandhi pace, differentiation in industrial class structure
National Old Age Pension Scheme is a social security also accompanied. With the growth of the working
scheme for the old. Several public institutions and agen- class, their social spread also diversified leading to
cies are also imparting various kinds of social security introduction of various cleavages in terms of caste,
benefits to the selected groups of workers. Among these, gender, age etc. Each of these sections had their own
the Self Employed Women's Association (SEWA) has problems and posed a challenge in their rnobilization.
made significant achievement in promoting social secu- . Post liberalization saw another shift in Industrial
rity through the formation of cooperatives. class structure which was marked by in{ormalisa-
tion of labor on one hand and swell of middle
a. Discuss the changing nature of the industrial management on the other. Burdhan and Rudra
working class. (CSE,2O22) claim that globalization and liberalization has
Ans: According to Bottomore, 'Social classes' are grossly inflated the assets of the capitalist class at
the characteristic features of industrial societies. Before the expense of the working class. Occupational di-
British rule, there was little surplus available and hence versification has led to sub-classes in the previously
stratification in terms of class was non-existent. Flence, tightly defined industrial class structure.'
the whole society was considered a peasant society. At a rudimentary level, industrial class structure
Even when there was a marked class dimension; it was can be visualized having strata like - the capitalist/
overshadowed by the caste component. owner, top management, middle level managers, skilled
workers and manual workers. Middle management has
Industrial Class swelled post liberalization and workers had benefits in
. Industrial class refers to strata that form due to form of improved social security schemes, new laws,
division of work in factories. Growth of industrial etc., but they also had to face new hardship in over-
classes is linked with growth of colonialism and crowded and expensive cities.
industrialization in India. Thus, diversification of industrial occupation and
Changing Nature of the Industrial Working Class infinite division of labor has created a continuous hier-
. Industrial Class Structure in India has a differ- archy of industrial classes in India. Growth of service
ent historical context than West where Industrial industry and knowledge economy has also contributed
growtt-r and hence growth of Industrial class growth to the diversification of industrial class.
was voluntaristic.
. According to A R Desai, the British dumped their a. Discuss the dynamics of 'migrant workersl
surplus factory-produced goods in India and stifled in India in the context of Corona pandemic.
the growth of indigenous entrepreneurs on one
hand and destroyed the domestic handloom indus- Ans : The Internati onal or ganiz ati"
"
rrlTffi;"']
try on the other. Thus, instead of the induskial class, defines a migrant as any person who is moving or has
a merchant class arrived first as a result of colonial moved across an international border or within a state
mercantilism. away from his/her habitual place of residence.
292 ,' socrolocY e & A
The lockdown since the Covid-l9 outbreak has a. How can skill development programme
caused the mass exodus of migrant workers from induce social change? Illuskate. (CSE 2020)
industrial hubs towards their natir..e places with the Ans: Skill development has been considered one
fear of livelihood loss. This has been termed as reverse
of the critical aspects for job creation in India. India
migration.
has a unique demographic advantage with more than
The Economic Survey of India 2017 estimates that 60o/o of the population is in the young age group. But
the magnitude of inter-state migration in India was close
in order to get a dividend from such a large workforce,
to 9 million annually between 2011 and 2016. According employability has to be improved.
to the Census2011,, the total number of internal migrants
As per current statistics only 10% of the fresh
in the country (inter- and intra-state movement) was graduates are employable and rest of the 90% lack skills
at a staggering 139 million. Tl-re Hindi belt is the main
required for being eligible to be hired by corporate.
source of migrants as four states, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
India's GDP is growing at a great rate of around 6-8%
Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh accounted for 50% of
but job creation is not catching up with it.
India's total inter-state migrants. Delhi and Mumbai are
Government of India has taken initiative for -Skill
widely considered rnigrant magnets.
development through pullic private partnership.
Most of the workers eam little more than a subsistence
There are opportunities for private education
wage ancl have no other means to protect their incomes
players to take advantage of such schemes. Current
if they lose their jobs. Migrant workers constitute quite a
infrastructure of ITI and other government aided
large proportion of such vulnerable populations.
institutes are not enough to train people for future job
Millions of rnigrant workers are anticipated to be left opportunities.
unemployed in India due to the lockdown and subsequent
Despite increasing literacy these days, most of
fear of recession. Many of the migrant workers have
the people are struggling for jobs. According to the
returned to their villages" Tb-e risk is particularly higher
WTO, World Trade Organization, the GDP level can
for those who are working in unorganised sectors, and
increase up to 3%-5% in 2035, if India focuses on skill
those who do not have writer contracts, or those whose
development and training.
contracts are at the verge of completion. The lockdown
Skill development is a powerful tool to empower
and the subsqquent recession are likely to first hit contract
workers across many of the industries.
the people and improves their social acceptance,
and increases opportunities for social mobility. It
On the one hand, lockdowns and social distancing
is complemented by a good economic growth and
measures are drying up jobs and incomes, whereas
enhances employability.
they arb likely to disrupt agricultural production,
Learning a new skill will broaden the opportunities
transportation systems, and supply chains on the other.
This poses a challenge cf ensuring food security and at the same time empower one as an individual. Skill
controlling already rampant malnutrition, particularly training not only provides skills in a particular area, but
trains students to bui.ld and enhance networking, time
among children, rvhich is likely to result in increased
management, communication.
in-fant and child mortality.
For example, Education is the single most important
There is a fear that COVID-19 recessions in India
can take an extraordinary human toll that extends well
instrument for social and economic transformation. A
beyond temporary earnings losses for unemployed well educated populatiory adequately equipped with
workers. The studies on earlier recessions suggest knowledge and skill is not only essential to support
that the job loss during a downturn sometimes results economic growth, but is also a pre-condition for growth
in long-term unemployment and wage setbacks, to be inclusive since it is the educated and skilled
deteriorating the health of unemployed workers and people who stand to benefit most from the employment
increasing poverty. These irnpacts are most troubling for opportunities which growth provides.
low-income households, which are less well positioned In recent times, skills education and training
to cope with earnings losses during a recession, have have come to occupy a centre-stage within macro-
no alternative earnings and have no social security economic policy and educational frameworks of both
available. the developed and developing worlds.
Thus, there is a need to relook at the national There is a distinctive urgency with which it has been
migration policies, which should accommodate the positioned as a solution to a range of diverse issues from
assistance and protection of migrants arriving from, or welfare dependency, widening income inequalities, anti-
faced with the prospect of leturning to, areas affected by social behaviour, low levels of intergenerational social
health crises. Also, there is a need to establish resilient mobility, regional differences in economic performance,
food systems that could reduce food insecurity and the improvements in productivity, insufficient innovations
pressure to return to origin among migrants. by firms and for remaining globally competitive.
 INDUSTRIALISATION AND URBANISATION ":: 293
individuals .t-lowever, the growth of urban centers in India
Social change is stimulated by pioneering
initiate have been uneverl, &"rl today, more than 2/3rd of the
who become conscious of new opportunities and
new behaviors and activities to take advantage of urban population lives in large urban agglomerates
them. Pioneers are the lever or spearhead for collective with populations over 10 lakh. It implies that India has
advancement. When society is subconsciously prepared simultaneously witnessed both under urbanization - as
for change, it still needs an agent through which majority population still lives in rural areas - and over-
to express this preparedness in action. In natural urbanization - as cities are overcrowdecl and suffer
development, that is the role of pioneering individuals from all maladies which are typical of over-urbanized
having different skills. inhabitations.
All human creative processes release and harness Many social factors such as attraction of cities, better
human energy and convert it into results. The process standard o{ living, better educational facilities, need
of skill formation involves acquiring mastery over our for status also induce people to migrate to cities. Many
physical-nervous energies so that we can direct our social factors such as attraction of cities, better standard
physical movements in a precisely controlled manner. of living, better educational facilities, need for status also
In the absence of skill, physical movements are clumsy, induce people to migrate to cities.
inefficient, and unproductive, like the stumbling efforts Urban areas are characterized by sophisticated
of a child learning to walk. Whilst the energies are the technology, better infrastructure, communication,
motivating force, it is strategic ability and professional medical f*iliti"r, etc. people feel that they can leacl
skills that turn the energy of individuals into effective a comfortable life in cities ind migrate to cities. With
social change through innovative ways' a high rate of urbanization significant changes have
Therefore, Skills training have, in fact, in the recent taken place. Example-Enployment opportunities
decades come to occupy a new status within national in urban centres, transport and communication
policies - from earlier having been considered short term facilities, Educational facilities, Increase
in the standard
solutions to address youth and adult employment, to of living etc.
now being seen as central drivers of economic growth urbanization can yield positive effects if it takes
and progress in the present times' This new
|,nnort15e place up to a desirable limit. Extensive urbanisation or
given to skills training has earned it the epithet.of the indiscriminate growth of cities may resuit in adverse
"training gospel'\' - signifying also the unquestioning effects. Example- concentration of population
is a major
acceptanceof thisapproachtomacro-eco":l"tplanning
problem of cities. It has resulted in accommodation
development *.
il"xt'":,":13'J,:',ru:*:ffi 3;I"',""ional
i"ur"*" g,.*,h
:1,*:,-.
Joint family can't be maintained in cities on account
of high cost of living: People prefer to live in the nuclear
a. Elaborate the causes, consequences and other ;.;""^;;;;,,;: ;:;
concerns of srowth of urban
India.
*d;;#; ":
Ir.:,[:1T',J,:1,I:?1":",1:t]1ilffi;i?nr,:.jIT
(CSE 2020) is very difficult for lower income groups to maintain a
Ans: The process of 'urbanizatior:r' denotes decent standard of living. Urban centres are known for
population growth of the cities and towns. high rate of crimes. Theft, Dacoity, Murder, Cheating,
Sociologically, it also denotes the spread of urban Pick pocketing, rape etc. are common in urban centres.
way of life to the country-side. Urbanization implies Urban centres are characterised by highly secondary
a cultural and sgcial psychological process whereby relations. The concept of neighbourhood, community
people acquire the material and non-material culture, life are almost absent in cities. Urban life is highly
including behavioral patterns, forms of organization, monotonous. This may have an adverse psychological
and ideas that originated ir; or are distinctive of the city. effect on individuals. In industrialized cities pollution
Thus,theprocess of urbanizationhasdemographic is a majer problem. It may be caused by industries
as well as social dimensions. Louis Wirth's formulation or by excessive movement of vehicles. Urban life is
of 'urbanism as a way of life' argues that the city a{fects characterised by stress which may even strain family
areas wider than the city itself. Urbanism as a way of life relations. In cities employment of women is almost
is not peculiar to city-dwellers alone as the influences of inevitable to meet the increa.sing cost of living. Changing
the city (i.e., impact of urbanization) stretches far behind role of women in the family creates stress in the family
its administrative boundaries. which may result in divorce or strained relations.
' Over the years there has been a steady increase in Thus urbanisation has its own merits anrl demerits.
the urban population in India frorn 17.29% in 1951 to Urbanization can,t be avoided. But, the negative effect of
around 31,% in2011 census. Globally, urban population urbanization can be minimised and cities can be made
surpassed rural population in 2007. more inclusive and liveable place.
294 .... SOCIOLOGY Q & A

a. Elaborate urbanism as a way of life in India. It implies that India has simultaneously witnessed
(csE,2019) both - under-urbanization as majority population still
lives in rural areas and over-urbanization as cities are
Ans: In simple words, the process of 'urbanization'
overcrowded and suffer from all maladies which are
denotes population growth of the cities and towns.
typical of over-urbanized inhabitations.
Sociologically, it also denotes the spread of urban way
of life to the country-side.
Urban displacement has a long history in post-
independence India but has only received attention
Urbanism implies a cultural and social-psychological
from scholars, multilateral agencies, non-government
process whereby people acquire the material and non-
organizations and the Press in the last decades. The
material culture, including behavioral patterns, forms
of organization, and ideas that originated in, or are frequency of displacement has greatly increased since
199L as Indian cities have responded tq demands for
distinctive of the city. Thus, the process of urbanism has
more land for in{rastructure, economic activities and
demographic as well as social dimensions. Louis Wirth s
residential accommodation following the opening up
formulation of 'urbanism as a way of life' argues that
the city affects area wider than the city itself. Urbanism
of the economy.
In the process, land occupied by the poor in informal
as a way of life is not peculiar to city-dwellers alone as
along the sides of roads, canals and
the influence of the city (i.e., impact of urbanization) settlements and
raihvays has become highly vulnerable to repossession
stretches far behind its administrative boundaries.
Modern urban centers in the world emerged as by public authorities for real estate development and
in{rastructure projects.
a result of industrialization and for the first time in
The lack of a national law on rehabilitation and
history, mega-cities emerged. In India too, it happened
during and after colonial rule. Urbanization in the resettlement in India as a whole until 2003, and the
squatters, has given rise
colonial period saw the decline of some earlier urban law's silence over the rights of
centers and the emergence of new colonial cities. to varied responses by state and city administrations to
the occupation of public land in urban areas.
Kolkata was one of the first of such port cities
apart from Madras and Bombay. Many urban hill However, there have been increasingly strident
stations were also developed. ]ust as manufacturing protests over the takeover of land in rural and peri-
boomed in Eritain, traditional exports of cotton and urban areas and involuntary'displacement arising out
silk manufacturers from India declined in the face of of redeveloprhent and infrastructure upgrading in built-
Manchestcr competition. up urban areas. This has slowed down many projects
and has finally resulted in involuntary displacement
Characteristics of Urban Social Structure being part of the Right to Fair Compensation and
' Formality and impersonality of human relationships Transparency in Land Acquisitiory Rehabilitation and
. Rationality Resettlement Act, 2013.
. Secularism Along with the growing concerns of urban
Increased specialization and division of labor displacement and resettlement, planned and
. Decline in the functions of family implemented from above, and it's more general impacts
Thus, urbanization has led to social and economic on the affected population, there has been increasing
transformation of societies. It has many positive impacts interest in what happens on the ground at the micro
like rationalization of society and orthodoxies, liberation level where these processes un{old.
of women, promotion of democratic ideals and so on. It This includes, for instance, the reactions of the
also has negative fallout in form of rising crimes, poor affected population, the extent of their acquiescence/
social bonding, pollution, overcrowding, slums and resistance to these plans, and the strategies they use
insanitation, anomie and so on. to hold on to their homes or to bargain for better
compensation/ resettlement deals.
a. Elucidate the concerns of growing urban Micro-level studies have generally revealed the
displacement dynamics in India. (CSE,2019) adverse situation of the resettled population. This is
,dns: Over the years there has been a steady increase characterized by multiple losses, including loss of
in the urban population in India frorn17.29o/, in 1951 to homes, livelihoods and community resources, leading
around 31% in 2011 census. Globally, urban population to even greater impoverishment after resettlement.
surpassed rural population in 2007. Case studies from different parts of the country
However, the growth of urban centers in India have also pointed to the poor quality of resettled housing
have been uneven, even today, more than 2/3rd of the units, their small size, and their distance from existing
urban population lives in large urban agglomerates with employment sources and schools. Resettlement has been
population over 10 lakh. particularly hard on women due to greater job losses.
 INDUSTRIALISATION AND URBANISATION J;} 295
Q. What is 'social security'? Examine recent Therefore, Basic Services to Urban Poor (BSUp)
security measures adopted by the Government and Integrated Housing and Slum Development (IHSD)
in India. (CSE-2019) progranimes for smaller towns/cities were launched
Ans: Social security is a dynamic conception, under the jawaharlal Nehru national urban renewal
mission.
which is considered in all advanced countries of the world
as an indispensable chapter of the national programme
The basic objective is to strive for holistic slum
to strike at the root of poverty, unemployment and development with a healthy and enabling urban
disease.
environment by providing adequate shelter and basic
in-frastructure facilities to slum dwellers of identified
It has been considered most essential for the urban areas.
industrial workers, though, with the development of
the idea of a welfare State, its scope now includes all
The main thrust of the sub-mission on Basic
Services to the Urban Poor (BSUP) will be-on integrated
sections of society. Social security is that security that
development of slums through projects for providing
state furnishes through appropriate organisatiory against
shelter, basic services and other civic amenities with a
certain risks to which its citizens are exposed.
view to provide utilities for the urban poor.
Central and state governments in India have been
Basic Services would include improved housing,
providing security to the elderly in cash (pension
water supply, sanitation and ensuring tlelivery through
schemes such as: Indira Gandhi National Old Age
convergence of other already existing universal services
Pension Scheme (IGNOAPS), Indira Gandhi National
of the Government such as educatiory health and social
Widow Pension Scheme, Atal Pension Yojna, etc.
security.
In kind, in the form of goods and services - as
The Integrated Housing & Slum Development
in food security; health services - as in the National
Programme (IHSDP) aims at combining the other schemes
Programme for the Elderly; concessions, facilities and
for having an integrated approach in ameliorating the
services given by the various ministries - Ayushman
conditions of the urban slum dweller who do not possess
Bharat Scheme, etc.
adequate shelter and reside in dilapidated conditions.
Reasons for Low Utilisation Main Objectives of the Scheme was to strive for slum-
. Dif{iculties faced by illiterate poor elderly in less cities by adopting holistic slum development with a
providing documentary proof like identity proof, healthy and enabling urban environment by providing
age proof, recommendation of Panchayat, etc. This adequate shelter and basic in_frastructure facilities tcr
has led to emergence of middlemen, tribery, and the slum dwellers of the identified urban areas. Thus,
corruption. these prografiunes were started by the welfare state for
. providing opportunities of mobility to urban poor by
Problems regarding accuracy of the BPL list leading
giving therri essential and necessary services.
to frauds and fake.
. Long waiting period for getting and inadequate
pension. a. How do you relate the growth of development
. of metropolis and its impact on the mentai
Underutilization of funds allotted to states due to
failure in identifying eligible beneficiaries. and social life of people in India? (CSE,2018)
Therefore, identification of the needy by suitable Ans: In simple words, the process of 'urbanization'
exclusion criteria, simplification of the application denotes population growth of the cities and towns.
procedure, efficient delivery system can be some of the Sociologically, it also denotes the spread of urban
reforms to make social security more efficient. way of life to the countryside. Urbanization implies
a cultural and social psychological process whereby
Q. Write a note on Basic Services to Urban Poor people acquire the material and non-material culture,
(BSUP) and Integrated Housing and Slum including behavioral patterns, forms of organization,
Development (IHSD) programmes provided and ideas that originated iry or are distinctive of the city"
Thus, the process of urbanization has demographic as
for the urban poor. (CSE, 2018)
well as social dimensions.
Ans: Urbanization has lead to social and economic
Urbanization has led to social and economic
transformation of societies. It has many positive impacts
transformation of societies. It had many positive impacts
like rationalization of society and orthodoxies, liberation
like rationalization o{ sociefy and orthodoxies, liberation
of women, promotion of democratic ideals and so on. It
of womery promotion of democratic ideals and so on. It
also has negative {allout in form of rising crimes, poor
also had negative fallout in form of rising crimes, poor
social bonding, pollution, overcrowding, slums and
social bonding, pollution, overcrowding, slurns and
insanitation, anomie and so on.
insanitation, social anomies and so on.
296 iilililil SOCIOLOGY Q & A

Urban areas are termed as centers of cultural Ans: Dalits or the Scheduled Castes are one of the
innovation by some thinkers, but they also have their most backward communities in India owing to the lack
own set of socio-economic problems. This rise in of opportunities and the historical discrimination and
problems is due to unorganized growth of urban areas the menace of untouchability that harmed them for
and related human factors. centuries. Though Caste System is not as rigid in India as
was in the pre-independence era but still the Scheduled
Some of the problems due to growth of metropolis Castes population face a number of problems whether
culture in India are: living in the rural or urban areas.
Over-urbanizatron: Over-urbanizat'ron in one sense
implies excessive urbanization in relation to employment Comparison of problems of a dalit family in urban
growth. It also means that the urban population has grown slum and a dalit family in a rural setting
to such an extent that the cities fail to ensure a decent o While migrating to the urban areas in search of
way of lile to the urban dwellers on account of excessive livelihood, the dalit family has to get separated from
population pressure on civic amenities, housing, etc. its community in the rural setting which causes a
Follution and Environmental Decay: Modern cities loss of belongingness that they get in their villa.ge.
are sprawling, environment damaging monsters that r They also face the wrafh of urbanisation, the
devour energy and generate waste at an unsustainable pollution, packed houses with least hope of
rate. Solid waste management has emerged as one of sanitation and safe drinking water in urban slums
the biggest challenges of urban areas. that is not found in the rural areas.
Economic Challenges: Inadequate Housing and r But, it must also be noted that in rural society, the
Slums, Inefficient and inadequate transport, Informalization norms are to be strictly followed, even now caste
of workforce as immigrants fail to find place in formal system is rigidly followed in some rural areas, and
economy, Unsafe and insufficient water supply. urbanisation gives a chance to the members of the
Social Consequences community for social mobility.
Crime: The white-collar crimes committed by o In some village societies, still the lower caste
violating rules and regulations of trade, business or people are subjected to perform some specific kind
profession haye become widespread, especially in cities of occupation, but in cities they can do whatever
which are the victims of rapid urbanization. work they want to perform. Hence, the status gets
Economic inequalities: In urban areas they are changed from ascribed to achieved.
more pronounced than in rural areas. Rural setting gives a kind of moral support and
Isolation: With rise of urbanizatiory a city-dweller social strength to any community due to increased social
though living amidst a sea of fellow city-dwellers, is interactions and social responsibilities there, but urban
detached from them socially and feels acute isolation. areas give the opportunity to any individual for social
Maladjustment: As process of urbanization mobility.
accelerates, city life tends to be characterizedby cultural
diversities, socioeconomic inequalities, competition, a. Do you agree that the issue of child labour
conIlict and several other manifestations of complexities raises questions about and beyond the
of social reality. informal sector? Give reasons. (CSE,"2017)
Rural-urban divide: As skilled population moves to
Ans: Child labour refers to the use of children
cities, villages are often left with no leadership.
as a source of labour while depriving them of their
New trends in urbanization are visible in form of
fundamental rights in the process. Such rights include
growth of sub-urban areas, satellite cities, mega-cities,
the opportunity to enjoy their childhood, attend school
decay of inner cities, urban renewal and gentrification
regularly, have peace of mind, and live a dignified life.
drives. So, to address these emerging issues of
Work that places children in a situation that is socially,
urbanization, sevetal policy and legislative initiatives
mentally, physically, or morally harmful and dangerous
have been taken by the Government of India which
is also defined as child labour because it ignores the
includes Rent Control Act, Urban Land'Ceiling and
Regulation Act, Rajiv Awas Yojana, Property Rights to
well-being of such children.
SIum Dwellers Act 201L, JnNURM, etc. Child Labour in the Informal sector
The flourishing informal sector is acting as the
a. Compare the pressing problems of a dalit breeding ground for child labour.'Since the informal
poor family living in an urban slum with a sector is beyond the reach of government authorities and
similar type of family living in a rural setting. this gives them the opportunity to promote unskilled
(csE,201n Iabour.
 INDUSTRIALISATION AND URBANISATION #]] 297
The demand for unskilled labourers is an important enornlous competition for jobs. In the majority of cases,
cause of child labour. Children are mostly unskilled and governments have the power and resources to increase
provide a cheap source of labour. the suppiy and reduce the cost of many of these.
Apart from the informal sector there are also other The urban population in the world is rising
major reasons that promote child labour: generally. Whereas urbanization, defined in terms of
population growth in urban areas, has been driven
o Poverty: Children who come from poor families by economic development, poverty is also urbanizing.
may be forced to work to support their siblings and This is reflected in poor housing, urban infrastructural
parents or supplement the household income when support, and social and reproductive health services.
expenses are more than the parents' earnings. The concentration of economic development in a few
o Low Aspiration: Low aspirations by parents and cities and particularly the largest implies a population
children are a major cause of child labour because in boom in very short periods of time that in turn severely
such a situatior; being employed in a local factory, or tests the coping capacity of city governments. One of
selling grocery in the streets is the normal way of life. the most visible outcomes of the rapid urbanization has
o Illiteracy: Illiteracy makes it difficult for many thus been the persistence and formation of slums. One
people to understand the importance of education. billion people or one third of the world's population
Illiterate parents who prioritrze children contributing is estimated to be living in either slum or squatter
to the upkeep of the family over going to school. settlements.
o Early Marriages: Marrying at an early age and The largest proportion of population living in
having many children with little or no resources to slums in the world is in the Asian region, which
support them leads to child labour. Older children is also urbanizing at the fastest rate. Rapid urban
are forced to work in order to help their parents population growth has outpaced the ability of city
support the family. authorities to provide for housing and environmental
The above factors lead to loss of childhood, mental and health in{rastructure. Squatter and slum settlements
trauma and other health issues. Hence there is a need to have formed mainly because of the inability of city
holistic reforms like promotion of skilled labour, moral governments to plan and provide affordable housing
policing.and efficient administration that can stop the for the low-income segments of the urban population.
social evil of child labour. Flence, squatter and slum housing is the housing solution
for this low-income urban population. In the mega urban
regions or metropolitan areas, part of the problem would
Q. Write a detailed note on the effects of growing lie in the coordination among different authorities that
slums'in urban areas. (CSE, 2016)
are in charge of economic development, urban planning,
Ans: The formation of slums,need not be inevitable and land allbcation. Such coordination issues also exist
with rapid urbanization. Such an arpiument appears to between the city and national governments.
be contradicted by evidence of large slum populations in The economicallv more dynamic regions such as
a large number of developing countries and particularly Asia have experienced strong growth because the state
in rapidly urbanizing regions like Asia. The evidence sector drives development agendas. National and city
discussed suggests that city authorities faced with rapid governments have generally adopted the position that
urban development lack the capacity to cope with the economic development will take care of basic needs iuch
diverse demands for infrastructural provision to meet as housing and environmental and health infrastructure.
economic and social needs. Not only are strategic In cities of higher income countries such as Malaysia,
planning and intervention major issues in agenda to private sector developers are more interested in building
manage rapid urbanizatrort, but city govemments are not homes for the midclle-income market. The proliferation
effectively linking the economic development trajectory of slum and squatter settlements shows, however, that
to implications for urban growth and, hence, housing planned economic growth has to be aligned with the
needs. planned development of heatth services, environmental
Cities have become centers where vast numbers clf infrastructure, and housing"
people co,mpete for the most basic elements of life: for For the scale and speed of urbanization that has
a room within reach of employment with an affordable been taking place in developing countries of Asia, most
rent, or vacant land on which a shelter can be erected municipal governments are unequipped physically,
without fear of eviction; for places in schools; for medical fiscally, politically, and administratively to tackle the
treatment for health problems or injuries, or a bed in problems of providing the basic infrastructure services to
a hospital; for access to clean drinking water; for a their people. In a situation of scarce resource allocatiory
place on a bus or train; and for a corner on a pavement the urban poor are frequently badly placed to compete
or square to sell some goods - quite apart from the for essential services.
298 ffi socrolocYe&A
Biases in investment standards, pricing policy, and sector. These definitions clearly indicate that the sector
administrative procedures, more often than not, skew consists of all those works which do not fall under the
services in favor of the ric[ denying the poor shelter, jurisdiction of the government of the state and were the
safe water, acceptable sanitatiory minimal nutritiory and employment interaction ensures no legal way of conduct.
basic education. In this sector there is no such like fitting procedure of
Low-income segments of the urban population are recruitment, selection, promotion, and social safety and
unlikeiy to afford the increasing costs of housing in development of employee.
rapidly growing cities unless there is a provision for Due to imprudent access and easy entry to the
such affordable housing by the city government, given sector, the sector has now become synonymous with
the economic growth that is being planned. the mixture of un-fettered, poorly skilled, low-paid
workers and flash food workers. This has advanced to
a. Discuss the changing nature of the problems the burden and susceptibilities to the sector, whiih is
of working class in the informal sector of the now recognized as unskilled and inadequately talented
economy. (CSE,2016) sector meanwhile there is no social security and mutual
concern between employee and employer cut to bone
Ans: The failure of providing meaningful
the sector has become full with obscenities. The reality
employment is the catastrophic development failure
of the informal sector is the workers are offended by
of a country. India is a diverse economy encompassing
operators and mostly these workers belong to the sect
agriculture, handicraft, wide range of modern industries
of society which lives in abject poverty.
and multitude services sectors. These spacious spectrums
of industries are classified under private and public The activities in informal sector are miles away
from the legitimate activities in formalf orgarized sector.
sectors, but unfortunate for the nation neither the
public nor the private sector is able to provide enough In informal sector unstructured work, exploitation of
employment for the widening labor force. workers has become obvious, and frequent, besides that
illegal working condition and illegal activities are often
The formal sector affords to manage only marginal
due to either non-applicability of existing regulations or
cult of the unemployed population although it is an
annihilating laws.
informal/unorganized sector which perceived in past
Further, the economic conditions, lack of educatiorL
and is increaslngly recognized as an alternative source of
employment in today's world. Howevet, the in{ormal/ lack of interest and lack of vocation knowledge are the
unorganized sector have prominent of problems like job everyday examples of in{ormal sector. Despite the fact
security, sociai security, the stability of living, migratior;
that the problems of the informal sector are growing
child labour, and exploitation of working women. The globally especially in the third world countries alike in
worries in the informal sector are mounting and seem Indian informal sector has reached up to the alarming
to be unbroken day by day. situation where the protection of rights of labour force
has become compulsory. It is increasingly realized that
It is to be believed that informal sector was an
lack of reliable statistics on the size, distribution and
important source of earning livelihood since time
economic contribution of the in{ormal sector has been a
immemorial as there was few formal way of doing
major constraint in providing a realistic understanding
business in earlier times and rare alternate source
of employment. The sector has served the society at the
of the significance of the economy and wQrkmen
condition in the informal sector, which leads to its
time when there was no another source of employment,
neglect in development planning.
people then'as-well-as now has relied much on this
sector to earn their livelihood through hard toil and
skilled work. The informal sector is all about work a. Examine the impact of industrialization and
which people carry out other than recognized work urbanization on family stoucture. (CSE,2016)
and the work performed in formal sectors. The sector is Ans: Industrialisation came about around the late
mostly concerned with the classes of people who fail to 18th century and early 19th century. Industrialisation
get enrployment in organized sectorf organized sector, refers to the shift form an agricultural economy to one
due tci incompetency in educatiory lack of interest and that is based on factory production. Industrialisation
professionalism, ultimately such job seekers goes for the was considered as a factor that transformed British
altgrnative source of employment to earn income, which society in many respects. It is said to have had an effect
does not fall under-recognized work that falls under the on the family structure but many sociologist disagree
name of an informal f worganized sector. to what degree it changed the family structuie. Parsons
In the in{ormal sector workers are not administered claimed that industrialisation caused the transformation
with social security benefits and employment concession from extended family households to a nuclear family
like the employers provide to their workers in the formal household.
 INDUSTRIALISATION AND URBANISATION ]d': 299
According to Parsons, after industrialisation the life. It has also institutionalized the functioning of the
family became nuclear, it had become structurally sociai institutions. The institutions of family, religion,
isolated from wider family and they had no binding morality, marriage, state, property have been changed.
obligation the their wider kinship, also due to the Modern technology has also shifted the industry from
change in structure and demands of the family the the household. As a result, some radical changes have
industrial nuclear family has lost some of its functions been witnessed in the family organization.
to other institutions such as school and health services.
Parsons believed that because industrial society required a. Issues relating to the informal labour rnarket
a geographically mobile work force a geographically in urban India. (CSE, 2015)
mobile family is needed, according to Parsons it was a
Ans: An overwhelmingly large percentage o{
major reason why the family has become nuclear large
workers (about 92 per cent) are engaged in informal
three generational families cannot relocate easily, but
employment and a large majority of them have low
nuclear families could.
earnings with limited or no social protection. This is
Also geographical mobility led to increase in true for a substantial proportion of workers in the
urbanization that is when households move from rural organized sector as well. Over half the workers are self-
areas to towns in order to satisfy the demand for labor
employed, largely with a poor asset-base, and around 30
and find better job. It is found that the urbanization per cent are casual labourers seeking employment on a
in society is responsible for structural changes in the daily basis. In informal labour, levels of education and
pattern of family as whole and observations are as professional and vocational skills are extremely low"
follows- Less than 30 per cent of the workforce has completed
o In the first place various agencies of socialization secondary education or higher, and less than one-tenth
have stolen many functions of the family. have had vocational training, either formal or informal.
o Secondly it may be concluded that the marriage is Although these figures based on NSSO surveys
considered not as a sacred one but a social contract. do not capture many types of skills that are in{ormally
It has been found that, divorces and separation are acquired, it still suggests that skill-acquisition is
on the increase. generally very low.
o Much distress has been witnessed in the social Disadvantaged social groups such as Scheduled
relationships between husband and wife. No doubt, Castes (SCs), ftheduled Tribes (STs), OBCs and Ivluslims
the technology has elevated the social status of are mostly concentrated in low-productivity sectors such
women in the family. But at the same time it has asagriculture, construction etc and in low-paying jobs as
put the fabric of social relationships at stake. casual labourers and are concentrated in petty so-called
o One of the starking changes which has been low productive self-employment. There is an overlap
observed that religion has also lost ground. People between poverty and poor quality of employment as
are becoming more secular, rational and scientific well.
but less religious in their outlook. Some inventions The increasing'informalization' of employment
have also weakened the very roots of the religion. has gradually eroded the strength of trade unions"
o Rampant increase of criminal activities and state As sucfu the space for collective bargaining has been
authority has also become weaker. shrinking. Recent years have witnessed a significant
o Most importantly it is observed that, nuclear family rise in industrial unrest in several new manufacturing
is considered as a direct outcome of social change. units, which poses a challenge for industrial peace, ani
r Women have more opportunity to enter the work- is detrimental to the growth of the manufacturing sector.
force, which helps the family financially, while also The challenges of employment in India are
increasing the women's independence. complex and are not reflected in the low levels of
o The families suffer from increased stress arising out open unemployment. The most important challenge
of the heightened conflict between the demands of is the large number of 'working poor' and under-
family and work. They live in unhealthy housing: employed engaged in low-productivity activities in the
it's overcrowded, polluted. Often it's thby're living unorganized sectors and their vulnerability. They suffer
in shanty or slum conditions. from high health-risks as well as lack of safety standards.
,*t
It may be concluded that there is a huge and direct The unequal access of women to employment, and
impact of social change on the fundamental structure discrimination in the labour market, poses yet another
and the way of functioning of social institutions. The challenge.
way of life has been highly changed and affected and Regulatory interventions in informal enterprises
we see that technology is considered as a powerful tool should ensure that a minimum quality of employment
of social change. It has drastically changed the way of is maintained and basic rights of workers are respected.
300 ,irrr SOCIOLOGY I &A

Appropriate policies and measures to address the Most of urban migrants work in informal sector
issue of education and skills acquisitiory and of skills such as.servicing the upper middle class, working in
mismatches need to be urgently put in place. small businesses, garment production units, rickshaw-
Given the widespread insecurity of livelihoods, pullers and construction labourers. In this scenario their
it is extremely important to provide a minimum income is not standard and they are subjected to various
level of social security to all workers, which will forms of exploitation making their livelihood in Urban
certainly promote flexibility. Combined with better sector in miserable condition.
public provision of educational and medical services,
a universal and portable social protection floor could a. Discuss the impact of globalisation on the
function as an important instrument in pushing the workers in the Informal sector. (CSE, 2014)
economy on to the high road of not only rapid but also Ans: Globalization of a country generates new
more inclusive and sustainable growth. employment opportunities and markets, which largely
contribute to the informalisation of the workforce in
a. Give a sociological analysis of the problems 'the economy.
of migrant urban poor. (CSE, 2014) However, evidence indicates that it has neither
Ans: Migration and slums are inextricably linked, created quality employment, nbr have they helped the
as labour demand in cities and the resulting rural to most disadvantaged entrepreneurs to exploit the new
urban migration creates greater pressures to market opportunities.
accommodate more people. The basic problem is Kalyan Sanyal see in{ormal sector as structured by
establishing identity result in a loss of access to the particular pattern of economic growth that is taking
entitlements and social services. Lack of identification place as a result of the globalization of capital.
means migrants are not able to access provisions such Martin Rama and Martha Alter Chen observed that
as subsidized food, fuel, health services, or education the irLformal sector workers are one of the most severely
that are meant for the economically vulnerable sections affected owing to no labor law protection cover. The
of the population. sector tends to enlarge during economic reforms and
Amitabh Kundu, widely cited in Asian migration crisis due to down-sizing or closing of public or private
and urban poverty studies, has pointed out that urban enterprises.
poverty may not be wholly or even ptedominantly a They work under highly exploitative, low paid
function of rural-urban migration. and low social security conditions, owing to their low
Economic deprivation is not the most critical factor human capital capabilities, and hence are more exposed
in migration. The relatively better off/better informed to economic upheavals.
among the rural population are those who are able to Further, globalization has some negative impacts
actually move to cities and towns. on workers in informal sector like the incidence of
The single most significant factor impacting on poverty is higher among the unorganized sector
urban poverty appears, on this view, to be educatiorL workers, which is greater among the socially backward
which again is related to the kind of work that one worker groups.
gets: the poorest households are those employed as Growth rate in average wage earnings do not
casual labourers, or unemployed, and this holds across reflect transmission of growth benefits to the workers
all migration categories as well as size class of urban in the unorganized sector either. In fact, a negative
centres. growth in average wages has been recorded in urban
Further, the fertility behavior of migrants changes areas. Significant gender gap in wages is found to exist
when migrants are exposed to the urban way of life. The within and across regions among the casual labourers,
modern urban inJluences stimulate them to accept new which perpetuates gender inequity. This again raises
family norms, post pone child bearing and raise the age doubts about the inclusiveness of the country's recent
of marriage. Another social consequence of migration is growth.
the change in the occupational status of the migrants. Informal sector is an emerging occupational sector
Migration ensures horizontal and vertical rhobility and in urban centers of developing countries for those people
related changes. who are mostly less skilled and illiterate, subjected to
,An important social consequence of migration is its various kinds of discrimination and facing numerous
effect on the processes of acculturation and adjustment problems in their day-to-day life.
and integration of migrants in the receiving areas. In the Thus, sociologists are not boihered about the
new urban setting the migrants get accultured into the informal sector contribution to the economy there are
urban ways of life and adjusted to it by their ability to more worried about the problems faced by workers in
participate and perform new roles and activities. inlormal economy.
 INDUSTRIALISATION AND URBANISATION .XI 301

a. Green Revolution 2013)

(CSE, Various characteristics of child labor are that they
Ans: Green revolution refers to the process of become.a part of inJormal sector employment. There is
application of HYV seeds in the Indian agriculture. no regulation. They work for long hours. They get low
It was a whole package consisting of 11YV seeds, wages and get exploited. They are made to do hazardous
pesticides, insecticides, p.op", irrigaiion facilities and works in some industries such as mining, quarrying, bidi
cheap credit. rolling, glass works, gem cutting, etc. They are at greater
Green Revolution made India self sufficient in food risk than adults because they lack work experience and
production. It also led to the breakdown of ]ajmani their body, mind and personalities are still growing.
system and converted the feudal structure to capitalist In India, 55% of child labor is in Andhra Pradesh,
structure. This has changed the rural way of life liading Karnataka, Maharashtra and UP. Most of the child labor
to rural prosperity urrd thei, demand of consume-r comes from deprived sections of society such as SC, ST
durables also boosted the economy. and Muslims'
But, a study by Francine Frankel has shown that Challenge is not just to end the child labor but to
the technology of green revolution is not scale neutral. move children from work to education that to quality
Till 10 u.r"r, ih" benefits are proportional to the land education. Right to education can play a Sreat role here.

Hr;:*llft,llincreasedtheinequaritvbetweenrich f,l"#;:;iil:T:i,i:,il,ffi'#;,:X#i:,'#Ti::
Another study by S.S. Gill has shown that it was that they don't use child labor for manufacturing and
not resource neutral ind those having more resources also society must avoid using goods made by child labor.
gained at the cost of those having fewer resources. Thus,
leading to increasing land alienition. Q. Write an analytical note on slums in cities?
Monetization of rural economy was accompanied (CSE, 2013)
by inflation. Wages increased but the inflation increase Ans: Slums are the deprived urban settlements
was much more than the wage increase. Thus, green which suffer from social, economic and cultural
revolution led to depeasantization and proletarianization deprivations. These are marked by lack of inadequate
of the peasants' housing, unsafe and insufficient water supply,
Gradually, the agriculture became more capital inadequate transport facilities, improper hygiene,
intensive and many farmers demanded subsidies to ,rr".r.rploy-ent, poverty, improper ioiid waste
make their agriculture viable. This gave rise to the
farmer's movement in India which finally led to OBC
-urrrg"*"nt and high occupancy per room. For
in Greater Mimbai ttre average occupancy is
reservation as suggested by Mandal Commission. "rur1p1",
5.5 persons per room. Irrof. Ramachandran describes
Finally, this also led to environmental degradation slums as unwanted elements in urban space and are
and ecological consequences such as desertification, notorious for drug addictions, streetcorner gangs and
droughts and decrease in water table. Now, the a curse to urban social life. Also, they are ,e"ady to act
productivity in green revolution areas has stagnated as rioters in communal Clashes (Veena Das).
and it is planned to start a second green revolution in MSA Rao also views them as negative development
eastern India" using the modernization approach. According to Rao,
slums are created by both the push and pull factors.
a' Child Labor (CSE, 2013) Pu[ factors are the better standard of liv1ng and job
Ans: It refers to the children below the age of 15 opPortunities in urban areas"
years permanently leading adult life working long hours Push factors are the low standard of living and
for low wages under conditions damaging to their health lack of opportunities in rural areas. But, in reality, the
and their physical and mental development, separated migrated people from rural areas don t get employment
from their families and deprived of education that can and thus end up living in slums and work in informal
open rnore avenues for them. Children are preferred sector. Child labor is very common among people living
as they are docile, have nimble fingers and don't form in slums.
trade unions. Bu! there is a positive side also. Many sociologists
Poverty is both the cause and consequence of child view slums as lifeline of urban Many o1 its
labor. Less employment opportunities force parents to residents serve the urban people ""oro*y.
as rnaid servants,
engage their children in child labor. Thus, it is directly washermery sweepers, etc.
linked with the development of the economy. As Dreze It provides a training ground for new entrants in
a1d Se1 has pointed out that the irrelevance of school the urban economy ar-,d a source of cheap living for the
education is also forcing the parents to drop the children poor. Therefore, from functionalist point of view, the
out of school leading to child labor. slums have functional utility for socilty.
 302 ;* SoclolocY Q&A

To solve the problem of slums, there is a need for Middle classes, who form the new entrepre-neural
coordinated efforts. First of all, the share of formal sector class, by their work and talent have made recognition
employment must increase fror'r-T% to at least 7O%. k in this n€w class structure. People from various classes
will provide more employment, lead to rise in wages and communities are included in this middle class.
and will tackle poverty. This class mainly consists people related with white
Moreover, the level of useful education needs to collar occupation e.g. doctor, lawyer, manager/ software
be increased along with improvement in their hygiene engineer, teacher, pro-fessor, banker etc. This middle
levels. Schemes for low cost housing such as RAY must class has established significant recognition in this new
be implemented promptly for their upliftment. class structure.
This class has grown in number due to development
a. Discuss the factors which contributed to of modern education. Growing middle. cl.ass in this
industrial modernization in India. What are new class struc-ture has made great contribution'in
the salient features of new industrial class the field of industrial modernization. Even today,
structure? (CSE,20\21 capitalists and industrialists have main position in class
hie-rarchy. This is followed by the upper and lower
Ans: Process of industrialization in India had began
during period of English govemance. In beginning stage,
middle class. On third level, there are farmers and
laborers. Development of traCe and commerce has also
Gujaratis and Parsis had command on Indian industries
but moving forward, this has included the Marwari and reduced the possibility of clear stratification under this
com-munities. Industrial modernization has increased in
new class structure.
iast two-three decades. Today, due to primacy of achieved statuses in
There are so many factors responsible for Industrial society, class structure does not get stability because of
modernization in India e.g. entrepre-neurship, policies of availability of enormous opportunities but changes has
govemment, globalization, liber alizatton, increasing level also come in this structure as compared.to past;
of education, new invention etc. New economic policy
of Indian government in 1991 has majorly influenced a. Have the new economic policy and economic
the pace of fast industrial modernization. By ending reforms led to weakening of labour class
license raj, a libqralized form has given to industries. On movements? Explain your views with example.
other side, the process of globalization has expanded to (csE,2012)
the industrial modernization. New machines have been Ans: In recent years labor class movements has
developed with the help of new techniques which has been extensively affected from new economic policies
resulted into more production in less time. and economic reforms. After 1991., proposal of ending
Investment of capital and exchange of technology license-quota-permit-raj under ney{ economic policy by
due to globalization has played major role in industrial government for radical changes in economy gave a new
modernization. Due to information revolution, work picture. Today a competitive environment has developed
has been performed with fast speed and this increases in the market. Coming rip of competitive companies in
production, productivity and quality. Due to deve- market for the production due to increasing economic
lopment of educatiorl young populations have their skills activities have weakened the labor class movements.
enhanced with new technology and art of management. Labour movement was started to check the exploifation
This has also played major role in Industrial of labor under big industries. But due to liberalized
modernization. In total, new situation has emerged policies of government, j:rvestment in frSUs, role of labor
for the development for commerce and trade, which moments have weakened.
has provided concrete form to this process of modemization. Today in this era of market economy a compe-titive
During first two decades after independence, environment has developed for the produc-tion. Today,
investments in industries and technologies in basic reduction has come in exploitative aspect of labor due to
and heavy industries have come on large scale due to automation and rational process of production. Role of
which industrial processes have grown and a private labor class movement is dimi-nishing due to formation
entrepreneur class has emerged. A new class structure of new laws in the interest of labors and because of
has developed in India due to coming of five year plans, better implemen-tation of law. Comparatively, a less
progranunes and developmental policies. exploitative system has emerged before labor due to
+1
Number of small & medium classes of entrepreneurs labour friendly policies of production. Today owner of
having relatively high social background has grown. At process of produc-tion also knows that if there will be
large extent, the roots of social emergence of these new any reduction in the benefit of labor, then it will affect
entrepreneur classes are inherent in traditional business production and labor can move to any other company.
castes or communities. Due to this, interest of labor is kept in mind.
 INDUSTRIALISATION AND URBANISATION i 303
Today iabor classes are being limited mainly to informal sector and being poor. A higher percentage of
established formal organizations. 70% of the total women and men working in informal sector.
labor organizations are limited to established formal A laige number of workers and producers in
organization which is only L0% o{ total labor force. Today the informal sector are linked to the global economy
excessive increase in in-formal sector of production has in various ways including garments, textiles, shoes,
also weakened labor organizations. Decrease in number electronics, work in export processing zones, from their
of PSUs and increase in foreign industrial units has homes under employment arrangements.
also weakened labor organizations. Today mostly labor Thus a global commodity chain is in the network
organizations are related with big industries like textiles, that links the labour, production and distribution
and jute etc. The increased importance given to Foreign process that result in one commodity and product. Such
Investment and the high rate of growth attempted by networks link individual workers with enterprises
the Government, has made it frown upon militant trade operating under both formal and informal arrangements
union activity. Foreign investers, too, frown upon trade spread over several countries. The net result has been
union activity. The labour problem in the Manesar unit incompatiblity with economic growth and many self
of Maruti-Suzuki is a fine example. employed producer facing increased competition or
loss of markets.
Q. What are the linkage points between globa-
lisation and the growth of informal sector? a. Rapidurbanisation and sustainable development
How have these affected the nature of the do not go together. Discuss with argument.
working class? (CSE,2011) (csE,2011)
Ans: In a broader sense globalisation encompasses Ans: The increasing proportion of a nation's
all types of economic and cultural transfers between population living and working in urban areas is
nations. In a narrower sense it refers to the economic becoming a problem for sustainable development.
exchange of goods and services internationally. Urbanisation follows economic growth and people
concentrating in urban areas because this is where new
Global trade and investment patterns are having
investment and new jobs are being created.
a dramatic impact on employment relations and
work arrangemdnts around the world. But there is no In many ways urbanisation is also a reflection of
economic success. It reflects the increasing proportion
single meaning of econmic globalisation for the global
of GDP generated by industry and services and the
workforce. Its impact can be both negative and positive
increasing proportion of the labour force working in
and differs.by context, by industry and trade and by
industry and services.
employment status. Some of those who work in the
Urbanisation does not simply following economic
informal economy have been able to find new jobs or
growth but also serves to support it. New enterprizes
new markets for thier product while others have lost
concentrate in cities because they benefit from many
jobs or markets. Moreover, many workers have seen
economies of scale for their own operation and benefit
thier wages decline, their working condition deteriorate
from all the other firms and services and skilled people
or their work load has increased.
located there.
Over the past two decades, employment in the For government, it is also a lot cheaper to provide
informal economy has risen rapidly in all regions of the in{rastructure and services as these are also large
developing world and various forms non-standard economies of scale or proximity for providing roads,
employment have emerged in developed world. In piped water supply, electricity, etc. All these causing
developing world growing economies have experienced increasing concentration of people and enterprises
substantial growth of modern sector employment. in very cities and poverty else r,r.,here. During 2007
Flowever, in the wake of the recent financial crisis most urbanisation all over the world has also crossed rural
of these countries also experienced a substantial decline population.
in formal wage employment. The urban concentration of people, industries,
Globalisation also tends to privilege large companies motor vehicles and wastes, etc. producing disastrous
who can capture new markets easily to the disadvantage health problems like choleral, diarrhoeal diseases, air
of small informal mocro entrepreneurs who face pollutiorg death from accidents. Urban life is becoming
diffictilties in gaining knowledge of emerging markets. poor, hasty, brutish and short. Cities are no\ / being
In sum, globalisation puts pressure on low skilled blamed for global warming, asTO-80% greenhouse gases
workers and petty producers by weakening their are being produced here. Slums are also developing
bargaining power and subjecting them to increasing rapidly and hence the sustainable development of cities
competition. There is also link between working in the are in fragile condition.
304 rsi' soctolocY e &A

Thus, there is need to be far more innovative in The SEZ policy was seen as a way to favor trade
thinking, how to make cities livable and sustainable. and foreign investment without having to implement
There is also need to proper planning of cities. The major politically sensitive reforms, notably with regard to labor
cause of most of the environmental problems in cities is laws.It has met with varied types of social reactions
the rapid growing human population. This population based on its positive and negative effects.
must be divested somewhere and this can be done The SEZ Act 2005 underscored the government's
through proper developmeirt of small cities and providing comrnitment to economic growth and greater integration
them with all facilities of economic development. in global markets, and thus private sector particularly
the business community has been positively proactive
a. Bring out the relationship between social thereafter.
class and mortality. (CSE,2011) According to structure-functional approach of T.
Ans: Differences in mortality are well documented Parsons , dynamics in economic subsystdm is bound to
in various part of the world by social class. Mortality show ramifications in social system too.
rate in a society is calculated by number of deaths per The SEZ policy has brought about considerable
1000 people. This mortality rate in a society is calculated improvements in the lives of people in various ways.
by number of deaths per 1000 people. This mortality For instance, lots of foreign'investment has paved
rate is found to be vary in different social class groups. way for increased state spending for social sector
However in India mortality rate is declining since programs.
independence. During 1921 mortality rate in India was Education and health indicators have been steadily
36.3 but now it has declined to 8.2. This rate is still high rising thereby improving lifestyle standards as a whole.
in comparison to other cleveloped counkies of the world. Creation of urban agglomerations and commercial
However, in India mortality rate is more concerned with centres has created job opportunities for the educated.
socio-economic status of a class and lifestyles. It is having a positive overall impact on the e'merging
It has been found that mortality rate is more high middle class family structure of India.
in lower income class and poorer section of the society However there also have been shortcomings leading
and it is quite high more particularly in tribals, poor to various kinds of protests around the country.For
backward castFs etc. Mortality rate is also high in labor example, land is by far the most contentious issue, as
groups. The main reason for high mortality rate in it crystallizes other major development issues, notably
lower income class is due to various reasons such as livelihoods.
low level of health facilities, lack of nutrition, facilities The conversion of agricultural lands into
against several deadly diseases and tra.ditional customs manufacturing or service units does not necessarily
and beliefs, etc. provide ernployment opportunities for those who have
Contrary to this low level of mortalitv rate is found lost their land, in practice it usually does not. Most
in higher income group class because of good health farmers do not even hold legal titles to the ground they
facilities accessibilities, proper health awareness and till and this leads to compensation and rehabilitation
nutrition. However, the problem of obesity and thereby complexities.
death have been found in higher incorne groups also. Marxist approach typically points this out as
This is happening due to improper lifestyles but overall t ourgeoisie-favouring policies.
mortality rate is higher in lower income class. Also,there are numerous cases of collective
If we consider mortality rate among various ownership, especially in the case of indigenous "tribal"
religious groups in India then mortality rate is more groups, as in Orissa. Here the joint family structure of
in Muslim community. The main reasons for tlris are the small groups is affected. In most of the cases anti-
prevalence illiteracy, unemployment, etc. At the same SEZ activists target the state, accusing it giving priority
time lowest mortality rate ha-s been found in Christians to private corporate houses, Indian or foreign, against
and Jains-because these communities are socio- the people. This was the case in Nandigram in West
economically more developed in comparison to other Bengal.
communities. Increasing regional inequalities, both between and
within states, is another.contentious issue surrounding
a. 'zones)
Evaluate the policy af SEZ (special economic SEZ policy. As there are no restrictions on where SEZs
and the nature of social response can locate nor incentives to set-up in lagging areas
to it. (CSE,2010) and so, they have concentrated in the most developed
Ans: An SEZ is a geographical region that has regions of the country where infrastructure quality is
economic laws that are more liberal than a countrv's the best, thereby widening the inequality both in terms
typical economic laws. of social and economic parameters.
 TNDUSTRTALTSATION AND URBANISATTON rr.r..,. 305
Added issues of migration lead to other social Conservatives point out to the lifestyle diseases,
problems like exploitation, crime and disguised migration and unchecked westernization are the
employment.Also,since the policy doesn't attract hallmarks of the youth working in BPO industry.
manufacturing sector its not labor intensive and BPO sector in India have definitely given youth
hence not able to generate sufficient levels of mass an opportunity to earn, it has given them financial
employment. independence but there also are the various side-effects
And so the issue of an agrarian society moving mentioned above. It becomes important, therefore to
towards becoming a developed society has been educate and guide the youth in this regard along with
the centre of the sociological debate. An inclusive proper policy regulations for the industry as well, so
development approach clubbed with gradual social that it proves to have maximum positive and minimum
change alone can ensure derivation of sustainable ill-effects on the Indian youth. Society and industry both
have an equally important role to play.
benefits for policies such as those for SEZs.

a. From a sociological perspective, examine the a. Colonial hangover and its social impact.
(csE,2009)
effects of the BPO industry on the youth.
(csE,2010) Ans: Socio-cultural change in India under the
impact of colonial rule i.e. British rule, presents
Ans: The BPO industry, which added to the important facet of socio-cultural dynamics. India has
booming growth to Indian economy has created multiple always been a highly traditional society and it is only
new effects in the society. Among them, the effects on through colonial impact the process of modernization,
youth are a vital part of the sociological analysis owing both technological and cultural, was initiated into Indian
to its wider ramifications on the social system. BPO society. With the advents of British rule, new structures
is not just an economic experience but has proved to developed in India. During 18th century British rule in
deeply influence the Indian youth across the following India introduced modified system of land settlements
dimensions. such as Zamindari, Mohalwari, Ryatwari.
Better employment to the educated graduates and Similarly modern army, police force and
more job opportunities are creating a sense of confidence administrative system reached India after the
in the youth, whiqh is a progressive development. There consolidation of colonial rule. The introduction of
is an opportunity for greater gender equality because modem legal system with organized courts substantially
of the nature of BPO industry which is technology or changed the judicial practices in the country. The
skill intensive rather than labour intensive. Thus it is establishment of educational institutions was a far
also paving'way for women empowerment on a long reaching consequence. Because prior to British rule there
term basis. As the country is moving towards a more was a traditional system of schooling which rt as not
globalized world, the BPO industry is acting as an open for all. The education was also the privilege of a
interface and opening up newer horizons of thought and handful people belonging to high caste groups. But the
interaction thereby encouraging the youth to embrace very important aspect of education was the introduction
modernity. Modernity as an idea is bound to have of English language and secular education. The english
language introduced by the British rule provided
positive impact on the youth and help the generation
a window to the outside world. It also facilitated
in overcoming parochial ideas and identities, thereby
exposure to a new value system based on egalitarianiim,
reducing a number of problems like caste politics,
rationalism and secularism. The introduction of new
communalism, etc.
and modern means of transport and communication
At a smaller level, presence of jobs in sectors contributed to increase in spatial and social mobility.
like BPO industry motivates the youth to strive for The new printing technology, postal services and radio
professional competence and thus strengthening of introduced by colonial rule helped in dissernination of
educational system takes place which by itself opens up ideas. This began a new social awakening and became
various other opportunities. Flowever Marxian approach hagfinger of radical social change. The introduction of
points out that BPO industry is an enslavement of youth new penal code not only brought changes in the legal
to for the profits of multinationals. Feminist sociologists system and distribution of justice but it also directly
claim BPO industry is leading to feminization of labor. attacked the traditional discriminatory Hindu law.
Also the vulnerability of female workers to various The principle of equality before law was established
issues like sexual harassment, lesser pay etc, are not along with a uniform legal system throughout India. The
leading to desirable levels of women empowerment. process of industrial ization and urbanization introduced
Some sociologists point out at the breakdown of by British rule facilitated new determinants of social
family structure due to the nature of work, ill effects of status. The concept of nationalism also gradually
modernity like alcoholism, loss of traditional values etc. emerged in India due to all these changes.
306 ffi soctoLocYe&A
The impact of colonial rule also facilitated the indigenous technology for the development of housing
emergence of a new westernize elite that replaced for the people of slums. The basic ideology behind the
the traditional elite of Indian society. This new elite problem of slums need a careful examination.
equipped and inspired by a new ideology and value The civic authorities generally take the view that
system looked at its own society in a different way. those who illegally occupy public land should not be
It reinterpreted Hinduism and caste system in a provided with any infrastructure services. AIso the
progressive and more human way. This ultimately industrialists, traders recruit a large number of unskilled
became a harbinger of a new social order. Thus, the people belonging to slums but they do not provide them
impact of colonial rule, immensely contributed to the basic facilities like housing inspite of getting cheap
cultural and technological modernization of India. labour.
But these changes did not take place through the total Thus, there is need to give them responsibilities
replacement of traditional structure. to care about their labourers. At preserrt people living
in slum have right to vote but have no claim for civic
a. Possibilities of slum reform (CSE, 2009) amenities. There should be a whole programme of
Ans: The phenomenon of slum has become a major meeting the minimum needs of poor.
problem of urbanization and no Indian city is free from It is also need to provide them employment and
slums. It appears to be more acute in metropolitan cities. basic services at nominal cost with subsidized rate.
The Indian cities are facing th6 problem of slums due to Slum population can also be resettled in the peripheral
population explosion and migration of large number of areas and make them to settle near their work places as
people from the rural areas to urban centres. adopted by Madras Corporation in settling fishermen
As a result the problems of slums have become near the Marina beach.
an inevitable part of the metropolitan cities in India. There is also some section of people living in
According to 2001 census data, more than 600 town and slums who want to move out from slum and build
cities in 26 states and Union territories have reported houses. These are the people who are in salaried jobs.
slum population in India. They must be provided with cheap plots or housing on
It is also a well known fact that people in slum reasonable rents. The concerned municipality and the
areas are living under the most deplorable socio- employing agencies together should taken the lead in
economic and health conditions with little or no access this direction.
to healthcare sewices, potable water, sanitation facilities Some of the casual labourers like to move to near
and are therefore more vulnerable to epidemics and by suitable areas, they should be allowed to move in
Hrv/AiDS. groups. These must be provided financial assistance
Their low socio-economic status, low level of in building home. The growth of new slums and
education, etc. indicate that these slums affected areas deterioration of the conditions of existing slums need
need special attention in public health of cities and to be controlled through coordinated planning. Other
towns. The problem of slums is also associated with important way of stopping the further growth of slums
social problems like crime, deliquency, prostitution, is discouraging the inflow of migration into cities.
gambling, etc. This can be done through long term economic plan
But this problems of slum can be solved if proper by developing rural areas and small towns. The lalrdless
attention by private and government sector would be agricultural labourer must be provided employment in
taken jointly. This can be done through utilizing low cost the rural areas.

t..t *,
 CHAPTER

Q. Analyse the sociological interconnections be- Social media has become an effective instrument
tween Social Media and Mass Mobilization in for public mobilisation in India. It has impacted political
India. (CSE 2023) debate, democratised the flow of information, and
been instrumental in a number of social movements.
Ans: In India, social media has become a potent
To make sure that it has a beneficial impact on social
instrument for public mobilisation. It has been crucial in
development, there are a few issues with its use that
influencing political discourse, forming public opinion,
must be resolved.
and inspiring individuals to take up issues.There are
several ways to examine the sociological relationships
between mass mobilisation and social media. a. How do you account for the increasing
significance of religion in public and pi:rsonal
Sociological interconnections between Social Media spheres in the context of secularisation thesis
and Mass Mobilization
in India? Explain. (CSE 2023)
. In-formation flow has become more democratic due
Ans: One of the main theories in sociology is the
to social media. In contrast to conventional media, secularization thesis, which holds that religion loses
which is frequently dominated by a small number influence in all spheres of social life and government
of people, social media platforms let anybody post as countries develop, especially via industrialization
content and voice their opinions.
and rationality. Nonetheless, this notion is called into
. As a result, the underrepresented and underprivi- question by the growing importance of religion in India,
leged groups in society have gained a voice and a nation that i's rapidly modernizing, both in the public
have mobilised. For example, the social media-driven and private domains.
#MeToo campaign inlndia sparked widespread mo-
bilization against sexual harassment in the workplace. Religion in the Public and.Private Sphere
. Numerous social movements in India have benefited . Even with India's Constitution's commitment to
greatly from the use of social media. It has been secularism, religion is a major topic of discussion
employed to plan protests, raise awareness of the in public life. This is seen by the way that religicxrs
problems, and mobilise people. identities are mobilized for political purposes, how
. Political discourse in India has been greatly impacted religious groups shape public policy, and how often
by social media. Political leaders and parties have acts of community violence break out.
utilized it to spread their ideas, gather support, and . Contrary to what the secularization theory would
interact with the public. suggest, these events appear to be increasing.
. People may now participate in online public forums . For example, religious symbols and discourses are
where they can discuss and debate a wide range of often employed in public speeches and rallies, and
topics thanks to social media. As a result, communi- political parties routinely exploit religious identities
ties have sprung up online, which frequently lead to to rally voters. Additionally, religious institutions
offline mobilization. have a big impact on p.ublic policy, particularly in
However, there are a number of difficulties with fields like personal law and education.
using social media for mass mobilization. It may result . The secularization thesis forecasts a fall in private
in the dissemination of false information and fake news; religious activities and beliefs as pedple grow more
which might spark violence and stir up civil discontent. logical and scientific. Nonetheless, religion still has a
Additionally, it can result in trolling and online abuse, big influence on people's identities, way of life, and
which stifles free expression. worldviews in India.
308 ,::t SOC|OLOGY e &A

' Religious festivals and rituals, for instance, aie exten- . Existence of pressure groups in society is a valida-
sively observed, and religious convictions frequent$ tion of Pluralistic Elite Theory given by Robert Dahl,
influence choices about nutrition, marriage, and Hunter and others and pressure groups act as mul-
other facets of daily life. tiple power centers in modern liberal democracies.
. India is becoming more urbanized. People are sepa- ' Pressure groups act as vehicles of mobilization of
rated from their relatives in metropolitan settings. masses and hence promote political, social and
They lack the identity, close-knit ties, and group of administrative participation. They have, in a way,
people that stand together collectively. A religious deepened the roots of participative democracy.
cult offers each of these advantages. Through shared r Pressure groups enable new concerns and issues to
religious beliefs, interpersonal relationships fostered reach the political agenda, thereby facilitating social
by feasts, prayers, and group dances, they form a Progress and preventing social stagnation.
cohesive and cohesive group identity. ' For example, the women's and environmentalist
. The emergence of new religious practices like yoga movements, farmer movements related to msp and
anci meditition, as well as the popularity of spiiituil women empowerrnent especially in Maharashtra, etc.
gurus, point to a transition of religion rather than Methods Used by Pressure Groups
its demise. Pressure groups may use a variety of methods to
A paradox of secularization may be observed in the pursue their requirements. These include -
growing irnportance of religion in India's public and . Lobbying state members and the Parliament via
private domains. On the one hand, religious plurality petitions, letters and deputations;
and variety have flourished because of the secular state. . Consulting with ministers or senior public servants;
However, the secular state's lack of bias towards religion . Hiring professional lobbyists;
has made it possible for religious identities and disputes . Taking legal action through injunctions or appeals
to be discussed in public. to higher courts;
The peculiarities of Indian secularism, which empha- . Campaigning for, or opposing, certaincandidates at
sizes treating all religions equally, rather than separat- elections;
ing religion and state, help to explain this paradox. As o Demonstrating outside parliament and government
a result, the secularization theory is called into question offices or marching in the streets; and
since religiot i? both a matter of private conviction . Using the indushLl muscle of strikes for political
"o-ry
and a matter'of public identity. purp6ses.
The oversimplified premises of the secularization In India, pressure groups are formed not only to
thesis are called into question by the growing importance promote and preserve eionomic interests, but they are
of religion in India's public and private domains. Religion also used to piotect and promote linguistic, culturai and
is a powerful influence in molding people's lives and religiouqinterestsaswell.Theyhelpinsocialintegration,
affecting public debate in a complex teriain formed by political articulation and act as a catilyst for change. Th"y,
the interaction of historical, cultural, political, and global in many ways, provide alternati.t to inadequacies of
elements. Nonetheless, the secularism of the Indian model political parties and government. "r

throughout the nation

has been generous in preserving peace and harmony RichardHeffernanraisesthepossibilitythatpressure

flT: ilil1?.il:fiJTli"1"itr;:i:i:trlf;i'";l:l
a. Discuss the role of pressure groups in strength- can lead to disappointment, which may in turn increase
ening democracy. (C9F.,20221 political disengagement.
Ans: pressure groups are forms of organizations Although pressure Sroups differentiate themselves
which exert pressuie on-the political o. udfiinirtrative from political parties, pressure groups may develop into
system of a iuntry to extraci benefits ,",
"iiil"J ra- political
platform
parties by adopting a more opery less.estri.t"d
and some pressure Broups have a special re-
vance their own interests.
lationship with a political parry, as illustrated by trade
Role of Pressure Groups unions urd th" Labor narty ln rtltuir,. Similarly, in India
' Pressute groups are formed by both dominant also,AkaliDalisanexampleof areligiouspressuregroup
groups and the deprived ones as the former push turning into a political outfit. Thus, the concept of pres-
states for economic concessions, the latter demand sure groups reflects actual working of democracy.
basic amenities in a competing environment.
' They have come up iargely in wake of scarce re- a. Discuss the changing nafure of the structure
sources and competing interests. of political elites. (CSE, ZO22l
' They are different{rom political parties in the sense Ans: Elite are the most inlruentiar and prestigious
that they don't aim at capturing power and have stratum in a society. The ,elite, are those
persons'who
more flexibility in terms of mobilization of support. are recognized as outstanding
leaders in a given field.
 There are political, religious, scientific, business, and more secular. Elites in rural areas now come from
artistic elite. all socio-economic backgrounds. For example, in
Role of Elites Northern states of Haryana and Western UP, Jats
. and some other landed OBCs are a new rural elite.
The members of an elite group have important in-
fluence in shaping the values and attitudes held by In Urban Areas
their segment of society. . In urban areas, elites now mainly consist of profes-
. WrightMills has described themas "thosewhomake sional service classes. Achieved status is the primary
decisions having major consequences, who are able factor in determining the status in urban areas where
to realise their will even if others resist, and who have opportunities are linked with personal effort.
the most of what there is to have-money, power and . Industrialization has changed the cornposition of
prestige". the elite in urban areas. Another contributing factor
Changing Nature of the Structure of Political Elites is changing consumption habits. Busineis and tradb
. leaders are gaining prominent positions. Urban areas
Political elites derive their position due to the'power
also have the advantage of education and those who
to influence'they possess. Political elites usually have
make a mark in different fields of education emerge
their unique position due to their numerical strength,
as new leaders.
their lineage, pafty affiliation, social linkages, and
The Marxian approach, which is basically non-elitist,
position in government and so on.
. ln haditional India, the political elite belonged to cer-
views the relations between the elite (privileged class
which commands power and wealth) and the non-elite
tain social groups namely Kshatriyas, royal nobility,
(classes which do not possess either of these) as based on
kings, priestly class etc. It was mainly authoritarian
and feudal. Change in elite shucture takes place as
conflict, in which effort is made to overthrow the'power
the rulers change and ideology changes.
elite' to occupy its position.
. For example, the priestly class played little role The process of overthrowing the elite in power and
during the time of Akbar, but during the Sultanate succeeding them is not always based on conflict, but that
period, their role was immense. \44ren democracy it involves manipulation, toleration, accommodation,
was adopted post-independence, the nobility also compromise and bargain too.
lost its relevance after consolidation of princely It could, therefore, be maintained that we can neither
states. Compbsition of the elite is further altered as draw from Pareto's theory of 'circulation of elite', nor
society moves towards a rational organization based from Karl Marx's theory of 'class struggle' to understand
on egalitarian and achievement based structure. the changing character of political elite in India. We have
. In a society like India where kinship ties are still to use a different approach for analysing the recruitment
very strong, casteism still plays as an electoral card. and the changing structure of the elite in India.
i
As democratic system gave power to numbers, rep-
resentatives of dominant castes assumed powerful a. Does regionalism essentially lead to decen-
roles. Emergence of new political leadership alter the tralisation of power? Substantiate your answer
decline of Congress in the 1960s marked a change with relevant examples. (CSE 2021)
in composition of the political elite as the old guard Ans: Regionalism is defined as a phenomenon where
made way for new one. people's loyalty becomes region-centric. Regionalism
. Despite significant changes, the political elite in often leads to decentralisation of power" According to
India is still characterized by nepotism, dynastic Rajni Kothari, it has made federalism more deep rooted in
rule, personality cults, regionalism and casteism. India with the rise of true multi-party politics. Regional-
Political elites have different compositions in rural ism can act as a healthy competitive force and hence fuei
and urban areas. progress. In the early phase regionalism played a key role
. In rural areas, the elite consist of well to do peas- in creation of new states such as Andhra Pradesh, Punjab,
antry, ritually superior community, dominant castes Telangana, and Jharkhand among others. This has led to
and trading class. Politics have become competitive strengthening of federal polity and distribution of power
where all sections of society vie for a share. Most of outwards. Rise of regional political parties that are centred
the people participating in politics in a village are around regional issues have given rise to coalition politics
from the dominant caste. wherein the dominant political parties are forced to make
. Kinship and caste play an important role in rural concessions which lead to political decentralisation.
politics. Education has also assumed an important Tribal regional assertion and demand for autonomy
role in rural leadership as more and more youthfrom has led to establishment of 5*1' and 6tr'Schedule Areas
rural backgrounds are exposed to the new ideas and along with extension of Panchayati Raj Institutions
beliefs. to tribal areas. Similarly Gorkha agitation has led to
. Rural elite leadership today doesn't come from devolution of certain powers to Gorkhaland territorial
ritually higher placed castes alone, it is becoming administration.
310 ):;,):,1) SOCIOLOG} e & A

However regionalism may not necessarily lead Role of Social Media in Communal Polarisation
to political decentralisation. Regional assertions by Today social merlia plays a key role in communal
North eastern tribes and by secessionist groups in polarisation. Fake news, doctored media are used to
Kashmir has led to increase in centralisation of power build a narrative against the opposing groups. Due to
which is visible in implementation of AFSPA, removal its inherent nature such information travels much faster
of article 370 and dismissal of state government/ etc. through social media. In absence of proper fact check
Similarly Khalistan movement too led to centralisation mechanism and poor digital literacy, people become
of power. prone to such disin{ormation campaigns through social
Therefore when regionalism borders around sepa- media. Due to the presence of large proportion of
ratism or secessionism then it often has a reverse impact populatiory social media is also used by political parties
and leads to centralisation of power.
to fulfill their agenda. They actively prornote communal
polarisation through social media for blectoral gdins,
a. Is social democracy a precondition for political
Lack of proper accountability mechanism and the
democracy? Comment. (CSE 2021)
anonymity provided by the internet further facilitate its
Ans: Democracy refers to a system of governance usage by anti-social elements to spread disharmony in
where people are the ultimate sovereign. It ensures the socieg.
certain rights and duties to the individual.
While political democracy ensures political rights Ways to Combat Communal Polarisation
such as right to vote, and equality before law among oth- . Digital Literacy: Promoting digital iiteracy will help
ers, social democracy seeks to secure social rights such people avoid fake news and political propaganda.
as right against untouchability, social justice, equality, . Accountability Mechanism: The recent IT Act
liberty, etc.
amendment is a step in right direction towards
According to B R Ambedkar, a society character- ensuring responsibility of social media companies
ized by inequality and social disparity cannot sustain in checking hate speech and fake news.
political democracy. He considered social democracy as . Make Spreading Fake News an Electoral Offence:
a precondition for political democracy. To him the term
social justice in real sense gives meaning and importance
It has been observed that communally charged fake
to the democratic way of life along with the rule of law news is spread during elections to gain political
and society. advantage through communal polarisation. Many
Dr. Ambedkar viewed that social democracy means times the candidates are themselves complicit in
a way of life which recognises liberty, equality and fra- it. Making it an electoral offence will help reduce
ternity'as principles of life. He regarded a favourable such incidences.
social setting as a pre-requisite for the success of democ- . Implementation of Existing Rules: Existing provi-
racy. Without this, democracy would not last long. For sions such as Section 295 A, and Section 153 A of the
example, political democracy would be meaningless if Indian Penal Code should be properly implemented
caste-based discrimination continues. with impartiality.
Political democracy is based on the principle of one Communal polarisation is one of the greatest threats
person one vote. This equality must also extend to social to democracy in India. Urgent steps must be taken to
sphere in order to ensure equal political participation by counter its spread.
all sections of the society in true sense.
Q. What do you understand by democratic
a. Discuis the role of social media in communal
federalism? How does it promote decentralization
polarisation. Suggest ways to combat it.
of power in India? (CSE 2020)

Ans: According to Ram Ahuja, Ans: Federalism is a system of government in

""--l::*#:ll
be considered as an ideology which states that society is which the same territory is controlled by two levels
divided into religious communities whose interests differ of government. Generally, an overarching national
and are at times even opposed to each other. government is responsible for broader governance of
Wh"n this consciousness of belonging to distinct larger territorial areas, while the smaller subdivisions,
communal groups deepens, leading to division of society states, and cities govern the issues of local concern.
into two or more opposing groups, it is referred to as Both the national government and the smaller political
communal polarisation. subdivisions have the power to make laws and both
At the extreme, each camp questions the moral le- have a certain level of autonomy from each other.
gitimacy of the other, viewing the opposing camp and Modern federalism is a system based upon
its policies as an existential threat to their way of liJe or democratic rules and institutions in which the power
the nation as a whole. to govern is shared between national and provincial/
 POLITICS AND SOCIETY hJ 311
state governments. In a federation, the division of power muddied-up international tradei solve the perennial
l.
between federal and regional governments is usually problems of poor education and health, and the growing
outlined in the constitution. Almost every country allows problems of environmental pollution and water scarcity.
some degree of regional self-government, in federations With scarce resources and a huge magnitude
the right to self-government of the component states is of welfare to be done, the role of planning becomes
constitutionally entrenched. Component states often significant. In India the role of planning activities
also possess their own constitutions which they may was played by the Planning Commission (until 2014),
amend as they see fit, although in the event of conflict afterwards NITI Aayog - a policy Think Tank replaced
the federal constitution usually takes precedence. Planning Commission with an aim to make planning
Democratic decentralization is the process of approach more inclusive and bottom-up.
devolving the functions and resources of the state from
the centre to the elected representatives at the lower
levels so as to facilitate greater direct participation of In India, States are expected to improve human
citizens in governance. Democratic federalism helps development, create inJrastructure, and make it easy
in decentralisation of power. It helps in operation of to do business. Along with that they are expected to
manage their financial resources efficiently and balance
democracy through discussions, dialogues and debates
for the purpose of legislation and formulation of policies. their budgets.
Democratic federalism transfers power at various However, the majority of States in India are not
horizontal and vertical levels of governance. financially self-su{ficient and most of the time that
has to depend on grants from the centre, as decided
For example, Devolution, envisioned by the
Constitution, is not mere delegation. It implies that by the Finance Commission (where states have no
representation).
precisely defined governance functions are formally
assigned by law to local governments, backed by Further, it is argued that policies formulated by
adequate transfer of a basket of financial grants and tax
NITI Aayog are based on 'One size fits all approach',
handles, and they are given staff so that they have the
most of the time they are unaware of ground realities
and have little experience of how to get things done to
necessary wherewithal to carry out their responsibilities.
produce outcomes.
Local government, including panchayats, is a state
Because of the government policy and the fear
subject in the Constitution, and consequently, the
devolution of power and authority to panchayats has of nationalisation there is less possibility of inflow
been left to the discretion of states.
of foreign capital which is very essential of the
development of private sector.
The Constitution mandates that panchayats and
municipalities shall be elected every five years and In comparison to private sector, public sector
efficiency is lacking and corruptiory. discrimination and
enjoins States to devolve functions and responsibilities
red-tapism are the evils spread in the public sector.
to them through law. A study for the Fourteenth Finance
Commission by the Centre for Policy Research shows
On one side, opportunity is given to private
sector for development birt, on the other side stringent
that all States have formally devolved powers with
respect to five core functions of water supply, sanitation,
controlling is exercised by the government to regulate
roads and communication, streetlight provision and
the functioning of private enterprises. This has an
adverse impact on the development of private sector.
the management of community assets to the gram
panchayats. Thus, India's efforts in decentralisation Problem of Concentration of Economic Power as
represent one of the largest experiments in deepening
mixed sector minimises economic concentration but in
practice the private-entrepreneurs take the advantage
democracy. India has a robust democratic structure
of government policy and accumulate wealth since both
for local governance, what we need to practice is the
the private and public sectors co-exist, the government
robust democratic culture and giving life to our existing
structure. Local bodies need to be seen as institutions of
will not be in a position to impose any stringent steps
to prevent economic concentration.
self-governance not as 'delivery mechanisms' to fulfill
Gandhi's vision of Gram Swaraj. The mixed economy cannot provide faster
development as the government simply wants to
maintain a balance between the private and public
a. Discuss in detail the main issues of development
sectors. The policies of the government are not so clear
planning in mixed economy like India.
or it facilitates to give any direction with the result, there
(csE 2020) exists non-clarity of objectives and presence of imbalance
Ans: Being a developing country, India needs to in the economy. All the stakeholders must be involved
increase employment and incomes; revive investments in the implementation of a plan in a large, diversified
and growth; untangle the financial sector; navigate and democratic country.
312 tiffi soclolocy e &A

Thus, planning should be devolved to State society apathy and corruption is to blame equally.
governments, and even to the third tier of city and Non-implementation of the universal education agenda
district governance. Indian Planning scheme requires has fbrced millions of children into work. Lack of
a transformational approach to deal with 21st century education and empowerment put the children into a
challenges. It requires new methods to speed up vicious circle of illiteracy and poverty. Neera Burra in
'organisational learning' amongst stakeholders in the her 'Born to Work: Child Labor in India, 1995' argues
system who must make plans together and implement that the middle class actively promotes child labor in
them together. search of cheap domestic help. Similarly, Niti Mishra
in her'Gender Criteria to Child Labor in India' argues
a. Point out the main causes of 'child labour' that girls are given more preference as child labor due
in India. How far the State policies have to their adaptability to household chores and suitability
succeeded in its elimination? (CSE 2020) to various industries.
For example - Bidi industry in Tamil Nadu has
Ans: Child labor is defined as any work done by a
predominantly girl child laborers. The Government
person who is under the age specified by law. The word,
of India has also adopted a new National Policy on
'work' means full time commercial work to sustain self
Children in 2013 and a Nati.onal Labor Policy in 1987
or add to the family income. ILO defines child labor as
in accordance with the constitutional mandate and the
'child labor includes children permanently leading an
prevailing legislation on chiid iabor. In 1992 India has
adult's lives.
ratified the'UN Convention on the Rights of the Child'
Wolking long hours with low wages under which implies that India will ensure wide awareness
conditions which are detrimental to the physical and on the issues of the children among the various
mental health, sornetimes separated from family'. Child
governmental and the non-governmental agencies.
labor is both an exploitative social practice as well as
Article 24 prohibits Child Labor. Supreme Court
a deep rooted social evil. Worst forms of child labor,
(SC) also in 'sivakasi PIL Case' isstied detailed
according to ILO, include - bonded labor, mining, child
guidelines. Child Labor has been banned since
prostitution, drug-trafficking. 1986 by a parliamentary Act on recommendation of
Its social causes and related factors are: Gurupadswamy Committee. SC ordered a blanket ban
. Bondagb - Children are pledged due to poverty 1n2006. The National Comrnission on Protection of Child
. Gender discrimination - Girls are more prone to Rights has also been formed to take care of child rights
be forced into child labor and strengthen the legislative and executive framework.
. Poverty - Poor parents find it difficult to take care
of children due to lack of resources and child labor
a. Comment on the changing democratic profile
is used as a survival strategy by poorer households
of Iirdia. ' (CSE-2019)
. Family size and population - Large family size Ans: India, accounting for nearly 18 per cent of the
leads to depletion of meager incomes of earning world population has been experiencing slow but steady I

hands and children are pushed into labor demographic transitioh since the second half of the last !
1
century. In recent years, however, the fertility transition
. Vulnerability of children is also a cause as they
' rarely protest and are even considered as suitable in India has accelerated resulting in rapid changes in
the age structure of the population. This change creates
for certain works like carpet weaving, bangle unique opportunities along with significant challenges
industry and so on
both for the economy and society.
. Poor welfare and social security measures taken by India has 62.5% of its population in the age group
the state of 15-59 years which is ever increasing and will be at the
. Poor wages of adult parents peak around 2036 when it will reach approximately 65%.
. Low levels of female literacy These population parameters indicate an availability
. Small uneconomic land holdings of the parents of demographic dividend in India, which started in
2005-06 and will last till 2055-56. According to Econornic
. Poor iegal framework
Survey 20L8-1.9, India's Demographic Dividend will
. High proportion of scheduled caste and scheduled peak around 2041,, when the share of working-age, i.e.
. tribe population areas 20-59 years, population is expected to hit 59%.
These causes are also coupled by systemic failure of According to United Nation's Population Fund
the government to provide a minimum social security (UNFPA), demographic dividend means, "the economic
net to parents of children who are forced to put their growth potential that can result from shifts in a
children into child labor. Administrative and civil population's age structure, mainly when the share of
 POLITICS AND SOCIETY &ffi 313
the working-age population (15 to 64) is larger than Impact of 'Swachha Bharat Abhiyaan
the non-working-age share of the population (14 and A recent WHO study reports that Swachh Bharat
younger, and 65 and older)". will lead to saving of 300,000lives by 2019 and around
150,000 lives would be saved annually thereafter.
Advantages Associated with Demographic Dividend
. In a report titled 'The Financial and Economic
Better Economic Growth: It could be brought about
Impact of SBM in India (2017)' UNICEF estimated that
by increased economic activities due to higher a household in an Open Defecation Free (ODF) village
working-age population and lower dependent in rural India saves Rs. 50,000 every year.
population. Demographic dividend has historically
Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation (BMGF) has
contributed up to 15% of the overall growth in
released a study that shows significant improvements
advanced economies.
in diarrhea prevalence and stunting among children in
. Rapid lndustrialization and Urbanization: ODF villages, compared to nearby non-ODF villages.
Because of higher number of employment seeking The rural sanitation coverage of India has increased
population that would force higher economic significantly, from 39% in October 201.4 to 95% in2018.
activities. Nearly 8.7 crore household toilets have been conskuctgd
. Rise inWorkforce: Withmore than 65% of working- under the Mission. Not only quantity but focus is being
age population, India will rise as an economic maintained on the quality of the work on the ground
superpower, supplying more than half of Asia's as well. The National Annual Rural Sanitation Survey
potential workforce over the coming decades. (NARSS) conducted under the World Bank support
. Effective Policy Making: Fine-tuning the planning project found that 93.4% of the households in rural
and implementation of schemes and programmes India who have access to a toilet use it, confirming that
by factoring in population dynamics is likely to behaviour change is happening on the ground.
yield greater socio-economic impact and larger
Contribution of NGOs in Swachha Bharat Abhiyaan
t benefits for people.
The non-governmentai organisations play a very
Challenges Associated with Demographic Dividend
crucial role in the promotion of Swachh Bharat Abhiyan.
Asymmetric Demography: The growth in the They work in direct contact with the local people.
working-age ratio is likely to be concentrated in some Keeping the city clean is everyone's duty and to ensure
of India's poorest states and the demographic dividend that people are rhade aware of this civic duty the NGOs
will be fully realized only if India is able to create play a very crucial role. In ensuring the success of this
gainful employment opportunities for this working-age cleanliness mission the NGOs play their part in the
population. following ways:
Lack of Skills: Most of the new jobs that will be . NGOs take up the task of educating the local
created in the future will be highly skilled and lack of masses, making them aware of the need to keep
skill in Indian workforce is a major challenge. their surroundings clean.
Low Human Development Parameters: India . NGOs also play a crucial role in providing toilets to
ranks 130 out of 189 countries in UNDP's Human the rural areas and the slums where there is a lack
Development Index, which is alarming. Therefore, of proper sanitation facilities.
health and education parameters need to be improved . NGOs could also adopt certain villages or areas in
substantially. Therefore, India is on the right side requirement of proper sanitation facilities and carry
of the demographic transition that provides golden on the cleanliness drive in those areas.
opportunity for its rapid socio-economic development, . NGOs could also work closely with the municipality
if policymakers align the developmental policies with to execute a daily cleaning plan in a certain area.
this demographic shift. . Many NGOs even visit schools to teach the children
the importance of cleanliness.
a. Discuss the implications of 'Swachha Bharat . NGOs can also facilitate workshops on how to
Abhiyaan'. Do you think that civil society has recycle and reuse non-biodegradable wastes into
a role to play here? Substantiate your answer livelihood programs.
with examples. (CSE-2019) . Many a times NGOs are authorized to collect money
Ans: To accelerate the efforts to achieve universal frorn houses and use it to arrange for segregation
sanitation coverage and to put focus on sanitation, the and separation of waste.
Prime Minister of India launched the Swachh Bharat . Certain NGOs from time to time conduct research
Mission on 2nd October, 201.4.The aim of Swachh Bharat on specific areas to specifically dispose waters,
Mission (Gramin) was to achieve a clean and Open improved toilets, improved composting processes
Defecation Free (ODF) India by 2nd October,2019. and manv more.
 314 tt'::::' SOCTOLOGY Q & A
. Many a times certain NGOs are given access to the 80 per cent and over 5600 newspapers and 150 major
Swachh Bharat city local circles to share community publications are published daily in over 100languages.
initiatives with the citizens and mobilize them to However it is a sad reality of Indian democracy
lend their helping hand whenever required. that many issues plague the institution i.e media.
. NCOs often take up the task to set up waste Corporatization of Indian media and promotion of selfish
management systems and monitor the same. self interests is a common phenomenon that is being
For example, NGO like Waste Warriors aim to be observed to remain sustainable in this era of digital news.
a catalyst for practical and community led Solid Waste Alignment of news organisation with political parties,
Management (SWM) initiatives in rural, urban, and thereby promoting an ideology which is biased also
protected areas and to pioneer replicable models of affects the Indian Society.
resource management, irrnovative practices, research and Demand for increased viewership leads to
education in the field of solid waste management. It's sensalization of every issue which reduces the debate
working to improve the working conditions for waste to mere tokenism. Ethical values of journalists are also
workers and take positive steps towards integrating the questionable in present times, while threat to their
unorganized waste sector into the formal Solid Waste life in search of truth is the accepted norm. Example-
Management (SWM) industry whilst reducing the Shujaat Bukhari, the moderate voice of Rising Kashmir
stigma attached to waste. newspaper was killed by insurgents.
Thus, NGOs can be instrumental in achieving the In this era of fake news and publicity drive the
goals of Swachha Bharat Abhiyaan by making it a social media needs to realize its true purpose and go back to
movement for the people and by the people. basics of critically analyzing the issues in an unbiased
manner. As the fourth pillar of democracy media has
a. Media is the fourth pillar of democracy. been entitled the privilege to nurture citizens who form
Discuss. (CSE,2018) the crux of vigilant democratism and this responsibility
needs to be ensured and cherished.
Ans: Four pillars of democracy include the
Judiciary, Executive, Legislature and Media. The
most prominent role of the media has always been a. To what extent does nation building depend
to disseminate information in an unbiased manner to on strengthening of pluralities in Indian
ensure that citilens of a nation are well informed on all society? (CSE, ZO17l
relevant national socio-political-economic issues of their Ans: Concept of Nation-Building: Nation-building
country. This is necessary to create a vigilant society is constructing or structuring a national identity using the
and to ensure accountability of all the other pillars of power of the state. Nation-building aims at the unification
democracy. A vigilant media propagates the ideals of of the people within the state so that it remains politically
democracy. stable and viable in the long run. Nation-building
Media can also act as a nation builder by raising the includes the creation of national paraphernalia such as
consciousness of society and highlighting the apathy of flags, anthems, national days, national stadiums, national \
people in power to address common issues. It can act as airlines, national languages, and national myths. At a
the carrier of moral and cultural ethos of society while deeper level, national identity needed to be deliberately
also inculcating scientific temper within society. Media constructed by moulding different ethnic groups into
debates relevant issues in the national forum and helps a nation, especially since in many newly established
form opinions and arrive at consensus which is vital for states colonial practices of divide and rule had resulted
sustenance of democracy. in ethnically heterogeneous populations.
Recently, "Investigative journalism" and sting Strengthening of plurality
operations have also come within the ambit of media Strengthening of plurality means respecting the
to expose loop holes and corruption within the system ideals and values of all religions, caste, tribes, race,
thereby empowering masses of the nation. With languages and political thought. Democracy means
the evolution of social media, a new form of media plurality and for the successful sustenance of Nation
called "citizen journalism" has evolved.,This form building there is an urgent need to strengthen them
of journalism though in its nascent stage has already which we successfully followed in the following ways:
become a champion of rights by giving "voice to the
o Political Plurality: India is multi political party
voicr,less" and empowering the fifth pillar of democracy
based democracy which support plural ideologies
i.e" the citizen. In the present world, mass media is
and values. We have all left, right, and moderate
well-established and offers lot of opportunities. It is a
ideology based parties. This plurality further
remarkable feat that All India Radio (AIR) reaches 90
strengthened the Bhartiyata of the Nation by
per cent of the populatiory TV coverage is more than supporting national agendas.
 POLITICS AND SOCIETY * 315
.in Andhra
o Social Plurality: Plurality of Caste and Plurality For example - During 1955 elections
of religion is supported by our constitutional Pradesh, two dominant caste grouPs, Reddy's and
provisions like Preamble, Fundamental Rights, etc. Kamma's particularly contested in the election and were
This plurality has added a different colour to Indian involved directly/indirectly. Kamma's supported the
Nation building on the foundations of tolerance. communist party and Reddy's supported the Congress
o Promoting Nation building through the policy of party. Caste influences politics and political sYstem
influences caste. It is because both are interrelated.
Integration is also an important feature of Nation
Building which is depicted in the Nehruvian policy Political System Influences Caste
of Tribal Panchsheel and the provision of Fifth and o All political parties calculate caste support at the
Sixth Schedule of the Constitution. time of distribution of tickets.
o The foundation of NITI Aayog also supports the o Political behaviour also influences the caste people.
idea of Plurality of Planning based on the needs of
contextual realities of different States. Caste Influences Political SYstem
o State reorganisation on linguistic lines in 1956 is o Caste reserves its votes for its own members'
again strengthening the concept of plurality of o People prefer to vote for a candidate of their own
languages. caste irrespective of the merits/demerits of the
candidate.
Recently, the instances of growing intolerance in
the society like killing people on the suspect of using
o Leader of a particular caste prefers to select his own
in different Posts.
caste people
cow meats (Aklaq Khan) or protesting against the
inter-religious marriages (love jihad) and movies like Politics provides mainly three things to caste people
Padmavati goes categorically against the plurality o Prestige and power.
traditions of Indian society which sustained diversity o Economic benefits.
through love and tolerance. There is an urgent need of o Administrativepakonage.
strengthening plurality through common brotherhood Caste provides, on the other hand, leadership to the
and humanity so that the aim of one Nation can be political structure.
achieved.
This leads to the following consequences:
a. Comment on the increasing significance of (u) The leaderS mobilise politics and its principles
caste in politics. (CSE, 20L6) through their caste ideologies.
Ans: I.deologically, caste and democracy differ from
(b) The leaders are bound to give importance to the
caste opinion.
each other and cannot co-exist because caste advocates
fragmentation of society whereas democracy stands for The role oi caste in the Indian political system can be
the unification of society. Caste is leased on inequality specifically discussed as under:
by birth. Democracy is based on principles of equality. (1) Caste Factor in Political Socialisation and
Caste advocates social exclusion and democracy Leadership Recruitment: Different caste groups
advocates social inclusion. Caste provides wealth, have their loyalties behind different political parties
power and status to specific groups but democracy and their ideologles.'Caste values' and caste interests
provides equal chance to all categories irrespective of influence his socialisation and consequentiy his
bias. However, the peculiarity is that both caste system political thinking, awareness and participation. Caste
and democracy co-exist in Indian society. influences the process of leadership recruitment. This
In connection to democracy three things are is particularly true of highly'caste conscious' people
happening to which caste system is also closely related: of some states like Haryana, Bihar, UP, Tamil Nadu
o Participation of all adults in the process of decision and Andhra Pradesh
making, i.e. their voting behaviour. It means all (2) Caste and Party Politics: Caste factor is a constituent
caste groups without any consideration of high/ of the Indian party system. Some political parties
low must participate in giving their vote. have a direct caste basis while others indirectly bank
o Electoral campaigning through different methods. upon particular caste grouPs.
One of the methods is that the candidates appeal (3) Caste and Elections: The caste factor is an
'that he belongs to a particular caste. important factor of electoral politics in India. A1l
o Winning elections has become a principal means of political parties give great weightage to the caste
gaining power. factor in selecting their candidates, in allocating
In this political process, the dominant caste groups constituencies to their candidates and in canvassing
come to the forefront. support for their nominees in the election.
 316 r.,r;,l: SOCIOLOGY Q & A

(4) Caste as a Divisive and Cohesive Factor of Indian on any inkinsic value that they thought to be existing
Politics: Caste provides a basis for the emergence in national mobilizations.
of several interest groups in the Indian system each The real eradication of national oppression,
of which competes with every other group in the according to Marx and Engels, is possible not through
struggle for power. F{owever, it is a source of unity nationalism, but only through socialism. This is reflected
among the members of various groups and acts as in the writings of Karl Marx on the'Asiatic mode of
a cohesive force. production', and his view that despite its coercive
(5) Caste and the Exercise of Power by a Political nature, a progressive role was played by colonial rule
party: Caste factor influences the policies and to help India break out of its age-old stagnant village
decisions of the state governments. The party in societies is crucial.
power always tries to use its decision-making power The writings of the conventional Marxist school
to win the favour of major caste groups. scholars like Rajni Palme Dutt, VI Pavlovand AR Desai,
(5) Caste Factor and the Local Government: The role analyzed the class character of the Indian national
of caste in the working of the Panchayati Raj and movement in terms of the economic developments of
other institutions of local self-government has been the colonial period, such as rise of industrial capitalism
a recognized reality. We can go to the extent of and development of a market society. According to this
recording that caste based factionalism in the rural scholarship, the bourgeois leadership of the movement
areas of India has been one of the biggest hindering fought to shape the movement to suit their own
factors in the organization and effective working of interests at the cost of the interests of the masses. This
the Panchayati Raj. was criticised by some later set of historians like SN
(4 Caste and Indian Constitution: Though the Mukherjee, Sumit Sarkar and Bipan Chandra.
spirit of secularism stands clearly affirmed in the Sarkar showed that a clear class distinction between
Constitution, 1ret in a limited and indirect way, it the two phases is difficult to establish, and was clearly
recognizes the caste system in the form of providing non-existent at the leadership level. He recognizes
for caste based reservations. Reservation of seats various internal tensions existing within the Indian
for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes national movement, between two levels of anti-
in the Union Parliament and the state legislative imperialist struggle: elite and populist. In what
assemblieS.(Art. 330 and 332) as well as in public Bandyopadhyay calls a distinctly nationalist orientation,
services reflects this. he along with his co-authors, argued that the Indian
(8) Caste Violence: Caste based violence very often national movement was a popular movement of
finds ils way into politics. The traditional differences various classes. They commented that this movement
between the higher and lower castes have acquired was not exclusively controlled by the bourgeoisie.
a new vigour and have turned, at times, into a They identified two types of contradictions of interests
violent and fierce struggle for power in society. in colonial India: the primary one is between the
The growin g terrorization of the lower castes by interests of the indian people and the interests of the
the higher or even intermediary castes has been British rule.
becoming a sad part of India's political reality. The subaltern historiographers suggest that
(9) Caste and Political Leadership: Caste has been the contribution made by the people on their own,
emerging as a factor in the process of leadership independently of the elite leadership, whicli did
recruitment. The leadership of Sh. Kanshi Ram not commonly find a place in the conventional
and Ms. Mayawati is caste based. So was the historiographies, are important sources to understand
leadership of Ch. Charan Singh in Up, Karpoori the "real? nationalism, in contrast to the "hollowf'
Thakur in Bihar and Dev Raj Urs in Karanataka. nationalismoftheelites.Thisschoo1alsopointed
The leadership of Sh. Laloo Prasad Yadav in Bihar out the problems with focusing merely on class as
is again an example of caste based leadership. an angle of analysis, and stressed the importance of
other explanatory categories such as culture, mind and
a. Discuss Marxist approach to the analysis of idenfity.
Indian nationalism. (CSE,2015)
Ans: The theory of Marxism emphasizes on a. Discuss B.R. Ambedkar as a wise democrat?
the material relations of production and describes (csE,2015)
various historical epochs in terms of its major class Ans: ln his last speech to the Constituent Assembly-
contradictions based on the relations of production. delivered on November 25, 1949
-Ambedkar issued
Marx and Engels' support to the nationalist movements, three warnings that are compellingly relevant to the
wherever existed, was on a strategic ground rather than predicament that the nation finds itself in today.
 POLITICS AND SOCIETY :,'::1: 317
First, he urged his compatriots to "abandon the Art 361,{ of Indian constitution gives the Parliament
bloody methods of revolution". In the circumstances of certain powers to regulate press freedom. The sedition
colonial rule, there were grounds for taking to the streets law, formally Section 124A of the 1860 penal code,
to protest, but with the coming of a free, sovereign and outlaws expression that can cause "hatred or contempt,
democratic republic, there can be no justification for or excites or attempts to excite disaffection," toward the
these unconstitutional methods. government.
Secondlv, Ambedkar believed "there was'nothing In times of emergency under Art 352, press
wrolr6 in being grateful to great men who have censorship is valid as Art 19 itself stands suspended
rendered life-long services to the country. But there under Art 358 of the constitution. The press cannot claim
are limits to gratefulness." In politics, bhakti or hero- any immunity from taxation and is subject to the same
worship is a sure road to degradation and to eventual laws regulating industrial relations
dictatorship. The proliferation and increasing influence Mahatma Gandhi said "The role of journalism
of the political family firm has led, as he had feared, to should be service. The Press is a great power, but
the subversion of our public institutions. just as an unchained torrent of water submerges the
Ambedkar's final warning, was that "political whole countryside and devastates crops, even so dn
democracy cannot last unless there lies at the base of uncontrolled pen serves but to destroy." There are three
it social democracy". He pointed out, "on the social pillars of a democracy viz. the legislative, the executive
and economic plane, we have in India a society based & the judiciary.
on the principle of graded inequality, which means The press acts as the fourth pillar of a democracy.
elevation for some and degradation for others." On
The press has played many significant roles in delivering
]anuary 26,1950, by adopting a democratic constitution, justice, public welfare etc. A free Press can help develop
India upheld the principle of "one man one vote and
a body of citizens who are well informed both regarding
one vote one value". Averse to non-violence, he was a
current events and also about the problems'facing the
constitutional democrat, who believed that arguments
between citizens had to be resolved through the means
country; and the alternatives available for tackling them.
of the press, the law courts and the legislature. It is only such a Press that can enable a young democracy
Dr. Ambedkar incorporated the values of liberty, like India to survive, and also help its development in a
equality and frdternity in the Constitution of free India. manner where social justice is ensured and the interests
It is a living tribute to his juristic genius and social of the common people served.
conscience that over the years, the High Courts and the
Suprerhe Court have shaped the law to serve the social a. Gandhi's efforts on communal harmony.
ends of Governmental efforts to improve the conditions (csE,2014)
of civil society. Ans. Gandhi was spiritual and secular at the same
time. He understood the importance of communal
Q. Write a brief note on the Freedom of Press. harmony in India not only from the reiigious point
(csE,2015) of view, but he was sure of its necessity in the socio-
Ans: Freedom of the press is the freedom of political sphere. To Gandhi, unity between peoples who
communication & expression through various medium holds different faiths was an unavoidable factor in the
including various electronic media & published process of national integration.
materials. The Constitution of India in Article 19(1) Conflicts betw-een individuals should be seen as
(a) lays down that "AIl citizens shall have the right to conflicts between the citizens of India. If two parties,
freedom of speech & expression." one Hindu and another Muslim is in conllict regarding
This is subject to restrictions on the grounds of any issue; it should be viewed as two Indians in con{Iict.
sovereignty, integrity & security of India, friendly Taking such conJlicts to the level of a religious issue is
relations with foreign states, public order, decency or contrary to the spirit of communal harmony. Gandhi
morality and contempt of court. The Freedom of Press raised the principle of National Unity above all other
is derived from this Article. divisions. To him nationalism was much greater than
The freedom of press means freedom from sectarianism
interference from authority which would have the Gandhi had never accepted in principle the theory
, effect of interference with the content & circulation of of the Hindus and the Muslims being two distinct
newspapers. It has three essential elements: nations and he tried to convince boih of them of the
1,. Freedom of access to all sources of information pernicious character of this principle. He continued to
2. Freedom of publication the last day of his life to instill the lesson of unity among
3. Freedom of circulation the communities of India.
 318 , socloLocye&A
a. Who are the elites? Discuss their roles in the demand of local people at Union level and for the
bringing social transformation. (CSE, 2014) complete solution of problem of local or regional people.
Ans: An 6lite is a selected and small group of These iegional political elites participate in procesi of
citizens andf or organizations that controls a large election by forming regional political party. If their
amount of power. Based on the social distinction with politics and ideology in{luence the people, then they
regard to other groups of lower strata, most of these elect them and hand over authority.
selected groups are constantly searching differentiation In last few decades, due to no clear majority of
as well as separation from the rest of society. Normally any party in centre the role of these regional political
the concept of 6lite is used to analyze the groups that elites and related parties has increased. For example in
either control or are situated at the top of societies. recent years/ prestige of Mulayam Singh Yadav in Up,
According to C. Wright Mills, there is a power elite Naveen Patnaik in Orissa, Karunanidhi and Jaylalitha
in modem societies, an elite who command the resources in Tamilnadu have increased.
of vast bureaucratic organizations that have come to Regional political elites keep dominance on rural
dominate industrial societies. The power elite are the power structure. They are restricted to develop-ment of
key people in the three major institutions of modern specific area under their influence. Alth-ough increasing
society: (1)Economy; (2) Governmen! and (3)Military. number of regional political elites have promoted
The elite occupy the key leadership positions within regionalism that may not be con-ducive to integrity of
the bureaucracies that now dominate modern societies, India but regionai political elites have important role in
the positions in which the effective means of power are awakening people at regio-nal level and deciding policy
now located. Thus, their power is rooted in authority, related with them.
an attribute of social organizations, not of individuals.
It is not a conspiracy of evil men but a social structure a. Critically examine the concepts of nation and
that has enlarged and centralized the decision-making citizenship in the context of globalization.
process and then placed this authority in the hands of (csE,20t2)
men of similar social background and outlook.
Ans: Even in the era of globalizatiory the concept
Regarding the relationship between democratic of nation-state is largely intact.Countries have formed
consolidation
1nd social transformation, Morlino argued regional groupings for economic purposes, or formed
that stability in democracies was determined by the alliances at international level for strategic reasons,
behavior of the political elites and non-political elites, i.e.
but by and large, nations have maintained their
the degree of commitment of elites with the maintenance
individualness. The concept of global citizen has
of the political regime of representative democracy.
certainly attained meaning for people who are involved
Thus the development of transformation process in in several countries for business or other purposes. The
society is expected in a direction of the centralization of
political and eco-nomic identities have remained intact
the power of the ruling elite. This inevitably leads to the
despite transnational cultural inlluences. Citizenship
contradiction with the democratic institutes. At the same is defined as legal membership of a political commu-
time, ending of the process of transformation, may be nity since ancient times. Participative membership of a
reached through the action of the democratic leadership
regional state is known as Citizenship. It means in legal
and overcoming institutional conflicts between the terms the rights and duties of a member. The stafe and
power structures and civic society.
citizenship have been widely discussed topics in this era
of globalization in sociology and political science. The
a. Regional political elites and the democratic boundaries between countries have become porous and
process. (cs8,2012) dis-tances have been reduced by the IT revolution. The
Ans: Regional political elites have impor-tant place fast means of transport and communication have led to
in giving strength to the democratic pro-cess in India. shrinkage of the globe.
Role of these regional political elites have increased People are migrating to search for better employment
in past decade in awakening people at regional level across the nations in form of laborers, professionals,
and fulfilling their interests related with their duties businessmen. Their tendency to settle down in the
and rights. In India due to its fed-eral structure some country of immigration has created the problems related
problems have always cropped up in relation between with citizenship. In this globalised world, technology
state and centre. and trade are making a supranational community which
if there is government of a particular party in is beyond the national citizenship, and'which is initiating
Centre, then no satisfactory steps are taken by the the concept of global citizenship suppre-ssing the soil
Centre for deve-lopment of opposition-ruled states. In and parochial identity. It would help raise our thinking
this scenario regional political elites emerge to raise above the racial, national identities of life.
 POLITICS AND SOCIETY r"., 319
The nations are responding to this trend of glo- a Professional Associations raise concerns & demands
balised citizenry through the concepts of dual citi- of various professional groups. For example, Bar
zenship. India has also responded with the Over-seas Couhcil of India, All India Medical AssociatiorL etc.
citizenship, Person of India Origin (PIO), and NRI a Students Associations like ABVP (BJP), NSUI (INC)
facility for the emigrated Indians. This step may create and AISF (CP!.
heartbum to local Indians as it is a re-ward to those who a Religious Organisations represent narrow communal
had left earlier the nation in depri- ved state to search interests for example, VHP, Jamaat-e-Islami, and A11
for better alternatives for them. India Conference of Indian Christens.
The developed world countries are realizing high
o Caste Groups are the offshoot of competitive politics
economic development due to brain drain from the
that represent caste rivalries and conflicts. For
least developed and developing countries in this era of
example, Lingayat Versus Vokkaliga in Karnataka
globalizatior; through promotion of globalized citizenry.
and Baniya,r"rrrrc Patidar in Gujarat.
a. Pressure Groups (CSE 2011) a Tribal Organizations are active in tribal belt and
Ans: 'Pressure Group' refers to those organised North-East whose demands range from reform to
associatiorL institutions or group of peoples who exercise cessions activities.
influence on the government in the formation of policies a Linguistic Groups who demand for new states. For
for their particularistic interest or values. During the Example, Tamil Sangham, Andhra Maha Sabha,
British period, the Congress party worked as a pressure
Kannada Rakshana Vedike.
group on the colonial government. It was only after
independence, when the people's participation in the a Ideology based groups like NBA, Chipko, and
democratic system of politics increased, the role of Gandhi Peace Foundations etc.
pressure group has become important. The low sense
of political efficiency prevented the people from having a. Distinguish between secularism and
many interest groups. secularisation. Analyse the nature and extent
Hardgrove has rightly observed; "the problem of secularisation in contemporary India.
for India, as for any developing countries, has been (csE,2011)
in having not too many interest group but too few." Ans: Secularism stands for'an ideology and has
The pressure group in India has tended to combine
strong ideological connotations. The characteristics of
in themselves the elements of traditionalism and secularism includes-
modernity. On the other hand, they used modern o Separation of authority between the religion and
development techniques like financing of the political
the state.
parties, inducting of men in the legislative and executive
o Emphasis on this world as opposed to the other
department of the government, maintaining good and
world.
coordial relation with the bureaucrats, for promotion of
the interest of their members. On the other hand, they
r Rationalisation and scientific outlook.
In other word, secularism implies that state will not
had not been able to overcome the primordial loyalties to
be governed by the religious authority such as Bishop,
the family and the caste. The another aspect is that due
Pandit, Mullah or Khalifa. The doctrines promoting social
to lack of ideological comrnitment, the pressure group in
India have tended to behave like anaematic organisation. inertia such as fatalism and divine retribution have no
Instead of adopting the method like lobbying, they place in secularism. Secularism is also included into the
have tended to indulge in activities, which promote preamble of our Constitution together with democracy.
conditions of anarchy and lawlessness. In India they A secular state is not against religion as such but it has
are not as developed as in Western countries. They can to fight superstition and intolerance as well as bigotry.
be broadly classified as: However societies are not born secular but undergo
o Business Groups are the most sophisticated transformation from traditional to secular and the process
powerful & largest pressure groups. For example, of secularisation has played its part in this transforrnation.
FICCI, ASSOCHAM, CII, NASSCOM etc. Secularisation is a process of social change through
o Trade Unions are associated with political parties. which the in-fluence of religion declines in public affairs.
For example, AITUC (CPf; INTUC (Congress-I); Religion is replaced by other ways of explaining facts and
.i Hind Mazdoor Parished (BJP). events. The importance of religion in regulating social life
o Agrarian Groups represent farmers and agricultural decreases and it is taken over by utilitarian consideration.
labour levels. For exampie, The interp retation of reality also takels place in terms of
o BKU led by Mahendra Singh Tikait in North India, reason and rationality. When secularisation advances,
Shetkari Sangathana of Sharad Joshi in Maharastra science replaces religion as the primary approach to
and All India Kisan Sabha. understand the natural and social worlds.
 320 x* socloLocy e & A
Historically, secularisation of Indian social and from others. Frederik Barth in "Ethnic Groups and
cultural life became intense with the new developments Boundaries", said that ethnic group are highly elastic.
in social and cultural arena. The struggle for freedom They create and recreate identities for themselves for
especially in its Gandhian phase unleashed several forces search of mobilisation in search of power and privileges.
that increased secularisation. The civil disobedience Primarily an ethnic group can be evolved on the basis
campaign launched by Mahatma Gandhi mobilised the of language, region, religion, etc. According to T.K.
masses. Like the mobilisation of people against social Oman in modern society ethnic identities are used for
evils in Hindu society such as untouchability also two reasons :

contributed to increased secularisation. This process (i) To assert maximum control over the benefits to
further strengthened with the attaining of independence progressive modernity.
in1947 and with the adoption of republican Constitution
in 1950. Broadly speaking the process of secularisation
(ii) To pose a threat to civil society, if their demands
are not met, ethnic group by virtue of their
operates through three factors - (i) Education, (ii)
exclusiveness and numerical skength can split from
Legislation and (iii) Social reform.
the existing nation-state and create a separate state
Education imparted on scientific and rational lines
for themselves.
have given rise to rationality in the thinking process. The
Hence ethnicity is a threat to nationalism. Ethnic
legislation action has been also crucial in the process of
groups are largely characterised by much solidarity as
secularisation. The process of secularisation has been
its members are engaged in common economic activities,
also influenced by urbanisation and industralisation
religious ceremonies and they stay together on the basic
and has helped to loosen the grip of in group feelings.
cofiunon culture, language, respect for common symbols
The secularisation process has affected every aspect
and each groups maintain a distinction from other.
of personal and social life. Some changes are aparent
Moderates like Talcott Parsons and Anderson opine
whereas some others may be disguised. Urban dwellers
that ethnic group slowly die out in modern society
are generally much more influenced by it than the rural
where common citizenship, equality of opportunities,
folk. Educated sections are deeply influenced compared individual mobility are greatly glorified. Clifford Geertz,
to uneducated. Similarly, some regions of the country Frank Parkin advocate that ethnic group manifest
are more exposed to the secularisation process than systematic integration among themselves. Hence, they
others. \
have carrying capacity for their re-appearance in time
Flowever, the secularisation process has made its and space.
most effective impact on the ideas of pollution and Therefore ethnic identity can be used for
purity. The notion of pollution and purity determines multipurposes like symbolic identification,
challenge
the hierarchy of castes. The process of secularisation to resist the domination of dominants.
For example Sri
has reduced and weakened considerably.the ideas of Lanka's ethnic minorities go for mobilisation in
search of
pollution and purity. People no longer try to know the creation of new state to cherish their hunger for power or
caste background of fellow passengers in a bus or train. create a nation where citizenship will be defined based
The rules of pollution are also not observed at the place on ethnicity. All over the world, re-appearance of ethnic
of work. The orthodox elements of caste and religion groups as a force of resistance giving foundation to rise
are gradually losing prestige in the face of growing of new natiory the seed of religious fundamentalism and
secularisation of life and culture. The religious values as a challenge to national integration.
attached to the caste system is disappearing but its role In India Tribalism, casteisry regionalism, linguism
in secular domains like politics is increasinglCeremonies are manifestation of ethnic mobilisation in search of
and rituals performed in family are all a-ssuming new different kinds of privilages. T.K. Oman writes that
character. They are either curtailed or shortened to ethnicity in India is a primary source of stratification
suit the convenience of the concerned family. Some as the states are being created based on language. As a
ceremonies are used as display of affluence. result politicians are using ethnicity for mobilisation and
creation of new state and access to power. Tribalism in
a. How are the issues of ethnicity and another from of identity working as an instrument of
nationalism related? Discuss in the context political mobilisation. In India regional disparity and
of the emergence of ethno-nationalism in disparity in development is also explained in ethnic
terms. Ethnic group in Indian society are being arranged
India. (CSE,2011)
having different access to educatiory employment, power
Ans: Ethnicity refers to a group of people who are and privilages but its dynamicity along with caste,
class
conscious of their identity based on common language, and race, is very different to identify.
However, in India
culture, common ways of life. Ethnic group is engaged ethnic groups are mobilised on the basis of language,
in maintaining its own identity distinguishing itself caste, religior; tribes, etc.
 POLITICS AND SOCIETY .i{ 321
Ethnicity is also concerned with to take maximum Laying the foundation of parliamentary democracy
control over different kinds of benefits and privilages and a civil libertarian political system in India was
available in society. Political parties are formed on the one of Nehru's many and most gigantic achievements.
basis ethnicity, people stake their ciaim over modern Pushing through all the hurdles and challenges we as
employment etc. In political power and economic a nation have, indeed, come a long way holding on to
concession, ethnicity appears, re-appears in varied forms the democratic ideals of Indian Constitution. Indian
challenging the existed inequality. democracy stands on the principles of liberty, equality,
fraternity, people's participation, consensus orientation,
a. Factors responsible for increasing demands responsive, equity and inclusiveness, rule of law,
for the formation of separate states effectiveness and efficiency, accountability and strategic
vision. It is, by remaining true to these ideals and
(csE,2010)
principles and by pursuing them in idea and practice
Ans: Demands for the formation of separate states, that India has made such great strides in all directions.
inter-state disputes or secession from the Indian {Jnion, Constitution envisaged India as an egalitarian-cum-
all point towards the increasing threat that Regionalism welfare oriented state. Successive governments have, all
poses to national unity and the political fabric of the tried to realize the dream by formulating various social
country. welfare scheme for SCs and STs, for women, poor and
Demands for autonomy and statehood from various downtrodden and for minorities.
quarters like Vidarbha, Telangana or North-East or Through many Constitutional safeguards, political
formation of 2nd State Reorganization Commission and educational reservations and many other protective
have multiple causes to them like lack of cultural and affirmative actions, SCs/STs and other backward
homogeneity, multiple ethnic identities, loose federal classes have been able to overcome the long history
polity, regional disparities, etc. of exploitation and discrimination. Democratic
Cultural diversity lies at the heart of Indian decentralization of power in the form of Panchavati Ra;'
nationalism. It is not a nation in true sense o{ the word, Institutions have taken democracy to the grassroots,
it is rather a nation in the making. Parochial identities giving, in true sense, power to the people, to have a say
still hold strongly with people and these identities are in working of the country. Further, the federal system
exploited by vested interests like potritical leaders and has ensured that regional aspirations and needs are
parties for their selfish motives. fulfilled by the government at the centre. Also, despite
Another reason for this rising menace of regionalism the gory past of partition and communal riots at Mumbai
can be located in the uneven economic development and or Godhra, its one billion people have been able to stand
growth. the testing grounds by maintaining peace and harmony
Politicians talk of regional imbalances and at large. i
The ideal of secularism has alwal.s been at the core
backwardness and try to exploit the feelings the people
of India's social and political life. Self-reliant and planned
of the land. Linguistic organization of states after
economic development has enabled millions of people to
independence perhaps overlooked the fact that in future,
free themelves from the clutches of porrerty and hunger.
other ethnic identities of people might create similar
Government, in recent years have been talking about
problems again. Distortions in federal skucture, excessive
'inclusive growth' and have put into effect many potigies
centralization often make certain regions feel that their
in this direction. However, despite all this, there are still
regional aspirations are neglected and only their regional
many areas where we need to work to realize the dream
parties and their needs can work in their interests.
of our freedom fighters in its true sense.
Corruption, malnutrition, health, lack of basic
a. Identify the reasons for the resilience of amenities, regionalism, communalism, etc. pose a big
democratic system in India. (CSE,2010) threat to hrdia's progress and they need to be fought head
Ans: Even as the chime of the midnight clock on. With steps like Right to Information Act, Consumer
marked the awakening of a colossus sixty years ago, Protection Act, Right to food, Right to Education,
there were many who expressed little confideqce in the \zVhistleblower Protectiory PIL, etc. we look right on track.
ability of a hascent nation as diverse and as heterogenous
as India, to remain united, especially given the agonising
a. Comment on the i.nfluence of social and
events surrounding partition. However, the diversity of
cultural factors on family planning in India.
India that had once been a cradle for the emergence of (csE, 2009)
four major world religions, yet again became the melting Ans: India is one of the first country adopting family
pot of myriad views, thoughts, ideas and opinions to planning programmes since 1951 but these programmes
lend India its distinctive character and provide a whole has not been successful due to various factors like
new dimension to the inspiring edge. 'unity in diversity'. government's faulty approch, regional variations not
322 ffi socrolocYe&A
taken into account, lack of people participation due to (iii) Early Marriage: Marriage in India is not merely a
various social and cultural factors, and also poor services necessary institution but also a religious duty. Due
provided through family planning programmes. to this reason children below the age of consent are
The family planning programmes which was married. This early marriage led to early pregnancy
initiated during 1951 sought to integrate most of the and consequently high population growth.
basic social services including education, public health (iv) The Concept of Lineage: The continuance of the
services, nutrition for children, expectant mothers etc. lineage i.e. Kula is of great significance for the people
For implementation of these programmes, the Ministry of India. It can fulfilled by having at least one son.
of Health and Family Sons are also expected as supports for parents in their
Welfare has been set up. This ministry envisaged to old age. This leads to strong urge for a male child.
make family welfare programmes a multi-disciplinary (v) Low Status of Women: In our male dominated
and integrated effort. This ministry also visualized society, women are suppressed and kept away
voluntary use of contraceptives and increasing the age from decision making. This condition of women
of marriage for women from 18 to 20 years. But due hampered their involvement in family planning
to various-socio-cultural factors, the programmes of programme. Also, the poor status of womeh in
ministry failed to achieve the desired goals. terms of economy influehces their decision.
The impact of social and cultural factor on family (vi) Strong hold of Caste: Fertility in India is also caste
planning can be summerised in various ways. There are specific. The lower castes of Hindus, Muslims are
various social and cultural factors functioning in Indian comparatively poorer and hence do not take care of
society that are directly linked with high fertility rate family planning.
and non acceptance of family planning programmes as (vii) Religious Beliefs and Faiths: Among the Hindus a
in wholistic manner. Such factors are- son performs certain rituals especially after death of
(i) Poverty: This is the biggest culprit in non accepting father leadhg to son preference despite the presence
of family planning programmes. Due to influence of several daughters. Among the Muslims there is a
poverty people think that if they have more popular misconception that family planning is against
children, it will help to increase their income will Allah (God). So, some people belonging to Muslim
resourcq. But the fact is that people having more community do not go for prevention of birth.
children are suffering from poverty. (viii)Higher Death Rate: Higher death rate of infant in Indian
(ii) lliteracy: Only 65% of the population is literate in society also created apprehension among people. This
India according to census 2001. flliteracy among resulted in a tendency to go for more children.
people created false notion that children's are god's Thus, because of all these socio-cultural factors
gift. Thus, they should not use artificial means of family p{anning programmes in India failed to make
spacing children and reducing their numbers. effective influence in controlling population growth.

tt**

I
 CHAPTER
a
o

a. Discuss the problem of religious minorities in . Deprivation: Deprivation of beneficiary job opportu-
India and suggest measures to solve them nities and quality education has led to the members
(csE,20221 of some of these communities to struggle for a mjni-
Ans: The pluralist character of the Indian society is mum standard of living. Abject poverty characterizes
reflected in the multitude of religious communities that the members of some of these communities.
inhabit the country. The numerical strengths of some of
. Identity: The issue of identity also becomes promi-
these communities are more overwhelming than the oth- nent in this regard. The minority communities have
ers. Such communities have been designated as majority felt disoriented and displaced due to their fear of
religious communities (example: the Hindus). India be- being engul{ed by the overwhelming majority. They
ing a multi-religious country, it becomes an imperative feel threatened by the proposition of losing their
for the government to protect the rights of the minority own identity to the majority religious community.
religious communities in the country. o Hate Crimes: Moreover, in recent times, we have
witnessed an alarming rise in the hate crimes
Religious Minorities against the minority communities in India, includ-
. The National Commission for Minorities (NCM) ing the desecration of places of worship.
was established by the government to facilitate the . Forced Conversion: Programs like the Ghar Wapsi
same, in 1992. It was instituted under the National Movement, have led to the rise of forced conver-
Commission for Minorities Act of the same year. sions indifferent parts of the country.
. Six religious communities have been designated as The pluralist and multi-religious character of Indian
minorities by the union government. society faces a constant challenge against these problems
. The basic criterion for a community to be designated confronting the minorities. These problems not only cor-
as a religious minority is the numerical strength of respond to the failure of the government in facilitating
the said community. equality to all communities but are also major human
Problem of Religious Minorities rights violations. They contradict the fundamental stat-
A number of problems have surfaced especially in utes of religious freedom and equality, as guaranteed
the recent past, with regard to the religious minorities. by the constitution.
These problems range from discrimination faced by Measures to Solve Problems of Religious Minorities
them to their forced conversions. . Ignoring minority problems can have dangerous
The instances of such issues have become more consequences. An apt example was witnessed in our
prominent in recent times. Apart from these burning own neighborhood when Bangladesh was formed
issues that require immediate attention of the govern- in1971, as then Pakistan neglected the problems of
ment, other constraints faced by these communities also its eastern brethren s. Brutal violence in Sri Lanka
include prbblems of poverty and the consequent feeling a few years back is another example. Frustrated
of alienation that has developed among them. youths of minority groups can also turn to other
;lt
. Discrimination: They are increasingly feeling alien- nefarious activities like terrorism as well.
ated from the society atlarge, due to the deprivation . The Constitution of India uses the term'Minorities'
faced by them as a direct result of discrimination. at two places under Article 29 and 30 and provides
This has produced an acute impact on the social them the right to promote and preserve their culture
and economic life of the members of the minority and set up their educational institutions. Five Year
communities. Plans have special provisions for their welfare.
324 ,,,.. SOCIOLOGY Q & A

. To give a specific focus on their developmental '

needs, 90 minority concentration districts have also Gandhiji, Dayanand Saraswati, Ramakrishna Mis-
been identified. sion, etc. who saw Indian society as secular from
. Political leadership must take a leadership role in beginning due to its marked tolerance.
disowning hateful elements within their party and . There was Marxist view also which interpreted
uphold their commitment to our constitution. A secularism as the disappearance of religion alto-
comprehensive anti-hate legislation and policy must gether.
be brought to act as a deterrent against hate crimes. . Our constitutional and parliamentary democratic
" Struggle for secularisation has to go along with framework adopts liberal plural view. According
the resistance to the majoritarian attempt to equate to Nehru'It does not mean a society where religion
majority and minority communalism. is discouraged; it means freedom of religion.and
Thus, the development and well-being of these conscience, including freedom for those who may
minority religious communities rests on the amend- have no religion'.
ments to existing laws and the better implementation
^ . . i with
Challenges Associated
..1
Secularism
of the same. Immediate attention is required to protect
the rights of these communities and to improve their Indian version of secularism also poses certain
_Jhu
:t'tlffit;.ters of western notion of secularism accuse
a. Examine different understandings of secular- the state of indulging into the religious sphere as
ization in India? (csB,2022) the state supports many activities like Haj Pilgrim,
managing shrines like Tirupati' vaishno Devi and
Ans: Describing the process of secularizatiory Bryan
R wilson writes that in the secularization
various social institutions gradually become f:t:::.,:T
distinct iLrlil;r*ore,anothersetof compricationsiscreated
Lr, ,rr" tension between the Indian state's simur-
from one another and increasingly free of the matrix of :r
to secularism as well as the
taneous commitment
'-"o-'" assumptions
religious , that had earlier rr{..;;;;;;;;
'r'!e' "*r---
^-::^;:^;' protection of minorities.
and dominated their operatio4'. .
i. The protection of minorities requires that they
Secularization be given special consideration in a context where
. N,[. N. Srinivas had famously defined secularization the normal working of the political system places
as -'the term'secularization' implies that what was them at a disadvantage vis-d-vis the majority com-
previously regarded as religious is ceasing to be munity.
such, and it also implies a process of differentia- . But providing such protection immediately invites
tion which results in the various aspects of society, the accusation of favoritism or 'apPeasement' of
economic, political, legal and moral, becoming minorities.
increasingly discrete in relation to each other'. ' Andre Beteille coinments that people of India are
. However, according to him, differentiation does not 'bound more by culture than constitution'. Religion
disconnection.
mean in India is not just practiced, but it is a part of dress,
food and mannerism of people'
Indian secularism
' Indian secularism according to Rajiv unilg,,?
l: ""J;trr:rT#,i;T;#i*r;:[ffi111ffi1f:
not a strict separation of religion and politic.s, but ir, ur,V *"u"ingful sense pivatized,. - ,

explained in l'erms of 'principled distance

religion and politics'. Indian society had ?:ty::l i-hrr, there is a difference in de-jure secularism as
been ^-,.,:^-:; ;;;;:;^;--;r,,*,^-
in rnrr rto
the constitution and f',"+^.or,,lar,
de facto seculalism as
historica[y tolerant towards ,"tigiorr'ut;;r"il ::]::,1g"d
practiced by society'
secularism in rhe modern sense urriu"jJii
9;;;;
the 19th centurv as a Part of cultural and religiout
reform movements e. ,,secularism was an outcome of 20th cenfury
. Nationalism, freedom struggle, growth of western
humanistic radicalism"' comment on this
education, etc. helped its rise. tnere is ;il;;il- statement' (CSE 2020)
' rality of view over its clefinitional and emergence Ans: The term "Secular" means being "separate"
aspects. from religion, or having no religious basis. A secular
o I liberal plural r.iew was taken by modern nation- person is one who does not owe his moral values to
alists before independence. It called for separation any religion. His values are the product of his rational
of religion and other institutions and advocated and scientific thinking. Secularism means separation
religious pluralism. of religion from political, economic, social and cultural
 RELIGION AND SOCIETY 325
aspects of life religion being treated
as a purely personal philosophical naturalism while
specifically rejecting
matter' It emphasized dissociation of the stite from religious
dogma, supernaturalism, and superstition as
religion and full freedom to all religions and tolerance the basis
of morality and decision making.
of all religions. It also stands for equal opportunities The philosophy
and ideology of secular humanism
for followers of all religions, and no discrimination and
has its roots in fnlightenment thought and is based
partiality on grounds of religion' in large part on the western tradition of liberalism
Secularism is a humanist idea because of various and notions about the status and role of science in the
reasons: modern world. At base it is a nontheistic belief system
' In humanism, human beings are the central that upholds the prime importance of rationality, human
concerry humanism emphasizls on human being autonomy, and democracy.
irrespective of religiott, tace, caste, sex, etc. Therefore, secularism is a better system because
Secularism also treat-s all human beings equally it is in accordance with norm of civilized society and
irrespective of their religion - this is the reason that rationally it is more justified and gives more freedom
ethics of humanism supports secularism. to citizen.
r Humanism rejects the existence of god and extra
:t r.
1.1 rar_il^^ ..^a^ ^- t--_11,,,,_tpluralism'in
worldly authorities (realities). secularism is also Q' Write a note on'cultural multi-
apatheiic towards god and other supra natural religious society like India. (CSE 2020)
realities. Ans: Cultural Pluralism can be defined as an
' Both Humanism and secularism are great arangement in a society where multiple smaller cultures
supporters of morality but they support secular assimilate
in mainstream society but also maintain their
morality more than r"iigiom morality. cultural uniqueness without being homogenised by the
' '"J"lu'i'- "-phu'i'" on this '.1nTl',iH:; in curtural pluralism can be observed
and
*""1}ffirlism
' Both humanism and securarism support 3:ffi?*:Iffi,1rH;:.:ffi'Jl:"j:ff1;J;i:?,,xx:
materialism. And their main concern is material and
hence no need to accommodate other cultures and
development' heterogeneous societies like United States of America,
' Both support rational thinking instead of faith. India, United Kingdom, etc.
Both support scientific outlook and scientific However, while a lot of societies are heterogeneous
knowledge' i.e. they have multiple cultures, that does not necessarily
To a humanist, a secularist society is one in which mean that they are also cuiturally plural because cultural
there may be religions but the state takes a neutral view pluralism requires not just the existence of different
with respect to religion. cultures within a society but also respect for these
It protects the freedom to believe, worship, express cultures by the dominant culture.
religious commitments, and the freedom not io bel-ieve, India has always been proud of its culturally plural
etc. society. India has a dominant North Indian, Hindu,
Humanism as a distinct intellectual movement Hindi speaking culture however cultures from the
arose in early-twentieth-century America among south and northeast India like the cuisines (Idli, Vada,
self-described religious humanistr. Ivtur,y Protestani Uttapam), dance forms (Bharatanatyam, Kathakali,
modernist theologians were arguing that traditional Bihu), literature (Sangam literature) are not only
religion was outdated, based as ii was on views of God respected in the rest of the country but gets ,r-r
u_t a king or lord over creation, and that religion
must space in the cultural display on Republic Day. "qril
change and embrace a democratic ethos. - Religious pluralism in the formof the prevalelce of
The humanists went further, rejecting all discussion Mosques, Gurudwara, Buddhist, Jain and Parsi temples
of God as unjustified in a scientific age. And yet, they and their open religious celebration often joined in by
argued, religion itself was not defunc! it fulfilled certain their Hindu friends is a testament to India's religious
social and psychological urges of human beings. The pluralism.
challenge for moderns was to find ways to inlegrate India does not force one unitary idea of an' Indian
current scientific knowledge and democratic slcial identity' because there is no one definition of what

This is largely what early religious humanism cultures, India allows citizens to openly practice their
was designed to do. Secular humanism, often simply culture and come up with their own definiiion of India.
referred to as humanism, is a philosophy or life strncl One dominant idea of India is not imposed upon others
that embraces human reason, r".rlu, ethics, and to follow.
g26 i..i: socrolocy e &A

Flowever, Cultural diversity can present challenges social and economic problems. In the United States,
which arise from the fact that cultural identities are very recent.immigrants have frequently been the scapegoat
powerful-thry can arouse intense passions and are often for the nation's-or an individual's-woes' Many states
able to mobilize large numbers of people. have enacted laws to disenfranchise immigrants; these
Sornetimes, cultural differences are accompanied laws are popular because they let the dominant group
by economic and social inequalities and this further scapegoat a subordinate grouP.
complicates things. Integration across multicuitural Violence and Discrimination against the Religious
grorpt can be difficult in the face of prejudice or Minorities in India
negative cultural stereotYPes. . Despite the constitutional and statutory safeguards
Thus, as west follows a "negative" idea of cultural to ieligious minorities in India, the social
pluralism i.e. it relegates culture to the private realm relationships between the majority and minority
io o." person's culture does not interfere with another have not changed and as a result suspicion still
person's culture and multiple cultures can coexist prevails, relations are still less harmonious and
peacefully, India has a "positive" idea of cultural minorities feel a threat of their identity'
pluralism where it allows for full expression of culture . Their representation in public jobs, armed forces,
in the public realm and instead fosters an idea of respect
etc. still remains low.
for diJierent cultures. It is this culturally plural India that
we take pride in and seek to protect for ages to come'
. The threat perceptions after a series of riots in the
past few decades have led to physical insecurity also'
How doyouunderstandthe'minority' question? in particular, communal violence disproportionately
a. afflcts India's religious minorities - especially
Examine the violence and discrimination
Muslims, but also Christians and Sikhs' While often
against the religious minorities in India' instrumentalised for political gains, communal
(csE, 2019)
violence draws on and exacerbates a climate of
Ans: Sociologist Louis Wirth defined a minority entrenched discrimination against India's religious
group as "a group of people who, because of their minorities, with far-reaching social, economic,
phvsical or cultural characteristics, are singled out from cultural and political dimensions'
ihe ott-,ers in\he society in which they live for diJferential . Due to historic factors and despite enactment
and unequal treatment and who therefore regard of suitable laws, psychological insecurity is still
themselves as objects of collective discrimination"' there and it often proves as detrimental to actual
India has numerous ethnic and religious groups insecurity.
of various sizes. The Constitution of India also makes . Among the rising threats in recent years include
a distinction between majority and minority groups, violence in the name of cow protection and fake
but doesn't define them. Minorities are of two types - news - disinformation and misinformation - on
linguistic and religious minorities. social media. There were reports of religiously
There are five religious minorities - Christians, motivated killings, assaults, riots, discrimination,
Buddhists, Muslims, Sikhs, and Parsis' A religious vandalism, and actions restricting the right of
community is declared minority not on the basis of individuals to practice their religious beligfs'
their absolute numbers, but other factors like their threat Howevet, on the other hand, India is proud of
perception, cultural development, etc. its secular credentials and its status as the largest
Being a numerical minority is not a characteristic d.emocracy and a pluralistic society with a longstanding
of being a minority groupi sometimes larger groups commitment to tolerance and inclusion and is capable
can be considered minority groups due to their lack of of fighting social evils like communalism, mob attacks
power. It is the lack of power that is the predominant and hate crimes, etc.
iharacteristic of a minority, or subordinate group' For
example, consider apartheid in South Africa, in which a
numeiical majority (the Black inhabitants,of the country)
Q. With increase in education and economic
development is Indian society becoming more
were exploited and oppressed by the \Arhite minority'
Scapegoat theory, developed initially from Dollard's
secular? (CSE,2018)

(1939) Frustration-Aggression theory, suggests that the Ans: Social thinkers like Durkheim, Matx, Weber,
dominant group will displace its unfocused aggression Spencer, etc. were of view that traditional religion would
onto a subordinate group. History has shown us many blcome more and more marginal in the modern world'
examples of the scapegoating of a subordinate group' An According to them, a process of secularization is bound
exanrple from the last century is the way Adolf Hitler to occur is science become more important in lives of
*u, Jl" to blame the Jewish population for Germany's people to control and explain social world'
 RELIGION AND SOCIETY ffi 327
Since definition of religion is not universally alive though receded from public sphere and he calls
accepted, definition of secularism or the pro.um of it'invisible religion'. Religion is not declining, but is
secularization is also not universal. Following are some channeled in other directions. Rise of New R-eligious
of the major strands - Movements like Dera Saccha Sauda also pose a chall*enge
o Role of education and new economic activities_ to secularization thesis.
Secular education in schools along with secular Rising communal tension in various parts of India
nature of professions of the people separate religion and similarly use of religion to terrorise people in the
from public life. Middle East and West Asia also point out to the act that
o Disengagement of institutional religion from religion is given no less importance.
everyday life - Disengagement of religious
institutions from important events of life is also seen Q. Write a critical narrative on the concerns of
as a proof of secularization of society. Educatiory religious minorities in India. (CSE,201g)
politics and social welfare are no longer functions
Ans: India has numerous ethnic and religious
of religion today.
groups of various sizes. Constitution of India also makes_
o Increasing religious pluralism as a symbol of a distinction between majority and. minority groups, but
secularization - Some argue that a truly religious doesn't define them.
sociefy is monotheistic. Competition among various
Minorities are of two types - linguistic and religious
religious gloups has reduced the power oflehgion. minorities. Religious minorities are five _ Christians,
Religious loyalties become a matter of conveni-ence Buddhists, Muslims, Sikhs and parsis. A religious
r-
of people. Existence of multiple faiths also runs community is declared minority not on basis of their
against the belief that religion is the binding force absolute numbers, but other factors like their threat
of society. perception, cultural development, etc.
o Secularization of religious institutions themselves
- Minorities in India
It is argued that religious institutions are adapting face multitude of problems as
themselves to changed conditions. They iavl follows:
recognized that, older values like _ belief in o Despite the notification, the social relationships
supernaturaln other world, the savior, etc. _ no between the majority and minority have ntt
longer sound plausible to believers. changed and ds a result suspicion still prevails,
o Growing individualism - This view argues that relations are still less harmonious and minorities
religion is no longer an act of collective worship feel a threat to their identity.
and individuals today work out their own path of o Their representation in public jobs, armed forces etc
salvation. still remain low.
o Desacralization - It is argued that sacred has no o The threat perception after a series of riots and
place in modern society as supernatural forces cases of mob lynching in past few decades has led
are no longer deemed to control the world. Bryan to physical insecurity.
Wilson states that men act less and less in response I Psychological insecurity prevails in light of historical
to religious motivation. events and despite enactment of relevant laws. This
o Participation in institutional religion _ Extent of was emulated by our founding father Nehru whtin
religion in our life is measured by the relative he said, 'Test of Indian secularism lay not in what
importance that we give to religious institutions majority thought, but how minority feels,.
which is reflected in attendance in Churches, o Indian Education Commission of 1960s highlighted
temples, mosques etc and role of these institutions the language problem associated with minorities.
in performing various events in our life like Many minority institutions like Madrasas are still
solemnization of marriage, funeral rites, etc. Some not modernized and their degrees are not accepted
argue that fall in religious places attendance is a as essential qualifications.
symbol of secularization of society. o Muslims have lagged behind a great deal in human
In general, secularization is a process which has development parameters. Their representation
occurred throughout the history. It can now be summed in public employment is poor and in armed
as a process of lower involvement of men with religious
forces abysmal. Sachhar Committee of 2006 has
institutions, decrease in influence of religious institutions
highlighted that Muslims in India suffer from three
on other material aspects of life and decline inthe degree
fold problems - problem of identity, security and
to which people hold religious beliefs. equity. The committee found out that Muslims have
However, Thomas Luckmann in his ,The Invisible highest incidences of stunted children and 25% of
Religion, 1,967', argaes that religion is still very much children have never been to school.
328 ti'.' SOGIOLOGY Q & A
their people of India, and from successive bodies of
o Though Muslims are 13% in population' iUrii* invaders, conquerors and immigrants from
reprelentation in postgraduate -courses is only
is 4% and outside the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent'
2%. Share of Muslims in armed forces
only 27% of Muslims in urban areas are in regular o Sufis played an important role in the spread of
had
emploYment. Islam in India. Sufi belief systems and practices
their paralleis in Indian philosophical literature' in
o Christian missionaries are often alleged of forced
particular non-violence and monism'
conversions and subjected to attacks' Brutal murder
of Christian missionary Grahm Stein by a fantic c A closer examination of Muslim societies of India'
Dara Singh is such an examPle' however, indicates not only a distinct stratification
of castes, but also an interesting regional variation
r Reservation provisions are also non-uniformly
of caste-like sYstems'
applied u.rorl the religious groups' For example'
Scheduled Caste reservation for converted Buddhists o There are many denominations amongst Iridian
and Sikhs prevails, but not for Dalit Christians' Muslims; the majority belong to the Sunni branch
of Islam, while a substantial minority belong to
o Sex ratio among Sikhs is poor despite relatively of
the Shia branch. There are also small minorities
high affluence of the community' Their relations
AhmadiYYa and Quranists'
alio became strained with the majority in
wake of events related to Khalistan movement' How have theY changed over time?
Operation Blue Star, consequent assassination of o Indian Muslims, with the long presence of Islam
indira Gandhi and communal violence' and its various assimilative tendencies to the Indian
o Parsis have their own peculiar problems' They the
sub-continent, seemed to go more with imbibing
are the most af{luent community in India' but pan-Indian identity, than upholding their minority
their numbers are dwindling' They are a highly status'
inward looking grouP with no conversion and no o Radicalism in Islam in the present scerrario is on the
permissions for exogamY' rise. But Islam practised in India is less radicalised'
However, Recognition and protection of minority o Manv indian Muslim migrants to the Gulf' for
two objectives at
rights under a legal framework has served example from Kerala, have proved less effective
rights have prevented state from being forms of Islam on a large
- ?rstly thebe reimporting harcler-line
oppr"rrirr" against the minorities, as in a democratic scale.
,"trp go.r".n-ment is run by majority, secondly these o It is crucial, too, that India-unlike Pakistan
rlghis ire helping in providing the-minority a protective and many other countries with large Muslim
,ot ,rherefry tft"y *rl pt"t"tt'e their separate identity populations-has long remained as a robust and
" contributing to national development and
while il.r"ty d"tlocracy. A secular Constitution and the
the term'Minorities'
progress. Constitution of India uses
elecioral clout of a sizeable minority helps give
Article 29 and30 and provides them
u,,'io places under Muslims in India a stake in the political system'
their culture and set up in
right to promote and preserve F{ence, the above factors show that how Islam
Year Plans have
India is more tolerant and Indianized and living in
th"eir edlcational institutions' Five
special provisions for their welfare' To focus on their India
harmony and love with the other religions to make
developmental needs, minority concentration districts a truly secular countrY.
have also been identified'
Thus, it can be said that India's legal framework
is
a. Elucidate the concepts of maioritarianism and
more inclusive society by balancing
working towards a
minoritarianism in accentuating communal
the rigits of various sections of the society including tensions in India. (CSE,2016)
minor]ties, scheduled caste and scheduled tribes etc'
Ans: Communalism, is referred in the western
as a "theory or system of government in which
Q. What are the distinct features of Islam world
,as practised in India, and
how have they virtually autonomous iocal communities are loosely
indian sub-continent'
changed over time? (CSE,20L7l in fedeiation". In the context of
has come to be associated with tensions
Ans: Islam is the second largest religion in India'
with communalism different religious communities in
and clashes between
ofthe country's population or roughly 172 million
1.4.2% various regions.
people identifying as adherents of Islam (2011 census)' Majoritarianism is a traditiorial political philosophy
Features of Islam in India or agenda that asserts that a maiority (sometimes
catejorized by religion, language, social class' or some
I The Muslim population of India represents the
othJr ldentlfylng fictor) of the population is entitled
mixture of gioups drawn from the indigenous
 RELIGION AND SOCIETY ffii 329
to a certain degree of primacy in society, and has the This failure of the leadership has thwarted the
right to make decisions that affect the society. This progressive separation of religion and politics in India.
traditional view has come under growing criticism and Indian democracy is no exception. At its best,
democracies have increasingly included constraints in majoritarianism remains the rule, irrespective of the
what the parliamentary majority can do, in order to party in power. It is evident from the Sachar Committee
protect citizens' fundamental rights. report which provides evidence of institutionalised
In a multi-religious society like India, the followers discrimination against the country's Muslims. At its
of all religions live and practice their faith. Periodically worst, there is state-complicit, even state-sponsored,
communalism is showing its ugly face in many mob terror unleashed on India's religious minorities.
manifestations: Demolition of mosques, killing of The most gruesome examples of these are the targeting
devotees in train at Godhra and thereafter Gujarat of Muslims.
carnage, shameful assault on Taslima Nasreen at a book It appears as if there is a growing climate.of
release function in Hyderabad. Communalism poses a religious intolerance that is aimed primarily at Muslims.
serious threat to secularism and consequently, a danger In Uttar Pradesh, in the run-up to the elections, an
to democracy, and peaceful, harmonious co-existence odious and frankll, communal comparison was made
of Indians belonging to diverse religious faiths and between the relative number of burial grounds and
belief systems. Communalism may be regarded as an cremation grounds. The question was also asked as
ideological concept. It may take in its fold the social, to whether electricity was being supplied equally to
economic and political aspects of the group of people. different communities during their religious festivals.
All political parties, including secular one, indulge Al1 this without any basis in fact or evidence. The
in this policy, to consolidate vote bank on communal banning of slaughter-houses targets the minorities
lines. Communalism cannot be understood without and affects their livelihoods as well. Such intolerance
understanding the concept of "Secularism". Secularism breeds violence in a communally charged atmosphere
allows its citizens to profess and practice their respective - even to the extent of a local leader in UP provoking
faith freely and fearlessly. Secular state does not interfere an attack upon the residence of a superintendent
with the religious and spiritual affairs of the people. of police, whose family was terrorised. Vigilantism
Post-Nehru, India witnessed weakening of secular has become widespread. An Akhlaq is killed on the
commitment and policies of opportunism, if not outright basis of a suspicion that the meat he has is beef and a
communalism. Pehlu Khan is lynched while transporting to his place
Instead of promoting secular and socialist ideology, two cows he had bought and for which he had the
the winning of elections became sole aim, though necessary papers. Nomadic shepherds are attacked in
the rhetoric of socialism continued. The gradual de- ]ammu and Kashmir on some suspicion as they practice
ideologisation of politics further strengthened politics their age-old occupation of moving from one place to
of communalism. The biggest example of majority another along with their cattle and belongings. There is
communalism was demolition of Babri Mosque on 6th a growing hyper-nationalism that reduces any critique
December 1992. Majority communalist has long been to a binary: if you are not with the government, you are
hostile, primarily towards Muslims, but over the last anti-national.
several years, their offensive against Christians has Minority communalism can never be compared
grown intense as well. It should be understood that with majority communalism, for the former is ghettoised
Communalism breeds terrorism and terrorism also and mainly feeds upon its own people (thi"k the ulemas
gives incentives to communal-mongers to incite riots and Shah Bano), the very people it claims to represent,
and carnage at the same time in retaliation. Majority while the latter thrives by feeding off the society at
communalism does not seem to impact territorial large, including the minorities. Other than the brute
integrity of the nation and hence treated as relatively power that being 80 per cent of the population brings,
harmless. On the other hand, few minority extremist majority communalism is in{initely more consequential
groups dream of taking over the nation and hence easily for it determines the sociopolitical discourse, leaving
identified as anti- national. minority communalism to defend itself and ghettoise
Despite constitutional restrictions against polarizing further. Majority communalism, dangerous in itself,
votes on communal lines, none of the political party becomes deadly when it. becomes the official ideology
follows the constitutional mandate in letter and spirit and of the Indian state.
that undermines the very basis of democratic process. Communalism has major implications for the
Leaders of post-Nehru era are lacking in true commitment subcontinent as a whole, because thls will undeniably
to the secularization of Indian society, not only in terms lead to continuous tension. The solution lies in the
of developing non-religious outlook but also in terms of concept of "Composite Nationalism", only then "Sabka
developing a rational and scientific temper. Saath Sabka Vikas" will turn from rhetoric into reality.
330 i\r:r soclolocY Q&A

Q. What are the basic tenets of Hindu religion? Traditional Hinduism has two life-long dharmas
Is Hinduism based on monotheism or that one can follow: 'Grihastha Dharma' (Domestic
polytheism? (CSE,20L5) Religion) and'Sannyasin Dharma' (Ascetic Religion).
The'Grihastha Dharma' has four goals: 'k?ma' (sensual
Ans: Our beliefs determine our thoughts and
pleasure), 'artha' (wealth and prosperity), 'dharma' (the
attitudes about life, which in turn direct our actions. By
laws of life), and'moksha' (liberation from the cycle of
our actions, we create our destiny. The following nine
births). The'Sannyasin Dharma' recognizes'moksha'
beliefs, though not exhaustive, offer a simple summary
as its ultimate goal. Hinduism is a decidedly theistic
of Hindu spirituality.
religion; the difficulty lies in determining whether it is
o F{indus believe in a one, all-pervasive Supreme a polytheistic, pantheistic, or perhaps even monotheistic
Being who is both immanent and transcendent, both religion. The oldest and most sacred texts, the Vedas, are
Creator and Unmanifest Reality. chiefly concerned with mythologies and. rituals related
c Hindus believe in the divinity of the four Vedas, to a number of deities, most of which are identified with
the world's most ancient scripture, and venerate aspects of the natural world.
the Agamas as equally revealed. These primordial The gods of modern Hinduism include the chief
hymns are Cod's word and the bedrock of Sanatana gods Shiva, Vishnu and the Mother Goddess Shakti as
Dharma, the eternal religion. well as a myriad of local community gods. Devotion to
c Hindus believe that the universe undergoes endless these various deities is based primarily on one's region
cycles of creation, preservation and dissolution. and needs, and even when devotion is given to only one,
o Hindus believe in karma, the law of cause and effect the existence of others is acknowledged.
by which each individuai creates his own destiny Despite these polytheistic elements, however,
by his thoughts, words and deeds. many Hindus explain that the gods are various forms
o Hindus believe that the soul reincarnates, evolving of a single Supreme Being. Similarly, the philosophical
through many births until all karmas have been Hindu texts advocate a pantheistic view'of ultimate
resolved, and moksha, liberation from the cycle reality. These texts, most notably the Upanishads,
of rebirth, is attained. Not a single soul will be explain that there exists a single Supreme Reality, called
Brahman. Brahman is often personified and presented
deprived of this destiny.
as the One that rnust be sought, and can begin to sound
o Hindus bLher.e that divine beings exist in unseen like monotheism. "According to the tenets of Hinduism,
worlds and that temple worship, rituals, sacraments
God is one as well as many."
and personal devotionals create a communion with
these devas and Gods.
o Hindus believe that an enlightened master, or a. Discuss the problems of religious minorities
satguru, is essential to know the Transcendent
in India. (CSE,2014)
Absolute, as are personal discipline, good conduct, Ans: A minority is defined by the social majority,
purification, pilgrimage, self-inquiry, meditation i.e. those who hold the positions of power in a society.
and surrender in God. Dominant religion in a society endorses all sort of power
o Hindus believe that all life is sacred, to be loved and in various sector from education, economic, health,
political and social sectors make feel minority alienated
revered, and therefore practice ahimsa, non-injury,
in thought, word and deed.
in society. They face problems in all section of social
structure. Religious minority groups in India are chiefly
o Hindus believe that no religion teaches the only way the Muslims, the Christians, the Sikhs, the ]ains and the
to saivation above all others, but that all genuine
Buddhists, who have been able to preserve their group
paths are facets of God's Light, deserving tolerance
identities and have also stayed in the mainstream of
and understanding.
national politics.
Human life is divided into four stages, and there
There is high rate of student's dropout in Muslim
are defined rites and rituals for each stage from birth
population, as Mushrid Hassan highlight that most of
tiIl death.
the curriculums are either Hindu or Christiaru as a result
o The First Ashrama - "Brahmacharya" or the Sfudent
Muslim children fail to connect themselves with alien
Stage
curriculum.
r .The Second Ashrarna - "Grihastha" or the Further, medium of instruction is through either
Householder Stage English or vernacular, therefore Muslim children suffer
o The Third Ashrama - "Vanaprastha" or the Hermit Stage from linguistic disadvantage. Economically, Muslims
o The Fourth Ashrama - "Sannyasa" or the Wandering are the most backward community with the lowest
Ascetic Stage employment rate.
 RELIGION AND SOCIETY ,rr'i 331
The minorities are not able to integrate properly in which all reiigions have changed their theories and
the Hindu-dominated society. There is apprehension behavioral process according to changing needs of their
among some sections that for enlarging its base, the members and changing situation of society.
Christian community is involved in converting the low Today, due to process of secularization modern
caste Hindus or tribes to its own community or religiory education has been adopted by Muslims in place of
resulting in the killing and intense conflict between the Shariyat education. People belonging to all reli-gions
majority Hindus and the Christian minority. have shed their conservative values and moved towards
This has created too much insecurity and fear modernization. This can be seen in giving up outdated
among the Christian minority in India. The minorities religious values, changes in relations between sexes,
claim that unlike their Hindu counterpart, they are change in eating habits, giving up of taboos etc.
relatively deprived in areas like employment, politics Secularization has also brought about reduction in
and social facilitation. According to them, they are communal and casteist feelings. Thinking of marriage
poorly represented in civil services as well as in medical as a sacrament has reduced and there is a increase in
and engineering colleges. divorce rates.
The serious communal riots especially after 1960s There is a change in family values too. Seculari-
have instilled a sense of insecurity among the Muslims and zation has also resulted in adoption of western ways
tend to push them into their narrow communal shell. of life.
The government in power also finds it difficult Today ail religions are restricting their bigotries and
to provide such protection for all the members of trying to create peaceful environment. Although in this
minorities, for example to Muslims during Godhra time of rapid economic and social changes a hindrance
riots, to Sikh community of Delhi under Rajiv Gandhi has come in the process of secularization because of
government the frequent clashes between the various religious
The religious minorities have to be empowered communities. But all religions are attempting toward
educationally and economically. The progress of the establishing peacef ul society.
country can be achieved if all the religious communities
in India live in perfect harmony. a. "Protective discrimination not only protects
but also discriminates". Comment.
a. Examine the impact of secutrarization on (csE,2011)
various religious communities in India. Ans: Historically Indian society was
(csE,20121 compartmentalised on the basis of caste hierarchy in
Ans:-India is a multicultural and multi-religious hich different groups assigned different occupations
'r.t

society. Here, followers of different religions live and privileges. The certain segments of the society who
together. All have their own religious assumption, were assigned lower occupation and lower position in
beliefs, thoughts and rites etc. For this type of societies, the caste hierarchy were oppressed and exploited by
secularism is used under which different social those who belonged to higher castes. Consequently
institution become free from influence of religious economically and sociallv they remained poor and
beliefs and practices. In this way, to decrease increasing marginalised. During course of history there had
influence of religion in public life, efforts are on to been emerging voices against the caste system. The
strengthen process of secularism. system however remained. During the British colonial
The main aim of secularization is to check the period with the arrival of western liberal thought and
process of blind application of religion and increase socio-religious reforms also questioned the caste
its utility by giving rational, scientific explanation of discrimination. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, and Ivlahatma
religious beliefs, assumptions or rites. Today, due to Gandhi brought up the issues of caste discrimination
increasing effect of education and development of in a significant way.
rational mind, extensive effect of secularism has come British colonial government began formuiating
on different religious communities. For example, social some policies including reservation for these castes.
ills had come in religious assumptions like casteism, low Thus, after independence, the caste disability lrras put
status of women, child-marriage and sati etc. Secularism to evaluation and argued that the spirit of democracy
is responsible for removing this religion related rites, does not favour this ineQuality.
superstitions, etc. Thus constitutional framework designed to
Due to increasing effect of secularization, there provide opportunities to every segment to compete
is increased belief in rationality in people. Major loss equally and constitutional provisions in the areas of
in Yagopvitra tradition in Hindus is example of this. education, employment, political participation are
Today, secularization of religions are being done under targeted.
 332 *r soctoLocy e & A
At the same time states were given the responsibility Judaism and Hinduism and all these religious faiths
to look at the need of deprived classes and with this have been existing together for more than twl thousands
the backward classes in India received the protective years within a shared cultural space. But these religious
discrimination and it is also referred as preferential policy systems in India can be divided in two groups (i) Indic
in the form of reservation. The policy of reservation in or Indigenous, (ii) Extra-indic The Indic religions have
India has accorded reservation to scheduled castes, been originated in India and the Hinduis-,-Brdhir*,
scheduled tribes and other backward castes. ]aimism, and Sikkism are Indic religions. Budhism,
Though the previously instituted reservation of Jainism and Sikhism have evolved from early Hinduism
seats in educational and technical institutions and jobs which has been undergone changes in content and ritual
for SC and STs caused no problems but the inclusion practices in response to the prevailing cultural, ethono-
of other backward classes caused resentment among lingual and ecological diversities in different regions of
the people and debate pertaining to reservation. M.N. the country. But the religions which originated outside
Srinivas observed that reservation policy extended to India are extra-Indic religions such as Christianity
OBC has led to dominance of dominates and positive Judaism, Islam, Zoroastrianism and Bahaism Judaism,
discrimination has given to casteism. Andre Beteille has Christianity and Islam originated in West Asia while
also the view that reservation policy is not helpful in Zoroastnamism and Bahaism originated in Iran.
discrimination as it will further consolidate inequality Although religion is largely a matter of personal
and ultimately it will affect unity of the Indian society faith but religious identity of an individual in India is
benefitting to all people of reservation category. Among expressed sociality. On a number of occasions such as
the tribal grouPs, few people have been benefitted and mass festivals, rituals one finds manifestation of religious
consequently in STs and inequality is on the rise. identities. Faith of different religions also exhibit a
Some also argued that, the Indian government community feeling and conscious or unconscious
in the name of creating a casteiess, secular society expression of social solidarity. Moreover, common code
and to compensate the injustice meted out by the of social conduct based on a religious faiths also leads to
so-called higher caste to oppressed, downtrodden, a public expression of a particular religious identity i.e.
economically poor, educationally backward masses of a dress patterL avoidance of certain items of food and
India, has created a plethora of new caste discrimination. several others with some regional variations.
These new caqtes are classified as backward classes, These religious pluralism in India also give a
scheduled castes and scheduled tribes. These new particular cultural identity to whole country u,d Irdiu
castes are being protected by the quota system or is known for it all over world. Scholar T.Ni..Madan in
reservation policy for widening their educational and a significant writing has said that the contemporary
employment opportunities. These people are preferred ideologies of secularism often clamis that religious
to all other Sroups for getting admissions to colleges, pluralism is as old as the oldest Veda.
universities and getting selected for jobs. Thus protective He also opined that Hinduism has tolerated
discrimination is further on the way oI producing religious differences by incorporating and hierarching
discrimination in the society. it, and Budhisnr, ]ainism and Sikhism are all considered

a. can relision form a sufficienr basis of formins ffi:[::,*':';t#:3#,":;i*:T iil:'HiTxl'#

cultural identity in India. (CSE, 2009) issues oireligious conversion in India by Christian
Ans: The most important aspect of culture in India Missionary have given rise to socio-political conflicts in
has been the religious diversity, because for a longtime various parts of country. The communal conflicts and
India has been the home of followers belonging to violence are another important consequence of religious
all major religions of the world i.e. Hinduism, Islam, identity. This consequences are the result of existing
Christanity, Sikhism, Budhism, Jainism, Zoroastrianism, different religious interacts in the country.

....**t
a. Analyse the perspectives of Isolatiory Assimi- order for tribal groups to advance and flourish, they
lation and Integration in understanding the should embrace the sociocultural and economic
trajectories of Indian Tribal Development. norms of the larger society. This strategy has been
(csE 2023) utilized to support a number of government initia-
tives and policies that try to integrate indigenous
Ans: Tribes are generally defined in terms of various populations into the general population.
general features rather than a fixed definition and are o Cultural Integration: Cultural Integration Theory
defined as a group of individuals with shallow history, is a bvproduct of tribe-caste continuum proposition
indigenous in nature, a common name, having a particu- that was forwarded by early anthropologists. S C
lar territory, tied by closed bonds of kinship, practicing Roy articulated this thought through his'idea of co-
endogamy, having distinct customs, rituals and beliefs, existence of 'lana' and ']ati', Ghurye called tribes as
simple social ranking and political orgarization, cofiunon Backward Hindus and M N Srinivas too asserted that
ownership of resources and so on. lower rungs of caste hierarchy are open to tribes and
Perspectives of'Isolation, Assimilation and Integration hence providing a transition point along tribe-caste
of Tribes continuum. Such arguments lead Andre Beteille to
o The British policy towards the tribals had two major conclude that tribe and caste are similar as there are
little racial, language differences.
elements:
r Firstly, it favored isolation of the tribal areas
o Political and Economic Integration: Others like Surjit
Sinha understand integration in terms of economic neces-
from the mainstream. Their political interests
sity of peasants to have cheap labor and he instead gave
also prevented integration of tribes in main-
concept of - 'Tribe-Peasant' continuum. Thus, cultural
stream as they saw their union with larger
integration had an economic basis according to him.
population as a threat to their empire.
Therefore, the viewpoints of integratioru assimilatiory
. Secondly, at the level of reform, the British ad-
and isolation offer important insights into the paths taken
ministration was interested in'civilizing' these
by lndian tribal development. They also draw attention
people. Colonial rulers followed similar policy
to the necessity of a more complex and inclusive strategy
of exploitation and alienation with tribes that
that takes into account the particular socioeconomic and
they followed in rest of India. To maximize their
cultural requirements of the indigenous people.
earnings, various attempts were made to bring
tribes into fold of revenue administration.
o a. Elucidate the challenges of integration for
The isolationist viewpoint is predicated on the idea that
indigenous groups need to be allowed the freedom to
tribal communities in lndia. {C9E.,2022)
grow at their own speed and in their own manner. It Ans: Issues of tribal development, integration and
implies that their social and cultural fabric would be autonomy have con{ronted the Indian society right from
upended by any outside interventiory whether it comes the British rule in India. Complexity of Indian tribal
from the govemment or non-tribal populations. population made the task of integlation and autonomy
o This strategy has been used to support the establish- even difficult. Ethnic tribal sub-nationalism posed serious
rnent of protected areas and tribal reserves, which challenges and hampered the progress of the communi-
allow the indigenous populations to live apart from ties over the time. Autonomy is desired so that develop-
the general public. ment policies are evolved to suit the tribal culture and
o The assimilation approach promotes tribal popula- lifestyle. On the other hand leaving the tribal in their own
tions' integration into mainstream culture, seeing state will deepen the developmental divide between the
them as archaic and backward. It implies that in mainstream and the tribals even deeper.
 334 rc socloLocye&A
Challenges in Integration for Tribal Communities Act 2006 popularly known as Forest Rights Act, 2006
. Post-independence, the basic issue is that the inte- tried to restore this status quo and ownership of the
gration is largely directed from above and not from tribhls but its implementation is not up to the mark.
below. Integration of tribes has neglected their own . Many tribal concentration regions and states have
needs and desires. Integration has been on the terms also been experiencing the problem of heavy mi-
of the mainstream society and it is also accused of gration of non-tribals in response to the pressures
benefiting the mainstream society only. of development. The industrial areas of Jharkhand
" The government monopoly over forests continued. have suffered dilution of the tribal share of
The exploitation of forests accelerated as most of population.
the mineral resources fall in forest and tribal areas. Therefore, Scheduled Tribes and other Traditional
The policy of capital intensive industrialization ad- Forest Dweller's (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006
opted by the Indian government required mineral is a step to assuage their condition and address the long
resources and power generation capacities that were standing demand of forest rights.
concentrated in the tribal areas. Other initiatives include - Tribal Sub Plansincel974,
. Tribal lands were rapidly acquired for new National Commission for Scheduled Tribes, TRIFED for
mining and in{rastructure projects. In the process tribal goods marketing, reservation of seats for ST in Lok
tribals were displaced without any appropriate Sabha and Assemblies - Article 164,330,332,appointment
compensation or rehabilitation justified in the of Minister in charge of tribal welfare, panchayats (Exten-
name of economic growth. These policies were sion to the Scheduled Areas) Act,1996 (PESA) and so on
often seen subjugating tribals and causing the degra- which aim to address problems of integratiory develop-
dation of the resources upon which they depended. ment and autonomy in a multi-dimensional manner.
' The history of land alienation among the tribes
began during British colonialism in India when the
British interfered in the tribal region for the purpose
a. Discuss the main features of the debate be-
of exploiting the tribal natural resources. Coupled tween G S Ghurye and V Elwin on tribal
with this tribal lands were occupied by money- development. (CSE 2021)
lenders, zamindars and traders by advancing them Ans: Ghurye-Elwin debate focused primarily on the
loans etc. issue of tribal autonomy and inte.gration. Taking along
o Most of them live under abject poverty and are in both autonomy and integration is a difficult balancing
debt in the hands of local moneylenders and Zamin-
act as thev are somewhat conflicting paradigms in tribal
dars. In order to repay the debt they often mortgage
development context. Too much focus on autonomy
or selI their land to the moneylenders.
n In many parts of India tribal population sometimes leads to secessionist tendencies and also
suffers
leads to a development of a na rrow ethnocentric view.
from chronic infections and diseases out of which
water borne diseases are life threatening. They also Integration, on the other hand, may pose a threat to their
suf{er from deficiency diseases. cultural identities.
. The Himalayan tribes suffer from goiter due to lack The famous isolation versus integration debate of
of iodine. Leprosy and tuberculosis are also corlmon the 1940s between Ghurye and Elwin built upon a stan-
among them. Infant mortality was found to be very dard picture of tribal societies as isolated wholes. Elwin
high among some of the tribes. argued that tribals needed protection from traders,
. Educationally the tribalpopulation is at differentlevels moneylenders and Hindu and Cfuistian missionaries, all
of development but overall the formal education has of whom were intent on reducing tribals to detribalized
made very little impact on tribal groups. The formal
landless labour. Elwin argued in favour of 'no change
schools do not hold any special interest for the children.
and revivalism'.
Most of the tribes are located in interior and remote
areas where teachers would not like to go {rom outside.
Ghurye, on the other hand, argued that tribals were
The tribal people are imitating western culture in merely backward Hindus, and their problems had to be
" addressed within the same framework as that of other
different aspects of their social life and leaving their
own culture. It has led to degeneration of tribal life backward classes. He classified tribals into 3 types name-
and tribal arts such as dance, music and different ly Hinduised, partially Hinduised and hilly section on
types of craft. the basis of their degree of assimilation into the Hindu
u The advent of the concept of private prop- society. He argued that tribals were backward due to
erty in land has also adversely alfected tribals their imperfect integration with the Hindu society. Elwin
whose community-based forms of collective own- initially disagreed and argued that "The second class
ership were placed at a disadvantage in the new (partially Hinduised) has suffered moral depression and
system. Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional
decay as a result of contacts from which the third (Hilly
Forest's Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights)
section) has been largely free" .
 TRIBAL coMMUNITIES tN INDIA .,,,,,. 335
However in later phase both Elwin and Ghurye for a proper picture of the diverse tribal groups in India.
converged in favour of an integrationist approach which Tribes in India are a highly heterogeneous group. Tribal
advocated welfare schemes that would enable controlled groups vdry from highly underdeveloped - like Jarawas
integration. This approach focused at preserving tribal of Andaman - to almost assimilated in the mainstream
identity, avoiding tribal exploitation and simultaneously - as Meenas of Rajasthan and Negis of Himachal.
modernising them. Today, tribal identity is defined in terms of
Today the enactment of 5th and 6th Schedule pro- interactional process with mainstream - and the
visions and extension of Panchayati Raj to tribal areas resulting resistance and opposition from tribes to
are the contribution of the same integrational approach
preserve their unique identities - rather than any
primordial (original, ancient) characteristics peculiar to
arrived at by both Ghurye and Elwin.
tribes. Constitution makers also recognized definitional
problems and instead o{ focusing on definition, they
a. Explain the definitional problems concerning instead focused on developmental strategies. A change
the tribal communities in India. (CSE 2020) in definition from colonial time to present time also
shows the changing attitude of the mainstream towards
Ans: Tribes are generally defined in terms of them. Thus, definition is an important starting point that
various general features rather than a fixed definition defines the course of their socio-economic and cultural
and are defined as a group of individuals with shallow development and preservation of their identities.
history, indigenous in nature, a common name/
having a particular territory, tied by closed bonds of a. Examine the colonial policy of segregation
kinship, practicing endogamy, having distinct customs, of tribes under the Government of India Act,
rituals and beliefs, simple social ranking and political 193s. (csE 2020)
organization, common ownership of resources and
Ans: Before colonial rule, tribes have been living
so on.
in forest and hilly area as part and parcel of Indian
Tribes in India have also been defined in terms of population and they enjoyed a free life of their own
'what they were not'. Tribes were communities that without interference of state.
did not practice a religion with a written tex| did not Initial attempts of the British to interfere with the
have a state or political form of the normal kind; did tribal areas led to a large number of tribal revolts like
not have sharp class divisions; didn't have a deep Chaur Uprising, 1832, Kol and Ho Uprising, Chota
notions of history; and, most important, they did not Nagpur, L832, Satara Revolt, 1840, Santhal Rebellion,
have caste'and were neither Hindus nor peasants. 1856 and so on. Due to this, during the late 19th century
In terms of positive characteristics, tribes have a policy of administrative segregation emerged.
been classified according to their 'permanent' and This policy of Administrative segregation aimed
'acquired' traits. at isolating tribals from the mainstream. Consequent
Permanent traits include regiory language, physical Government of India Acts of 1870 and 1901 led to
characteristics and ecological habitat. In terms of creation of autonomous tribal areas. The Act of 1870
languages, predominantly they speak Austric and defined many tribal areas'Scheduled Tracts'. 1935 Act
also created 'excluded' and 'partially excluded' areas
Tibeto-Burman languages and also speak Indo-Aryan
with a different administrative structure. Even Elwin,
and Dravidian as well.
who worked a lot for tribals in India, talked of creating
Tribes were also classified bv scholars on various
'Tribal National Parks'.
other parameters like - Geographical spread ,
The enactment of the provisions sho'w.ed that the
Linguistic classification (Dravidian, Austric and Tibeto tribals had now become completely dependent ou the
Chinese) ,Racial classification (Herbert Risley in welfare measures of the state to meet their basic r-reeds.
his book 'The Peoples of India, l-908' classified The debate on the measures proposed under the Act
people of India into seven racial groups), Economic also revealed the way in which different people viewed
classific,ation (On the basis of economic activity tribal people.
they are engaged in), Classification on basis of Forests have been the traditional lifeline of tribes
degree of cultural contact (Verrier Elwin classified as they were the source of their livelihood and tribals
four'types of tribes on the basis of their degree of also had a cultural attachment with forests. However,
acculturation), etc. a proactive forest alienated tribes'from for'ests. In
But these traits and definitions were not uniformly forest they saw valuable resources and they passed
applicable. Such definitions are insufficient as most of exclusionary laws like the 1865 Forest Act which took
them are of typical primitive tribes and don't account away traditional forest rights.
 336 ffi soctolocye&A
Forests were classified as Reserved, protected Governments in post-Independence India have
and Village Forests without giving consideration made the mistake of painting every tribe with the same
to the rights of tribals. Even activities like grazing brush. Each tribe has a different typology and character
of cattle and collection of fuel wood were declared and has to be treated differently. The condition of
illegal and they have to pay tax for these activities indigenous people in Central India is very different from
where permissible. Forest laws were so exhaustive and that in the Northeast and the Andamans.
complex that according to Elwin, every tribal violated While laws and policies exist to ensure peace and
many of them in a single day. British policy to allow good governance in tribal areas, institutions and forest
Christian missionaries to proselytize tribals also led to departments breach many laws. Pristine territories
a gulf between mainstream Hindus and tribes creating with rich mineral resources overlapping indigenous
social divide in an already divided society. Its terminal settlements have seen marginalisation of tribal voices,
manifestation in recent years is seen in the form of loss of autonomy and land. Having'experienced
various secessionist movements. Flowever/ some displacement and broken promises over the years, a
sociologists also contend that Christian missionaries historical mistrust has characterised the relationship
are instrumental in taking tribes out of darkness of ages between the state and its indigenous communities.
and rnade them aware oith"ir rightful place in society. The tribals today have to also contend with ever-
British rule led to increase in suffering of the increasing threats from private interests. Improper
tribals as the whole economic base was eroded. Tribals mining, deforestation and land encroachment by
were forced to give up their traditional occupations. unsavory businesses and venal government officials not
They were pushed into poverty and often into bonded only jeopardize the environment, but also take away
labor. Many tea and coffee plantations had bonded from tribals their way of life.
tribal labor. Over-exploitation led to many uprisings Therefore, there is a need for accountability
as well. regarding implementation of laws in tribal ,areas, and
According to Buddhadeb in his book - 'Tribal that a strong political will is required in a scenario where
Transformation in India, 1992', expansion of railways there is reluctance to devolve authority to local bodies
broke down their historical isolation and initiated a by the lawmakers.
process of unchecked and indiscriminate assimilation
leading to 'detribalisation' of tribes. M S A Rao writes Q. What is ethno-nationalism? Examine the
that during colonial rule mining and construction critical factors responsible for tribal discontent
activities reduced tribe people as casual low paid labor.
According. to Guha & Gadgil, colonial rule also lead
in India. (CSE,2019)
to'ecological imperialism' and tribals were invariably Ans: Ethno-nationalism is a form of nationalism
forced to move into commercial agriculture from wherein the nation is defined in terms of ethnicity.
The central theme of ethnic nationalists is that ',nations
hunting gathering nomadic activities.
are defined by a shared heritage, which usually
Therefore, On the whole, tribals were detached
includes a common language, a common faith, and a
from their traditional occupations, r,/ere forced into
common ethnic ancestry". It also includes ideas of a
sedentary subsistence agriculture, pushed into poverty
culture shared between members of the group, and with
and indebtedness, and were forced into bonded labor in
their ancestors.
tea estates led to tribal unrest and so on.
The central poiitical tenet of ethnic nationalism is
that ethnic groups can be identified unambiguously, and
a. Comment on the growing assertion of tribal
that each such group is entitled to self-determination.
community for autonomy in India. The outcome of this right to self-determination may
(csE,2019) vary, from calls for self-regulated administrative bodies
Ans: With a tribal population of more than a within an already-established society, to an autonomous
hundred million, the existing laws for administering entity separate from that society, to a sovereign state
tribal areas fall far short of giving tribals the quality of
removed from that society.
governance they deserve. Their elected representatives Generally, those ethnic groups which are in
not only fail to propose new laws in Parliament, but also minority involve themsqlves in ethnic mobilization.
fail to enforce the scant protection that exists. However, in India scholars generally prefer to call
The Indian Constitution, The provisions of the such movements with their specific nomenclatures like
Panchayats (Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act,1996 linguistic mobilization, communal mbbilization, dalit
or PESA and the Tribal Panchsheel principles of India,s mobilization, caste mobilization, tribal mobilization,
first Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, all guarantee etc. In Western literature, such a distinction is less
protection to indigenous people. prominent. In India, only the tribal movements and
 TRTBAL COMMUNTTTES tN |NDIA ,,:.. 337
racial movements are generally kept under the category Thus, ethnic and identity tribat movements when
of ethnic movements. take the forms of movements for regional autonomy,
Ethnic movements apart from concern for identity for creation of separate states, demand for secession
are political, economic and cultural manifestations of or insurgency, are also called 'Self Determination
ethnic solidarity. They are a result of perceived feeling Movements'. The self-determination movements actually
of marginalization or relative deprivation. political question the nation-state building model which was
subjugation and infiltration of 'outsiders, are the most introduced by the Independent India.
common causes of ethnic mobilization
Factors Responsible for Tribal Discontent in India a. Discuss development-induced displacement
. Lethargy, lndifference, and Lack of Sympathy: Such in the context of tribal uprising in India.
types of attitudes are cofiunon in administrators and Substantiate your answer with any one
bureaucrats in dealing with tribal grievances and detailed illustration from India. (CSE, 201g)
harshness of forest laws and regulations. Ans: Development is a procedure of arranged
. Lack of Legislation: To prevent the passing of tribal institutional change to achieve better alteration, while
land into the hands of non-tribals. balancing between human needs and goals on one
. Ineffective Government Me.asures: To rehabilitate side and social plans and projects on the other side.
tribal population. It is translating economic progress into better living
o Economic Factors and Regional Disparities: conditions for people in society.
Modernization and industrialization in large, multi_ It is declaring war on poverty, illiteracy, ignorance,
ethnic societies tend to proceed unevenly and often, inequality, irrationality and oppression prevalent in
if not always, tried to benefit some ethnic group or society. It aims at not merely uplifting the weak, the
some region of a country more than others. under privileged and the disadvantaged people but also
. at improving the quality of life of all citizens.
Relative Deprivation: Lenin famously held the
Post Independent India has witnessed a large
view that it is the feeling of being exploited rather
number of development projects for fulfilling the soclo
than the exploitation itself that makes a person
economic needs of different categories of population
revolutionary. According to this theory, it is not just
residing in different parts of country. Efforts were made
the poorer regions that develop ethno-nationalism.
by government authorities for the promotion of major,
The rich regions mav also be ethno-nationalist if
medium and small scale developmental projects in
they perceive relative deprivation. Example: Naga
sectors like irrigatiory industries, power, transportation
movement.
etc. Development, especially large scale developmen!
. Historical Reasons: The colonial periocl had whether at th'e national or state level, has always been
brought about a high degree of politico-territorial seen to incur national cost. The various development
integration through an efficient, centralized way, projects have displaced about two crores of people
coercive machinery of the government. However primarily as a direct consequence of land acquisition
it also helped cultural and ethnic groups organize while the number of people affected by the project is
themselves politically.
left unaccounted. India has one of the highest rates
. Competition for Scarce Resources: Resources can of development induced displacement in the *orid.
be economic or political. Development leads to a Large dams, huge industrial and mining projects,
rise rather than a decline in ethnic mobilization communication and transportation network as well
because it provides resources to ethnic groups in as power projects have uprooted millions of people in
the periphery, increasing their bargaining position many cases; instantly depriving them of their cultural
and organizational capacity for action. identities and livelihood.
. Internal Colonialism: It arises out of relationship Displacement is a multidimensional phenomenon
between members of the dominant or core of which physical movement is one of the most critical
community within a state and members of consequences. Nonetheless, it not only limits itself to
the mlnority or peripheral communities are physical relocation, but also reduces quality of life of
characterized by exploitation. For example, tribal communities to subhuman.conditions while affecting
displacement due to dams' construction and economic, social and cultural spheres.
mining, etc. According to Walter Fernandes, in his ,power and
. Cultural Deprivation: One of the significant Powerlessness: Development Projects and Displacement
inducements to ethnicity comes from the feeling of Tribals, 'L99'1.', around 3 crore people have been
of insecurity among ethnic minorities of their fear displaced by developmental activities in past 50 years
from getting lost in a sea of majority. and 42% of them were tribal. poverty among tribal is
338 ,',,,) socroLocY e & A
around 50% much more than country average. There are Q. Why have we started using another category
also higher incidences of maternal mortality, anemia and of.tribes called the Particularly Vulnerable
child mortality among tribes. Therefore, it can be said Groups (PVTGs)? Why are they so called?
that tribes being one of the most vulnerable group of the (csE,2o17l
society needs special safeguards and protection to live
Ans: Tribal communities are often identified by
their life with dignity as envisaged in our constitution
some specific signs such as primitive traits, distinctive
as well.
culture, geographical isolation, shyness to contact with
the community at large and backwardness.
Q. What is the nature of religious change
among tribal communities? Illustrate with Particularly-Vulnerable Tribal Groups
two examples from coloniaI and post Some tribal groups have some specific features such
independence times. (CSE,20Ln as dependency on hunting, gathering for food, having
Ans: Among tribals, the religious concepts, pre-agriculture level of technology, zero or negative
terminologies, and practices are as varied as the growth of population and extremely low level of literacy'
hundreds of tribes, but members of these groups have These groups are called Particularly Vulnerable Tribal
one thing in common: they are under constant pressure Groups.
from the major organized.religions. Some of this In1973, the Dhebar Commission created Primitive
pressure is intentional, as outside missionaries work Tribal Groups (PTGs) as a separate category, who
among tribal groups to gain converts. are less developed among the tribal groups. In
Most of the press,ure, however, comes from the 2006, the Government of India renamed the PTGs
process of integration within a national political and as Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs).
economic system that brings tribes into increasing PVTGs have some basic characteristics- they are
contact with other groups and different prestigious mostly homogenous, with a small population,
belief systems. In general, those tribes that remain relatively physically isolated, social institutes cast in
geographically isolated in desert, hill, and forest regions a simple mould, absence of written language,
or on islands are able to retain their traditional cultures relatively simple technology and a slower rate of change
and religions Jonger. etc.

Examples from colonial and post-independent India Why are they called so?
In the colonial era, tribes came into interaction with PVTGs are more vulnerable among the tribal
the mainstream due to the encroachment of the British groups. Due to this factor, more developed and
into their areas. assertive tribal groups take a major chunk of the tribal
Hence, the process of integration and conversion development funds, because of which PWGs need more
began at this time. One of the most studied tribal funds directed for their development.
religions is that of the Santhal of Odisha,Bihar, and West The cultural practices, sel{ govemance and livelihood
Bengal, one of the largest tribes in India. According to practices of PVTGs have a lot of variations, depending
the Santhal religiory the supreme deity, who ultimately on the group and locality. The level of inequalities in
controls the entire universe, is Thakurji. Very few of the social and economical conditions is very high amongst
tribes follow their traditional religion. Post-independent PVTGs. Their problems are also very different from
India, many steps were taken by the state to maintain group to group. The gror,vth of PVTGs' population is
the autonomy of the tribes including their religion and either stagnating or declining, compared to the general
culture. But still, illustrations can be seen in which the population growth, particularly in the Andaman
tribal groups are following some of the major religions and Nicobar Islands where the declining rate is very
practised in the country. Tribal groups in the Himalayas high.
were similarly affected by both Hinduism and Buddhism
in the late twentieth century. a. Isolationism as a dominant feafure of colonial
Even the small hunting-and-gathering groups in hibal policy (CSE,2016)
the Union Territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands Ans: Policy of the British Governmenil The tribal
have been under severe pressure because of immigration areas were the last to come under the British rule due to
to .this area and mixture of religious Sroups. F{ence, their inaccessibility. To avoid troubles from violent tribes,
from the above illustrations, it is clear that with the the British Government adopted a policy of pacification
increasing integration of the tribal communities with through indirect rule with respect to tribal areas and
the mainstream India, they are more and more getting treated them differently from the rest of the country"
assimilated into the major religions like Hinduism, Accordingly the following measures were taken. The
Buddhism and Christianity. Schedule Districts Act of 1874 was enacted to keep
 TRIBAL COMMUNITIES IN INDIA ...i},, 339
large tracts of tribal areas outside the jurisdiction of recommendations
was that the state should bear the
normal administration. For these areas the executives responsibility of
the tribal people. It laid emphasis on the
were endowed with wide powers. The administrative protection of tribal lands and prevention of exploitation
policy was based on the principles of non - interference by money lenders.
- It also suggested certain statutory
into the affairs of the tribes and isolation. All these safeguards for the protection
of tribes.
provinces were provided with autonomy to rule
the tribal areas under their control following broad
guidelines formulated for this purpose. In accordance
a. How is the tribal question related with the
issues of integration and autonomy in modern
with the Policy, Agency Rules have been formulated in
the year 1924 by the Government of Madras provinces
India? (CSE,2016)
suppressing all the existing rules. The Agency Rules Ans: The theory of integration is propounded by
provided for the Revenue and Judicial administration of Jawaharlal Nehru in his manuscript Discovery of Indii.
the tribal areas acquired linkages with the higher levels Though his concept is mainly influenced and drawn
as their positions were recognized for administrative from his Panchsheel principle, Neheru categorically
purposes. rejected both isolation and assimilation approach of.
Policy of the National Government: The founders tribe. He favours policy of integrating tribal people
of the Indian Constitution were deeply conscious of the in Indian society and to make them an integral pirt
miserable conditions of the tribes who were segregated of Indian nation without hampering their distinct
from the national main stream. The social scientiits of identity and culture. Policy of integration consists of
this period also focused their attention towards the two types of measures for tribal development. These
conditions of the tribes and began to discuss how best are Protective measure and promotional measure. After
to deal with them. One school of thought led by Elwin independence Prime Minister Jawarharlal Neheru laid
argued to protect the aboriginals by completely isolating down a Panchsheel principle for tribal development
them from rest of India and later he shiJted his stancel in India. Panchsheel is five fundamental principles
A second school of thought led by Ghurye opined for tribal development in India. For ensuring overall
assimilation of the tribes into national main _ stream as development there should be proper communication,
essential. A third school believed that tribes should be medical facllity, education and better agriculture. These
integrated into thb Indian society but not avenues of development should, however, be pursued
""".rrrriiy
assimilated which means that it aims to preserve their within broad framework of following five fundimental
identity. principles.
Ghurye (1963) made an elaborate discussion on the (i) People should develop a long
line of their own
three solutions suggested for tribals, problems; no change genius and nothing should be imposed on them.
and revivalism: Isolationism and preservation; aid Rather we should try to encourage in every way
Assimilation (1963). Dube (1968) and Vidyarthi (1968) their own kaditional art and culture.
discussed various approaches from anthropologicai (ii)
Tribal rights in land and forests should be respected.
point of view. The Government of India came to the
(iii) We should try to train and built up a team of
stand that the tribal population cannot be left to lag
behind and isolated. Nor the natural resources in tribal
their own people to do work of administration
and development. Some technical personnel froin
areas can be neglected. integration of tribes into the
outside will be needed in beginning. But we should
national mainstream was considered to be the solution.
The policy is to bring the tuibes into the main stream in a
avoid introducing too many outslders into tribai
phased manner. This policy also cautioned that the tribes
territory.
should not be allowed to get exploited in this process. (iv) We should not over-administer these areas or
Late ]awaharlal Nehru spelled out the policy as ?oilows: overwhelm them with a multiplicity of schemes.
"We cannot allow matters to drift in the tribal areas or We should rather work through their own social
lest not take interest in them. and cultural institution.
At the same time we should avoid over (v) We should judge result, not by statistics of amount
administering the areas and in particular sending too of money spent, but by quality of human character
many outsiders into the territory. It is between the that is evolved.
two extreme positions we shave to function,,. The The Government of India has, since 1947, introduced
Government of India appointed a sub - committee in a number of programmes and proiects in
tribal areas
1947 with Thakkar Bapa as its chairman to study the with the intention of ameliorating the
conditions of tribes
position of Excluded and partially Excluded Areas but has been unable to stop their marginalization.
We
of the erstwhile British Government. The committee should not over- administer these areas or overwhelm
made several recommendations. One of the important them with a multiplicity of schemes. We should
rather
340 socloLocYQ&A
and the social
work through, and not in rivalry with, their own social By displacement, they lose their culture
and cultural institutions. fabric gets disrupted'

we shourd judge results, not bv.r.",ir,,,.:: :i

.."rffi".I:10;##hi#ti::*:if,t"';ffiil:T::l
the amount of money, spent, !"lb_y the quality ot ;;t"," becomes a survival strategy. By doing so, they

lffi:l-'l1T:i'lJJ""'"il:'J,*H,1,1,"Jii:ffiJ
effects of development processes withou: bell?
*j:i*JlT[,*iJ*:T:li;HTtffili]'f:"::
io urr"rt their identity and even demand separate
critical of the latter. (According to B. K. Roy Burman ,iui"f,ooa or nationhood. This is perhaps boine by

$ffi '*:'"f,i:l#ff ,31#"?'LT*",1"tffi?'il:*^*:':-ll*,,;':lffi i:H;flHffi ';1?;LT"TY

administrative structure through which these schemes ,-rrtr,o.r, for autonomy can be used'as an effettive
are implemented). Problems of displacement,l1_Tiltll ir"f f* meeting tribal aspirations even in central India
ot the
(which u,",,o,i covered under schedure v)
f11,1'^",T|i:itr*ffiI1liilil:ultTjroduct
The tribal population has generally remained O. Verrier Elwin's views on freedom for the
aloof from the mainstream society in the past' They tribals. (CSE, 20L5)
have their own social, political and economic setup
began his work in India as a Christian
that is not integrated with that of th" hr;;;;;;,, - ,--1"'Elwin with Gandhian leanings' unacceptable both'
After independence, the constitution franier, ,orgha :i:,:1o"u'y British Rai and to his own church in India' India's
to the
to maintain this autonomy through th" fti;il;;;th "primitive" tribals won his heart' eventually; he lived
schedules of the constitution. while ,n" ,*rn-*il"i"i"
deals with the administration of the t;;i ;;;; -ith.th"- and devoted his enormous energies' towards
tr3l3ing them' writing about them and defending their
Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and uirorail, *" ut"
rights and their ways of life' The government of India'
schedule is on the administration of *r.'"i"r"J#"t
after{reedorr-(in1947)appointedElwinasaconsultant
in states other than those mentioned ";;;.;;;;; and improves living conditions for the large
these provisions, the Governor nu, ,p".ilt";#;; ::":l"t-
number of tribals in India'
responsibility over the tribal/scheduled ur"*l
Due to his close association with the tribals' he
He can declare that anv law made by thi*iarliament ,
an authority on their lifestyle and culture'
or the State Legislative Assembty doesn't;;ffi;;';il l:tT" believed India is a rich and varied tapestry and
tribal/scheduled areas. The district .J;;;";;il flwrn
tt"t" tribes had to be encouraged to maintain their own
regional councils set up under Schedule ;ffi;;*l personallty' their culture and language' He was afraid
laws on certain matters like land u.ra ror"rtr';;; ihat modernity and chanp;e would destroy tribes and
also levy certain taxes. The extent p"*"1, *#il;
"r their way of life' But later he realized that culture is not
schedule v areas is not as wide as s"n"art" vI?;";rH
granting or relative autonomv to the '"'1lL1,l'o:'#il::::',trJ;:#:lT",asmuchabout
"-*1"-*ill"^1
areas is to prevent the exploitation of the tribes' The idea
is that by grving *o," fo,"",s to the
".lil*i:ilfli ;:':f,:Tiif,,:::::'i#:ff,|;:
over their land and other resources, they are less likely """:-
ilhn:;:HJ:$;tl:
of the best values of the tribal life' He could see that in
to be exploited. It would ensure that their affii;il;:

Also, granting autonomous powers t^11^1,t]j:,: caiefully to further the tribals' cause and long-term
bargaining chip bv the state against tne seces,slSri_1]1, ***"i and an ability to bridge cultural divides that
Though tribal areas are given relative autonomy *r, Urrf, unusual and essential. His mission was to
p,",",.,," the tribar curture and to that extent he was
il:.i;'"f"i]'+lJ:"llifi"lT#il"X'jfiljJ,',"#il t work with the state' It is only because of him
well assimilated to the wider society.'**JJX',#: :,:1g *
the deepest forests
in other parts of the country rr," -r,Jiuil,:;;;
a number of mining companies who were able
ii::#;1t:#:Ji:,Y""Jil:ii
attracted

:H:1ffi"I;T::if""fr':i*':ThTfi:ffi1"r\T*:il a' Anarvse the dirrerent views on integration

and autonomy of tribes in India' (CSE' 2014)
the absence of education and skills they find themselves
struggling to cope up with the world. It is not just a Ans: The question of tribal integration with the
from two broad
matter of livelihood ulor-r". The tribal population has larger society is studied by sociologist
and economic'
a deep relationship with their land and tihe elements. points of views viz. cultural, political
 TRIBAL COMMUNITIES IN INDIA ..i: 341
Cultural theory of integration is mostly forwarded 1. They are a territorial group and identify themselves
by early sociologist of India, who developed Tribe_ with -a territory even if they har,,e migrated
caste continuum theory. S.C. Roy stated that janas and elsewhere.
Jatis are mutually co-exist in Indian society since the 2. They have a distinct culture characterized by
beginning of Indian civilization. distinct dialect.
S.C. Dube notes little tradition of tribal culture 3. They have distinct customary rules and
is interlinked with great tradition of Hindu Society. are
generally associated with magico-animistic type of
M.N Srinivas advocates that lower position of caste religion.
is always kept open for the tribal entry into caste fold
4. They are more egalitarian than the other people.
giving raise to the Tribe caste continuum. Surjit Sinha,s Gender equality is better than the others.
understanding of tribal entry into caste fold is greatly
driven by the economic necessity of the caste peasants
5. They enjoy political autonomy and are. associated
with tribal council which discharges their political
leading to the availability of cheap labour available for
functions.
agriculture purpose leading to Tribe peasant continuum.
That led to Andre Betille saying that difference between
6. They live in symbiotic relationship with the forest.
and protect it whereas others destroy forests for
caste and tribe is so minimal that one cannot distinguish
their own benefits.
them in terms of race, languages, occupation and
behavioural pattern. From the economic and political
7. They have a system of youth dormitories where
couples can live before marriage.
front, different government policies and autonomous
councils have made successive attempts for integration
8. There is no formal system of education and skills
are transferred from generation to generations.
of tribes with larger society.
But, gradually the tribes are losing their distinct
The search of state for tribal integration and -
character. As they are entering the mo-dern economy
peoples search at grass root level for autonomy is they are getting assimilated in the svstem. Rather there is
an Anthropology paradox. Studies on development the need inte$atlgn of tribal people as propagated by
displacement indicate that in the name of economic {ol
Jawahar Lal Nehru. It means that they must 6e ulowei
development tribal land is captured; their habitat is to develop by their own wisdom anj must retain their
altered; their culture is destroyed; industr;. , urban distinct characteristics. But, the vision of Nehru is still
centres, commercial cities, big dams, mining in the unfulfilled. More tiibal people are getting displaced
forest sectors, sanctuaries have virtually leJ to the by the development agenda. As Walter Fernandes
dispossession of tribal communities from their own has shown that tribal's assimilation leads to sudden
homeland. impoverishment, their culture loses their meaning and
Therefore, they are going for restoration of their in the absence. of skills for the employment in modern
identity and striving for survival through protest and sector employment they end up being impoverished.
movement in the names like anti POSCO movement, Thus, steps must be taken to iniegrate them according
Naga movement, etc. to their own wish for a peaceful Indian society.
In conclusion, it can be advocated, when classical
sociologists consider that tribal,s integration with larger Q. Write a note on ethnicity and integration in
society is a voluntaristic process and tribal seaich the context of tribes. (CSE, 2013)
for autonomy is a cultural myopia. To its contrast Ans: An ethnic group is a group having distinct
contemporary studies on tribe indicate that tribals, culture, language and customs. Ethnicity refers to the
integration with larger economy and political order identification of this group with its distinct culture. This
is mostly disharmonic for which tribal protests and ethnicity develops over a long period of time and it gives
movement in search for equality, justice and human its members a sense of self confidence and assertiveness.
rights. , Integration of tribal people means they should
adopt the modern ways of living accordinf to their
convenience and alien culture should not bJ imposed
Q. What are the features that distinguish tribes upon them. If it is imposed forcefully, they oppose it by
from the rest of the population? (CSE, 2013)
demanding autonomous governing councili, separatl
Ans: Historically, tribal people have lived in states or even secession.
the inaccessible forested areas. They have lived in In the Indian history the integration of tribal people
. isolation for years. Because of this isoiation they have was very_tough and involved lots of copflicts. Nagu,
developed a culture and identity which is distinct than were the first to react against forced integration of tribal
the mainstream identity. Madan and Mazumdar have people in the Indian nation. Initially, they asserted
identified various features of tribes which distinguish themselves by demanding a separate nation. But, with
them from others. These are as follows. negotiation and persuasion Indian government agreed
342 * soctoLocYQ&A
to create a separate state of Nagaland and Nagas gave a. Tribe and Caste. (CSE,2012)
up their violence. Bodos of Assam had also demanded Ans: Caste is that system of social stratification
a separate :tate but Indian government succeeded in based on birth which puts many restriction on its
setting ut Bodo Autonomous Council by giving them members regarding marriage, food habits, occupation
suffici,. ,1 autonomY. and social interaction etc. On the other hand, tribes
Similarly, the people of Meghalaya revolted against are collection of family or group of family which has
the imposition of Assamese culture on them' In the a general name, whose members inha- bit in a specific
pto."rr, they succeeded in creating a new state' But' territory and speak same language'
gradually thldffferences developed between tribal and The occupation of members of a caste is generally
ion tribal people and the issue is still unresolved' The same whereai members of a single tribe engage in
tribes of Bihar and MP also had similar grievances and different occupations. Every tribe has .its particular
they succeeded in creating ]harkhand, Chhattisgarh and political organLation but castes don't'have such' clear
Uttaranchal. organizational structure.
Therefore, if we see the integration of tribal people A caste is made up of many subcaste group but
from the perspective of nationalism we find that the tribes don't have any sub-tribal groups' In caste,- rule
ethnicity is older and dear to the tribal people than the of endo-gamy not followed strictly' A hierarchy of
nationaiism. For the peaceful integration of ffibal people high and low is found in different castes whereas no
the framework of ethno-nationalism seems to be a better
,r".h hi".ut"hy is found in tribes. Castes don't consider
themselves as a descendans of any fictitious ancestor but
option where ethnic Sroups accept Indian constitution
tribes believe in such assumption.
along with preserving their identity.

How does the new Forest Act affect tribal a. Has geographic and economic mobility
a. impacted the tribal culture and social
peopte? (CSE,2013)
structure? Give examples. (CSE, 2012)
Ans: The tribal communities of India have had
Ans: Majoi effects of geographic and social mobility
an integral and close knit relationship with the forests
has impacted ttlbul culture and social structure' Today
and have been dependent on the forests for livelihoods
this can be understood from ten-sion present between
and existence. The relationship was mutually beneficial
modernity and tradition in tribals. Many tribes are
and not one sided. Though they were using the land migrating toward urban area for employment' This
but didn't have rights over the land. In the absence of mi[ration has created a new culture due to mixing
real ownership of the land, the already marginalized of Ihef culture assumptions, traditions, thoughts and
local dwelleri and tribal people suffered from the beliefs with effective local culture, in which there has
administrative wrath. Thus, this amounted to the occurred a combined form of their culture and local
injustice done to the tribal people in the past' culture.
This Act will redress the "historical injustice" Usually tribals migrated towards new geographical
committed against forest dwellers and scheduled tribes place due to exploitation of their habitat in forests
living in that area. This law provides the cultivation and mountains. They face many problems due to this
rights to the tribes who are cultivating this land from geographical mobility. There is loss of their cultural
long time. This is a positive development as the tribal ialues-because of mobility from original.place to
p"opt" will not be evicted from their land either by the migrated place during the transitional phase'
ior"tt department or industries. This amounts to the Search on new opportunities of employment also
inclusive development because interests of tribal people affected their original occupations. Religiory art, their
are also taken into account' culture, kinship ut-td -uy of marriage etc all got affected'
Tribal people will also get the rights to use rninor Today due to increasing level of education changes have
forest prodrr." (excluding timber), grazing grounds comein giving up superstitions, malpractices, polygamy,
and witer bodies. Thus, now this Act will protect their sacrificei, a.td irl.."uted alcoholism and prostitution
livelihood and give them a sense of pride and enhance among tribes.
their self respect. Another important right which has Due to geographical and economic mobi- lity, many
been given to tribes is the right to protect and conserve new social u-"tt hurr" come due to follo-wing the lifestyle
foresti. Till now only the forest department was sole of dominant castes. Today the presence of mobile, Tv,
caretaker of forests and others were seen as enemies of radio, car and bike and other modern amenities among
forests. Now, tribal people are seen as integral to the many tribes ind.icate setting up. of coordination with
protection of forests and wildlife. Thus, this Act marks new system.
a significant change in the thinking at the administrative
Today the changes that have come in youth houses-
levJl and marks a new beginning in the way tribal and mariiage pattern indicate the conse-quence of
integration and idaptation with local culture' Due to this
people are to be treated.
 TRIBAL COMMUNITIES IN INDIA 343
mobility a new change is being seen in their traditional
Ans: Anthropologists have differed on the question
dress, dance style, art and culture etc. Better
education .
relating to tribe and caste. According G.S. bhurye
have helped them take up jobs both in government
and tribal people are backward Hindus diifering only in
private sector. Geographical and socLl mobility has
degrees from the other segments of Hindu societv.
helped them end the sense of isolation and integrate Elwin
argued for the recognition of separate social and
themselves with mainstream society. cultural
identity of tribal people, wheieas the government
of
rndra grves tacit recognition to this identity of keeping
a. Unity and diversity among the tribes in India. alive under constitution sanction their lists of Schedllei
(csE,2011) Tribe. According to Andre Beteille there are certain
Ans: Due to multiplicity of factors and complexity commonly observed differences between tribes and
of problems involved,-it-ii not very easy to ciassify castes.
the Indian tribes into different grorpr. Fiowever, thl The tribes are relatively isolated as to the casteb.
commissioner for scheduled castes and scheduled
tribes They are world within itielf having externalities.
took up the task and investigated the possibility of Tribes speak a variety of dialects *:hi.t separates
adopting classification criteria. keeping this aim i" r/i"* them from non tribes. They follow their own ieligion
the state goverrunents in India were lsked to suggest and practices which are not common in Hinduism.
the characteristics which seemed to them most suitable T-anguage is also a criterion of difference
as tribes speak
in distingurshing the aboriginal groups i.e. tribes from their local dialect. For example Mundas and Oraons
o{
the rest of the population. Chota Nagpur speak different dialects but Bhumijhave
The Assam government suggested decent from lost their tribal dialect and speak dominant language
Mongoloid stock, affiliation rui"tn fiU"to_Burman of the area.
l5"i:tk groups and the existence of a social organisation However, according to N.K. Bose there are many
the village clan type as the major characteristics similarities in customs between tribes and castes
for anri
tribes. The erstwhile Bombay gor"rrl-"rt considered interdependent. Marriage within the clan
residence in forest areas as the Lasic criterion lh:y -rl:
is forbidden both in the tribe as r.tlell as in the
while for caste.
the Madhya Pradesh government tribal origin, Both generally do not encourage marriage outside
speaking the
language and residence in forest ur"u, *"." group.
importani
criterion Similarly the governments of Madras,brissa, Max Weber writes in ,social Structure, that when an
Andhra Pradesh, btc. also suggested various linguistic, Indian tribe loses ils territorial significance it assumes
geographical, economic and social factors as indicators. the form of an Indian caste. In tliis way the tribe
There are also dif{erences in the definition of is a
tribes. local group whereas caste is a social grorrp.
Interestingly. the anthropologists, sociologists, social According to D.N. Majumdar, the tribe looks upon
workers, administrators who have been involved Hindu ritualism as foreign and extra_religious eier"l
i! with
the classification of tribes and their problems.either though indulging in it ancl in the worship of god and
on
theoretical plane or on practical grounds are still not goddess, these are necessary part of the religion.
in In
agreement with the concept and definition. caste, individuals generally pursue their own
However, taking into consideration several definite
occupations because functions are divided under
characteristics across the country the tribe of India the
caste system but an individual can indulge in
have been classified on the basis of their territorial whatever
profession they prefer as there is no Tixed relation
distribution, linguistic affiliation, physical and racial between them and occupation.
characteristics, occupation and ."ft"rui The ethnographic records establish that the
control, religions and beliefs, ".orlo*y,
etc. There is also numerous castes among Hindus have emerged out
great diversity in their geographical spread. Only of the tribal stratums. The recent studies of tiibes of
common unifying characteristic is theii life relatei Himalayan, western and middle India have left no
problems. Tribes all over India are suffering from doubt
that some of the tribes are Hinduized to the extent
exploitation, illiteracy, backwardness, ill health,"forced that
they have assimilated with the different castes.
migration, land alienation, lack of opportunity for
F{owever, F.G. Bailey opined that tribe and caste
development, etc.
should be viewed as continuum. He seeks to make
distinction not in terms of totality of behavior. According
a. Analyse the changing nexus between caste to him a caste society is hierarchical while a kibal
societi
and hibe. (CSE,2011) is segmentary and egalitarian. r
rr

*rn{.
 CHAPTER

{o

Discuss the nature of regional variations in egy should include educational changes, awareness
a. ir,iiiuti r"., and legislative actions to stop gender-based
sex ratio in India, stating reasons thereof'
(csE 2023) violence and disciimination. It also entails pushing for
women's econornic prospects and dismantling deeply
Ans: In terms of demographics, the sex ratio is the embedded cultural practices that support gender in-
number of femaies in a population per 1000 males' The equalities.
unbalanced gender ratio in India, which favours men
over women, has raised concerns. Significant geographi- Q. What is 'reverse migration'? Discuss its fea-
cal differences in India's sex ratio are a reflection of the tures, causes and consequences in India'(CSE
nation's socioeconomic, cultural, and historical divides' 2023)
Regional Variations in Sex Ratio and Associated Reasons Ans: The occurrence of migrants returning to their
. Northern India: Studies have repeatedly indicated place of origin after a specific amount of time spent
a lower sex ratio in the northern Indian states of abroad is referred to as reverse migration, or return
Haryana, Puniab, and Uttar Pradesh' The deeply migration. Aithough it is a typical occurrence elsewhere,
ingrained patriarchal norms and ideals that favour the COVID-19 epidemic has caused a large-scale reverse
mile offspring over female youngsters are mostly migration in India, which has drawn substantial atten-
to blame for this. The preference for sons frequently tion to the issue.
leads to greater death rates through female feticide'
Feattrris of Reverse Migration
female in{anticide, and girl child mistreatment'
. . When there is an economic downturn or crisis,
Southern India: The sex ratio is greater in southern
people typically temporarily migrate back to their
states like Tamil Nadu and Kerala' Higher rates of
literacy, more health facilities, and a more equitable
ho*" ut"ut, then migrate again when things get
better.
society where women are given equal position ate
all credited with this. In many areas of Kerala, the ' Typically linked to marginalized groups' these
matrilineal method of inheritance has also led to a ,"rrlrr" migrants tvpically come from low-skilled
more advantageous sex ratio. or unskilleJ marginalized groups, typically includ-
. ing lower class individuals with little negotiating
Eastern India: The sex ratio is likewise greater in
leverage.
eastern states like West Bengal and Odisha' This
is explained by the fact that son preference is less
. Revetse migration in India frequently entails going
and that girls and women are treated from an urban region to a rural one'
"o*iron
more fairly. Flowever, because of patriarchal atti- . Linketl to less opportunities found in cities: Other
tudes, ilhtlracy, and poverty, states like Bihar and circumstances, including push back migratiory also
jharkhand have lower sex ratios. exhibit this kind of reverse migration'
. Western India: Because sons are preferred and Causes and Conseq!'rences of Reverse Migration
patriarchal attitudes are prevalent, the sex ratio is .
' Reverse migration may be prompted by economic
lower in western states like Rajasthan and Guiarat' dearth of employment prospects
downturns or a
Nonetheless, because of improved socioeconomic in'stance, the COVID-19
in the host location. For
circumstances and greater rates of literacy, states
epidemic caused a large number of employment
like Maharashtra have a higher sex ratio'
losses, which drove many migrants to return to
Therefore, a multifaceted strategy is needed to ad-
their own countries.
dress the regional differences in sex ratios' This strat-
 POPULATION DYNAMICS # 345
. The COVID-19 outbreak exposed migrant worker's . Emotional Problems - lsolation, loss of status,
precarious financial situatioo since many had little loss of spouse, etc. In every sphere of life, as the
to no savings and unstable employment. individual becomes old, his/her / capacity to adjust
. Because of the lack of security for workers lives and himself/ herself to the society declines.
means of subsistence, coupled with the callous and . Material Problems - Loss of income, lack of ad-
unsupportive attitude of the urban middle class equate social security.
they work for, they would have liked to go back . Ageism i.e. discriminatory and stereotypical behav-
to their villages. iour with the aged.
. Reverse migration has occasionally happened as a . Generation gap i.e. there is a gap in the way of
result of alienation brought on by a loss of identity thinking of the younger generation and the elderly
and a sense of not belonging. population. Often views of older people are ignored
. The attraction of advantageous rural improve- as archaic which may hurt them.
ments may entice migrants to return to their native . India lacks a robust social security system, which
regions. means that many old people do not receive enough
. The effects of reverse migration can be profoundly financial support. Pension benefits are paid to a veiy
felt economically. It may result in a labor surplus tiny portion of the older population, and frequently
in home areas and a labor shortage in host regions, are not enough to meet their basic requirements.
which might lower wages. . There are many documented instances where elder-
. In additioru reverse migration may have social ef- ly people are abused or not given the respect they
fects including altered family dynamics and height- deserve. Abuse can be emotional, psychological, or
ened demand on local social services. physical, and it frequently comes from members of
. Positively, because returning migrants often bring their own family.
skills, experience, and money, reverse migration can Therefore, in India, becoming older comes with a
help home areas grow. lot of difficulties. Together, society and the government
Therefore, the complicated phenomena of reverse rnust find solutions to these problems and make sure
migration have important ramifications for devel- that senior citizens may live comfortable, dignified lives.
opment, society, and the economy. To minimize its This may be accomplished via enhancing healthcare fa-
negative effects and maximize its potential advantages, cilities, bolstering the social security system, encouraging
cautious management and policy responses are needed. respect for the old, and building an inclusive community
In the Indian context, this emphasizes the necessity of that cherishes and looks out for its senior citizens.
more equitable regional development and robust social
protection for migrant laborers in order to lessen migra-
tory pressures.
a. Is'ageing'an emerging issue in Indian soci-
ety? Discuss the maior problems of old age
people in India. (CSE 202L)
Q. What is Ageingl? Discuss the major problems
Ans: According to censu s 2071,, there are nearly 104
of aged people in India. (CSE 2023)
million old age people in India. This figure is estimated
Ans: Ageing is defined as accumulation of changes to rise to 174 million by 2026.
in personality. Changes can be biological, social or psy- Slowing population growth rate and deiline
chological. With biological ageing, social ageing is also in fertility level is projected to lead to ageing of
accompanied and the norms, values and roles that are Indian population. Currently the median age of India
particularly associated with a chronological age also stands at 28 years which is projected to rise to 38 years
change.
by 2050. This will bring new set of challenges and issues
Problems of Aged People in India such as decline in productivity, increase in dependency
Ageing as a phenomenon poses challenges for the ratio, increase in government expenditure on care for
individual as well as for society. As a process, it poses elderly among others. Furthermore ageing will lead
challenges at every phase of life from puberty,to old-age. to decline in demographic dividend available to India.
. Physical Problems - Loss of productive capacity, Therefore ageing is emerging as a new issue faced by
decline of physical vigour, the loss of cells and lndian society.
functions and the growing susceptibility to disease Major Problems of Old Age People in India
in organs. . Social Problems: Elderly people fhce various social
. Psychological Problems - There is a change in cog- problems such as loss of authority in family, isola-
nitive capacity and self-image and often self-image tion and social exclusion, lack of care givers in fam-
tends to be rather negative. ily and abandonment due to rise of nuclear families.
346 l.: socrolocY e & A
. Lack of Social Security: As majority of population enabled higher animal productivity in India.
works in informal sector, upon retirement, they In recent times, technologies such as precision agri,
don't have access to any social security benefits culture, Smart agriculture, Drone enabled farming, and
which further increases their dependency. micro irrigation techniques among others hold a great
o Physical Problems: Loss of productive capacity, potential in revolutionising agrarian sector in India.
decline of physical vigour, the loss of cells and func- Apart from this various technological measures
tions and the growing susceptibility to disease are undertaken by government such as e-NAM, DD KISAN,
some of the physical problems faced by the elderly. AGMARKNET, and soil health card among others have
. Ageism: Discriminatory and stereotypical behav- further enhanced agrarian productivity in India.
iour with the aged is an issue.
n Generation Gap: There is a gap in way of thinking a. Underline the socio'cultural factors respon-
of the younger generation and the elderly popula- sible for India's skewed sex-ratio. (CSE 2021)
tion. Often views of older people are ignored as Ans: According to the recently released NFHS-S
archaic which may hurt them. data, sex ratio at birth stands at 929 females per 1000
" Psychological Problems: There is a change in cogni- males whereas adult sex ratio stands at1020 female-per
tive capacity and self-image and often self- image 1000 males. This highlights the skewed sex ratio in lndia.
tends to be rather negative. Various socio-cultural factors responsible for
. Problems Faced by Elderly Women: They don't skewed sex ratio are- a. Female feticide or the killing of
have property rights and due to poor participation girl babies in womb due to:
in economy they don't receive social security ben- . Religious or cultural beliefs, more specifically due
efits such as pensions. Furthermore they are often to preference for male child.
le{t to live out their days in vidhwa ashrams. . Severe neglect of girl babies in infancy, leading to
According to Prabhat Patnaik; the root cause of higher infant death rates.
these problems lies in lor.t government expenditure on . Violence against women which includes dowry
elderly. Shakuntala Shettar suggests that we should aim
deaths, honour killings, sexual violence and so on.
to strengthen family care as it is preferred by aged. Ad-
. Migration is also emerging as one of the factors as
ditionally there's also a need to promote active ageing
r.vhich'ivill ndt only add years to the li{e of elderly but male bread earners are leaving their native places
also life to their years. to other places in India and abroad.
. Under enumeration in census as often people don t
report the number of women household correctly
a" Discuss the role of technology in agrarian due to various social cultural factors such as pur-
change in India. (CSE 2021)
dah.,
Ans: Agriculture sector continues to be the main- . Higher mortality qmong adult men and their sus-
stay of rural economy ltrith nearly 45% share in overall
ceptibility to diseases due to hazardous nature of
employment" Over the years agricultural production
work has led to higher proportion of adult women
has increased multifold and technology had a critical
as compared to adult men.
role to play in this.
To address the skewed sex ratio government has
Green revolution was aimed at ensuring food secu-
launched several programs such as PCPNDT Act Beti
rity for India. The success of green revolution lies in the
Bachao Beti Padhao, etc. Various states such as Haryana,
use of various technological aids such as high yielding
Maharashtra, etc. give cash incentives to girl child. De-
variety (HYV) seeds, fertilisers, irrigation technologies
spite such programs child sex ratio continues to be poor.
and tractors. These technologies helped bring structural
changes in agrarian sector by not only enhancing agricul-
tural productivity but according to Yogendra Singh it also a. Analyze the issues related to the citizenship
helped establish new social relations. Use of genetically in contemporary India. Give suitable
modified (GM) crops such as Bt cotton has enhanced illustrations. (CSE 2020)
cotton productivity and has substantially decreased the Ans: While the concept of citizenship is often
incidence of agrarian distress among cotton growers. defined as a set of rights and duties by virtue of
Similarly use of drought resistant varieties of crops membership to a society, it in its current form emerged
* deveioped through biotechnology - such as Swarna with emergence of nation-state concept. Earlier, in
sub 1 variety of rice and technologies such as huppy traditional societies, people used to have little concern
seeder machine, nano urea, solar pumps etc. have helped over who ruled them and they had a little feeling of
make agriculture climate friendly and climate resilient. being part of a larger whole. An important precondition
Artificial insemination techniques, bovine vacci- for the rise of citizenship is a collective feeling of being
nation, development of quality germplasm, etc. have a part of a single national identity.
 POPULATION DYNAMICS rl{,ri 347
Citizenship signifies the relationship between The Assam Movement against illegal immigration
individual and state. Like any other modern state, India eventually led to the historic Assam Accord of 1985"
has two kinds of people-citizens and aliens. Citizens Identifibation of foreigners as needed by Section
are full members of the Indian State and owe allegiance 6A(Citizenship Act, 1955) was to be done under the
to it. They enjoy all civil and political rights. Citizenship Illegal Migrants (Determination by Tribunal) Act, (IMDT
is an idea of exclusion as it excludes non-citizens. Act), 1983, which was applicable only in Assam while
There are two well-known principles for the grant the Foreigners Act, \946 was applicable in the rest of
of citizenship: \z\4rile'jus soli' confers citizenship on the the country.
basis of place of birth, 'jus sanguinis' gives recognition Along with the Citizenship Amendment act, the
to blood ties. From the time of the Motilal Nehru National Register of Citizens (NRC), originally created
Committee (1928), the Indian leadership was in favour of during the first census of independent India in 1951
the enlightened concept of jus soli. The racial idea of jus specifically for Assam, also became embroiled in the
sanguinis was also rejected by the Constituent Assembly game of electoral politics.
as it was against the Indian ethos. Thus, lndia, as a country which follows the ideology
Citizenship is listed in the Union List under the of 'Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam', should not be hasty-in
Constitution and thus is under the exclusive jurisdiction taking decisions that can disenfranchise her citizens
of Parliament. The Constitution does not define the term - contradicting its centuries-followed values and
'citizen' but details of various categories of persons overly legal approach will only produce more tensiory
who are entitled to citizenship are given in Part 2 insecurity and anxiety.
(Articles 5 to 11).There are four ways in which Indian
citizenship can be acquired: birth, descent, registration a. How does the New Education Policy,202A
and naturalisation. The provisions are listed under the aim to eradicate disparities in the system of
Citizenship Act, 1955. education in India? (CSE 2020)
The act Moreover, the Foreigners Act places a
heavy burden on the individual to prove that helshe
Ans: The recent National Education Policy (NEP)
is not a foreigner. It has been amended many times. 2020 in India comes 34 years after the previous policy,
Through these amendments Parliament has narrowed announced in 1986 and revised in 1992.It is truly a
down the widel and universal principles of citizenship democratic effort and is highly aspirational, aiming
based on the fact of birth. In 1986 amendment, unlike
for India to "have an education system by 2040, that
the constitutional provision and the original Citizenship is second to none, with equitable access to the highest
Act that gave citizenship on the principle of jus soli quality education for all learners, regardless of social
to everyone born in India, the 1986 amendment was and economic background.
less inclusive. 2003 amendment made the conditions The NEP's chief purpose is to reform the education
for getting citizenship more stringent, keeping in view system and bridge the gap between current learning
infiltration from Bangladesh. outcomes and those desired. Recognizing the need to
With these restrictive amendments, India has almost keep up with a rapidly changing world and knowledge
moved towards the narrow principle of jus sanguinis or landscape, the NEP 2020 articulates that the purpose of
blood relationship. the education system is to develop good human beings
Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019 permitted capable of rational thought and action, possessing
members of six communities - Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, compassion and empathy, courage and resilience,
scientific temper and creative imagination, r,vith sound
Jains, Parsis and Christians from Pakistary Bangladesh
and Afghanistan - to continue to live in India if they ethical moorings and values.
entered India before December 14,2014.11 also exempted It aims at producing engaged, productive, and
these migrants from the Passport Act and Foreigners contributing citizens for building an equitable, inclusive
Act. A large number of organisations in Assam protested and plural society as envisaged by our constitution. Such
against this act as it may grant citizenship to Bangladeshi strong emphasis on equity and quality is laudable, as
Hindu illegal migrants. is the effort to broaden the scope of quality education.
Assam witnessed large-scale illegal migiation from The policy proposes a move away from content-
erstwhile East Pakistan and, after 1971,, from present- heavy curricula in order "to make space for critical
day Bangladesh. This led to the six-year-long Assam thinking, more holistic, inquiry-based, discovery-based,
movement fuorn 1979 to 1985, for deporting illegal discussion-based and analysis-based learning.
migrants. The All Assam Students' Union (AASU) led An entire section is devoted to'the inclusion of
the movement that demanded the updating of the NRC Socio-Economically Disadvantaged Groups (SEDGs),
and the deportation of all illegal migrants who had broadly categorized as girls, transgender and children
entered Assam after 1951. with special needs, children from rural areas, Dalits, and
348 i:lyr socloLocy e & A
victims of trafficking. Additionally, it recognizes that . The Maternal Mortality Rate will also be brought
children with disabilities are not receiving the attention down to less than '100 per 1., 00,000 live births.
required to Iearn and thrive in schools, primarily A high MMR is a symbol of economic and
because teachers are simply not trained or equipped to social disparity of the fairer sex. It also points to
address their learning needs. Thus, it makes an effort to heightened inequities in terms of healthcare and
ensure teachers are adequately prepared in the area of nutrition.
special education' . To attain universal immunisation of all children
Lastly, the NEP recognizes that children in Socio- against preventable diseases.
Economically Disadvantaged Groups are those who . Ti-," policy will also act against child marriage and
most frequently are un-enrolled, drop out, and learn promote 10 y"rrr as the right marriageable ige for
less and recommends that the policies and schemes girls. The legal age for sarie is 18 years.
designed to include students in Socio-Ec_onomically . ih" policy ivm lctively support a.target of B0%
Disadvantaged Groups should be especially targeted instiiutional deliveries ,,",j iOO ?o dellveries by
towards girls. trained persons.
\ /hile the document takes great strides in advocating . It also seeks to achieve 100 % registration of births,
a more inclusive and equitable system, especially for deaths, marriages ard p.egnanlies.
girls, it does not go far enough. "Gender sensitivity" is . preventing arid controlli-ng all communicable
mentioned repeatedly throughout the document, but it diseases.
does not address the need for systemic change.
_Stlong . It will also strive to Integrate Indian Systems of
patriarchal social and political structures - and their Medicine to provide reprolductive and child health
inherent discrimination and violence against women- services by reaching out to households.
must be questioned, critiqued, and recognized as
contradictory to India's constitutional values of equality. Assessment of India's Population Policy
The same is true of castes and other weaker sections.- India's national population policies have failed to
As Education is a public good, everyone is a achieve their objectives as we remain world's second
stakeholder and should therefore be invited to contribute largest populated country. The population of India in
to actualize the vision of the NEP to make India's 1951 was35crore,butby201L,it hadincreasedto12L
education system strong, inclusive, and equitable. crore. There have been few sh6rtcomings. Firstly, the
NPP have a narrow perspective, given much importance
Q. What were the salient feafures of the India's to contraception and sterilisation. The basic prerequisite
Popglation Policy (2000)? How far its goals of meaningfullycontrollingpopulationincludespoverty
have been achieved? (CSE;020) alleviatiory improving the standards of living and the
spread of'education
Ans: Government of India launched tn" Nutior,ul
popuration poricy in 2000 to improve q";;n;?i;;;; on national scale the policy was not
---,^,?^:"o'olv'
and failed to generate mass support in favour
of people of India and to provide th"r-*it;-;";j l:Tlt]*d
of control' Thirdly' we have insufficient
opportunities to be productive individual ;il""H;. -p^opulation owing to the lack of trained staff' lack of
India launched its first programme to
"-;;;;;;ii" 'Tli::t""*re
aptitude among the staff and limited use or
need for family planning in t9b2 ur-ra u".u"*J,r" rori 1:::"*
misuse of the equipment for population control resulted
country in the world to do so.
in failure of the policy. Lastly, the use of coercion
Salient featutes of National Population Policy 2000 during the Emerg ency (L976'-77) catsed a serious
. It reiterated the government's resolve to push for resentment among the masses. This made the very Npp
voluntary and inJormed choice and agreeability of itself very unpopular. Thus, population stabilisation
citizens to get maximum benefit from reproductive is a mult-i ,".ioril endeavour requiring constant and
health services. effective dialogue among diversity of stakeholders, and
. It embarks on a policy outline for the govemment coordination ai all levels of the government and society.
for next ten years to improve the reproductive
and child health needs of people of India r,vhich
e. why has ,active aging,become a glocal goal?
include issues like child survival, maternal health, Do you agree that tie role of elderly ."r"-
contraceptiory etc.
. school education upto age of L4, tobe made free giving is disprop.ortionately gendered in
and mandatory. This will also inctude;#;"^H developing counhies? Why? (CSE, 2019)
- Ans: Active ageing (active aging in the US)
drop-out rate of boys and girls.
. The policy also aims at curbing the IMR to less than is a concept recently deployed by World Health
30 per 1000 live births. Organization, and used also in Human Resource
 POPULATION DYNAMICS :,r 349
Management. This concept evokes the idea of longer Q. What are the issues relating to male migration
activity, with a higher retirement age and working and its impact on birth rate? Does it necessarily
practices adapted to the age of the employee. It also result in skewed sex ratio? (CSE, 2018)
extends to the social engagement of the elderly in the
Ans: Migration is permanent or semi-permanent
collectivity.
change of residence of an individual or group of people
Today, most people. are living longer and a
over a significant distance. It can be international, intra-
significant proportion of the world's population is older
national, interregional, intra-urban, rural-to-urban or
peopie. By 2050, the world's population of people over
urban-to-rura1. On the basis of distance, it may be long
the age of 60 will double.
or short distance. On the basis of number, it may be
This demographic change has strong implications individual or mass; it may be politically sponsored or
for sustainable development. As people grow older, their
voluntary. On the basis of social organisation, migration
health outcomes, needs and what they value can change.
may be that of family, community, clan, or individual.
Supporting these changes by taking multi-sectoral action
On the basis of causes, migration may be stepwise or
on ageing and health is therefore critical.
direct from the place of origin to the destination. In
Action to foster healthy ageing can help tackle Indian context, male migration is more prevalent in
inequities and ensure older people age safely in a search of better life chances , job opportunities along
place that is right for them, are free from poverty, can
with other secondary factors.
continue to develop personally and can contribute to
their communities while retaining autonomy and health. Consequences of Male Migration
Healthy ageing will help build societies that are cohesive, Male migration has a direct and indirect consequence
peaceful, just, secure and sustainable. A commitment on society, demography, economy/ and environment.
to the Sustainable Development Goals means a Major consequences of migration are:
commitment to Healthy Ageing - and a commitment to Crisis of identity: Migration creates a crisis of
taking concerted actions to formulate evidence-based identity for migrants. They, in fact, present cases of
policies across all sectors that strengthen the abilities of 'marginal man' - a concept developed by Robert E Park.
older persons. In collaboration with member states and The marginal-mary in simple words, is said to be one
international and national partners, WHO needs to lead who is in the process of changing from one culture to
coordinated global action to foster healthy ageing across another. A marginal man suffers from the problems of
the Sustainable Development Coals. maladjustment precisely because he feels lost amidst
Al1 over the world women are the predominant the pressures of two cultures, as he cannot completely
providers of informal care for family members with change from one cultural system to another.
chronic medical conditions or disabilities, including Maladjgstment As process of migration accelerates,
the elderly and adults with mental illnesses, It has been city life tend to be rapidly characterized by cultural
suggested that there are several societal and cultural diversities, socio-economic inequalities, competition,
demands on women to adopt the role of a family- conflict and several other,manifestations of complexities
caregiver. of social reality. The fact of social mobility also affects
Many studies especially in developing world, the life of the city-dwellers. In such a competitive
which have examined gender differences among environment, several among those, who are the lopers,
family-caregivers of people with mental illnesses, have fail to suitably adjust to the reality, and become
concluded that women spend more time in providing victims of frustration, inferiority complex and loss of a
care and carry out personal-care tasks more often meaningful integration with the totality of cityJife. All
than men. These studies have also found that women
such failures give rise to the problem of maladjustment.
experience greater mental and physical strain, greater
Change in demographic characteristics: Migration
caregiver-burden, and higher levels of psychological
brings tangible change in demographic characteristics
distress while providing care.
of place of origin and place of destination. The absolute
Women appear to be more concerned about the
number of populatioru the density of population, age
emotional well-being of the people they provide care
composition, and literacy rates are either favourably or
for. This attachment often motivates them to engage in
adversely affected.
care-giving. A greater sense of responsibility towards the
Change in sex ratio: The sex ratio at the place of
tll patient, altruism, and self-sacrifice has also been found
destination drops as the male members have been added
to characterize women's attitudes to providing care.
while the sex ratio at the place of origin increases.
Across the world women still constitute the majority
of caregivers either of the elderly, or those with other Transformation of ethnic characteristics: The
psychiatric disorders. However, the proportion of men physical and marital contacts of people belonging
iaking up the caregiver's role is steadily increasing. to different ethnic groups may change the biological
350 iriril SOCIOLOGY Q &A
characteristic of the migrants and that of the host The second was to be wary of submitting too
population. much to the rule of one man/ no matter how great.
Transformation of cultural values: When large Ambedkar felt that "Bhakti or what may be called the
scale migration takes place, the cultural values of the path to devotion or hero-worship" played a particularly
place undergo radical transformation. The dietary habits prominent part in Indian politics rvould lead to
of the people are also significantly transformed. "eventual dictatorship."
Rural-urban divide: As skilled population move However, it is the third component that is the most
to cities, villages are often left with no leadership. important and is most relevant today. Ambedkar was
Covernment focus also shifts from rural to urban areas personally aware that "democracy in India was only
as more population crowd cities and they become a top-dressing on an Indian soil which is essentially
urunanageable and highly strained. undemocratic" and pointed out that political democracy
Economic consequences: It increases financial would be insufficient without social democracy.'To
burden on limited resources, displaces native workers, grant political equality through voting without ensuring
and may decrease wage level with the increase of social and economic equality would be creating an
population. Further, household structure forms the key unsustainable set of contradictions. This is why he
mediating factor through which husbands' absence emphasized on Liberty, Equality and Fraternity in the
affects women. Women not residing in extended families preamble and viewed them as inseparable. Without
are faced with both higher levels of responsibilities and equality, liberty wc,uld result in monopolies; equality
greater autonomy, while women who live in extended without liberty would prevent individual initiative;
households do not experience these demands or benefits. and without fraternity, the enforcement of liberty and
A common pattern characterizing migration of men equality would require a constable.
in developing countries is that they leave their wives Ambedkar actually valued fraternity as the most
and children in the place of origin while they migrate integral part of nation building and felt that without
in search of work. Male migration is also found to affect it, liberty and equality "wlll be no deeper than coats
the fertility rate of the region. of paint" and dubbed castes as "anti-national" as they
On the other hand, male migration contributes to an brought about divisions in social life.
extent in skewed sex ratio. For example in metro cities In his view nothing threatened the health of the
like Delhi and Mumbai, male migration changes the Constitution more than societal discrimination. Rohith
demography of the cities in terms of skewed sex ratio in Vemula's suicide and the subsequent agitations that
favour of males. Thus, male migration in particular and have taken place across universities only prove that
migration in general affects the society ,its components Ambedkar's fraternity remains an unachieved dream.
and institutions in more than one way. Given the failure to follow constitutional frameworks it
is now necessary to inculcate the ideals of constitutional
a. Elaborate the concept of constitutional morality r,r.hich Ambedkar spoke of rather than swearing
morality as given by B.R. Ambedkar. blind allegiance to the Indian constitution.
(csE,2018)
Ans: Constitutions are legal meta-documents; they a. Differential sex-ratio and its implications
form the basis of all subsequent laws in a State. Laws (csE,2016)
must follow the procedure and principles laid down in Ans: The imbalance in sex ratio in the country
constitution in order to be valid; otherwise they can be cannot be put down to natural or biological factors,
struck down by courts during judicial review. but is most likely due to socio-cultural and economic
Constitutionalism or Constitutional Morality factors. While deprivation and malnutrition are some
Being one of the foremost constitutional experts of the economic factors that has been used to explain
of his time, Ambedkar was well aware of these existing imbalances, where as infanticide, foeticide,
clangers. He commented that "it is perfectly possible dowry deaths, in{ant mortality among female and
to pervert the Constitutiory without changing its form discrimination in their health care have been understood
bv merely changing the form of the administration" to be the result of specific socio-cultural practices which
and "make it inconsistent and opposed to the spirit are responsible for lasting consequences.
of the Constitution". The first is an abandonment of A high sex ratio can have many implications,
the methocls of revolution regardless of their level of including, for example, on crime. Jean Dreze and Reetika
violence; he felt that civil disobedience, non-cooperation Khera, in a 2000 study, have conchided that murder
and satyagraha were only justifiable when there was no rates in India are correlated with the female-male ratio;
way left for constitutional methods to achieve social and districts with higher proportion of females actually have
economic objectives. lower murder rates. But India could offer a case that
 pOpULATtON DyNAMISS irrir 351

differs from the general trend. To illustrate, in a 2010 the different levels of socio-economic development,
National Bureau of Economic Research paper, Qingyuan cultural norms, and political contexts. Hence it will be a
Du and Shang-Jin Wei have argued that high sex ratios herculeari task for policy makers to address the geriatric
lead to higher savings rate, current account surplus care that will take into account all these determinants.
and lower exchange rates. The hypothesis here is that Care for the elderly is fast emerging as a critical element
men raise their savings rate to improve their relative of both the public and private concern.
standing in the marriage market. In another paper, Wei The elderly tend to be cared for in a variety of
and Xiaobo Zhang have suggested that high sex ratios settings: home, nursing home, day-care centre, geriatric
have actually stimulated economic growth in China by out-patient department, medical units or intensive care
inducing more entrepreneurship and hard work. But this unit depending on the nature of the clinical problem"
is not so in India, where despite a persistently high sex Care of elderly necessitates addressing several
ratio, the savings rate continues to be low, the current social issues. The needs and problems of the elderly
account in the balance of payments is in huge deficit, vary significantly according to their age, socioeconomic
and the rupee has not particularly held its own. status, healttu living status and other such background
A lack of women relative to men, one fairly obvious characteristics. Their social rights are neglected and
social consequences is that there are not enough women they are profusely abused which.goes unreported. Some
for men to marry and the institution of marriage would factors of concern are:
lost its relevance. This scarcity bf brides might lead to Lack of Infrastructure: With increasing longevity
the child betrothal and early marriage (child marriage) to and debilitating chronic diseases, many elder citizens
cope with the problem. At the same time, there is robust will need better access to physical infrastructure in the
research to show that high sex ratio increases female coming years. Lack of physical in-frastructure is a major
bargaining power in the marriage market, shifting deterrent to providing comJort to the aged.
resources and family structures in ways that favour Changing Family Structure: The traditional,Indian
women. Similarly, men who face a more competitive society with an age-old joint family system'has been
marriage market need to be more efficient and invest in instrumental in safeguarding the social and econornic
characteristics attractive to potential wives. security of the elderly people. However with the
An associated phenomenon is the abduction and emerging prevalence of nuclear family set-ups in recent
trafficking of girls. Thus shortage of brides would years, the elderly are likely to be exposed to emotional,
be resulted in expansion of the sex industry with the physical and financial insecurity in the years to come.
magnitude of spreading Sexually Transmitted Diseases Lack of Social Support: The elderly in India are
(STD) and deadly disease like HIV/AIDS would increase
much more vulnerable because of the less governrnent
spending on social security system. The elderly in urban
manifold. In this distorted social scenario marked by
area rely primarily on hired domestic help tc, meet their
growing anti-social behavior, crimes against women like
basic needs in an increasingly-chaotic and crowded city.
rape, molestatiorL eve teasing, child marriages, forced
Social isolation and loneliness has increased
polyandry, etc. is also expected to rise.
Social Inequality: Elderly are a heterogeneous
section with an urban and rural divide. They are less
a. How is ageing becoming an emerging issue
vulnerable in rural areas as compared to their urban
in Indian society? (CSE,2016)
counterparts, due to the still holding values of the joint
Ans: Ageing in India is exponentially increasing due family system.
to the impressive gains that society has made in terms Availability, Accessibility and Affordability
of increased life expectancy. With the rise in elderly of Health Care: Due to the ever increasing trend of
population, the demand for holistic care tends to grow. nuclear families, elder care management is getting
By 2025, the geriatric population is expected to be 840 more difficult, especially for working adult children
million in the developing countries. It is projected that who find themselves responsible for their parents' well-
the proportion of Indians aged 60 and older will rise being. Managing home care for the elderly is a massive
from7.S% in 2010 to 11.1% in2025. challenge as multiple service providers - nursing
An aging population puts an increased burden on agencies, physiotherapists and uredical suppliers - are
the resources of a country and has raised concerns at small, unorganized players who extend sub-optimal
many levels for the government in India. The aging care. In India, health insurance coverage is essentially
population is both medical and sociological problem. The limited to hospitalization. The concept of geriatric
elderly population suffers high rates of morbidity and care has remained a neglected area of medicine in the
mortality due to infectious diseases. The demographic country. The stigma of aging is another sociai barrier
transition in India shows unevenness and complexities to access of health in addition to the health and social
within different states. This has been attributed to conditions the elderly commonly face such as dementia,
352 ffi soclolocYe&A
depressiory incontinence and widowhood establishing a uniform basic old age insurance system
Economic Dependency: As per the 52nd round of in rural and urban areas. Further, it must strengthen
National Sample Survey Organization, nearly half of the institutional machinery to deal with issues of ageing.
elderly are fully dependent. On others, while another 20 India in its policy should emphasis on the
percent are partially dependent for their economic needs. implications of improving health and rising wealth
Migration of younger generatiory lack of proper care in among the older population and the contribution
the family, insufficient housing, economic hardship and it can make to economic dynamism. It can expand
break-up of joint family have made the old age homes its investment in age friendly infrastructure and a
seem more relevant even in the Indian context. continuum of community-based service-delivery
It is important to understand the social aspects systems and programmes targeted at the healthy, the
concerning aged in the country as they go through frail older people, as well as their caregivers.
the process of ageing. Increased life expectancy, rapid Thus elder populations are facing discriminationon
urbanization and lifestyle changes have led to an various fronts and this population is going to expand
emergence of varied problems {or the elderly in India. in near future. So, policy makers have to take necessary
It must be remembered that comprehensive care to initiatives to address the ageing population for the better
the elderly is possible only with the involvement and future of present younger generation (demographic
collaboration of family, community and the Govemment. dividend 1,5-59 years).

Q. What are the demographic proiections for the a. Trends of Infant Mortality Rate among females.
ageing population (60+) for the next decade? (csE,2014)
What are the implications for formulating Ans: Dasgupta on IMR in India observes that the
policy for them? (CSE, 20L4) male-female ratios of infant mortality rates are always
Ans: The elderly population in India is the second less than 'one' indicating higher inJant mortality rates
largest in the world, next only to China, this populatiory among females than males with exceptions in L988,
which was 100 million according to the 2011 census 1989, 1991 and 1994. Higher female infant deaths may
(8.33% of the total population), is projected by the UN be due to neglect of female children. It may rightly be
to increase to 323 million by 2050. mentioned here that gender inequality in seeking health
Three-fourth of the elderly population lives in care is documented from an early age. It is evident that
rural areas. Their annual growth rate is higher (3%) as among children, boys are more likely to receive health
compared to the growth rate of the totaf population care early in their illness and to receive better quality
(1..9%). Pofulation projections show- that by 2050, the care from qualified doctors instead of local quacks; and
elderly population in India will surpass the population expenditure on medicine is also greater in the case of
of children below 1"4 years. boys than girls.
The old age dependency ratio (number of 60+ Mukhopadhyay observes Infant mortality rate
per 100 persons in the 15-59 age group) is gradually among females is marginally higher in comparison with
increasing in both rural and urban areas. UnJortunately, males supporting the neglect of female babies over the
literacy is 53 per cent among elderly males and only 20 years and is associated with old age preference of son.
per cent among elderly females. Elderly males are more George and Dahiya argue neglect of femalechild
economically active as compared to females. especially in age-groups,0-4 & 5-9 has been increased
India has to frame policy initiatives on older persons over the years. Social customs especially son preference
as appropriate and relevant to the socio-economic, and differential treatment for male babies in terms
political and development milieu. It is not enough of food, medical treatment may be responsible for
to identify priorities and policy initiatives: adequate widening the gap in spite of several measures to prevent
resources for implementation are needed, for which discrimination towards female babies. High male-female
political will is essential. A majority of older persons in ratio at birth is prevalent mairdy due to female foeticide
India live in rural areas where programmes and services in spite of the Governmental en-forcement of Pre Natal
have lirnited reach. Clearly, mainstreaming ageing issues Diagnostic Technique (Regulation and Prevention of
in development planning is a priority towards which Misuse) Act.
this synthesis offers many pointers.
india has to strengthen its work on ageing a. Sex Ratio (CSE,2013)
population at the state level departments and from Ans: Sex ratio is defined as number of females per
central government to grassroots levels. India has 1000 males. This ratio is particularly low in India. More
to improve quality of life of older people through worrying feature is fast declining child sex ratio which
construction and expansion of social security and by has become 919 in2011..
 POPULATION DYNAMICS ffi 353
Sex ratio is the index of the status of women in home based deliveries are lack of doctors and hospitals,
the society and the position of women determines the lack of transport facilities and burden of household
real development of society rather than GDP. Low sex work. Other reasons are early marriage and lack of
ratio also shows the dependence of woman and her proper spacing between two child births.
inability to take independent decisions. It is the male Lifestyle Related Deaths: Deaths due to fatal
who leads the family and women just follow him. This diseases such as diabetes, cancer, AIDS and heart related
economic dependence on men is also the reason for diseases contribute to this. These are more pronounced
exorbitant dowry demands and atrocities on women. in upper classes than the lower classes.
It is unfortunate that people don't attach any monetary Elderly Women: Majority of women over 70 years
value to the household work the woman is doing. of age are widows. Being in patriarchal society, they
The reasons for low sex ratio are economical, social usually don't get any share in property. Due to lack of
and religious. Younger generation is going for a small employment or pension benefits they live an unhealthy
family. As they plan to have 1-2 children their obvious life leading to untimely deaths. Thus, to improve the
choice is a boy because boy will be of great help in old situation we need to control the rate of female mortality
age. Also, Sonal Desai says that mother earns respect in India. For this, proper implementation of schemes
if a male child is born. Internalized patriarchy is also a such as Janani Suraksha Yojna needs to be done.
reason for this. Even educated people are victim of this Proper awareness and celebrity campaign is needed
internalized patriarchy. High economic development to popularize fam1ly planning in India. Government
is facilitating this as the technology for sex selective needs to invest heavily in infrastructure such as roads
abortion is accessible and affordable. and hospitals. Only when the women of our nation
Distribution wise, this ratio is bad in the northern remain healthy and safe we can think of prosperous
and western part of India than the eastern and southern and peaceful India.
parts of the region. It is more in villages than in cities.
It is more among lower castes and poor than upper a. Demographic perspective of Indian youth.
castes and rich. The solution lies in making the women (csE,2012)
independent. Provide them more employment and Ans: According to 2011 census the popu-lation of
utilitarian education. Minimize the violence against India is more than 121 crore. There was 17.64% growth
women. Punish the doctors who do sex selective abortions. in population in last decade. According to new census
Use technology to detect the culprits such as fix a of India there is much increase in working population.
detector in sonography machines and account for each According to new estimation of population, in between
diagnosis. 2010 to 2030, 484 million people will be included in
working population. A big class of age group between
Q. What are the main causes of female mortality 15-34 of this working population will emerge as power
in India? (CSE,2013) to give strength to economic situation of India.
Ans: Female mortality is the index of both An increase of youth population of India due to
development and status of women in the Indian society. changes in present demographic structure is certainly
Though the rate of female mortality decreases with positive and bolsters the possibility of fast economic
increase in age, woman of every age group is affected development. India has reached in that time of
by high levels of female mortality in India. Recent its population growth when it will be benefited from
census data of decreasing child sex ratio to 919 reflects this. In this time of globalization where a competitive
the ground reality. Various causes of female mortality environment between nations has emerged, growth in
are as follows: population of youth is cer-tainly a beneficial position.
Infant Mortality: It is the major reason for high India has to pay atten-tion on structural development
female mortality in India" It is more pronounced in rural for the education and development of technical skills
areas where poverty is high. Also, in our patriarchal of the popu- lation. It is a challenging task to arrange
society we have a tradition of women and girl child education, health and food etc. for this big population.
eating in the end. So, they have to compromise on the So India should invest more in areas of education,
food leading to poor health, malnutrition and fatal health and employment opportunities to get benefit
diseases. As girls are given less preference than boys from this youth population. This working population
IMR is clearly an index of status of women in the society. need technical training for greater production with the
Maternal Mortality: Deaths during child birth leads help of development of industries and new technologies.
to maternal mortality. Lack of institutional deliveries, For rapid economic development, India has to take step
malnourishment of mother and low level of awareness under long term planning for productive development
are the results of high MMR in India. Reasons for the of this working population.
 354 $ soctolocye&A
0. Discuss some social and cultural deter- Most prominent problems of elders are related
minants of infant mortality rate. Give your to health. The physical weakness bring in many
suggtestions to prevent infanticide. diseasbs such as hearing loss, eye-sight loss, loss of
memory, blood pressure, coronary diseases and many
(csE,2012)
others. Today's busy lifestyle, tensions, pressures,
Ans: Culturally the male child is more favoured in pollution etc. are bringing new kinds of diseases. In
India and this leads to neglect of girl child which could this situation, emotional support, proper care, drugs
result in greater female infant mortility rate. Poor social and medicine are required, lack of which would create
conditions have caused a poor educational status of the problems. Second prominent protrlem of elders is social
general popuiation. and economic security. Retirement due to old age comes
This is compounded by lack of proper healthcare with economic problem. They have to.live rest of life
facilities. These reasons result in higher in{ant mortality with pension and other investments made during the
rate. Most notorious form of infanticide is female working age. Many, who don't have these options, are
infanticide which is like a curse for soc-iety. This is based faced with further problem. Increased health related
on sex-discrimination tests. In present time the biggest expenses in absence of able-bodied family member may
problem of infanticide is female feticide. Indian society lead to early death in old age.
has been a patri-archal society due to which boys have Loneliness is another problem in this last period
more impor-tance and discrimination is seen toward of life. Busy life of children has limited the time
girls and this increases the practice of female feticide. available for care of elders. Migration of laborers
In Indian society, sociai and cultural factors have for employment has worsened this problem. Other
direct relation with infanticide. In Hindu religious problems include robbery, murder, undignified
scriptures it has been mentioned about salvation of behavior, exclusion and disrespect. Today another
parents if the funeral pyre is lit by son due to which male problem of generation gap has emerged due to the fast
child is treated as factor for sal-vation of parents. Again, changing life with change in thoughts, behavior, values,
girls face social negligence due to traditional thinking of
mentality etc. This creates problems of synchronization
parents. Female feticide also takes place due to dowry
with the youth.
The decline of traditional social support system for
also. Due to male dominant form of society, boys gets
elders is linked with fast social change. Industrialization,
prominence qs compared to girls. Al1 the above factors
urbanization and moderni-zation has caused the decline
have played a main role in female feticide. One main
in joint family system and increased the nuclear families
illegal practice which has spread fast and that is female
which has increased the loneliness of eiders. The joint
feticide by sex determination before childbirth.
family could take care of health, diet of elders with its
Sex iletermination can be done between 8 to 12
more number of members. In family, grandparents have
weeks of pregnancy with the help of sonography important place.
machine. If female child in the womb is confirmed
They used to play important role in influencing
then this feticide takes place. There is urgent need of younger generation through their stories. But in the
taking hard steps to enforce the ban on sonography or modern age, migration of families towards urban
ultrasonic tests which determine sex before childbirth. centres and extensive urban life style and individualism
There is need of expanding level of education in society. has given birth to a new kind of problems. People
With this there is need to take active effort for social migrate to US, UK, France etc. leaving behintl their
change by organizing many programmes and camps to parents. This creates loneliness and leads even to
change the male mindset. robbery and murder" Old age population could be
helped by impar-ting to the new generation value-laden
A What are the problems of ageing population? education. Government should bear the responsibility
Describe the declining traditional social support of their health, security and pension.
system for the aged. Suggest alternative measures Awareness should be spread about the importance
to support ageing population. (CSE,2A12l of pension. Their social security benefits should be
Ans: Every aspect of life of common man is increased by the government.
affected directly or indirectly in this era of social change.
Today conditions of elders are becorning worrying due a. Infant Mortality Rate is the most sensitive
I
to this change. The old age is that stage of life where index for measuring development. Comment.
man finds himsel{/hersel,f unable to handle himsel{ and (csE,2011)
his family due to physiological, mental, psychological, Ans: Infant Mortality Rate indicates the number
social, economic and other factors after long period of of deaths of babies under one year of age per 1000 live
devoting his life with hard work love and dedication for births. It correlates very strongly with state failures.
familial resporsibilities. This irnbility creates lots of problems. IMR is also a useful indicator of a country's level of
 POPULATION DYNAMICS ,i: 355
development or health and is a component of physical The policy enables and supports voluntary
quality of life index. F{owever, the method of calculating organizations as well as NGOs to supplement care
IMR often varies widely between countries. The World provided by the family and provide care and protection
Health Organisation defines a live birth as any born to vulnerable elderly people. Another programme of the
human being demonstrates independent signs of life. government is the scheme of assistance to Panchayati
These is a correlation between development and infant Raj Institutions, voluntary organizations and self help
mortality and economic inequality has a lot to do with groups for the construction of old age homes and multi
t.
infant mortality. Recently world over In{ant Mortality service centres for older persons. Also there is a National
Rate has declined for troth less developed countries and Mental Health programme which focuses on the needs
more developed countries. of senior citizens who are affected with Alzheimer's
However, IMR is much higher in less developed disease, depression and psychogeriatric disorders.
countries. Infant Mortality Rate for less developed
countries is more than 90 which is ten times larger a. Discuss the socio cultural factors for the
than more developed countries. Angola, Sierra Leon, declining sex-ratio in some states of India.
Afghanistan are such less developed countries where (csE,2010)
Infant Mortality Rate is very high. On the other side
Ans: Socio-cultural factors are more important than
lapan, Sweden, Singapore are the countries where the even biological and demographic factors in fertility.
Infant Mortality Rate is very lor.t.
Religious background, education level, age of marriage,
Thus, Infant Mortality Rate is the very sensitive status of women, desire to have son or son preference,
indicator of development. As a country advances attitude of people fertility towards contraception,
in economic development, its Infant Mortality Rate govemment policies, etc. are arnong the major social factors
declines. But infant mortality is negativelv correlated
that control the fertility level of population in any area.
with GDP, For example-inspite of higher GDP growth
Sex-ratio is one of the most important indicators
rate in India, Infant Mortality Rate is high.
used for study of population characteristics."sex-ratio
in India has declined over the century from972 in 1901
a. Social security measures for the elderly. to 933 in 2001. This number goes still lower for certain
(csE,2010) states. There are many reasons for this consistently
Ans: India is a country, where family values of love, declining sex-ratio, like son preference, neglect of girl
care, mutual respect, cooperation and other traditions child resulting in high mortality at younger age, female
still hold great importance" ]oint family structure might infanticide, female foeticide, high maternal mortalitv and
have withered away under the garb of modernity and male bias in enumeration of population.
urbanizatiory however spirit is very much alive. Easy availability of the sex determination tests and
F{owever, the picture is getting biighted gradually abortion serl,ices is also proving to be a catalyst in the
with increasing reports of elderly facing abuses of process. Girld are consideied as 6urden in Indiin society
various kinds in their families. Government has taken due to age old patriachal values, whereas boys are an
lot of measures to provide these aged men and women asset for additional income.
their due rights and provide them with better quality Early marriage of girls is another reason that
of life. increases the chances of their untimely death. It not only
There are various rights given to eiderly citizens, for curtails their individual will, aspiration but also plunges
example Parents cannot be evicted from a house without them into early pregnancy, poor health, frequent child
due process of law if they have been staying there bearing and somewhere in between a possibility of
before. There are three enactments that can be applied. untimely death.
(1) Under section 125 of the Cr PC. a Magistrate can Low levels of female literacy is another important
order a child to maintain his old parents under the reason which contributes to these low numbers.
Maintenance of Parents Act. Education enables people to inculcate rational and
scientific values rising above narrow and discriminatory
(2) The Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act says religious beliefs and sentiments. Most of the personal
that an aged parent can demand maintenance from
laws are discriminatory in nature.
children in the same way that a wife can demand it
The provisions, needles to say, are biased against
from her husband.
women. Most of the women do not have a right or
(3) The Domestic Violence Act too provides parents control over their body and sexual decisions. Religion
with the right to seek relief from any kind of abuse. Sanctions their subordination to men. All these factors
The Central government came out with the have even led to misuse of medical technologies such
"National Policy for Older Persons' in1999 to promote as amniocentesis, chorion biopsy, sex-selection, x-y
health and welfare of senior citizens of India. It aims to separation of pre-implantation genetic diagnosis practice
encourage individuals to make provision for their own and the cheaper, simpler and less obvious technology of
of as well as their spouse's old age. ultrasound have hastened the declining ratio.
356 "':''': soclolocY Q & A
a. Fertility and population growth (CSE,2009) (") Agrarian Economy: It is a significant contributory
Ans: The population of India has increased to
factor especially in the conditions of labour
such extent that one out of every six people in the world
intensive agriculture. The moment one starts
working on the field he is considered employed
lives in India and by 200l Census India's population
and fit for marriage.
has exceeded one billion mark. It is also estimated that
in the next three decades may surpass the population (vi) Traditional ]oint Family System: The joint family
of China. system existing in India takes the responsibility
This alarming growth of population is causing of not only reading the children but also provide
various problems in containing poverty, unemployment various social and economic securities and people
and in improving the living conditions of people. It is feel free to go for more children.
indeed a disturbing thing that we h.ave more than 300 (vii)Mass Illiteracy: In India female illiteracy is a very
million people who are living below poverty line and important factor in growth of population. Illiterate
go hungry every night. women have no role in controlling over children
This alarming population growth in India is mainly birth as the number of children is decided by male
linked with fertility rate. There are various reasons for in Indian illiterate family.
high fertility rate in India such as (viii)Higher Death Rate: Higher death rate of infant
(i) Marriage of girls at comparatively younger creates apprehensions in the minds of the parents
age: Despite Child Marriage Restraint Act, child about the survival of child and hence there is
marriage still continues because of force of custom. tendency to go for more than one child.
(ii) Climatic Factor: Due to climatic factor, girls reach (ix) Failure of Government Policy: Indian government
puberty at an early age and consequently the period has also failed to make family planning a people's
of reproduction in girls is long. movement.
(iii) Widow Remarriage: It is another conkibutory factor As a result of all these factors fertility rate in
especially among the Muslims, lower Hindu castes India is still very high and according to 2001 census
and tribal communities. Indian population is still rising by the rate of about
2 percent every year. This growth percentage is very
(iv) Social Customs and Religion: Due to religious
large in comparison to developed countries and several
factors people of India want male child for
developing countries.
performing various religious duty.

i.l.i.t
a. Explain the implications and the impact of o Another more widespread aspect of the globaliza-
globalisation in situating the changing agrar- tion of agriculture is the entry of multinationals into
ian class shucture in India. (CSE 2023) this sector as sellers of agricultural inputs such as
seeds, pesticides, and fertilizers.
Ans: The unrestricted movement of labor, capital,
technology, and products across international borders
o Over the last decades, the government has scaled
is known as globalization, and it has had a substantial down its agricultural development programmes,
in{luence on India's agricultural class structure. The and'agricultural extension' agents have been
upshot of this change, which was fueled by a number of replaced in the villages by agents of seed, fertil-
societal forces, is an intricate and dynamic agricultural
izer, and pesticide companies. This has led to the
environment. increased dependence of farmers on expensive
fertilizers and pesticides, which have reduced their
Globalisation and Agrarian Class Strucfure profits, put many farmers into debt, and also created
o There are indicators of the process of globalization an ecological crisis in rural areas.
of agricultute, or the incorporation of agriculture o In line of principles of market economy, state has
into the larger global market - a process that has emphasized on reduction of subsidies to farm-
had direct effects on farmers and rural society. ers while even marginal farmers are becoming
r For. instance, in some regions such as Punjab addicted to expensive agricultural input. This has
and Karnataka, farmers enter into contracts reduced margins and increased agricultural risks.
with multinational companies. Such distress is compounded by the changing
r While contract farming appears to provide culture in rural areas in which increased incomes
financial security to farmers, it led to greater are required for marriages, dowries, and to sustain
insecurity as farmers become dependent on new activities and expenses such as education and
these companies for their livelihoods. medical care.
o The patterns of land ownership have also changed o The pattern of farmers' suicides points to the sig-
as a result of globalization. The policies of liberaliza- nificant crisis that the rural areas are experiencing.
tion have facilitated the acquisition of agricultural Agriculture for many is becoming untenable, and
land by corporations, resulting in the concentration state support for agriculture has declined substan-
of land ownership among a select few. Farmers have tially.
been forced out as a result, and the agrarian class o More recently, issue of GM crops, terminator seeds,
system has changed. bio-piracy, etc. has also created larger controversies
o India's rural-urban split has been further intensified both in terms of usage and misusage of indigenous
by globalization. The bulk of the farming popula- knowledge and ecological implications.
tion lives in rural regions, which have been mostly Globalization has resulted in a number of detri-
ignored while cities have experienced grdat expan- mental effects in addition to some positive ones for
sion and development. India's agriculture industry. The shifting agricultural
o The dearth of opportunity, infrastructure, and basic class structure, marked by growing gaps, exclusion,
amenities has resulted in forced migration from ru- and deprivation, is a reflection of how uneven and
ral to urban regions and rural suffering. This has led unequal globalization has become. Therefore, in order
to the informalization and precarization of work in to lessen the negative effects of globalization on India's
urban regions as well as the depopulation of rural agricultural community, more inclusive and sustainable
areas. policies are required.
358 :tt: soctolocY Q & A
contributed to establishing food security and revolution-
a. Critique the victory narratives of the Green izing tl.re agriculture industry, but it also had unavoid-
Revolution in the context of Indian society.
(csE 2023) able socioeconomic and environmental effects' Thus,
the Green Revolution offers a complex view of growth
Ans: The term Green Revolution strategy was driv- and advancement.
en by use of High Yield Variety (HYV) seeds, fertilizers,
irrigation and mechanized farming. It was supported by Discuss the challenges faced by the coopera-
strengthening of credit facility, electrification, in-frastruc-
a.
tive movements in India. Suggest measures
ture, etc. It was introduced in L960s only in those areas
to strengthen the movement at the grass-roots
that had assured irrigation, because sufficient water was
necessary for the new seeds and methods of cultivation'
level. (CSE 2023)
Ans: Cooperative is a voluntary group of people
Victory Narratives of Green Revolution on equal basis with similar interests and activity who
o Consequences of Green Revolution were economic leverige their resources for collective as well as indi-
and social. It transformed the traditional ritual vidual gains.
based agriculture to modern, secular and profitable o In Indian rural context, role of cooperatives was
activity. envisaged to extricate rural peasant from the grip
o Increased productionled to self-sufficiency and food of moneylenders, provide technical knowhow, pro-
security. mote economies of scale and uplift the standard of
o It led to rural affluence in many rural areas and also living.
led to industrial growth and self- reliance in terms o Intermediaries in production chain are cut and its
of agricultural equipment manufacture. benefits accrue directly to the farmers, poor and
o Productivity of wheat and rice almost doubled' It rural communitY.
also infused scientific temper into Indian agricul- o After independence, first Five Year Plan called
ture.
farmers to loin cooperative movement' 'Vaikunth
Criticism of Green Revolution Mehta Committee' suggested that emphasis should
o In most of the Green Revolution ateas, it was primar- be laid on service and consumer cooperatives and
ily the niedium and large farmers who were able to re-organrzation of rural credit.
benefit from the new teihnology as it was costly' o Cooperative institutions were set up in the villages,
o In many cases, it led to the displacement of tenant- as supportive institutions of Community Develop-
cultivators. Landowners began to take back land ment Programme and Panchayati Raj.
from their tenants and cultivate it directly because
Challenges Faced by Cooperative Movements in India
cultivation was becoming more profitable. This o
Accbrding to B S Baviskar, power conflict is one of
made the rich farmers better off, and worsened the
the factors that have marred $owth of cooperatives'
condition of the landless and marginal holders who
Political neutrality and people's active role was en-
at time sold their lands and became laborers.
visaged as spirit of cooperatives, however opposite
o Migration led to increase demographic pressure in happened. A new breed of politics 'Cooperative
cities and demographic distortions in rural areas'
Politics' emerged as a result.
As often onlY male laborers migrated, sex ratios
skewed and often women and children of laborers
o Similarly, Daniel Thorner indicated that coopera-
tives are hijacked by the richer sections and have
were folced into grinding work back at their homes'
serving their interests.
o In addition, the introduction of machinery such as o become agencies they function on the basis of 'caste econom-
Further,
tillers, tractors, threshers, and harvesters led to the
ics' of village. In his study he found that, many
displacement of the service caste groups who used
cooperatives were dominated by single families in
to carry out these agriculture-related activities
villages of Gujarat.
o It led to development of notions of class interests
and peasant associations were formed and they
o Membership of big farmers to cooperatives is itself
against the very philosophy of cooperatives'
demanded free electricity, water, MSP, etc.
o It worsened of regional inequalities. Only areas of o There were other hosts of problems associated
a few crops were benefitted and only those areas
like - over-burea'ucrati zation, lack of professional
management, non-repayment of credits, poor par-
with assured irrigation benefitted.
o Improper implementation of land reforms was ticipation, elite capture, poor technological support
and so on.
coupled with unequal benefits of Green Revolution'
Farmers became more assertive.
o The laws framed by the government, howevet,
were restrictive and in certain cases contrary to the
There are a variety of stories explaining the Green
principles of cooPeration.
Revolution's achievements in India. It undoubtedly
 RURAL AND AGRARIAN TRANSFORMATION lN INDtA :!ri. 359
o There were also regional imbalances and it was . Daniel Thorner gives a three-fold classification
highly reskicted in many states like the North-East, in his 'The Agrarian Prospects of India, 1956' as
Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, and Rajasthan. - Malik, Kisan and Mazdoor on the basis of right
o The movement did not develop wherever the gov- over land. He also maintains that these three classes
ernment equity was more, but it went well where also reflect social structure too, as most of Maliks
the government control was minimal. belong to upper castes and Mazdoors from lower
r For example, in the states of Gujarat and Ma- castes and Kisan belong to artisan class.
harashtra, where the governments did not have . Andre Beteille in his'Agrarian Skucture in India,
any stake in the equity of cooperatives indicates that classes should be understood from
Measures to strengthen the Movement cultural point of view as well. Agrarian class should
o be understood not only from ownership cdteria, but
The advantages of cooperative societies must be
also from land use criteria. This leads to a variety of
made more widely known. There are several ways
sub-categories in class structure like - owner control-
to accomplish this, including community gatherings
ler, only controller, owners, but not controller, etc.
and workshops.
o . According to Jan Breman in his 'Patronage and Ex.
To lessen political meddling in cooperative soci-
eties, the government ought to take action. The
ploitation, 1,974', changes in.the social structure of
implementation of stringe4t laws and guidelines agrarian economy has also adverseiy impacted the
can accomplish this.
agricultural workers who witness a shift from'pa-
o tronage to exploitation'. Changing social structure
Effective marketing techniques should be irnplement-
has provided more choices to the workers from the
ed by cooperative groups. They ought to be given the
tools required to successfully promote their goods.
lower castes, but this has necessarily not resulted
. into lower hardships.
Cooperative societies ought to get financial support
. In the 1970s-80s, Marxist scholars like Bardhan and
from the government. There are beveral ways to
accomplish this, including grants and subsidies. Rudra, Kathleen Gough, Utsa Patnaik provided
o Adoption of modern technologies by cooperative another perspective on agrarian class structure.
organizations needs to be promoted. Giving them the
Utsa Patnaik used Leninist classification - Kulak,
tools and instruction they need -will help achieve this.
Strednik and Bednik - in krdian context in her stud,v
of post-GreenRevolution Punjab and adjacent areas.
Therefore, ii India, cooperative movements have
She concludes that large landholders and rich farm-
the power to significantly improve socioeconomic con-
ers have now controlled mode of production and
ditions. They do, however, confront a number of issues
that must betesolr,ed. These grassroots movements rnay
have used dividends from agriculture to diversify
be reinforced with the appropriate policies in place, their activities and hence further supplementing
which will contribute to the nation's overall growth. their aglarian incornes.
. Contemporary scholars like K L Sharma offer a
diffusive view about agrarian class structure. And
a. Do you agree that the agrarian class structure
he djvides agrarian classes into two broad groups
in India is changing? lustify your answer with
with {urther sub classes.
illushations. (CSE,2O2Z) . Feminist sociologists like Bina Majumdar view
Ans: British conquest introduced the concept of agrarian class structure from feminist perspective
private property, a well,entrenched money economy and she argues that lvith economic growth, gender
and transformation of society from'peasant' society to based exploitation gets institutionalized and agrar-
'agrarianclass' society started. Panchayats lost their jural ian social structure should also be studied with a
and economic power. gender perspective.
New methods of fixing land revenues created hier- Therefore, the agrarian social structure is marked
archies in rural society and revenue was paid in cash. by wide diversities. As pointed out by Dhanagare in
It promoted commercialization of agriculture. Earlier, his'Peasant Movements in India, 1983', 'the relations
village agriculture and industry co-existed and served as among classes ancl social composition of groups that
basic pillars for self-sufficiency of village, now revenue occupy specific class position in relation to land-control
system, market forces defined village dynamics. and land-use in India are so diverse and complex that it
Various Perspectives on Agrarian Class Structure is difficult to incorporate them all in a general schema'.
. A. R. Desai conceptualized agrarian class structure
as 3-tier system during colonial times. Upper class a. Explain how land reforms brought about de-
mainly included'absentee landlords' and middle sired agrarian transformation. (CSE, 2022)
class included 'sublandlords' and at bottom were Ans: From the 1950s to the 1970s, a series of land
marginalized farmers, peasants, and sharecroppers. reform laws were passed by the welfare state to im-
360 :,: SOCIOLOGY Q & A

prove condition of farmers, bring food security, bring grouped together and redistribute to make cultivation
agriculture out of colonial backwardness and improve economical.
efficiency of Indian agriculture and so on. It also had a limited impact except in states of
First major landmark was in form of 'Congress Haryana and Punjab where green revolution made it a
Agrarian Reforms Committee, L949' headed by I C requirement as fertilizers and HYV application required
Kumarappa. Its biggest recommendation was abolition consolidated holdings.
of feudal intermediaries. It called for 'land to the tiller'. Cooperative Farming - It was also mooted on the
Second Plan also suggested sweeping reforms. Land pattern of s,ccialist economies to gain from economies
reforms in India were primarily from'above' in form of scale, but remained almost a non-starter.
of legislations. As per a study by Zoya F{asan, share of backward
Some movements like Bhoodan, Gramdan were also classes increased fromS% before independence to 38%
started aiming at reforms from'below'. There were also in 1989.
some other effort in form of militant movements as in Limitations in Implementation of Land Reforms
case of Telangana movement, Naxalbari and Bargadari
There were marked hurdles in implementation of
movements, etc.
land reforms.
Major Areas of Reforms included - . The old system resisted the new.
Tenancy Reforms - In West Bengal and Kerala, . Many big Zamindars took the benefits of the loop-
there was a radical restructuring of the agrarian struc- holes in legislation.
ture that gave land rights to the tenants. In West Bengal . Major hurdles in Land Reforms included - Socio
Operation Barga was launched under communist leader- cultural factors - traditional sentiments attached
ship which led to passing of legislation as well as forced with land, ignorance hindered consolidation and
occupation of sharecroppers. redistribution.
Land owners were apprehensive of entering into . Caste hierarchies also obstructed the process and
formal contracts as they lr.ere skeptical that prolonged community farming failed. So consolidation was
occupancy of tenants may deprive original owners of largely dropped by every state.
their lands. As a result, tenancy reforms were imple- . Legal Factors - In case of tenancy laws, burden of
mented in just 4% of the area. proof lied with tenant. Loopholes were liberally
Abolition of Intermediaries - The first important exploited by rich farmers.
legislation was the abolition of the Zamindari system Thus, goal was not only to bring about social justice,
and elimination of intermediaries. Revenue system and but also to improve productivity of land. Social justice
taxes w6re abolished. was planned by eliminating intermediaries, conferring
This was relatively successful as there was general land rights on landless and removal of taxes.
negative perception towards Zamindars and interme-
diaries. As a result of abolition of intermediaries be- Q. Discuss the challenges during village studies
tween 1950 and L960, nearly 20 million cultivators in in India. (C58,2022)
the country were brought into direct contact with the Ans: Village studies have their own importance'
Government. These have enriched the knowledge of the Indian Society
Land Ceilings and Redistribution of Land Hold- in general and rural India in particular. These haVe given
ings - The third major category of land reform laws great encouragement to the growth of rural society.
were the Land Ceiling Acts. After independence, planners in India realised that
But in most of the states these acts proved to be unless Indian villages were properly studied, no real
toothless despite their major revision in1972 after Chief progress could be made.
Ministers' conference. Only 2% of the operational area Scholars began to pay more and more attention to
could be brought under it. J&K lVest Bengal and Assam village studies.
were a few exceptions.
Up-gradation of land records was also taken up Benefit of Village Studies
as lack of land records was one of the biggest hurdles (i) Village studies help in planning rural reconstruc-
in implementation of land reforms and con{erment of tion.
titles. By now, most of the states have rolled out their (ii) Village studies provide useful in{ormation to other
respective programs. disciplines.
Reorganization and Consolidation of Land Hold- (iii) Village studies provide useful knowledge about
ings - Reorganization of agriculture was also carried out lndian social reality.
in form of consolidation of land holdings, cooperative Flowever, there were many problems associated
farming etc. Small uneconomical landholdings were with the study of Village Studies in India.
 RURAL AND AGRARIAN TRANSFORMATION IN INDIA J. 361
Limitations of Village Studies agement, non- repayment of credits, poor participation,
According to S. C. Dube, one should be very critical elite capture, poor technological support and so on have
about their validity and be aware of their limitations. He also limited its role in rural development.
speaks of a few limitations of such studies: Despite these shortcomings there have been sig-
. Village studies are not often representative in nature. nificant achievements in certain regions. For example
. Village studies exaggerate the unity and self-suffi- sugar cooperatives in Maharashtra, milk cooperatives in
ciency of the village. Here unity and solidarity of the Gujarat have tremendously helped in rural development.
village is over-emphasised. It ignores the connecting Recently the government has established the Ministry
links with other units of society. of Cooperation to promote the cooperative movement,
. Village studies are influenced by alien concepts. Those this will further enhance the role of cooperatives in rural
who undertake village studies, blindly Imitate western development.
methods, western styles and western models.
Also, there is a lot of duplication in data collection. a. Point out the benefits of 'green chemistry'for
There is no real comprehension about village studies. agrarian transformation in India. (CSE 2020)
There is a lack of coordination among the scholars of
village studies. The scholars have tried to study village
communities in a biotic frame of reference. They practi- development of
cally ignore the basic reality that an Indian village is a products and
synthesized community. Most of the village studies are processes that
of mechanical nature. These do not add much to the minimize or
existing knowledge about villages. eliminate the use
Despite criticism, village studies are important in and generation
understanding Indian society.Village Studies marked a of chemicals
shift from book view to field view in Indian sociology hazardous to the
and rejected static view of village and corrected colonial environment and
stereotype. human health. The
principles of green
a. Comment on the role of co-operatives in rural chemistry involve Fig: Green Chemistry
developnient. (CSE 2021) the development of
green catalysts and use of non-toxic reagents.
Ans: Cooperative refers to a voluntary group of
people formed on equal basis with similar interest and Green chemistry emphasizes the use of reactions,
activity who leverage their resources for collective as improved atom efficiency, use of solvent-free or
well as individual gains. environmentally benign recyclable solvent systems and
In India cooperatives were established with the aim the use of renewable resources.
to liberate rural peasants from the grip of moneylenders, Nowadays, green chemistry plays a new paradigm
provide technical know-how, provide economies of scale in the field of agriculture. Sustainable agriculture
and improve the standard of living. and green chemistry are both revolutionary fields
Cooperatives have helped in rural development and intertwined. In the last few years, for sustainable
by providing essential agricultural inputs and credit to production in agriculture, use of renewable biomass
farmers. They have helped in ensuring adequate return resources increases to generate bio-based food products
to farmers for their produce while also ensuring sup- with low inputs; zero waste, substantial social values
ply of essential commodities to villagers are reasonable and minimizing environmental impact.
rates. Furthermore cooperatives have helped promote Plants and their associated microorganisms are
harmonious relations and sense of participation among known to produce a variety of chemical deterrents to
people which has eventually helped in success of rural protect against parasites and competing organisms.
development programs. According to A R Desai, coop- These natural products can also fulfill similar
eratives can help overcome the debacle of agrarian social human needs (i.e. pest deterrents in medicine and
order caused by colonial rule. agriculture), either in their isolated form or after
However according to Daniel Thorner, coopera- chemical modification.
tive movement has failed to achieve the goal of rural Despite their signiiicant benefits, many of the
;lt
development as it has been hijacked by the richer sec- chemically synthesized agrochemicals are harmful to
tions. Similarly B S Baviskar argues that por.t er conflict the environment as they are non-biodegradable and
around the cooperative politics has slowed down the are produced by environmentally un{riendly processes.
growth of cooperative movements in India. Apart from They also affect human and animal health due to
this, over-bureaucratization, lack of professional man- bioaccumulation by entering through the food chain.
 362 ry socroLocye&A
Therefore, to successfully reap the benefits of MSP is a one-price policy guaranteeing assured
crop protection products without compromising the pay, which directly influences farmer's pockets. It
environment and human health, going forward, it is considers various factors when fixing the price and
essential that producers and users of crop protection does not leave the farmer at the mercy of the market.
products to focus on Shifting to green chemistry Procurement for public distribution system and buffer
manufacturing processes, Developing "green" stock for food security comes from this policy. it has
agrochemicals and Using crop protection products a heavy influence on market prices and also helps
judiciously. the farmer grow production and match up with other
Going ahead, the agrochemical industry should sectors in terms of income. MSP policy helps in rural
focus on developing new processes and products development by improving the rural in{rastructure in
with sustainability as the core principle. This requires terms of access to APMCs, road infrastructure along
developing a collaborative platform in which the with strengthening of backward - forward linkages
academia, government and regulatory bodies, in food processing industries. In this way, MSP play
manufacturers and farmers come together and promote important role in fighting poverty and hunger through
and execute strategies for implementing judicious use surplus food production along with increasing farmgr's
of pesticides and green chemistry strategies in the income and generation of employment opportunities in
agrochemical sector. food processing industries.
However, Hiking the MSP without investing in
a. Do you think MSP (Minimum Support Price) infrastructure is just a short-term play. While it does
Scheme for agricultural produce can help in deliver immediate results, long-term developments to
rural development? Elaborate your response back-it up are also important. MSP covers numerous
with suitable examples. (CSE 2020) costs such as the cost of sowing and labour. These
Ans: Minimum Support Price (MSP) is a form of considerations are controversial with suggestions that
market intervention by the Government of India to it should be based on comprehensive costs, which also
insure agricultural producers against any sharp fall in include land rent costs. Too much of a hike on MSP
farm prices. The minimum support prices are announced either paves way for inflationary effects on the economy,
by the Government of India at the beginning of the with a rise in prices of foodgrains and vegetables, or loss
sowing seasoil for certain crops on the basis of the to government.treasury if it decides to sell at a lower
recommendations of the Commission for Agricultural price as compared to the higher MSP it bought at.
Costs and Prices (CACP). MSP is a nationwide single price policy.
The major objectives o{ MSP are to support farmers However, the actual costing for production varies
from distress sales at ser.erely low prices and to procure from place to place, more severely so in areas lacking
food-grains for public distribution. Thus, MSP becomes irrigation'facilities and infrastructure. Thus, not all
a very important benchmark for the producer because farmers have equal benefits. If the MSP crops are
it helps him estimate the revenue, aiding the financial procured at prices far higher than other crops, there will
planning and also in{luencing borrowing decisions if be little incentive for efficiency and diversification in the
any. crop sector. This rt ill also impact the competitiveness of
The agriculture sector is facing several challenges, the market negatively.
The Economic Survey (2017-18) had stated, "the last Thus, for overall development of rural ireas,
few seasons have witnessed a problem of plenty: farm government should shift its focus from providing only
revenues declining for a number of crops despite price support to farmers and focus on building better
increasing production and market prices falling below infrastructure, minimizing the gap between farmers
the Minimum Support Price (MSP). and the market, land reforms, policy reforms to increase
Ideally, the market price will always remain flow of credit to farmers, establishing food-processing
higher than the MSP fixed by the government. With industries for perishable goods, providing better
government guarantee, the farmer can always sell at the irrigation facilities, etc. so, that agriculture emerges as
MSP if he/she cannot procure a better prica elsewhere. a viable means of sustenance.
\zVhile there are many other non-price factors which
have a long-term impact on agricultural development a. Are the contemporary farmers'movements in
such as technology, irrigation, development of India changing their course? Discuss.
infrastructure, market reforms, better procurement, (csE 2020)
and storage facilities and institutions, MSP has always Ans: Farmers' movements are conceptually different
remained contentious as it is directly linked with the from Peasants movements in terms of their organizatiory
farmer's pocket and is tangible. purpose and ideology. They are largely a post Green
 RURAL AND AGRARIAN TRANSFORMATION IN INDIA 363
Revolution phenomenon and emerged in prosperous for the produce, is noticed even among the well-to-do
regions of country and are also called 'new farmer's farmers in the agriculturally developed areas of Punjab,
movements'. They are also viewed differently by Maharashtra and Karnataka. In Vidharbha region
different scholars. Dhanagare considers them as class of Maharashtra, there were enormous protests from
movements and essentially a capitalist movement. Paul farmers as the region became notorious for farmer's
Brass on the other hand put them into category of 'New suicide.
Social Movements' and these are charged against state
and address a lot of other issues including gender and a. Discuss the challenges in implementing the
environmental issues. Gail Omvedt on the other hand Rural Development Programmes in India.
sees them as a reaction to the state-market collusion (csE,20t9)
exploitations and it includes all types of farmers and Ans: Rural development programmes involve
not just effluent farmers.
a number of projects each, which are aligned to one
Success of the Green revolution made agriculture
another so that they influence the various facets of rural
a commercial profitable activity for a section of economic and social life. Therefore, tural development
rich farmers. They had their own agendas to retain programmes attempt to bring about changes in a wider
agriculture as a profitable activity so they had specific area impacting a greater number of people.
demands and want concessions from the state. They
were mainly from dominant chstes and had their own Challenges in Implementing Rural Development
self-interest like - rise in MSP, free electricity, lt'ater, Programmes
subsidized fertilizers and so on" . IJneven Distribution of the Benefits of the
Earlier, farmers'movements were led by communist Programme: Influential people garner benefits of
leadership. But now, they formed organizations like credit, etc.
Bhartiya Kisan Union in Northern India, Shetkari . Excessive Government Hold: Marred by excessive
Sangathan led by Sharad Joshi group in Maharashtra bureaucratizationand most of the decision making
etc. Leadership was provided from within and often power is concentrated in Block Development
membership was from the dominant castes like jats of Officers and District Collectors.
Haryana and Jats and Yadavs of western UP. . Divided Society: A divided rural society based on
Apart flom physical mobilization, these caste-based land relations and hierarchical social
organizations and associations are now acting as pressure organization.
groups also. The Pan India farm loan waiver when the . Lack of Skill: Unqualified personnel and lack
United Progressive Alliance (UPA) government came of appropriate training and skill development
into power is an example of their clout. mechanisms.
Their strong lobby has also borne fruits in form of . Lack bf Functional Responsibility: People don't
free electricity in states like Punjab, higher MSP than the own up the program in general.
statutory committees actually recommend and so on. . Gender Imbalance: As priority is given to men over
Today such movements have also mobilized support women as beneficiaries.
against wider issues like WTO, globalizatiory retail FDI, In recent times also, rural development is a big
MNCs and Contract Farming, GM Seeds and so on. planning concern as it became clear that the earlier
Flowever, in the wave of new farmer's movements, . strategies adopted remained largely ineffective in
interests of poor peasants and laborers are grossly alleviating poverty and inequality in rural areas.
ignored. Ironically, they also become the part of the Top- down approaches proved futile and now rural
same farmers' movement with which their interests are development programmes seek greater participation of
almost diagonally opposite. the people.
Their demands for higher wages are often
conveniently ignored and whenever there is a movement a. Highlight the main features of the 'Inter-
asking for a rise in agricultural wages, it is met with linking of Rivers' proiect in India. What
violence from the rich farmers and the landlords. could be its probable advantages to Indian
In recent times a serious crisis has emerged in the agriculture? (CSE,20L9)
field of Indian agriculture in the form of starvation
deaths and farmers' suicides. While the largest number
Ans: The geographical and time variance in
of siarvation deaths are still routinely reported from availability of natural water versus the year round
the backward regions of the country, especially Andhra
demand for irrigation, drinking, and industrial water
creates a demand-supply gap. Hence, the National River
Pradesh, Orissa and now increasingly from Raiasthan,
the trend of suicides generally prompted by heavy Linking Project (NRLP) is claimed to be the answer
indebtedness, crop failures, or inability to find a market to India's water problem through conservation of the
 364 w soclolocye&A
abundant monsoon water, store it in reservoirs, and Q. Write a short note on 'changing means of
deliver this water using rivers interlinking project to production and increased rural poverty'.
areas and over times when water becomes scarce.
(csE,201tn
The Inter-linking project has been split into three parts: Ans: In economics and sociology, the means of
1-. Northern Himalayan Rivers interlink component. production are physical, non-human inputs used for
2. A southern peninsular component. the production of economic value, such as facilities,
3. An intra-State rivers linking component. machinery, tools, infrastructural capital and natural
capital.
The project is being managed by India's National
Water Development Agency (NWDA), under its The concept of the ownership of the means
Ministry of Water Resources. NWDA has studied and of production and the dominance of one class by
prepared reports on 14 interlink projects for Himalayan another was presented by Marx. With increas.ing
component, 16 inter-link projects for Peninsular industrialization and mechanization in almost every
component and 37 intra-state river linking projects. society in the world, the means of production is
changing and the result happens to be the increase in
The new government is keen to carry forward
the rural poverty.
the project. The linking of Godavari and Krishna was
completed in 2015. The next project being taken up Various sociologists have given their views on
is Ken-Betwa link. The government aims to complete the change in the ownership of means of production
the pan-India river inter-linking projects in less than a and the mode of production. Ashok Rudra says that
decade.
Indian Agriculture is in a mode of 'partial capitalism'.
He says that the production of crops that take place in
River Inter-linking: Probable Advantages to Indian the markets lies according to the conveniences of the
Agriculture market; also there is lesser diversification of crops.
The country receives most of its annual rainfall He further added that economic computation on
during the four monsoon months of ]une to September, labour is ignored. Hence the already poor population
while the quantum of rain varies widely across different faces the heat and the consequence is the increased
regions. If interlinking of rivers is implemented by rural poverty.
connecting thrgugh canals, then such uneven water flow Now in developing societies like India also, the
in different river basins will get balanced. importance of agriculture is diminishing, due to lesser
To meet the requirement of 450 million tonnes of profits and difficult survival.
foodgrains, the country needs to expand its irrigation New machines and technologies have arrived
potential to 160 million hectares for all crops by 2050. to replace manual labour, size of farms is getting
This can be made possible through the interlinking smaller and there are lesser incentives for the
of rivers. Floods are a recurring feature, particularly traditional farmer families too, to continue agriculture.
in the large parts of the Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna They face the problems of debt which results into the
basiry affecting Assam, Bihar, West Bengal and Uttar suicides.
Pradesh. On the other extreme, a number of western Small and medium enterprises also now facing the
and peninsular states such as Rajasthan, Gujaraf Andhra competition with improved goods hence are not capable
Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu face recurring to absorb rural labour, forcing them to migrate to the
droughts. NRLP will transfer excess water from flood- cities where they face further exploitation and the wrath
ravaged states to water-scarce regions. By this, it will of poverty.
provide irrigation to about 35 million hectares in water-
scarce western and peninsular regions. a. Indebtedness is one of the serious issue
It will create food security, employment, boost crop leading to farmers' suicides. Discuss reasons
output and farm income, and multiply benefits through and suggest solutions. (CSE, 2017)
backward and forward linkages. It will prevent flow of
fresh river water into sea. For example, the Godavari- Ans: At all India level, an estimated 60.4per cent of
Krishna project will lift Godavari waters that now flow rural households are farmers and out of them 48.6 per
into the sea, and divert it towards Krishna River in the cent are reported to be indebted. It has become a major
neighboring Krishna district which would be diverted cause of farmers' suicides in India which is worrying.
to the parched Rayalaseema region. Reasons for indebtedness and farmers' suicides
Hence, before implementing the proposal on a . Poverty: The low level of rural inccimes, the uncertain
large scale, a sound scientific and technical assessment and primitive farming of small landholdings makes
needs to be undertaken to make it techno-economically it impossible to meet the needs required for their
feasible. living.
 RURALAND AGRARIAN TRANSFORMATION IN INDIA T# 365
. Ancestral,/Inherited Debt: The rural people farm machinery, energized well-irrigation, use of high
continue to repay the debts of their forefathers, as doses of fertilizers and pesticides directed at improving
they are not fully conversant with law as they are farm production. Although the Green Revolution has
illiterate. led to an increase in food production, the benefits of
o Social and Religious Needs: Farmers are mostly this increase is often spread unevenly across geographic
bound by the social traditions and customs. Some areas. Some authors argue that the Green Revolution is
of these ceremonies are marriage, births, deaths, responsible for poverty reduction.
..iigious occasions, etc. The expenditure is usually However, negative consequences did occur/ which
very high, in order to meet these needs, the Pingali says is not a result of the Green Revolution
villagers take loans. technologies but rather the results of the policies that
o Litigation: Generally, the agriculturists in India were put into place to increase the supply of food.
are involved in various kinds of disputes related According to Evenson and Gollin, productivity gains are
to land, property, etc., which force them to go uneven across regions. Certain areas were left out of the
to a court of law. Such litigations involve heavy agricultural development of the Green Revolution. The
expenditure. Green Revolution strategy was to increase development
o Backwardness of Agriculture: Indian agriculture in favorable areas, meaning that those on the marginal
is an uncertain business. It virtually depends on environments still faced poverty, especially in South
unreliable rains for the supply of water. The loan Asia where the poorest areas that rely on healy amounts
taken for the productive purposes also becomes a of rain for agriculture growth face increasing disparities
burden, leading to indebtedness of the farmers. with other nations. The modern varieties were only
introduced on the land best suited to grow these crops,
The solutions to deal with problem of farmers' leading to unevenness and causing only the areas with
indebtedness and suicides the best land to be affected.
. . The income of the farmers should increase so that A number of early studies on the impact of the
they could meet the unproductive expenses and are Green Revolution concluded that the rural poor did not
not forced to take any loan. In order to achieve this receive their fair share of the generated benefits. It was
goal, agriculture should be conducted on scientific argued that mostly large farmers adopted the new yield-
burir .rot depending totally on the natural climatic increasing technology, leaving small farmers unaffected
factors. or actually worse off because the Green Revolution
o The panchayats and such other village level resulted in (a) downward pressures on the prices of
institutions should try to solve the village disputes the commodities they produced, (b) upward pressures
and try to prevent them from going to the courts on the prices of the inputs they purchased, (c) efforts
of law, which need hear,y expenditure. by large faimers to either increase rents to tenants or
o Information regarding the laws and their force the tenants off the land, and (d) attempts by large
implementation should be given to the villagers farmers to increase land holdings by purchasing smaller
so that they do not get into the clutches of the farms, thus forcing small farmers into landlessness.
moneylenders for generations. Furthermore, it was argued that the Green Revolution
resulted in reduced rural employment. The net result, as
o Adequate credit facilities on reasonable terms
argued by some, was a rapid increase in the inequality
should be arranged to the farmers. Co-operative
of income and asset distribution and a worsening of
credit is a. good solution in this regard. Private
rural poverty in areas affected by the Green Revolution.
lending should be eliminated in this field.
Inequalities as a result of the Green Revolution can
o Debts should be properly scaled down. Debts that
be viewed by looking at the sizes of farms in society. The
are so excessive and standing since a long time
pro-rich peasant bias of the Indian rural development
should be settled between the concerned parties or
planning draws its justification from a fallacy that the
through the village panchayats. Debts, which do
green revolution technology, being capital intensive,
not have records or exist with incomplete records,
suits rich farmers much better than smal1 and marginal
shor,rld also be reduced.
farmers because the rich farmer alone has adequate
resources to afford that technology of production, and
Q. Write a note on the uneven impact of 'Green that expensive inputs are within the reach of only more
ilevolution' on rural society? (CSE, 2016) affluent farmer; therefore, the latter is better placed to
Ans: The green revolution has been the dominant derive its benefits. In India, the farm policies pursued
orientation for rural development programmes in India by the government from the 1960s onwards have also
for over two decades now. As a strategy it implied the tended to increase the degree of inequality between
introduction of high yielding varieties, extensive use of perennially irrigated regions and those regions which
 366 ## soctoLocy e & A
have to depend mainly on rairrfall for cultivation. This production and food production is not a healthy sign
is so because the green revolution package has been for the economy. There is a general perception that
devised keeping primarily the perennially irrigated unbearable burden of debt and augmented competitions
farms in mind. Therefore, seen in terms of average from imports are indicative of a crisis in Indian
household incomes, the inequalities in rural areas are agriculture. Both these phenomena are real; inability to
even more glaring in the relatively more irrigated and bear debt has led to farmers' suicides on a record scale.
hence prosperous areas. Some statistics on electricity The three main ways problems of agrarian sector
connections on agricultural farms clearly indicate how are manifested in their consequences are:
only the needs of the rich farmers are catered to by (i) Policy of economic liberalisation has adversely
electricity boards on a priority basis. affected Indian agriculture. The most prominent
Gender often played a role in the distribution manifestation of this is in the drastic decline in the
of benefits that resulted from the Green Revolution. growth rate of food grains. As a result, per cafita
According to Pingoli, women heads of households and availability of food grains decreased; the growth
women farmers gained less from the Green Revolution rate of population became higher than that of food
than their male counterparts. The transfer of technology grains, and India started to import food grains at a
focused on men rather than women and ignored much higher price than that in the domestic market.
women's social conditions and technology needs. Recent
(ii) Secondly, unemployment in the agricultural sector
evidence clearly shows that, although exceptions exist,
increased as agriculture was not considered as a
as a general rule the Green Revolution has resulted in a
profitable venture due to the fall in the price of farm
very significant improvement in the material well-being
products. As a result, the number of people who
of the poor.
are employed in the primary sector and the area
under cultivation decreased, which in tum caused a
a. Bring out the impact of the declining decline in rural employment. Not only the farmers
significance of the agrarian economy. but also the Dalits and tribals, who heavily depend
(csE,2016) on agriculture, became unemployed.
Ans: With the Indian economy striving hard to (iii) The suicide of farmers is the third fall-out of
accelerate its nlomentum, the continuing slow pace of stagnation in agriculture. When agriculture was
growth in the crucial agriculture sector is increasingly not yielding remunerative income, the life of the
becoming a matter of concern. When India became farmers became very desperate. Many of them
independent, the contribution of agriculture to the committed suicide as a last resort. It points to the
economy Was 50 per cent; now, it is less than 14 per acute nature of the problem which has affected
cent. Employment in the agro sector was to the extent the vast majority of the population, and which has
of 88 per cenf now, it is 66 per cent. This is because of created a real crisis. So, there is need to solve the
the faulty policies of the Government of the day. problems of agriculture that are having serious
The average annual growth rate of agriculture and consequences.
allied sectors during the Ninth Plan (1997-2002) and The agricultural crisis is affecting a majority of
Tenth Plan (2002-2007) remained at a low of 2.5 per cent the people in India. The farmers who produce food
and 2.4 per cent respectively. Even as Indian economy materials for the country are in deep suffering.. The
is bracing up to emerge as a global economic prowess marginalised people like the Dalits and tribals, who
in the comingyearc, it still sets a low growth rate target depend on agriculture, are getting unemployed and
of 4 per cent in the Twelfth Plan (2012-17). strugp;ling for their livelihood. The ordinary people,
The declining share of agriculture in the overall especially the poor, have lost their food security.
economy is a consequence of higher rate of growth of The crisis in agriculture is a crisis of the country as a
the non-agricultural sectors. whole and so needs urgent attention. The words of
The role of agricultural sector remains critical as Dr M.S. Swaminathan are relevant here: "In a country
it accounts for about 54.6 per cent of the employment where 60 per cent of people depend on agriculture for
in the country, (2011 census) apart from,being the their livelihood, it is better to become an agricultural
provider of food for the people, fodder for livestock and force based on food security rather than a nuclear force."
raw materials to industries. Based on the fact that, the
relatiVe contribution of agriculture to the GDP has been a. Five Year Plans (CSE,2013)
declining over time whereas there is not much decline in Ans: Five year plans is the modei adopted by the
the percentage of people depending on this, it could be planners of Indian economy. initially the targets are
inferred that the performance of the sector is depressing. set for various sectors and the allocations are made to
In general, the poor performance of agricultural various ministries for the fulfillment of these targets.
 RURAL AND AGRARIAN TRANSFORMATION IN INDIA 367
Finally, the assessment is done and the shortcomings of shown by the administration leading to corruption,
the previous plan are addressed by the next plan. India delay in providing job cards and usefulness of assets.
adopted this model from Soviet Russia and planned to To check this, there must be social audit of works under
realize the socialistic pattern of development through NREGS, people's mobilization must be there to check
these plans. This includes reduction of inequalities of corruption and convergence of other schemes with this
income and checking the concentration of wealth in few scheme must be done.
hands. Today, we have a mixed economy model where
both private and public sector are working hand in hand a. Bring out some positive and negative social
for the development of the counky. consequences of green revolution. How has
Through planning we have achieved reduction green revolution changed the rural social
in poverty, transition from Hindu Rate of Growth to structure? (CSE,2012)
high growth rate, created employment opportunities, Ans: A revolution was started in decade of 1960s
introduced green levolution leading to self sufficiency with the hetp of technological innovation in agriculture
in food, liberalization of economy leading to more sector to make India self-dependent in food grains. It is
investment and technology, reduction in mortality now known as Green Revolution.
owing to better health facilities. It is only because of Highyeilding crops were produced with the help of
proper planning and visionary leadership that India
hybrid seeds, fertilizers, pesticides and ad-vanced means
maintained its unity among the diversity.
of irrigation. This revolution resulted in both positive
But, still much more needs to be done. Even after and negative consequences for Indian farmers.
60 years of planning, few sections are not reaping
Positive consequences are as follows:
the benefits of growth. For that, special schemes such
as Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment 1-. Better standards of life {or farmers
Guarantee Scheme, Food security Act and Right to 2. Increase in per capita income
Education Act have been implemented. Thus, now our 3. Change in mentality of farmers
thrust in the planning process must be on the inclusion 4. Initiation of Modernism and innovation in farmers
of left out people by building their capabilities and 5. Improvement in housing, health and education
empowering thqm.
6. Reduction in poverty

a. Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Emptoyment 7. Political awareness among the farmers
Guarantee Scheme (CSE,20L3) 8. Change to class stratification from caste stratification

Ans: The aim of this scheme is to enhance livelihood

9. Change in traditional power structure in rural areas

security by providing 100 days of guaranteed wage 10. Enhancement of democratic process
employment in one year to rural households. It has a In this way, green revolution tried to change the
rights based approach as it recognizes the right to work. traditional agrarian society through develop-ment of
i scientific, modern and rational view.
\ It is self selective and time bound programme as people
get wages if work is not allotted in time. Moreover, But the revolution has also created some negative
it caters to the local needs and provides employment consequences which are as follows:
to the farmers in the lean season. According to Mihir 1,. Poorer economic condition of small and medium
Shah, this scheme is temporary and its aim is to make farmers
agriculture viable as the money earned through this will 2. Increase in income inequality in the society
be invested in the agriculture. Gradually, the number of 3. Rise in tension among farmers due to steep rise in
people opting for this will decrease and government will input costs.
withdraw this scheme. 4. Rise in suicidal tendency among farmers especially
There are many positive effects of this scheme in those who had switched over to cash crops and
rural areas. It has led to the empowerment of women incurred debts.
(50% are women) with improvement in their nutritional
5. Increase in regional disparities
levels and they are getting same wages as man, increased
participation of SCs and STs, strengthening of PRIs and
6. Rise in rural unemployment due to large scale
mechanization of agriculture.
checf;ed migration.
Moreover, the payments are made through post
7. OnIy change in conditions of rich farmers
offices and banks leading to financial inclusion and lack 8. Impact in health due to excessivei use of pesticides
of leakage of funds. and pollution of water.
But, a study by planning commission has higtrlighted 9. Economic crisis among the farmers
many shortcomings such as inflated number of workers 10. Decline in social relations in the society
 368 ffi soctolocye&A
Rural society has been a traditional society with in maintaining low fertility. In high class group, people
dominance of traditions, religious beliefs. Superstitions often get fearness of property division consequently they
and regressive customs are entre-nched in the society maintain low birth. Contrary to this, property related
due to low level of education. But the green revolution awareness is very low in low status group. Consequently
led to changes in attitude of the society which helped there is high rate of fertility. Hence according to Davis
spread the education. and Blake due to low fertility rate there is division of
The Green revolution has reduced to some extent property in high status group. Contrary to this due to
the feudalistic tendency in the society. But the bene- fit high fertilit/, there is continuous division of property
of the revolution did not percolate to all sections of the among low status group and therefore, they are at the
farmer community. Small and medium far-mers lagged low level of social structure.
behind the rich farmers. They got entra- pped by the Thus, Davis and Blake have defined the relationship
moneylenders due to higher prices for high-yielding between social structure and fertility ahd they have
seeds, pesticides and fertilizers. This led to increased explained that how there is continuous division of
suicides among these sections. wealth in low status group due to high fertility and
Power structure saw a change and farmers started contrary to this high accumulation of wealth in high
making efforts in influencing the policy making with status group due to low fertility.. The process also causes
increased awareness about their rights. But the spread of upward and downward mobility in society. In reality
the revolution was limited to Punjab, Haryana, western social status of class is the role determining factor of
UP and affected social structure of these regions only. fertility.
This led to increased regional clisparities.
In this way, green revolution has had both positive O. New rural elite and leadership (CSE 2009)
and negative consequences.
Ans: Traditionally rural elites in India defined in
terms of specific status groups like castes, religion etc.
a. Bring out the relationship between fertility Landlords and rich non-cultivating castes belonging to
and social strucfure as viewed by Davis ani upper castes such as Brahmins, Thakur, Bania in north
Blake. (CSE,2011) India, Kammas, Reddis in Andhra Pradesh, Kunbi,
Ans: Socia{ structure is the fundamental concept of Marathas and Deshmukhs in Maharashtra, etc. were top
sociology. Nadel has established relationship between elite class in rural India, who controlled political and
social structure and population through basic population economic affair ofthe rural region till the independence.
and web of individual's roles played in a society. The rural elite formation was totally based on caste
Whereas Davis and Blake has related social structure structure.
theoly with fertilify rate. But the post-independence period witnessed
While defining the relationship between social significant changes in the elite formation of rural India.
structure and fertility, Davis and Blake opined that in a The impact of land reforms, and rural development
social structure highfertility rate indicates low status of programmes facilitated the emergence of new forces of
individual. The rate of high fertility in low social class change. The impact of green revolution in 1970s and
is due to high mortality rate and lack of adequate socio- there by spread of new technology in rural India has
economic protection. also promoted various changes. The advent of green
Contrary to this low fertility rate is the characteristics revolution has also helped in the emergence of new
of high class in social structure. The prevalence of low dominant castes. Several studies by sociologists and
fertility rate in high social class is clue to availability of social anthropologists have shown that green revolution
adequate socio-economic protection. and land reforms mostly benefited to socially backward
Black further opined that the individual standing at castes. They have claimed that since these backward
low level of social structure feels more insecured socio- peasant castes were excellent cultivators when more land
economically. Consequently high fertility rate is found was added to their part, they became enterprising caste.
in low status group of people. Contrary to this, there is These backward castes also took full advantage of cash
sufficient socio-economic protection and health facilities crops and commercial agriculture. Consequently they
in high income group and this developed health facilities have accumulated wealth.and property not only villages
tend to lower fertility rate in higher class. Besides, these but also in adjoining centres. Another interacting feature
high level education and ,rrrurin"r, are also helpful in is a shift of authority from the older generation to the
' maintaining low level of fertility. younger generation.
Further defining their theory o{ social structure In the post independence period the introduction
and fertility, Davis and Blake argued that tendency to of Panchayati Raj and democratization of rural life has
accumulate more property in high class is also helpful changed traditional pattem of leadership based on caste
 RURAL AND AGRARIAN TRANSFORMATION tN tNDIA t:, 369
status, prestige of family, blood relations and there is but they occasionally employ labourers whenever they
trend of emerging new leadership. At the same time, it needed. This class further can be divided into two groups
is also true that in several regions the traditional elite (i) Small land owners: They have sufficient landholding
has transformed itself into modern elite but democratic to support their family and do not employ any
process has given way to backward castes for leadership. labourer.
The increasing representation of the youth from the
(ii) Subtantial tenants: They have landholding which
lower middle class is also important dimension of
is above the subsistence level.
modern leadership.
The third category of class in agrarian structure
The advancement of modern education along the
is Mazdoor or agricultural labourers. They work on to
cross section of the society in ru.ral areas have also
get livelihood on landholding of other people i.e. big
changed the pattern of elite formation.
landlords. About from these three classes there are also
Now the youths belonging to lower castes also moneylenders or small trader groups living in rural
getting entry into various prestigious jobs like I.A.S., areas.
I.P.S., executives in multinational companies. Rural India
has also witnessed the emergence of some top business
elites like Sunil Mittal, chairman of Airtel Telecom,
Infosys's chairman Narayan Murty etc.
The spread of green revolution and increased
productivity of agriculture has produced rich farmers
lobby in rural areas which are acting as strong politicai
groups such as farmer's group under leadership of
Sharad Joshi in Maharashtra, M.S. Tikkait in Uttar
Pradesh, Balbir Singh Rajwal and Bhupinder Singh
Mann in Punjab etc. have 1ed various movements
for demand of remunerative prices of their produce. However, D.N. Dharagre opined that the social
The rich farmers in rural areas also reacting towards
composition of these agrarian earlier were in terms
globalization an{ its impact on agriculture.
of specific status .groups like castes, religions etc. For
Thus, the rural India is witnessing the emergence of
example, landlords and rich landowners including
new elite and leadership as a result of various .hurlg"t noncultivating moneylenders belonged to upper castes
introduced by the government in forms of democratic such as Brahmins, Thakur, Bania in northern India.
reforms and'new economic policies. in Andhra Pradesh the Kammas, Reddis and Kaos
in Mysore, the Okkaligas and Lingayats, the Patidars
a. Changes that the agrarian social sfructures in in the Gujarat region while the Kunbis, Marathas
India is undergoing. (CSE,2009) and Desmukhs in Maharashtra are locallv dominant
Ans: Indian Agricultural social structure was landowning castes. The middle u.,d poo. peasants
traditionally divided into those who have land and those came from the traditional lower castes. But the landless
do not. But over the year agrarian systems have wibressed labourers belonged to untouchable castes, the Scheduled
many changes and the major fundamental changes Castes.
occurred during the British period. The British rule which But the post independence period has witnessed
introduced the land tenure system to raise revenue gave significant changes in the agrarian class structure in
birth to many agrarian class such as land olrmers, tenants, India. The impact of land reforrns and rural development
agricultural labourers. But Damiel Thorner has described programmes facilitated the emergence of new forces of
these agricultural classes as proprietor, working peasants change. This change has challenged the traditional
and labourers. In vernacular language these terms can feudal structure in India. This changed has also caused
be referred as Malik, Kisary Mazdoor respectively. The the feudalistic and custosary type of tenancy to deciine
first category i.e. Malik refers to those farmers whose and it has been replace by a capitalist form of lease
income derived from the property right of lands. They labour or wage labour agrarian system. AIso a new class
collect their rents from ternats, subtenants and share of rich middle stratum of "peasantry system has came
croppers. The family members of landlord act at the level into being and most of these are from lower, and middte
of management without working manually at the field. castes. But the benefits of land reforms. so far have not
This group of landlord can be divided into two broader gone to agricultural workers. The class inequalities
types i. e. absentee landlords and inhouse landlords. The between the top and the bottom levels of the classes have
second class i.e. working peasants or kisan are those who increased rather than to decrease. As a result of these
live primarily by working on their small land holding tensions in the agrarian classes have further increased.
370 s socroLocYe&A
But P.C. ]oshi in his work has made comments However, the peasant movements in India can be
differently on changing agrarian class structure' divided in terms of British rule peasant movements and
According to him various reforms implemented by post independence peasant movement. The 19th century
the government has led to decline of feudal and India is a treasure house of peasant movements. The
customary types of tenancies but it has also given a most militant movement of this period was Indigo revolt
more exploitative and insecure lease arrangement. The of 1859-60 and Pabna revolt which took place only a
changing agrarian structure has also given rise to a new decade later of indigo revolt in Bengal. These rnovements
commercial based rich peasant class who were part were directed against the Zamindars who were symbols
owners and part tenants. Apart from it there is also of exploitation, atrocities etc. The movement of this
report of emerging a new class of commercial farmers period was not only against Zamindars but also against
for whom agriculture sector is appearing as business. moneylenders.
Thus, the rural India witnessed and still withholding During the freedom struggle of India, the
the process of transformation. Depeasantisaton of small Champaran Movement in 1917 of Bihar and Bardoli
and marginal peasants is also a byproduct of agricultural Satyagrah were the major non-violent anti-British
class change. movement and Mahatma Gandhi provided leadership
to these peasant movement. These movement provided
Evaluate the success of Indian peasant major relief to farmer. Just before independence, it was
a. Tebhaga Movement in Bengal (1946-47) which was most
movements in achieving their goals.
effective and wide spread.
(csE,2009)
It was a struggle of share cropper to retain 2/3td of
Ans: According to D.N. Dharagre peasant produce for themselves. The movement was the outcome
movements can be referred to all kinds of collective of political mobilization of peasantry by the Communist
attempts by the peasantry class either to change the Party of India and Kisan Sabha. The Telangana
system which they felt exploitative or to seek redressal movement occurred on the eve of India's independence
for particular grievances. India has a long history of was another important struggle of peasantry which
peasant movement. The diversity of land systems and occurred in Nizam's ruling Hyderabad and lasted for
agrarian relation such as pattern of landownership, 5 years. This movement initiated by peasants forced
tendency use ahd control of land, agrarian class structure British government to take action in favour of peasanhry
etc. have given different types of peasant movement related to rivances.
from time to time in india. However, according to After independence various peasant's group
D.N. Dhanagre and other scholars agrarian class also started several movement for land reforms, land
structure have been the major cause of the peasant consolidation, giving unclaimed land to agricultural
movements. According to D.N. Dhanagre there are labourers etc. As a result of these movements various state
rnainly three classes in agrarian society- (a) Malik ( government initiated land reforms, land consolidation
Landlord) (b) Kisan (i.e. having small land holding) programmes. The government also started to give extra
(c) Mazdoor (i.e. agricultural labourer). non claimed land to landless poor people but overall
The big landlord who are rich comes under the land reform programmes failed to give benefit to poor
category of Malik. Kisan are inferior to Malik comprising people because there was large scale protect from big
self cultivating owners of the land. While the Mazdoor landlord towards introduction of ceiling for obthining
earn their livelihood from working on other's land. extra land.
These category includes poor tenants, share croPpers Consequently state government came into political
and landless labourers. Andre Beteiile opined that the pressure. Only West Bengal State was able to implement
areas that witnessed large number of agrarian revolts land reform fully. This failure of land reform has
are rice producing areas where there is large presence of resulted into Naxal movement in India which is still a
agricultural labourers. This is also the areas where land great problems for large number of state governments
is unequally divided among the cultivators. as well as centual government in India.

{.***
 CHAPTER

12

a. Highlight the salient features of the New a mechanism for multi-source periodic performance
Education Policy (NEP) 2020. (CSE 2023) appraisals and available progression paths to become
Ans: Education today is considered as one of the educational administrators or teacher educators.
main sources of building human capital. Education NEP 2020 is a thorough framework with the goal
builds such human capital which has greater skills, of converting India's educational system into a thriv-
more productivity, and better analytical power and so ing center of know-ledge. It makes an effr:rt to- strike
on. It inculcates a rational outlook and makes one aware a balance between the requirement for in-depth topic
about choices in life. In this context, the Union Cabinet knowledge and 21st-century abilities incluciing ccrn-
of India adopted the NEP 2020, a comprehensive and municatiory creativity, scientific temper, criticai thrnkinp
inclusive framework designed to modernise the nation,s and problem-solving.
educational system. The policy is made to adapt to the
population's shifting needs in terms of high-quality a. Discuss the phenomenon of rural-urban con-
education, innovation, and research tinuum with suitable examples.
Salient Features of the NEP 2020 (csE 2CI23)
. NEP 2020 emphasises on ensuring universal ac- Ans: The notion of the rural-urban continuum chal-
lenges the traditional binary view of rural and urban
cess to school education at all levels - pre-school
regions as two different and distinct entities. It highlights
to secondary. Infrastructure support, innovative
how rural and urban communities are linked on a socio-
education centres to bring back dropouts into the
economic and cultural level. According to rural-urba-n
mainstream, tracking of students and their learning
continuum, there is a smooth transition from rura_l to
levels, facilitating multiple pathways to learning are
urban regions and no clear boundary separating them.
some of the proposed ways.
Instead, there is variety.
. The school curricula and pedagogy will aim for
holistic development of learners by equipping them Rural-urban Continuum
with the key 21st century skills, reduction in cur- . Rural-urban continuum is a course of socio-economic
ricular content to enhance essential learning and interface between the villages and the tourns or cities.
critical thinking and greater focus on experiential r Numerous cultural kaits are diffused frorn cities to ru-
learning. Students will have increased flexibility ral areas. For example, dress pattems like pants, shirts,
and choice of subjects. ties, skirts, jeans, etc. diffuse from cities to rural areas.
. No language will be imposed on any student. Stu- . In addition, modern thoughts, ideologies are also
dents participate in a fun project/activity on ,The transmitted from the cities to the rural areas due
Languages of India', sometime in Grades 6-8, such to widespread communication via radio, television,
as, under the'Ek Bharat Shreshtha Bharat' initiative. newspaper, etc.
. NEP 2b20 aims to ensure that no child loses any op- . The urbanism, which is urban way of life, emerges
portunity to learn and excel because of the circum- in the cities and gradually reaches to the rurai areas,
stances of birth or background. Special emphasis will depending on their immediacy to cities. The process
be given on Socially and Economically Disadvan- ol urbanization has not been a remote occurrence.
taged Groups (SEDGs) which include gender, socio- o Currently, together with the entire range of occupa-
cultural, and geographical identities and disabilities. tional diversification, spread of literacy, education,
. Teachers will be recruited through robust, transpar- mass corununicatiory etc. continuity between rural
ent processes. Promotions will be merit-based, with and urban areas has amplified.
 372 ;,,.t't'ti SOCIOLOGY Q & A
. Urban iobs and other facilities of living have become e-governance, political participation, health cover-
status symbols in the rural areas. Several up to date age and so on.
techniqles of agricultural clevelopment and many . In the case of North East, Xaxa points out that tribal
of the institutional frameworks for rural develop- youth get educated in hope of gain{ul employment,
ment are also produced from the urban centres. but in wake of lack of opportunities, the disillu-
. The large scale commerciali zationof agriculture has sioned youth indulge in nefarious activities'
also been facilitated by the process of irrbanization.
. Further, many structural and infrastructural hur-
Correspondingly, agriculiural requirements for dles are still there. According to Jean Dereze, three
machinery t-,u"" i""""ruted the gro#tn of manufac- major factors still mar education in schools - poor
turing units in urban areas. infrastructure, irrelevant curriculum and poor qual-
. The fringes of large cities provide the greatest il- ity of teachers'
' T-hough we have universal enrollment at primary
Iustration of the rural-urban corrtinrr;:il;;;;
is frequently the main lndustry ir-t tfr" levels' dropouts are still very high' Cost of educa-
agriculture
tion is another barrier in a developing society like
outlying areas, they are also i-pu.t"d t y ii-,..rty',
ours' Education may not be the panacea that it is
metropolitan economy and way of life. Tire lines be-
claimed to be' Still' no society is totally open and
tween these places' rural and urban pof,.rir,ior't, ut"
provides for true mobility for all'
blurred since many of the residents wtrk in cities.
One of the major causes of this disparity is poverty
In India, the deveiopment of transport and com- '
and deprivation' Prevailing social inequalities lead
munication has brought even inaccessi6le tribal areas
to unequal access to education'
in contact with rural areas and rural areas with the
urban areas. The spread of education, governmental ' Our patriarchal social structure also deter fe-
activities, intrusion of market and cross mobility in these
male child from venturing out' Male"female ratio
areas have started a process of change lr", *ni.n there is
deteriorates as girl child progresses ,from lower
evidence of both rural ancl urban influence- Thus, the classes to higher classes' Infrastructure is also a
rural-urban continuum ca-n be said to be getting more big hurdle'
pronounced with urbanisation and social i}ru"gI.
. Absence of nearby schools also deters parents from
rending their girls to schools. According to NGO
, Pratham report, absence of toilet facilities in schools
a. ,,Instead of promoting equality in society, the is also a big cause for girls' dropout' Further' lack
present system of ed,.rcation itielf has contrib-
of local content also makes it difficult for students
uted to increased socio-econo*i. Jirpuriti"r"
Comment iCii, x:il . X.::i:'#* Avijit pathak in his ,sociar rmplica-
Ans: According to Dr' Itradha Krishnan'Education tions'of Schooling, 2002', schooling'intensifies the
is an agent for social change what in simple societies existing divide between the elite and the masses'.
was done by the family, the religions, social and political Cnlldren going to privileged schools learn to be
institutions has to be done by the educational institu- confident while children deprived of that may feel
:

tions today'. the opposite. Some even don't get education of any
Significance of Education kind.
. Modern societies stress upon equality of opportu- . According to Pierre Bourdieu, education alsb helps
nity and equality of status. Education assumes great in reproducing 'cultural capital' which is as neces-
significance in such social set-up as it becomes a sary as social capital and economic capital. Cultural
universal avenue for social charlge which is open to influences acquisition of other capitals as
"rpitul
one and all irrespective of their caste, creed, gender, well. Thus, cultural reproduction in schools in un-
ethnicity and status. equal societies also leads to unequal educational
EducationandincreasedSocio-EconomicDisparities attainments'
'not Therefore, Education needs to be accompanied by
. Education as a tool of empowerment is uni-
formly used in India. The per capita education removal of other structural barriers to be an effective
expenditure differs considerably acrols states from instrument of social change. To address the issue of dis-
parity illiteracy, the root causes must be addressed
as high as Rs 3,440 in Lakshadweep to as low as Rs.
and
first. Gender bias, poverty, in-frastructure etc' must be
;t . 386 in Bihar. This leads to differences in educational
opportunities and attainrnents across states. addressed first'
. States like Kerala and Tamil Nadu has performed Further, education should be pupil friendly'
can be used to make class
on multiple parameters of human derielopment Information technology
because of education. Literacy rates in these states rooms
user friendly and more interactive and it can
are high. Kerala is a leading state in ter*r of better also
help in spreading quality education in even far
,"*-ruiio, almost universal institutional deliveries, flung areas'
 SOCTAL CHANGE lN |NDIA ri, lVg
a' Discuss recent trends in the strucfure of mi- ' In the context of developing countries like India -
gration' (aiE, ,0;;] there are other factors, according to Ashish Bose,
Ans: Everett Lee, a well-known demographer, which are termed as 'Push Baclf Factors,. As un-
defines migration broadly'as a permanent or semi- employment and margi"d in cities
permanent change of residence'. Others like Eisenstadt increases, it acts as a deterrent";;i"y*ent foi rural populations
consider it as a ,t or" o, less perman".t i" ;r;;;;. to find a place in urban areas ancl pushes them back.

Roles of Migration ' According to R C Chanda in'A Geography of Popu-

lation, L986', some seek more reli"gious freedom
' Migration is the third factor for changes in the which is offered in a cosmopolitan environment of
population, the other being birth rate ind death city. Sometimes there is a tacit government guide-
rate' As compared to birth rate and death rate, hnl which promotes economic and cultural activity
migration affects the size of population differentlyl. atspecific places.
Migration is not a biological event like birth raie
and death rate, but is influenced by social, cultural,
' Political faciors also play an important role. some states
like Maharashtra under parties like shiv sena follow an
economic and political factors' ardent 'sons of the soil' policy which leads to forced mi-
' Migration shows the trends of social changes. grations. Even in Calcutta, the Bengali-Marwari conflict
From the historical viewpoint during the proless will have far reaching implications. And now Assam and
of industrialisation and economic Jevelopment, Tamil Nadu are othe"r such
exumpies.
people migrate from farms to industries, from vil- Migration
Trr, has major impacts on both the people
lages to cities, from one city to another and from
one and- the placel involved in rt. \Atrhen supported by appro-
countuy to another' In modern times, technological priate poli.i"r,
migration can contribute to inclusive and
changes are taking place in Asia, Africa and iatln iustainable development
in both origin and destination
America due to which-these regjons are witnessing countries, while also
benefiting migr*i, *d il;;;"#;;.
large-scale migration from ruril to urban areas.
' Conceming their place of birth, one-third of all inter-
a. Discuss different forms of deprivation associ-
national migrants originate from only ten countries,
ated with slums. (C1E,20221
with India as the lead country of origio accounting
for about 18 million persons iitting abroad' Ans: A srum area means any area where such dweil-
ings predominate, which by reason of dilapidation,
over-
Classification and Recent Changes in Migration in India .to*aing, faulty affangement
and design of buildings,
' In India, the migrants are classified into four mi- narrowness and faulty affangement of stieet, lack of ven-
gration streams, namely, rural to rural, rural to tilatioru lack of sanitation facilities, inadequacy of open
urban, urban to urban and urban to rural. Rural to spaces and co.mmunity facilities or any combination of
rural migration has formed the dominant migra- these factors, are detrimental to safetv, health or morale.
tion stream since 1961. There have been substaritial Birth of Slums
increases in the proportion of rural to urban, and
' Historicaliy, Friedrich Engels attributed the birth of slums
urban to urban migration with the passage of time. to the rise of industrial ciies und factory-rystems. Wages
' Another important point is that the proportion of in new industries were poor and the migrated people
the females is_much higher in rural to rural migra- couldn't afford Iiving in ttgn cost houses.-
tioru while in the other three streams the proporiion
Different Forms of Deprivation
of the males is comparatively much higher. This is
simply because the females change the-ir residence'
slums suffer due to various forms of deprivation.
is lack o{ public utilities and facilities, such es,
on getting married, and new places could be in the Jhere
drainage, sanitalion, water taps, electric light, health
neighbouring districts'
enters, common latrines and public parks, etc.
' In all other streams there is dominance of rural to . Dilapidated
and poor houses in slums are made
urban migration among the males could be due to
,f p;"; ;;g"'""a scrap materials. These are of-
better developed agriculture in certain states and
ten raised on unauthorized land. High density of
districts' which may attract migrants froqn other population and housing leads to overcrowding and
parts of the country' Development of industries in
congestion; one room is-often used for all practical
certain states or cities may be another important purposes of dornest^i-c'J"g'i*tig.*'"' '
factor in rural to urban migration'
A few more dimensions can be added to this clas- ' the mainstream
The slum-dwellers are functionally integrated
with
of the city life, yet.the high inci-
sification in the form of international migration dence of deviant behavior such as crime, juvenile
including-immigrationrrJ"*igt"ion,lon!range delinquencf,-pror,l,r,ion,
(for a longer time) and short range migratio"n, vo"l-
drug use, beggary, il-
legitimacy, irriiii iir,iling of liquor, gambling and
untary and involuntary' other social evils are associated with slum areas.
374 .:.' soclolocY Q & A
Sociological Views on Slums Poor Treatment Tarique Thatcheel highlights the
n Slums have a culture of their owry which Marshall role of harassment by employers and violation of police
as important factors that precipitated reverse migration'
Clinarei in his'sociology of Deviant Behaviot,1974'
Lack of Social Capital: According to Ravi Srivas-
has termed as'away of life'. It is said to be largely
tava, most of the migrant labourers belong to the SCs
a synthesis of the culture of the lower class and of
and STs. They lack any social network in urban areas in
that which Lewis has referred to as the'culture of
the form of relatives and friends'
poverty'.
Ritual Tug of Home: Dipankar Gupta argues that
" Largely, slums are subject to neglect and apathy of
this reverse migration was led mainly by ritual consid-
the Iarger community. These areas are looked down
erations and not as much due to economic compulsions'
upon and considered inferior.
Migrants returned to their homes as they wanted to be
e [. R. Desai and Devadas Pillai attribute rise in wii-h their family as their family would conduct their
slum population as a failure of welfare state' Ac- shraddh in case of their death. He referred to this as
cording to them, though constitution guarantees ritual tug of home.
various rights, it has failed to provide adequate
housing source of livelihood. They suggest a radical Implications of Reverse Migration
solution in form of nationalization of urban land Increase in Burden on Agriculture: Agriculture
resources. sector, which is already overburdened, was forced to ac-
F{ow-e\rer, rise of slums is also viewed in functional
commodate the additional burden of returning migrants'
terms as they provide many low-cost services to the Domestic Violence: Ministry of Women and Child
has highlighted the increase in incidences
rich and the middle class. Slums also provide low costs Development
dn elling place in cities to the migrants who have no of domestic
violence.
Spread of Pandemic: The returning population car-
other Places to live'
There{ore, government started variout ; schemes for ried the disease with them which led to spread of the
pandemic far beyond the metropolitan cities.
slum development through initiatives like Rent Control
Demographic Changes: Sudden increase in reverse
Act, Urban Land Ceiling, PM Awas Yoina, Property
migration substantially altered the demographic profile
Rights to Slum Dwellers Act, 2011, etc.
of 6oth urban and rural areas. For example, the share of
There l1ave also been many rehabilitation schemes declined as most
elderly and women in rural population
from time tI time including regularization of the slums were young men. To address these
of those returning
in forrrr of organized colonies. NGOs are also working in launched various schemes and
challenges government
rzarious areas like - education of slum children, aware- Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Anna
programs such as
ness about fernaie hYgiene, etc. portal alnong others. Apart from
Volina, and e-Shram
this thegovernment should take rneasures to address the
Q. \'Virat are the sociological reasons and implica- p."r"rt push back factors (Ashish Bose) that force
tion of "reverse migration" during the recent "rr", the migrant labourers to undertake reverse migration'
pandemic in India? (CSE 202L)
Ans: The terrn 'reverse migration' refers to the
piocess of internal and international migrants returning a. Analyse the idea of developmental planning
^to
their ptrace of origin from the destination state/coun- in India. (CSE 2021)
tries. IrL the backdrop of pandemic induced lockdowry Ans: Developmental planning refers to a process
reverse migration increased manifold due to various that defines how to allocate scarce resources for maxi-
socio-econotnic factors. It also created several economic
mum collective wellbeing. It makes a balancing act
and social challenges in India. between individual aspiration of people and collective
Sociological Reasons of Reverse Migration during the goals of the state.
Pandemic In Indian context it didn't mean just economic de-
job Losses: According to Amitabh Kundu, 30% of velopment, but also social and cultural development as
internal migrants were employed in casual workforce well. Development meant not only growth, but growth
while the other 30% were employed in informal sector' with justice io those who had undergone colonial op-
The lockdown impacted informal sector most severely pr"rtion and had also suffered from evil practices - like
u,'hich led to huge job losses for the migrants. laste, untouchability, bondage, discrimination, patriar-
' Economic Compulsion: CSDS report highlights chy and so on - that were prevalent in India'
that 22% of these migrant workforce earned barely 2000 Planning as a process was seen as an imperative
rupees per rnonth. for the newly independent country for several reasons
Lockdown took away even this meagre amount such as the scarcity of resources and the need to use
and the lack of savings forced them to return back to them most efficienily, need for poverty alleviation and
their homes. minimisation of inequality, to avoid the evils of capital-
 SOCIAL CHANGE IN INDIA W 375
ist economic system and affinity of leaders like Nehru
excludes them from electoral lists. This leads to
towards socialist ideology and its success in USSR. their
And political exclusion.
finally the need for rapid economic growth which was
Exclusion due to Homelessness: According to
necessary precondition to establish a welfare
state. Anthony Giddens, homelessness automatically exclu'-des
With these in mind, developmental planning was people from various essential areas of socieiy. people
started in 1950s with dual focus on agriculture and
living in slums often live in unauthorised colonies and
heavy industry.
illegal buildings which exclude them from availing im_
According to Dubashi, development planning in portant services such as availing loan by keepinglheir
- - aimed establishing
India socialistic pattern of soJiety property as mortgage"
where both economic and social aspects of developme*
To address these, various steps have been under_
are considered" planning in India according to him
was taken by the government such as Rent Control Act.l,94g,
a democratic planning and not totalitarian planning
as Urban Land Ceiling and Regulation Act (ULCRA) 1976,
people's participation was encouraged.
Rajiv Awas Yojana 2009,property Rights to Slum Dwell-
However India's approach towards developmental ers Act 2011 and so on.
planning is criticised by Marxists on the grorrd that it
benefited only a class of people namely ihe industrial,
commercial and financial groups_ They argue that plan-
a. Explain the sociological significance of New.
ning largely neglected agriculture sector'and failed to
Education Policy and its thrust on vocation_
implement land re{orms effectively. A ft Desai argues alisation and skill development. (CSE 2021)
that planning in India led to increase in regionat dis"par_ Ans: Education, according to parsons, is a mecha_
ity. Furthermore it failed to establish nism to prepare individuals for future roles in the so_
India.
-"lfu." statl in ciety. In this context the New Education policy (NEp)
Despite the criticism various achievements such as through its focus on vocationalisation and sklil devel_
reduction,in poverty from g0% at the time of indepen_ opment seeks to bring paradigm change in education
dence to 21.9% in 2011, increase in literacy from sector in India.
ig%
to 757o independence, increase in life expectancy Sociological Significance of New Education policy
kom32-since
to 69 since independence highlight the success . Universalisation of Education: The NEp seeks to
of developmentat planning in India.
increase gross enrolment ratio to tO},t" for school
education by 2030 and to S0% for higher education
a. Urban slums are sites of social exclusion _ by 2025.
explain, (CSE 2021) . Gender Inclusion: The NEp emphasises on setting
Ans: A slum is a residential area with substandard up of gerider inclusion fund to enhance gross enrol_
housing that is poorlv serviced andf or ou"..ro*i"a, ment ratio of wornen.
and therefore unhealthy, unsafe, and socially undesir_ .
Educational Disparify: It seeks to establish special
able. According to the erstwhile planning Commissiory
education zones for disadvantaged regioni and
nearly 23% of urban population lives as ilum dwellers.
groups.
Because of various socio-economic deprivations
. Enhance Educational Outcome: It seeks to set
urban slums have to experience wide varietiis of social up
exclusion such as the following: a National Mission on Foundational Litera.y urd
Numeracy to enhance educational outcomes.
Exclusion from Access to Civic Amenities: Various
civic amenities such as sanitation services, piped water,
. Early Childhood Care and Education: It seeks
electricity connection, etc. are not easily available to to develop national curricular and pedagogical
slum dwellers. framework for early childhood .ur" ur,d education
Exclusion from Social Relations: According to for children up to the age of eight. This will enable
Victor D'Souza slums mainly comprise socio_cultur:ally mental development of children.
marginalised groups such as SCs and STs due to which . Transmission of Tradition and Culture: The na_
they are neglected and ignored by the rest of the urban tional education policy seeks to promote education
population. in mother tongue at least till grade 5. Furthermore it
Exclusion due to poverty: Dhandekar and Rath seeks to mainstream Sanskrit. It also has provisions
argue that poverty and slums intersect each other. for learning of traditional arts and crafts.
Ac-
cording to Brian Barry, poverty is the leading cause
of Significance of Focus on Vocationalisation and Skill
social exclusion. Development
Political Exclusion: Slums are mostly inhabited .
Address Skill Deficit: The proportion of formally
by migrant labourers who often lack clocuments which
skilled workers in India is extremely low, at 4.69%
 376 '1ii SoclolocY Q&A

of total workforce, compared to 24% in China, and Rehabilitation Act 2013 which has for the first time con-
52% in the US' Focus on vocationalisation and sidered the issue of displacement in such an extensive
skill development will prepare the workforce for manner. Additionally focus on sustainable development
emerging flelds such as artificial intelligence, and and inclusive growth will ensure equitable growth of
quantum comPuting, etc. all regions which also upholds the rights of the inhabit-
-Sustainable
ants. development will also reduce climate
. Reap Benefit of Demographic Dividend: Due to
change linked displacement. Hence displacement is not
lack of skill and vocational training India has been
the necessary price for the development'
unable to reap the full potential of demographic
dividend. Focus on skill development will enhance
the demographic dividend for India' a. Rising ethnocentricism is leading to conflict
in our society. Assess this statement with ap-
. Enhance Employability: Skill development will
enhance the employability of the workforce by
propriate reasons. (CSE 2021.)

bridging the gap betrveen demand and supply' in the {tboae question, the tenn'ethno-
(Please note tl'rat
. Decrease Dependence on Agriculture for Employ- centrism' shoultl hnrte been used. Tlrc ansu)er has been written
in mind.)
ment: It will also help diversify rural economy by keeping' ethnocentrisrn'
opportunities Ans: Ethnocentrism is tirb application of one's own
providing alternate employment
apart from agriculture. cultural values in evaluating the behaviour and beliefs of
This means that the cultural
Therefore the Nen' Education Policy 2020 holds people from other cultures.
standard or norm in one culture
great potential towards revolutionising the educational ,rutr"t projected
as the
ur" superior to that of lhe beliefs and values
and vocational sectors in India. "or-trid"red
of other cultures. tthnocentric viewpoints often lead to
Q. The problem of displacement is inherent in con-flict
in societv.
Ethnocentric views create suspicion'of outsiders'
the idea of development. Analyse the state- and out groups' Use of
ment criticallY. (CSE 2021) It creates notions of in groups
exclusionary practices like ghettos, intermarriage restric-
Ans: According to Yogendra Singh, "Development tions and *iiul dittut'tce maintenance give a practical
refers to the rstrategy of planned social change which is shape to ethnocentrism. The group which is powerful
considered desirable by the members of the society"' marginalises the other in this process, for example,
Displacement is related to the crisis of development blacks in both America and South Africa'
wherein people are forced to migrate out of their place Similarly xenophobic attacks and discriminations
of habitation. Displacement can be direct as well as indi- against outsiclers emerge due to ethnocentric biases' For
rect. Direct displacement is often in the form of eviction iristance discrimination faced by a Bihari in Mumbai
due to various reasons such as mining, infrastructure comes from a sense of cultural superiority'
development, etc. and indirect displacement is often Sirnilarly communal clashes emerge due to the fail-
in the ftrm of migration due to uneven developmental ure of religious groups to tolerate and understand the
process, lack of livelihood opportunities, discrimination'
beliefs and practices of other grouPs' Ethnocentrism runs
fragile ecosystem, socio- religious notions, etc'
counter to the concept of tolerance and accommodation;
Developmental programs are often carried at the
people become intoierant to cultural and religious dif-
cost of the original inhabitants. For example mining ac- ferences as a result.
tivities, building of dams, building of power plants, etc'
Even caste conflict can be seen as an extension of
has led to large scale displacement of tribal population'
ethnocentrism. For example, a Dalit groom riding a
According to Walter Fernandes, in past 50 years, around-
horse is seen as an affront to the culture of upper caste
3 crore people were displaced and more than 42% of
as a result of which conflict ensues.
them wlre tribals. Furthermore uneven development
In recent times social media platforms have further
creates regional disparities and therefore forces people to
exacerbated ethnocentrism' People tend to associate only
migrate to more prosperous region' For instance urban- It creates echo chambers and
is largely driven by difference in de- with their own in-groups.
-uid -igrution people rarely have access to viewpoints of other cultures'
velopment of rural areas in comparison to urban areas'
the scope of con{lict in society'
Ho*"r"., today displacement need not necessarily thir hut expanded
Therefore there's a need to facilitate increased cul-
;; be a consequence of development as the situation has
tural exchanges between different sections of the society'
changed significantly, especially after 1970s, and devel-
Governmentis scheme such as Ek Bharat Shrestha Bharat
opmental iisues are scrutinised with a wider view of
their impact on locales and wider ecology' Civil society
will help in bringing different cultures and regions to-
gether. it *ltt help check the rising ethnocentrism and
groups ire becoming vociferous supporters of the rights
con{lict in the society'
If int"raUitants. There is also a new Land Acquisition and the resulting
 SOCIAL CHANGE !N INDIA iW 377
a. Urban settlements in India tend to replicate a. Examine the importance of Development
its rural caste-kinship imprints. Discuss the Planning in Indian Mixed Economy, and
main reasons. (CSE 2021) analyze its problems and prospects.
Ans: ln western countries urbanisation led to (csE,2019)
breakdown of traditional social order and in its place Ans: David Hall in his book - 'Planned Social
established new way of life which Louis Wirth refers to Change' indicates that planning offers a guideline to
as urbanism. However in India there has been traditional the state to define how to allocate scarce resources for
urbanisation according to M S A Rao. Traditional rural maximum collective well-being. It makes a balancing act
caste-kinship structures have continued to persist even between individual aspiration of people and collective
in urban settings. goals of state.
In the urban areas there has always been coexistence It also provides for the welfare of those who are
of different cultures. Studies show that though various at the receiving end in society. Thus, planning is not
ethnic andf or caste groups have adjusted themselves only a nation building exercise, but also a welfare
with each other in the city, they have also tried to main- exercise. Development in Indian context didn't mean
tain their traditional identi ties. just economic development, but also social and cultural
The migrants have maintained distinctive cultural development as well. Development meant not only
traditions in the towns. Various migrant groups have growth, but growth with justice to those who had
maintained their own cultural identity. N.K. Bose points undergone colonial oppression and had also suffered
out that the migrants tend to cluster around people from evil practices - like caste, untouchability, bondage,
with whom they have linguistic, local, regional, caste discrimination, patriarchy and so on - that were
and ethnic ties. prevalent in India.
To give the ideas of development and planning a
The reasons for this are as follows:
practical shape, India went for a mixed economy model
. Protection and Security: Migrants tend to live along as Indian state didn't have so much resources and
with people belonging to the same caste or people India had a huge population which was suffering from
belonging to same village or town as they find a poverty and deprivation. A mixed economy is one in
sense of security and protection with them. which both private and public sectors participate.
. \
Socialisation: Extended kinship groups or caste Developmerit planning under a mixed economy also
groups help socialise newcomers to the urban way assumed a redistributive role to minimize inequalities in
of life. They serve as a school for new migrants. society. Planning as a process was seen as an imperative
. Social'Network: Often people migrate from rural for the newly independent country for several reasons.
to urban areas through their social contacts. Caste First, r,ye had scarce resources and needed to ensure
and kinship groups serve a key role in providing that they were used in most efficient way. Secondly,
the social capital to a migrant. Ahmedabad Study poverty alleviation and minimization of inequality was
(1973) by Subramaniam and Pappola highlights the also paramount and a planned approach to fight these
role played by caste and kinship in securing jobs in was necessary.
urban areas. Thirdly, India had witnessed the evils of a capitalist
. Social Exclusion: Even in urban settings socio- economic system and socialist ideology had dgeply
economically disprivileged sections tend to live on impacted leaders like Nehru who had already witnessed
the periphery. Victor D'sotzahighlights the higher impact of planned development in socialist countries
proportion of Dalits in slums. like the USSR.
. Kinship Relationships: A study by Jagannathan Fourthly, planning was also visualized as a tool
and Haldar on the pavement-dwellers in Calcutta of rapid economic growth which was necessary for
shows that they retain close ties with kinship and generation of resources, providing employment, making
caste groups for socialising and transmitting or investments in social schemes and so on.
receiving information from the village. Issues with Planning
However this trend is not uniform. Victor D'Sotza . Planning is central. Decentralized planning is still in
noticed that in the planned cities like Chandigarh, nascent stages. Centralized plaruring may not touch
neighbourhood has not been developed on the basis the peripheral areas.
of ethnicity, common interest and other similarities. Often authorities fail to understand ground realities.
Similarly in newly developed metropolitan areas such as Example: Unrealistic data on poverty line.
NOIDA, Gurgaon, etc. people tend to cluster around on a Coalition politics affects planning.
the basis of professional, educational and occupational o Planning for 125 crore diverse population is not
similarities. easy.
378 #e+ soctolocy e & A
. There are limited resources and funds available. . The Public Sector Banks which were reeling under
. There is lack of proper monetary mechanism to deposit crunch and were running short of funds
check the implementation of the plan. haVe suddenly swelled with lot of money which can
Therefore, as resources in the country are be used for future finances and loans after keeping
limited - be it natural resources or human resources. a certain amount of reserve as per RBI guidelines.
The scarcity of resources necessitates the need for . The tax collected due to launch of demonetization
propff management - at productioru distribution and policy will be put to developmental activities in the
consumption ends. country. Demonetization has driven the country
towards a cashless society. Lakhs of the people even
a. Do you think that 'demonetization' has in remote rural areas have started resorting to use
accelerated the economic growth in India? the cashless transactions. The move has promoted
How do you understand the informalization banking activities.
of labour, underemployment and gender Demerits: Blow to Economic Growth and Inconvenience
discrimination in this context? (CSE,2019) All Around
Ans: In 2016, the Government of India announced . The sudden armouncement has made adverse impact
the demonetization of all Rs 500 and Rs 1,000 banknotes. on business and econorriy. Instead of a growing
It also announced the issuance of new Rs 500 and economy, India has become a standstill and no
Rs 2,000 banknotes in exchange for the demonetised growth economy. It is feared that a fall of 2-3% in
banknotes. The Prime Minister of India claimed that the the GDP growth will be recorded in the coming year.
action would curtail the shadow economy and reduce . India is an agriculture based economy. Due to
the use of illicit and counterfeit cash to fund illegal the cash crunch, the farmers especially small and
activity and terrorism. marginal who largely depend on cash to buy seeds,
Demonetization: Positive Impacts on Indian Economy fertilizers and to pay for sowing, borrowing water
Claimed for irrigation and for other related agriculture
. Economic Survey after careful review of equipment remained worst affected and could not
demonetization which was announced, has found complete the crop related activity.
that the cash-to-GDP ratio has stabilized. It suggests
. Real Estate sector came'to a standstill and is
a return to equilibrium. still gasping for buyers of the constructed and
. The Economic Survey says that India's GDP is set half constructed inventory without buyers. This
to glow at 7 to 7.5 per cent in 2018-19. This is an has resulted in poor cash flow leading to a poor
increase from its prediction of 6.75 per cent growth demand.
this fiscal year.
. Due to the inability to pay cash to poor daily wage
. Demonetization policy of the Government has been workers, the small employers have stopped their
termed as the greatest financial reform that aimed business activity. Demonetization is the 2-way
to curb the black money, corruption and counterfeit sword in regard to'incurring the public expenditure.
currency notes. On the one hand huge cost is to be incurred on
. A11 the people who are not involved in malpractices printing the new currency and on the other hand
welcomed the demonetization as the right move. managing the lakhs of crores of old currency
Demcnetization was done to help India to become volume has also become a big expenditure incurring
corruption-free as it will be difficult now to keep item.
the unaccounted cash.
. Many Economists are of the view that Rs.2000
. It was claimed that demonetization will help the currency note will be much easier to hide and can
govemment to track the black money and unaccounted be used to store black money in shorter space.
cashwill now flow no more and the amount collected . The unemployment rate rose to a four-year high
by means of tax can be better utilized for the public tn2)16-17, when the government demonetised old
welfare and development schemes. currency notes, at the same time as more people
. One of the biggest achievements of dernonetization joined the labour force looking for jobs, according
has been seen in the drastic curb of terrorist activities to the findings of the Labour Bureau.
as it has stopped the funding the terrorism which Therefore, it can be said that, Indian economy,
used to get a boost due to inflow of unaccounted which is mainly driven by informal sector was affected
cash and fake currency in large volume. Money badly by demonetisation as it brotight cash shortage.
laundering will eventually come to halt as the Also, demonetisation affected women the most as they
activity can easily be tracked and the money can mostly work in those sectors which are dependent on
be seized by the authorities. cash transactions.
 SOCIAL CHANGE IN INDIA #]]* 379
Q. What is Cultural Revivalism? Give some a. Privatization of education and increasing
examples from performing arts, language inequalities. (CSE,2016)
dissemination and arts and crafts in recent times. Ans: Privatisation policies increase inequality in
(csE,2017',1 access, do not guarantee quality and undermine the
Ans: The term cultural revival refers to the notion of education as a public good. Increased private
formation of group identity around a common culture, sector participation in education is a strong driver of
where a claim is forwarded that the aspects of culture segregation and inequalities of opportunities.
with which the group identifies have been recovered Private for-profit multinational corporations are
after losses due to colonization, forced or voluntary making billions of dollars by charging poor families
relocation, oppression, or modernization. Cultural around the world to send their children to school.
revival is predominantly associated with minority At the same time, governments have been shirking
populations and frequently underwrites demands for their obligations to provide quality public schooling
rights, restitutions, and political or legal recognition as by diverting significant funds to private sector actors
an ethnic group. and inviting them in to run large segments of the
education system (from pre-school through university
Examples of cultural revivalism in contemporary times
Ievel).
o The latest example of cultural revival can be seen in With nearly 200 million pupils in primary
the pro-jallikattu protests in the lndian state of Tamil and secondary schools, India has the largest youth
Nadu where the Supreme Court has declared ]allikattu, demographic in the world. Estimates place the potential
a bull-taming sport played during the festival of value of India's education market at US$1L0 billion and,
Pongal as illegal, due to the assertion of PETA that as an emerging economy, multinational corporations
the tradition is violating the Prevention of Cruelty like Pearsory along with international chains like Bridge
to Animals Act. International Academies, have encouraged privatization
o Also, as another illustration, after the separation of of the school sector education through the promotion
the state of Telangana from Andhra Pradesh in2015, of private schooling, vouchers and public-private
Telangana dialects, cuisine, songs, personalities, partnerships, especially targeting low-income and
schemes b.ecame the flavour of the new state. working class communities. This sector, in the avaricious
TRS chief and the state's first Chief Minister K. minds of the prbfiteers, represents a vast untapped
Chandrasekhar Rao, who regularly used Telangana market.
slang during the statehood movement and flattened Children have the right not only to a free public
rivals with his dialogues, has revived the culture of education, but also to a quality education, in schools
the region, especially language. that are adequately resourced and with teachers who
o In Karimnagar district, one wili find tiffin centres, are professionally trained. The Indian Right to Education
kirana stores, wine shops, cloth stores and business Act (2010) underscores the right to free and compulsory
establishments named after Telangana. This education for children between 6 and 14 and lays out
tendency has grown drastically after the state's key principles and standards for education provisioning,
bifurcation and they are all trying to sell products including for private schooling. Ensuring the right to
that establish Telangana identity. education and that all students have access to a quality
Literary personalities have started writing indigenous education in India will take more than promises or a
stories in the Telangana dialect and amateur and legal mandate.
professional filmmakers are making short films
depicting stories of the region. a. Empowerment through'Right to Education'
o Priority is also given to Urdu and signboards, (csE,2016)
wall paintings, posters and official programme Ans: Education is instrumental for the realization of
banners in Urdu are displayed at governrnent one's innate self and fulfillment of goals. In 2009 India
departments along with Telugu and English, enacted a landmark legislation promising universal
unlike in the past. Cabinet meetings eiLre now in inclusion in primary education, paving the way for
the Telangana dialect and ministers, officials, more learning opportunities at secondary and higher
media persons and the common man, all speak levels. This legislation, the Right of Children to Free
in the language they always knew but were shy and Compulsory Education (RTE) Act, effectively
to speak. Bonalu , Ramzan, Dasara, Deepavali made education a fundamental right'of every child in
and Christmas are now important festivals and the age group of 6 to 14. It is now a legally enJorceable
Sankranti, more of an Andhra Pradesh festival, has duty of the Centre and the states, to provide free and
taken a back seat. compulsory education.
380 ffir$ soctolocy e & A
This Act is an essential step towarcls improving a. Discuss the paradigm of modernization of
each child's accessibility to secondary and higher Indian tradition in analyzing social change
education. The Act also contains specific provisions for in India. (CSE, 20L5)
disadvantaged groups, such as child labourers, migrant a
The policies of the Indian nation-state
childreru children with special needs, o, tt,or" *n;";;
"el;";;; ^.^, t'"t constitution revolve round making India a
a disadvantage owing to social, cutturat, T:rlt
geographicar, ringurstic, gender or any
l1;l-r,.,= ilffil#ilil;##X,Jj:|illiTffiff?l'".l"il:
With the implementation of this Act, it is also expected:;; ::_^:;;^ .:;*:::-:_ ,
in urbantzation
that issues or school drop out, o,t-or-,.r'oli;i;;; ::j:::fl11*":1Tfl::.:lo '".'"use
and industrialization have brought significant changes
ouaritv '-"--'-----rof
1--"--rof education and availabilitv '-*:^"'" in Indian
--..- --;.. society. -
Ideas
-.--:-'.' .,. - like capitalism, democracy,
would beaddressed in theshorttomedium ".""Ji-".n"rr
term plans.
and technolosv' and
Boostins schoor inrrastructure and t*u.n".'iruinl;;;
essentiar for RrE to deriver srearer equity.
'^"" "'"'. :*:,1'liy::i1:','::':'::science
The idea that schooling should act as,a o.l
:::T"i,-'#'"':ffi'fixt$:;ilr"?':",-.i;ffiu:''
T"unt one of the strongest pi[ars of modernity in rndia is
social cohesion and inclusion is not new; it has been oft secularism and it occupies priority in any programme
repeated. Inequitable and disparate schooling reinforces ^r tL^
existing sociai and economic hierarchies, ;3;Hil ;j.:::i$,tx;ffi,:,lr'#',f::,tli:'#;"T,H:1
in the educated sections of society an indifference relationsirip in the form of modernization in Indian
towards the plight of the poor" society. It has incorporated changes in the structural
Eff orts should be f ocu sed on qualitativ" ,rpu.i, of society in form of complex division of labour,
improvement of the whole prografiune' It is now time to contract determined economic relations, vertical and
take the next step in fulfilling the fundamental promise horizontal mobility and aspirations for improvement.
to Indian children that they will truly get an education Education has been a major instrument of change on
and not just access to schools. RTE Act is an excellent the desired aims of modernity, namely, demoJracy,
initiative on the part of the law makers but remembering rationality and secularism.
that it is easier to take a horse to water, the- Act will Modernization has also affected change in the roles
have more teeth if the grey areas in the legislation are of family, position of caste and tribe in the realm of
effectively addressed by the legislature' power structure, emergence of new factions, dominant
caste in villages, acceptance of bureaucracy at di{ferent
Q. jyotirao Phule as an agtarian radical. levels of administration, new social movements, labour
" (CSE,2015) movements, urban growth (including emergence of
Ans: While in caste and social terms, Phule slums) and industrial demographic changes. These
championed the cause for status of Shudras, the social changes are found in various sectors of nation's
untouchables and women in Indian society; in economic life. These are, in other words, impacts of modernization
terms he was concerned about peasantry and its on social life'
problems. As opposed to the other nationalists who
viewed industriali zation as the only solution to a. Important components of National Education
the economic problem of India, Phule advocated Policy in India. (CSE,.2015)
improvement in agriculture, as Indian economy was Ans: Education plays an important role in nurturing
primarily an agricultural economy. the human capital of a country. It constructs the nation at
Phule suggested construction of bunds, tanks every level, creates self-sufficiency and search new areas
and dams so that sufficient water was made available of development. The basic objectives of the National
to the farm. He wanted the government to take up policy of Education of 1986 and programme of Action
schemes such as soil conservation, animal breeding and oIlgg2emphasized that education must play a positive
teaching of modern techniques of farming, reduce the and interventionist role in correcting social and regional
burden of taxes on farmers in order to make agriculture imbalance, empowering women, and in securing
profitable. , rightful place for the disadvantaged and the minorities.
Thus, Phule had shown a rare understanding of the Government should take a strong determination and
economic problems of the Indian Society. Looking from commitment to provide education for all, the priority
the view point of farmers and lower castes, Phule could areas being free and compulsory educatiory covering
see another type of drain of wealth i.e. from rural sector children with special needs, eradication of illiteracy,
to urban sector, from peasant economy to the Brahmin education for women's equality, adult education and
domain. It should be noted that Phule did not make any special focus on the education of S.C.s (Scheduled caste)
class differentiation the peasantry. and S,T.s(Scheduled tribes) and Minorities.
 SOCIAL CHANGE IN INDIA lrl...:i 381
This policy aimed to promote national progress, people and Forest tribals, as W. Fernandes advocates
a sense of common citizenship and culture, and to that most displaced persons are assetless rural poor like
strengthen national integration. It laid stress on the need landless labourers and small and marginal farmers and
for a radical reconstruction of the education system, to other remaining rural poor. It becomes abundantly clear
improve its quality at all stages, and therefore, gave that mostly powerless and voiceless people are displaced
much greater attention to science and technology, the and made to pay the price of national progress.
cultivation of moral values and a closer relation between Andre Beteille, on the other hand, the former
eduration and the life of the people. It envisaged chairman of welfare board, reflecting on developmental
education as a means for reducing economic, social and displacement in India, he found the impact on displaced
gender disparities. persons have homelessness, joblessness, de-pesantisatiorl
de-tribalisation.
a. Main obiectives of Tribal Sub-Plan (TSP). Social scientist also looked into developmenfal
(csE,2015) displacement indicating that the most of the displaced
Ans: Balanced growth and economic development people are subjected to distressed migration which
is the ultimate aim of every country and the strategic largely affects to education of children leading fo
plans (Fifth five year plans in case of India) are acceleration of child and bonded labour. They further
designed accordingly. The basic'objective of Tribal Sub- indicated that rehabilitation hardly reflects on real needs
Plan is to channelize the flow of outlays and benefits of people. As a result development, ultimately leads to
from the general sectors in the Central Ministries/ disaster, dislocation and deculturalisation.
Departments for the development of Scheduled Castes
and Schedules Tribes at least in proportion to their a. Discuss the salient features of right to
population, both in physical and financial terms. The education? (CSE,201-3)
broad objectives of the TSP are as follows: Ans: Right to Education provides for free and
o Substantial reduction in poverty and un- compulsory education to the children in the age group
employment. of 6-1.4 years. It is a fundamental right under the Article
o Creation of productive assets in favour of Scheduled 21(A) of the Indian Constitution. It means that the States
Tribes to sultain the growth likely to accrue through have the obligation to protect, respect and fulfill the
development efforts. Right to Education. Also, there are ways to hold States
accountable for violations or deprivations of the Right
o Human resource development of the Scheduled
to Education. It is a forward- looking legislation which
Tribes'by providing adequate educational and
aims to tackle inequality and deprivation and will
health services
empower tHe disadvantaged section of society.
o Provision of physical and financial security against
all types of exploitation and oppression. Various features of this Act are as follows
The Tribal Sub-Plans are integral to the Annual 1. It provides for free education: There is a provision
Plans as well as Five Year Plans, making provisions that 25% of seats from Class 1 will be reserved
therein non-divertible and non-lapsable, with for students from disadvantaged section and they
the clear objective of bridging the gap in socio- will get exemption from the tuition fees. This is a
economic development of the STs within a specified forward looking provision as pover\u deters many
period. parents to send their child to school. But, there are
other concerned issues that the school may charge
a. Rural landless labourers and development other fees such as computer fee and there are other
induced displacement. (CSE,201,4) expenses of stationery that will deter the child.
Also, school may increase the fees for other students
Ans. The concept of development sufficiently
to compensate for the monetary 1oss.
reflects the ideology of modernization as a hallmark
of social change. The western model of development, 2. It provides for compulsory education: Now, it
post-indirstrialization and rise of consumerism has will be the obligation of the government to open a
become a model of deveiopment to Third world primary school within 1 km and an upper primary
countries, where such model could be used for school within 3 km. But, States don't have enough
, addressing poverty, unemployment inequality in the money to build that much of infrastuucture.
developing economies. 3. Maintenance of Teacher-Pupii ratio: The Act
In the name of development such as constructing requires a ratio of 30:1 pupil teacher ratio to be
dam, developing industiies, expansion of urban maintained. But, with rnany posts being vacant, this
in{rastructure has led to large of displacement in rural looks a distant dream.
 382 m soctolocye&A
4. It provides for appointment of appropriately trained secularization. Rational interpretation of religious tenets
teachers: It is an important provision as the teaching has started which resulted into debate and frowning
quality is below par in schools. Recent ASER survey upon sdperstition and rituals.
also corroborates this fact. But, apart from training, Marriage also got affected from westernization.
their conditions of work needs to be improved so Decrease has come in traditional values and intercaste &
as to motivate the teachers by using innovative inter-religion marriage is being accepted. Westernization
pedagogic methods. has also provided ideological base for the formation of
5. It prohibits physical punishment and mental secular, democratic, egaiitarian and welfare state. In
harassment, screening procedures for admission of this way, westernization has pushed the society on the
children, capitation fee, private tuition by teachers path of progress by developing rationality, scientific
and running of schools without recognition: This scrutiny in traditional institutions and explaining it in
provision will motivate the students to come to new context
school and will bring fairness in the system. But, \
there are many schools which don't meet the a. Constitution as a living document of social ,}

requirements laid down by the Act but are run by change. (CSE,2012) \
NGOs and other sociallv motivated people. The Ans: Society is treated aS continuously changing
children of these schools will be at loss" concept and it can be se€n as a dynamic process in
Therefore, Right to Educatlon provides a very good different historical time periods. After Second World
starting point to bring positive changes in the education War, concept of welfare state has developed in many
system. But, it needs to be implemented in letter and countries and constitutional and legal changes have
spirit to reap the benefits. been promoted universally in place of traditional causes
of social changes. In this sequence, after independence,
Q. Westernization of Institutional changes in process of social change had started under the new
India. (C58,20121 constitutional system which is also active today by
Ans: M.N. Srinivas has used the concept of making possible many changes in Indian society.
westernization in India in sociology. He has used the Under articles 14, 17, 23, 24 of Constitution many
word westernigation to indicate the change which took social-legal protective guarantees has been given to
place in Indian society and culture due to 150 years of citizens to remove many social evils, malpractices and
British rule and this word assimilates the changes at hard social disabilities present in Indian society. Due to
di{ferent level of industrial insti-tutiory ideologies social implementation of relevant provisions in constitution in
mores, and value etc. As English people came, expansion social field, cruel social restrictions got weakened and
of western values has taken place among Indians due untouch-ability type social evils have been removed.
to contact with western civilization. Development of Constitution has worked as a guide for social
modern edu-cation has played major role for growing change in all fields like economic, political and cultural.
role of rational and scientific ideologies among new Direction has been given to states by directive principles :
middle class. This westernization has brought extensive explained in constitution to establish a welfare and i
changes in the fundamental institutions of India. Since egalitarian society and success has been achieved in this \
ancient times, for division of labor in India, caste system direction by forming many laws.
(partly as a result of old epic based Varna system) was In total, constitution as a organic document,
base of hierarchic divi-sion of society. has paid attention on all aspects of social life by
Under caste system, an ascribed hereditary status forming laws for the benefit of Indian society. Due to
was provided on the basis of which all type of social legal provisions related to women, children, elderly,
relation were decided. But due to development of scheduled castes and tribes, and the whole population
knowledge under westernization, a tough challenge in general, establishment of an egalitarian society has
has emerged to this exploitative system. An effort has become possible and even today we are progressive in
been made to remove many fault of caste system, to this direction.
form a comparatively less rigid system. Due to which
un-touchability has reduced. Now the role of achieved a. Education and Dalit empowerment.
status has been accepted under caste system. (csE,2012\
Religion has been a main institution in traditional
Ans: In Indian society, Dalit have been associated
Indian society. All tasks of human life has been per- socially, economically and politically with the lower level
formed on the basis of religion. But expansion of western
of hierarchy and suffered atrocious caste disabilities.
values has also attacked the religion-type ancient These Dalits are not only related with lower caste
institutions. This has given strength to the process of
level but also form the lowest class in class structure.
 SOCIAL CHANGE IN INDIA !ffi 383
In rural economic system they exist in form of poor Law has been made to establish a egalitarian society
farmers or laborers and in urban area exist mainly as by abolishing any discrimi-nation on the basis of sex,
labor population. But after independence, with the caste, religion and race etc. Education causes motivation
establishment of democratic government in country, to among people for enacting these social laws. Today
pay attention to development of Dalits much legislation reduction has come in social inequality due to increasing
has been formed according to constitutional provisions. level of education. But due to high level of illiteracy, a
Reservation has been given by government to these large section of people do not understand importance
Dalits both in education and employment under of these provisions. Education is a main carrier of social
protective discrimination. By development of educatiory change. So many existing social inequalities can be
implementation of many programmes, plans and ended by increasing level of education.
policies have been done among them for their progress.

\
Due to development of education, empowerment of a. How far is the structural functional perspective
Dalits could be made possible. helpful is understanding changes in
Improvement in the educational status has helped contemporaryIndiansociety? (CSE,2010)
the Dalits to takeup jobs, both in the government and
Ans: Perspectives offer guidelines or a blueprint io
also private sector. This has greatly enhanced their
arrange, interpret and provide sistematic generalization
economic and social status too. Education has also given
and understanding to reality. Structural functionalism
them the confidence to enter the political arena and
studies society in terms of its underlying structure. It is
attain powerful positions. Now they have become aware
concerned primarily with the interrelationship between
and make efforts to take advantage of this opportunity
various social structure, their dynamism and the role/
in the field of education.
function they play in the continuity of social system.
Due to development of education, Dalits have
become aware towards their rights and by organized
M.N. Srinivas studies India from structural
functionalist perspective using field study method.
effort strengthened the process of Dalit empowerment.
According to him, it is only through studies in the micro
In traditional Indian society, social status was given
structure that one can have the true picture of reality as
on the basis caste. In this way caste was the system on
against ideological stereotypes.
which was based the ascribed status. A Dalit based on
His field work on caste clearly reflects his position.
his effort due til education develops his own position
Srinivas talks about caste in terms of two dimensions-
further by the help of achieved status.
ritual and secular. Ritual aspect is defined by food,
mannerisms, dress, rites and rituals, etc. and secular
a. Education and removal of inequality.
dimension reflects access to education, wealth and
(csE,2012) power. Looking into these two stluctural dimensions
Ans: Due to increasing level of education, a new of caste, he talks about how various caste groups
dimension has added in reduction social inequality. strive for mobility in secular sphere and then use it for
Education develops a rational attitude related to subsequent enhancement in their ritual position. To
scientific and modem value in individuals. From ancient its contrast some people go for ritual mobility directly
time, caste system has been basis of social strati{ication. imitating to life style or ideas of higher caste, which he
In India, on the basis of purity and pollution, lower calls as sanskritization. Thus, he concludes that dynamic
castes have faced so many social disabilities. There was processes of mobility has produced different patterns
support of religion to this process. This social inequality of change and continuity in caste hierarchy in India
has been socially accepted due to low level of education. for which it needs to be empirically studied in context
Considerable reduction has taken place in social of various contemporary developments like backward
inequality due to development of education system caste movement, new legislation on reservation policy.
and expansion of modern values. Values of equality Structural functionalism deconstructs the colonial
have been propagated by different social and religious myth of "self sufficient" Indian villages and asserts
movements. Education is a carrier of modern values. that India's villages were never isolated units i.e.
This develops high rational capabilities in individual. they were always part of the layer society. Srinivas
Only an educated person can awaken toward his rights outrightly rejects Dumont's vision of India as a culture
and duties. Education has spread democratic values bound hierarchical society and citing his description
among peoples. Educated societies have raised their of Rampura village, asserts that village constitutes an
voice to achieve liberty, equality and fratemity and other important source of identification for people i:e. caste
high political ideals. might divide people within a village, family divides
After independence, a welfare-based demo-cratic people within caste but village unifies all these people
system has established govemance of law for the people. cutting across various contexts. Thus caste is not the
384 w soclolocye&A
only driving force in Indian society. Indian identity of free education are the examples of effectiveness of
stems from three different structural agencies namely, law. In many cases law directly interacts with the social
village, caste and family/kinship and which identity institutions and brings obvious changes. For example-
is emphasized as contextual and relative than being a law prohibiting polygamy has direct influence on
absolute. society. Law also alters the behaviour of society as well.
Standing committed to his structural functional Law also plays indirect effective role on the society
position, Srinivas tries to explain social changes in through various social institutions created by it. The
terms of process of sanskritization and westernization. appropriate example is the provision of compulsory
According to him, unlike the stereotypical view, the education which enabled functioning of educational
consequences of these two processes are varied than institutions according to the law provided for the
being uni dimensional. Modernity and tradition in purpose.
India are constantly engaged in mutual contest which Law also re-defines the normative order and credtes
sometimes results in accommodation and at times open the possibility of new forms of social institutions. Law
conflict. also provides formal facilities and extends various
nights to individuals. In India for example,law against
a. Law and social change (CSE,2009) untouchability practice has not only prohibited the :
Ans: Human history is full of examples where law inhuman practice but has also given formal rights to
have been used to bring about changes in the society. those who suffered such disabilities to protect against
Law in a society is created to achieve desired goals. It this. Laws also codify certain customs and moral values.
not only articulates certain things but also sets the course It also helps in moderation of behaviour of people and
for major social change. values existing in a society.
In fact attempted social change through law is an But overall a law does two things in society- (i)
important feature of modern world which can be seen It institutionalize values patterns and (ii) facilitates
in almost all societies developing or developed. The interaction of these patterns. The institutionalization
changes that have occurred in western capitalist societies of patterns means creating norms with provision
and the emergence of Soviet Union type of societies of enforcement. Internalisation of pattern indicates
have been through the laws. Income distribution, incorporation of values implicit in laws. Thus, law is
nationalization'of industries, land reforms and provision great facilitator for social change in any society.

*i.*t
 CHAPTER

a. In the face of rising global climatic concerns, o Since the poor are disproportionately affected bv
how do you contextualise the relevance of climate change, the Chipko Movement's emphasis
Chipko Movement and.its Gandhian tone? on comrnunity mobilization and grassroots activity
is especially pertinent today.
Answer analytically. (CSE 2023)
Ans: A pivotal moment in the history of environmental Gandhian Influence
movements inhrdiawas the non-violent Chipko Movement, o The Chipko Movement was based on the Gandhian
which was started in the 1970s by rural peasants in the Hi- ideals of "Sarvodaya" (welfare of all) and "Antyo-
malayan area, especially women. The movement followed daya" (upliftment of the weakest).
Gandhi's ideas of non-cooperation and non-violent resis- o Gandhian ideals were mirrored in the movement's
tance, and its significance in light of the growing worries emphasis on nonviolence, independence, and com-
about global warming today cannot be emphasized. munity involvement.
Significance of the Chipko Movement
o Like Gandhi, the members of the Chipko Movement
felt that coexisting peacefully with nature was es-
o The Chipko Movement was a forceful advocate for sential and thht nature had inherent value.
environmentally friendly growth. It emphasized o The Chipko movement is not just a tree-saving initia-
how crucial it is to keep environmental preservation
tive; it also reflects Gandhi's approach to address-
and economic expansion in check.
ing interrelated societal issues. It addresses topics
o The message of the Chipko Movement is more rel- including livelihoods, community rights, and wider
evant than ever in light of the present state of global
ecological concerns in addition to ecological ones.
warming and climate change. It serves as a reminder
Thus, the Gandhianundertones of the Chipko Move-
that environmental deterioration should not be toler-
ment make it extremely relevant in light of the growing
ated in the name of progress.
global worries about climate change. It acts as a reminder
o The Gandhian strategy of peaceful protest and of the effectiveness of nonviolent protest, civic engage-
nonviolent resistance was taken up by the Chipko ment, and sustainable development. The lessons learned
Movement. from the Chipko Movemeni can help us navigate the
o In a time when resource-related disputes are on the difficulties posed by climate change and work toward a
rise, the Chipko Movement provides an example of more just and sustainable future.
nonviolent environmental justice campaigning. It is
evidence of the effectiveness of nonviolent protest
in effecting change. a. Doyouthinkthatthe Dalitpolitical
decades of
o The Chipko movement is largely an environmental mobilizations and movements have helped in
movement, but it also greatly empowers neglected strengthening India's democracy? Substanti-
populations, especially women. Gandhi's concept ate your arguments with facts.
of "Antyodaya" is embodied by putting. the most (csE 2023)
vulnerable members of society at the forefront of Ans: The Dalits as a. social group belong to the
demonstrations and giving them a crucial role in 'Avarnas' - the fifth strata in caste hierarchy. They were
:ll
bringing about change. the most deprived section of society both ritually as well
o During the Chipko Movement, underprivileged socio-economically. Their sub-human treatment over
groups banded together to defend their natural sur- centuries led to inner revolt in Hindu social organization
roundings. It proved that the most successful people in form of Dalit movements.
in halting environmental deterioration are frequent$ o Dalit movements address issues of cultural segrega-
those who are most impacted by it. tiory political and economic exploitation and the most
 386 rr,\ SOCIOLOGY Q & A

importantly - a struggle for recognition as fellow hu- rights and privileges of higher castes, become the disabili-
man beings. Dalit movements have been redemptive, ties of the lower castes, particularly the untouchables."
reformative and revolutionary all at the same time.
o Before independence, Dalit movements were also Untouchability
broadly clubbed with backward caste movements, . IJntouchability is a form of social exclusion that
but gained a distinct identity of their own post- is practiced against the lower, impure castes- that
independence. of Shudras-and other outcasts, known as the pan-
o At a broader level, they are classified as - Pure Dalit chamas. This group of people is supposed to do vari-
movements, Dalit movements linked with backward ous'disrespectful' jobs such as scavenging, picking
class movements and Dalit rnovements linked with up dead bodies, cleaning toilets, etc.
other movements like peasant movements. . In a comprehensive study of untouchability, Shah et
al define untouchability as a "distinct Indian social
Dalit Political Movements and Democracy institution that legitimises and enforces practices of
o Movements led by Da1its have been crucial in advanc- discrimination against people born into particular
ing social justice. They have battled against untouch- castes and legitimises practices that are humiliating,
ability and prejudice based on caste, which go against exclusionary and exploitative."
democratic ideals. The country's democratic structure . These untouchables came to be known as'Dalits', a
has been reinforced by the movements' substantial ' term which was coined by B.R Ambedkar #ter the re-
social reforms and laws like the Scheduled Castes and jection of the terms'Harijans'- people of god (coined
Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989. by Mahatma Gandhi) and 'depressed classes'. Many
o Dalits are now more politically empowered as a others like Jyotiba Phule have contributed to the
result of Dalit political activities. Representing the upliftment of the Dalits.
political ambitions of Dalits, parties such as the
Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) have come to power Different Forms of Untouchability
in places like Uttar Pradesh. This has challenged . In "The Continuing Practice of Untotr'chability in
the dominance of upper-caste politics while also India," Thorat and Joshi found that even in 2020, the
strengthening democracy. mindset prevalent amongst the upper castes is that
o Influenced by Marxism, Ambedkarism, and Negro people belonging to the lower castes are physically
literature,a group of Dalit intellectuals founded Dalit andf or ritqaliy uncleary and therefore, ttreyshould
Panther in Maharashtra in 1972. It was basically a not be allowed to enter the kitchen (a sacred and
movement of Dalit intellectuals, which contributed clean place) or use the utensils that the household
to generating consciousness among Dalits to a sig- members use for consuming food.
nificant extent. It attacked the Hindu Caste system . LJntouchability is characterized by certain avoidance
through literary activities, debates and discussion in of physical contact, social sanctiory social disabilities
homes, offices and public places. and the maintenance of social distance in the attempt
o The BSPand Kanshi Rambelieved thatthe Indianso- to maintain the purity of an individual. There are to
ciety consists of two different groups. The first group ensure that this social distance among the higher and
consists of the low castes including the Scheduled the lower castes are maintained.
Castes, Scheduled Tribes, Other Backward Classes . The lower castes are considered so impure that their
and the religious minorities.In the second category mere touch is considered to be polluting. There is a
it is the Brahmins, Kayasthas, Banias and Rajputs or notion of distant pollution that has existed in many
the traditional upper castes. regions of south India, such that the shadow of the
Therefore, India's democracy has been reinforced untouchable is considered to be polluting. Further,
by Dalit political activities and mobilizations. They have in the case of pollution, the upper castes are expected
improved the representativeness and inclusivity of democ- to go through a purification ritual.
racy. They have advocated for social changes and contested . There are strict rules about food sharing and mar-
societal inequalities. They have resulted in Dalits' political
riage in the caste system which also ensure the
empowerment. But the fight is far from ended. There is
maintenance of social distance among classes.
still a lot of caste-based violence and discriminatiory and
Untouchability is relative to one's caste positiory
Dalits are still underrepresented in politics Compared to
for e.g. the Shudras treat the Dalits as untouch-
their population. To further forfrfy hrdia's democracy, Dalit
ables, however at the same time, they themselves
political mobilization must thus continue.
:.1 are treated as untouchables by the other higher castes.
. There are three dimensions of untouchability, which
a. Explain the different forms of untouchability are exclusiorL subordination, and humiliation. Here
inIndia. (C58,20221 it is important to note that while other lower castes
Ans: The caste system in India involves "rank and also face subordination and exclusiory humiliatioru
gradation," Sukhadeo Thorat explains, which make "the however, is specific to the Dalits.
 SOCIAL MOVEMENTS 387
. We see that today untouchability is observed more According to the provisions of the Constitution of
prominently at the rural level as opposed to the India, it is a legal point to grant equality to wcmen in the
urban areas and even though many Dalits have left society in dll spheres just like males have. The Women are
the traditional occupations there are many who are given a top place in India from the ancient lime hor,vever
still carrying out these occupations. they were not given empowerment to participate in all
According to the Constitution of India, "the state areas. They need to be strong, aware and alert everv mo-
shall not discriminate against any citizen on grounds only ment for their growth and development.
of religion, race, caste, place and birth or any of them." Law and Social Change
There are various other approaches like - constitu-
According to Yogendra Singh,law plays an impor-
tional legal approach (reservatiory Article 1Z Untouch-
tant role in bringing or preventing social change.
ability Offences Act, 1955), reformist approach (rise of new
Social change as a neutral concept can be vierved in
sects, revival of old glory by Arya Samjis who see Vedic
Hinduism as free from untouchability), people led ap- following manners
proach (work by civil society, NGOs, leading by example).
. Law as Legitimizing Social Change - After the rise
of the anti-untouchability movement, lalv banned it
by making constitutional provisions.
a. Discuss Law as an important inshument for
. Law may Initiate Social Change - Recent amend-
women's empowerment. (C58,2022)
ment regarding Right to education can be seen as a
Ans: Women empowerment implies the ability of harbinger of social change in the direction of provid--
women to make decisions with regard to their life and ing free universal education to aiI.
work and giving equal rights to them in all spheres like: . It may hasten a Social Change - Law often provides
personal, social, economic, political, lega1 and so on.
momentum to social change. For example in the case
Women Empowerment of the Marriageable Age, lart, led to a rapid decrease
We are living in an age of women empowerment in Child Marriages which w-as already seeing a de-
where women are working shoulder to shoulder with men. cline due to the modernizing influence of new idea-s.
Awoman also manages to balancebetween their commit- . It may prevent a Negative Social Change - Several
ment to their profession as well as their home and family. laws prevent social change in a negative direction.
They are playing multiple roles - at home as a mother, For example, anti-narcotics laws aim at preventing
daughter, sister, ahd r.r,ife and at the working place as pro- increasing anomie in society and PCPNDT Act,
fessionals with remarkable simplicity and compatibility. which prevents skewed sex ratio.

Various Legislations Related to Women Criticism

Women'are now claiming the socio-political rights Marxists see law as a part of larger ideological frame-
(right to work, right to educatiory right to decide, etc.) work of state and working on behalf of the dominant
for them. The Parliament of India too has passed various groups in society. Further,'a lar.t, is as good as its users'.
legislations to save women from various forms of injustice To make laws effective their implementaticn as well as
and discrimination. awareness is also necessary. Willpower of pec,rple is an-
To empower women there are some laws: other factor. Failure of Dowry law is a classic example.
. Equal Remuneration Act-1976; A lack of strong political will is another debilitat-
. Dowry Prohibition Act-1967; ing factor. However, Upendra Bakshi and Govind.
. Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act,1956; Mishra indicate that the majority of people in India don t
. Medical Termination of Pregnancy AcL,197L; have access to the justice delivery system and thus it com-
. Maternity Benefit Act, 1961.; promises law as an effective instrument of social change.
. Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987; Similarly, according to Andre Beteille, rarhile the
. Prohibition of Child Marriage Act,2006; Constitution may define the direction in rn hich the
. Pre-Conception & Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques government should move, it is the people r,vho through
(Regulation and Prevention of Misuse) Act, 1994; and their actions and ideology determine the efficacy of that
. Sexual Harassment of Women at Work Place (Pre- Iaw.
ventiory Protection and) Act, 2013, etc. Therefore, women ernpowerment raises confi-
More recently, in the wake of Nirbhaya case involv- dence of women in their ability to lead meaningful
ing the rape and brutal murder of paramedical student and purposeful lives. It eliminates their dependence on
in Delhi, the government has passed the Juvenile Justice others and makes them individuals in their own right.
(Care and Protection of Children) Bill, 2015. This Act They are able to lead their lives with dignity and free-
makes a significant departure from the earlier Juvenile dom which increase their self-esteem and give thern a
Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2000, as the unique identity. They are able to gain recognition and
juvenile age inviting punishment for offence now stands form a meaningful contribution to the well-being of
reduced from 18 to 16 years. society.
388 irrilrr SoctoLOGy e &A

a. Evaluate the nature and scope ofanthropogenic awareness through protests, especially among the youth,
influence on Climate in India and also analyze provides us with a sliver of hope.
the environmental movements arising out of , ,T India,.Peace$l protests at prominent city centers,
it. lcsl zozo; *;3?;*,:.#:l1,Ti:i:T"t*1":.:ffi:l1T:i:il:
Ans: Climate Change is a periodic modification
or"ctimate Change. This was largely youth-red who
of Earth's climate brought about due to the changes ---mader it a point to stress the urgency of global warming
:

in the atmosphere as well as the irrt"ru"tior-,] ffi:; tnrougn creatlve slogans.

the atmosphere and url?rr, other geological, chemical, ---ri;;;;;,;.rp"*ir*"nled
into an environmental
biotogical and geographical factors within the Earth's
sYstem' .ririr;th;"'-"dld**;Aai;il;;;;JJ;.
T^-:^ -*^- choked
Toxic smog ,r^i city
^r^t^^ the ^:u, with mere breathing in Delhi
The anthropogenic factors causins climate Derng consroereo a , .o one,s health. The protest,
chanse include Greenhouse Gases (Carboi dioxide, :?'1'" '
' orgaruseo as a resutt oI vartous .
movements on soclal
Chlorofluorocarbons' Methane, Nitrous oxide), Change
*Jdir, saw over 1,500 people gather at Amar Jawan
in the land use pattern, Atmospheric aerosols, etc.
Ivoti, India Gate.
Climate change has caused a change in.the climatic
Similarly, the recent cyclone Amphan inMay 2020,
and weather conditions like change in the rainfall
the worst cyclone since 1T37,reft a trail of misery in the
pattern, increased flooding, drought, heat waves, etc.
Sundarbans.
The planet's ocean and glaciers have felt some significant
were destroyed' people were displaced'
changes. oceans are currently warming u,,l H;;;* ^_,1-*elihoods
embankments were breached and thousands of people
more acidic. The ice caps are merting,
levers to rise. rhese changes u,u
"J;;;';;:
p.udi"tu.j*r::: ii:"L::,:"Tyfirilfi":H",:;TT"ffi,ffif,:J;
prominent in the coming decades, threatening : --:r
o our rise sea f"""iifr""
in r"u level than r". i else
anywhere i whichr. , r:ould
environment and existence.
lead to a severe migration crisis of the local
India especially wilt be vulnerable to climate change ::::'''
communities.
due to its diverse terrain, rapid use of natural resources .
due to the culrent trend of precipitous ;;;-"t;;;
industrialisation and economic growth.
' ,.-
In ,jcampaignemergedorilineto#savethesundarbans'
the middle of a global pandemic' concerned citizens
- resorted to donating to organisations working on
Currently, India, in its effort to protect its fast :^--_
diminishing naturar resources, is facing envir-o;;;;i
and socio-economic challenges. Those that are -. -___
flill*'It'illf,"1i;l.,8ff.^*'*?,ffH1"',;:"'l;
Lr r

country's ;
especially susceptible to climate change are the ; ^r^;^, warming'
r*rr.""*i"i -,^-}"t"'ore' In wake of global
.^.^_..I,^^ ozone

.^.,,-,'* :"" ::::.

coastal ecosystems, biodiversity and
productivity
in a3::"i".Tl?",,'"Ti:;ff:il,,'ffi"il1,,'il:::tl:1"';
- --"'
According to the World Bank, an increase of , :^ of
"'- 2"C^; :,^;^; shape -^^,^; movement
global social _
industry which
the world's average temperature in the next few decades ;. . t:"*""dously
,: helped in raising awareness
will only make India's monsoon *or" ,r.jr"d;;;il. l::
rhe changing rain patterns in rndia ::1 fTlYj:"'"'":.T s:"::::u"o'
T"T11^
",I;;;;;;;
to leave many areas flooded and others #ith *ate. :::::""".*ents ":1, nave
.trrect
to Durlct a consensus
between developmental needs and environmental
scarcity. protection.
More than 60% of India's agriculture is dependent '
on rain and the majority of the population is dependent
on the agriculture sector for survival.
a. Do you agree that social movements are
caused by opportunity structures that are
This makes India more vulnerable to climate
change. The poverty reduction rate will also be slowed
generated by media? Why? (CSE,2019)
down due to the rise in the atmospheric temperature. Ans: A social movement is defined as a sustained
Furthermore, the decreasing availability of food can collective action aimed.at bringing or resisting social
give rise to considerable health issues especially among change outside the sphere of established institutions.
women and children. A social movement requires sustained collective action
Climate Action has always occupied a backseat over time and hence totally spontaneous and ephemeral
when it comes to choosing between development and collective actions cannot be termed as social movements
environmental protection but the events of the world e.g., Arab Spring, India Against Corruption, #Metoo
are forcing us to rethink the time we have left. Rising movement, etc.
 SOCIAL MOVEMENTS ::,:,;,t:: 389
Information and communication technology Access to higher and professional education has
affects all issues in the modern world, including social enabled horizontal and vertical social and economic
movements. mobility for Dalits. It has led to the creation of a class of
The impact of these technologies on such movements writers, professionals, administrators and entrepreneurs
has been felt worldwide in recent years, affecting both within the Dalit community.
developed countries, such as Spain and the United This new class has started to refuse the conventional
States, as well as developing countries, such as Brazil, social stigmatization and subordination of the Dalits
EWpt, and Tunisia. by the upper castes. Ambedkar's movement of Dalit
The intensive use of the Internet and especially liberation created a sense of confidence and assertion in
social media has been a common denominator in the the community and enabled it to overcome traditional
popular demonstrations that have occurred in the feelings of defeatism. Dalit literature played an
past few years in the most diverse scenarios. Social important role in sharpening confidence.
movements appear to have been influenced by social This Dalit assertion has started posing a challenge
media, particularly with respect to their organization to the age-old hierarchy-based supremacy of the
and communication. Among these movements, the upper and intermediate castes and to an extent eveh
highlights were those that took place in Istanbul, the the OBCs.
Arab Spring. Protests by students at the Hyderabad Central
The networks represent the new social morphology University in the wake of the suicide of Rohith Vemula,
of our societiet since the diffusion of networking logic who faced caste-based harassment, Jignesh Mewani's
substantially modifies the operation and the results of mobilisation of thousands of Dalits over the flogging of
the processes of production, experience, power and five Dalit youth for skinning a dead cow in Una, Gujarat,
culture. This society, named as the "network society", and mobilisation by the young lawyer Chandrasekhar
uses information and communication technologies to and the Bhim Army at the ]antar Mantar in the national
establish its social structure. capital, are examples of Dalit assertion that seem to have
Internet has proved to be an essential medium upset casteist sections.
of expression and organization for the social When one examines the anti-Dalit violence in
demonstrations. It is a means of communication to which India over a period of time, the four northern states of
much of the world population has access, reconfiguring UP, Bihar, MP and Rajasthan, popularly known as the
the map of relationships, in which ideas and information "cow-belt" states, top the list. As per the National Crime
flow and some boundaries become fluid. Records Bureau statistics, the total number of crimes
Traditional media which performs the mediation against SCs in the country in 2010 was32,643, of which
of reality by means of formal journalism - collecting UP accounted for 7,522 (23 per cent),
and disseminating information on events, within and Saharanpur violence in Uttar Pradesh is not an
beyond national borders - suffered from the inversion exceptional incident. However, the implications of the
in the flow of news. Social media with input from the antiDalit violence need serious consideration. First,
public began to influence the content of the traditional this reaffirms that caste constitutes the "basic structure"
mediawhichkansmittedinformationonthemanifestos, of Indian society. Though its pervasive influence^has
scheduling of gatherings, and images and videos taken somewhat weakened due to the spread of literacy,
during the protests education, communications, transport, urbanization,
Thus, the influence of the use of media on social upward occupational mobility of various backward
movement is increasing and people have more power castes due to affirmative action, notions of caste
now to mobilise rurorr."r^fo, u -o,rement^more superiority and prejudices and ill-feelings against the
efficiently and quickly and creates opportunities Dalits are largely preserved.
structure inthe societvfor a change in socierv'
*rJff#;ffiI1+:iiffnff#l}ffiJ;ffii
a. Ehborate various forms of Dalit assertions in Narayana Guru's reformist movement in Kerala set the
contemporary India. What are its implicationr tone for social change in the south in the 20th century.
on the Indian political system? (CSE,2018) Caste-based hierarchy, to use Ambedkar's words,
. created " graded inequality" that gave a sense of caste
Ans: Until about four or five decades ago, the Dalits
superiority not only to the intermediate castes such
would meekly surrender to the wishes of the so-cailed
as Thakurs' but also to many oBCs' Though this is a
upper-castes in social, economic and political matters.
'- r"^^'--*^
.rhis pan-Indian phenomenon, it is more pronounced in the
is no longer true.
"cow-belt" states in north.
390 ffi socror-ocYe&A
Caste remains the most influential factor in India's This shows greater inhibition on the part
electoral poiitics, particularly in rural areas, more of 'survivors' to tell their stories and not suffer
pronounceci in the "cow'belt" states' rural locales. The consequences. In India there is another context which has
anti-Daiit violence in Saharanpur reveals that despite not been addressed by the'Me Too' campaign, of centres
the lip-service paid to Ambedkar's legacy by the upper of conservative societies r,rrhere free interaction between
and intermediate castes and the OBCs, he remains for men and women are still rare. The'Me Too' campaign
many just a Dalit leader. emulates the concerns of the cosmopolitan world
Thus, self-appointed vigilantes in social and cultural but their ambit needs to be broadened in the Indian
fields are destabilising a fragile social equilibrium. The context.
sense of insecurity in society calls for proactive state's
intenrention. a. Explain the dynamics of fleo-farmers'
movement in contemporary India.(CSE, 20181
a. Elaborate the'Me Too'Movement and its Ans: According to A R Desai, movements prior to
impact in India. (CSE,2018) independence were predominantly peasant movements
Ans: The 'Me Too movement (or #MeToo and in post-independence era they could be termed as
movement), is a movement of women voicing chilling farmers' movement. While peasant movements were
tales of sexual harassment and sexual assault while limited to seeking basic minimum livelihood, farmers'
working in their workplace. The movement highlighted movements demands much more. Shift from peasant
the issues faced by women when they challenge the movements to farmers' movements also marks shift to
power structures of the society or claim their rightful capitalist mode of production.
place in public sphere. In the present society, euphoria of independence
The movement symbolized the repressed voice of and optimism with welfare state has.died down
the over the years and her assertion of rights in
-v^,,omen and piecemeal reforms in agriculture sector like
public space. faulty land reforms and unequal benefit distribution
revolution
within the farmer community in Green revolution
The #Metoo Movement is now considered a
created discontent. This discontent found its earliest
and is a rnuch-needed one because:
expression in form of Naxal movement and other similar
o Sexual F{arassment irrespective of gender needs to movements like People's War Group in Andhra. All
be addressed. these movements found support from the middle class
s Sexual Flarassment is not limited to a person and intelligentsia and few political cadres who sympathized
an)'one can be the victim. with the'peasants due to lack of political initiative in
e Challenges the power structure of organisations dealing with agrarian distress. However the movements
that feeds on the vulnerabilities of the young and often turned violent and people resorted to guerilla
gullible professionals and exploits them. attacks, parallel courts, burning of records etc. Reactive
e Raises the stake for the harasser as they recognize measures in form of schemes like TRYSEM, IRDP etc
the consequences of their actions can be held were launched by government. These violent movements
accountable due to rise of social media as well as though unsuccessful were instrumental in changing
citizen journalism. govemments' stance towards development in the region.
o Makes our society aware, responsible and empathetic Apart from these peasant movements, there were also
towards victims of sexual assault and harassment. many farmers' movements which fall under category of
There have been few cases of misuse of this 'new farmer's movements'. They were drivenby their self
movement and needs to be addressed as they have interest and wanted to extract maximum benefit. There
the ability to tarnish such an important movement. was also another stream of movement led by middle
FJowever, Me Too campaign in its present form is class intelligentsia and spirited social workers. Narmada
limited to few spheres of activity like filrr,rs, media and Bachao Andolan led by Medha Patkar is one of the most
advertising. important examples of.such movements.
. This has given an the impression that only these In globalised and capital mode of production,
professions are governedby a code of behaviour, but interest of farmers and peasants are often at crossroad
this movement has not seeped within organisations that as often capitalist farmers have peasants and laborers
deviate from social conservatism, say Soverrunent offices in sub-ordinate and exploitative relationship. Further,
and commercial establishments, all of which have a fair rising income divide among them has created larger
share of women employees. class divide.
 socrAL MovEMENTS ffiil 391
Dhanagare considers neo-farmer movements as Conventionally ideology, collective mobilization,
class movements and essentially a capitalist movement. organization and leadership were identified as
Paul Brass on the other hand put them into category vital elements that form the components of social
of 'New Social Movements' that are charged against movements. Various theories like Strain Theory,
state and addresses other issues including gender and Resource Mobilization Theory, and Relative Deprivation
environmental issues. theory dealt with the origin of social movements. It
Gail Omvedt on the other hand sees them as a was observed that these elements were present in
reaction to the state-market collusion exploitations variable degrees in Champaran movement and the able
and includes all types of farmers and not just effluent leadership of Gandhi helped the farmers mobilize for
farmers. the common cause.
Success of Green revolution made agriculture Left-subaltern spectrum of historical analysis argues
a commercial profitable activity for a section of that the Gandhian mass mobilization only served to
rich farmers. They had their own agendas to retain preserve the unequal class structure in the Indian
agriculture as a profitable activity so they had specific countryside and thereby nullified the revolutionary
demands and want concessions from state. They were potential of the peasantry.
mainly from dominant castes and had their own However, Champaran movement was aimed at
self interest like - rise in MSP, free electricity, water, political and social changes and found appeal among
subsidized fertilizers and so on. the masses. Through collective action under the ideology
While earlier farmers' movements were led of passive resistance and able leadership of Gandhi,
by communist leadership, they now formed their Champaran movement achieved its objectives and
own organizations like Bhartiya Kisan Union led by sowed the seeds for further British resistance.
Mahendra Singh Tikait in Northern India, Shetkari
Sanghthan led by Sharad ]oshi group in Maharashtra a. How do the recommendations of Swaminathan
etc. Leadership was provided from within and often Commissior:. (2004-2006) ensure food and
membership was from the dominant castes like Jats of nutrition security for the Indian masses?
Haryana and |ats and Yadavs of western UP.
(csE,2018)
Apart from physical mobilization, these
organizations aqd associations act as pressure groups. Answer: The National Commission on Farmers
Rising cases of pan India farm loan waiver along with (NCF) was constituted in 2004, by the Government of
demand for higher MSPs are a result of demand by India to address agricultural distress and to turn Indian
these organisations. Thus, neo farmer movements have agriculture into a sustainable venture. The commission
expanded their scope by being inclusive of farmer was formed under the chairmanship of Professor M.S.
demands on both local and globat issues with the main Swaminathan.
focus on mobilisation in class stratification. Recommendations of National Commission on Farmers
include:
a. Examine sociological dynamics of Champaran o Land reforms: Distribute ceiling-surplus and waste
Peasant Movement in colonial India. lands, prevent diversion of prime agricultural land
(csE,2018) and forest for non-agricultural purposes/ ensure
Ans: Under the British rule, many farmers in the grazing rights and seasonal access of forestS to
Champaran district of Bihar were forced to grow indigo tribals and pastoralists, and access to common
on their lands through the "Tinkathia System,,. To fight property resources and National Land Use Advisory
this injustice, a money lender named Raj Kumar Shukla Service to link land use decisions with ecological,
reached out to Gandhiji, who in turn launched the meteorological and marketing factors.
Champaran peasant movement. o Irrigation: Increasing water supply through
Champaran satyagraha was a social movement rainwater harvesting and making recharge of
in the form of sustained collective action aimed at the aquifer mandatory. "Million Wells Recharge,,
bringing social change outside the sphere of established programme, specifically targeted at private wells
institutions. This collective action of passive resistance should be launched and substantial increase in
was marked by some degree of organization and was investment in the irrigation sector
;,t
led by Gandhi. o Productivity: As the per unit area productivity of
Champaran movement had the salient features of Indian agriculture is much lower than other major
social movement namely, "sustained action" as well as crop producing countries, A national network of
"spontaneity". These features operated side by side and advanced soil testing laboratories with facilities
together distinguished the social movement from other for detection of micronutrient deficiencies was
collective actions. recommended.
 392 illlll SOCIOLOGY Q & A

o Credit and Insurance: Expanding outreach of Compared to the past, Indian society did undergo
the formal credit system and reducing the rate of some change owing to Bhakti movement which
interest for crop loans with government support, permitted social and religious freedom to women. In
establishing an Agriculture Risk Fund to provide the British period, the status of women improved a little
relief to farmers in aftermath of successive natural because of spread of education. Christian missionaries'
calamities and to cover all crops by crop insurance interest in girls' education, abolition of social customs
with the village and not block as the unit for like sati, enactment of some legal measures (like Widow
assessment. Remarriage Act, 1856, Special Marriage Act,1872) and
o Food Security: the decline in per capita food grain few social movements initiated by enlightened leaders
availability and its unequal distribution has serious like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar,
implications for food security in both rural and Swami Dayanand Saraswati, etc., and growth of
urban areas. Eliminating micronutrient deficiency women's organisations like Banga MahiJa Samai,B\arat
and hidden hunger through an integrated food cum Mahila Parishad (1904), Women's' Indian Association
fortification approach. Formulating a National Food (1917), National Council of Women in India (1925), and
Guarantee Act and continuing the useful features All India Women's Conference (1927) ptomoted women
of the Food for Work and Employment Guarantee emancipation in Indian societY.
programs. The change in the status of women got further
o impetus after independence because of the enactment of
Farmers' Suicides: State level Fatmers' Commission
new laws (Special Marriage Act,1954, Hindu Marriage
with representation of farmers for ensuring dlmamic
Act,1955, Hindus Succession Act 1956 and Anti Dowry
government response to farmers' problems.
Act 1961). The laws pertaining to women's employment
o Employment: Despite structural change in the
are Factory Act, 1948, Employees State Insurance Act,
workforce, agriculture still provides the bulk of
1948 and Maternity Benefit Acts.
employment in the rural areas of India.
Other factors which aJfect women's status are effect
Creating productive employment opportunities
of education, leadership provided by educated elite
and improving quality of employment in several sectors
womery increasing opportunities of employment change
such that real wages increase through improved in the rigidity of the caste system, and so on.
productivity.
Some observers associate changing status of
Thus, iriCF recommended structural changes in
women especially of middle class women, with factors
various fields in order to bring food to poor along with
like increasing cases of divorce and outnumbering of
employment for the labour force in sustainable ways'
female share of divorce petitions, increase in inter-caste
marriages, decrease in number of crimes against women
Q. Write anote on the changing roles of middle- and so forth.
class women in India. (CSE,2018)
But factors which really point out the high status
Ans: The status of women-social, economic, of women are: higher involvement of women in paid-
political, and general-in India today is much higher work and achieving economic independence, increase
than in ancient and medieval periods. Women today in better-paid positions in different departments held
enjoy many more rights-social and legal-and have by women, increase in number of female entrepreneurs
greater freedom and voice, and they participate more and managers, increase in the number of women in
freely in public affairs. legislative bodies, universities, colleges and professional
Legal and constitutional rights in themselves do not institutions, and so forth.
change social attitudes. In the longer term these attitudes Women's status can be analysed at two levels:
are conditioned by economic pressures, which would women in the rural areas and women in the urban
ultimately lead to improvement in the status of women. areas. In the urban areas, their status may further be
In the Indian context, developmental planning and examined at three sub-levels: rich women, middle-class
urbanization did not have a specific focus on the role of women, and poor women. In the rural areas, there is
women in economic change. As a result, development little difference in the status of women who are non-
and u,rbanization led to very uneven results for different working and those who are working. But in the urban
categories of women in India. areas, middle-class women are at the crossroads.
While the poor women in rural India were left The girls have taken up the challenge. Professionally,
.:l
behind, the middle class educated women were able they have practically left no field where boys could
to improve their economic and social status as a result claim exclusivity. Working couples leave their kids
of urbanization and development. Again, Muslim behind in creches and pick them up in the evening.
women were unable to make as much social progress Marriages have become late by choice because couples
as compared to Christian and Hindu women. tend to give due weight to their career graphs.
 soctAl MoVEMENTS w 393
'Live-in' relationships are being tolerated and divorce is economic and political inequalities between men and
no longer a social stigma. The traditional institution of women.in India. Gender inequalities, and its social
marriage seems to be slowly losing its sanctity. causes, impact India's sex ratio, women's health over
Thus, if we were to describe the role of woman their lifetimes, their educational attainment, and
of contemporary times, we could give her following economic conditions.
characteristics: The two most important challenges in front of the
o She has struck a perfect balance between tradition gender equality perspective are (i) Social Attitude and
and modernity. Lack of Awareness of Women (ii) Lack of Leadership
o She seems to be determined to try and prove to man Roles/Lesser Political Representation.
that she is equal to him. (i) Social Attitude and Lack of Awareness of Women
o While earlier, a woman had an identity through Despite pronounced social devel.opment and
a male (either she was known as somebody's technologicai advancement, women in our society still
daughter or wife or mother), today she has an continue to be victims of exploitation, superstition,
opportunity to shine independently and reflect an illiteracy and social atrocities .The social stigma that
identity of her own. women are housekeepers and should be confined to
o She is no longer confined to orthodox beliefs and the four walls of the house is pi:rhaps a viable cause of
capitalizes on her own potentials and merits, gender disparity. In patriarchal society a lot of weightage
and has carved a notch for herself that was once is given to men.
forbidden by society. In the health and nutritional field, male members of
o She has begun to take responsibility and decisions family are supposed to take fresh and nutritious food in
for her life rather than just playing wife's and cornparison to women because either they are earning
mother's roles. Her aptitudes and skills are slowly members or head of the family.
breaking down all chauvinistic barriers.
o There has been metamorphosis in a woman. From
(ii) Lack of Leadership Roles/Lesser political
Representation
the conservative woman of the 1940s and 1950s, she
became the feminist reactionary of the 1960s and the Although the Constitution of India removed
1970s, the slrper woman mother-wife-career woman gender inequalities, discrimination continues to be a
of the 1980b, and finally evolved into empowered widespread barrier to women's political participation.
woman in the 1990s A2012 study of 3,000 Indian women found the birriers
She takes her own life decisions and fights injustice
in participation, specifically in running for political
meted'out to her office, in the form of illiteracy, work burdens within
the household and discriminatory attitudes towards
o She is unafraid to be touglu aggressive and assertive.
At the same time, she is not afraid to be feminine,
The burden of household duties is a significant
sensuaf gentle, caring, and considerate. She can be a
reason why many Indian women do not participate
career woman as well as a house-mother. She loves
the people around her-family, friends, work-folk,
in political activities. Unlike men, there are fewer
opportunities for women to get involved in organizations
etc., but she also loves herself as person.
to gain leadership skills.
o She is full of aspirations, expectations and desires.
There are many more challenges that the cotintry
But if she fails, she does not act like a weak woman.
is still facing to achieve the goal of gender equality like
We can give the example of Fatima Beevi as a
education, health, economic opportunities, etc. But the
new woman of today. An ordinary illiterate wife and
societal attitudinal change is the key to fight against all
a mother of three children coming from Kalva village
these gender prejudices.
in the Karnal district of Andhra Pradesh, she contested
Secondly, leadership roles can give the women the
and won the post of sarpanch. Thus we can conclude
desired self respect so that they can boost themselves up
that position of women in the society is undergoing a
positive change in contemporary India. and contribute well to the development of the society
and the countrv.
a. Despite gains from the women's gender
movement and states policy of women a. Different forms of Dalit assertion (CSE,2016)
empowerment, gender equality is far from Ans. The main issues around which most of the
achieved. Identify two major challenges that Dalit movements have been centered in the colonial
and post coloniai periods are con{ined to the problem
prevent this goal from being reached.
of untouchability.They launched movements for
(csB,2077) maintaining or increasing reservations
in political
Ans: Gender inequality refers to health, education, offices, government jobs and welfare programmes.
 394 ':i: socrolocY e &A

A major anti-untouchability movement was launched by factors such as the influence of international events/
Dr Ambedkar in the 1920s in Maharashtra. agencies concerning global environmental conditions,
The Dalits demanded a separate electorate in the growing official recognition of certain environmental
1930s which led to a conflict between Ambedkar and problems in the country, and the emergence of
Gandhi. In the early 1930s Ambedkar concluded that the environmental movements in India.
only way of improving the status of the untouchables Some of the best known environmental movements
was to renounce the Hindu religion and opted for in India have been briefly described below:
Buddhism as an alternative. There's a new turn in Dalit 1,. Bishnoi Movement: This movement was led by
politics that entails taking charge of affairs in their Amrita Devi in which around 363 people sacrificed
own hands, and a widening of the terrain of struggle their lives for the protection of their forests.
rather than restricting it to political power or religious This movement was the first of its kind to have
conversion. Its signs are palpable in the way Dalits have developed the strategy of hugging or embracing
reacted to atrocities on them, the modes of struggles the trees for their protection spontaneously.
devised, the kind of alliances forged, and the nodal 2. The Chipko Movement: The main demand of the
concepts and norms invoked for action. \A4rile old ways people in these protests was that the benefits of -the
of doing Dalit politics - paternalism, quotas, sub-caste forests, especially the right to fodder, should go to
appeaT, convetsion, bahujan (including sarvajan) - are local people. The name of the movement, that is
still around, more in a client-patron mode, Dalits are 'Chipko', comes from the word'embrace', in Hindi.
increasingly taking charge of affairs in their orvn hands. It is said that the villagers hugged or embraced
A few features of this turn are noteworthy: caste is or stuck to the trees in the forest to prevent them
back into reckoning; the use of social media to network from being felled by the contractors. The strategy
and communicate has proliferated; Left politics and its of 'embracing' the trees to resist the felling of the
limitations are under scrutiny; Babasaheb Ambedkar trees was thought of by Chandi Prasad Bhatt.
has reinforced his presence as the flagpole; there is a 3. Narmada Bachao Andolan: The most popular
highly literate Dalit leadership deeply aware of historical movement in the environmental history of India is
injustice and electorally decisive numbers in support; a the movement against the Narmada River Valley
thick notion of Brahmanism is highlighted as the enemyi Project. The Narnrada Bachao Andolan has drawn
a search for a irew civil society-state axis is ory and a new upon a multiplicity of discourses for protests such
body of concepts and slogans are being deployed as the as: "displacement risks and resettlement provisions;
battle cry. Thq slogans that resound in the Dalit movement environmental impact and sustainability issues;
today indlcate such a thaw: The banners read, and slogans financial implications of the projec| forceful evictions
echo: 'choice of food', 'right to land', 'Swabhiman and and violations of civil liberties; issues pertaining to
'Atmabhirnan' (self-respect),' Azadi' (freedom) and river Valley planrring and managemen! implicafions of
'digr-,ity'. The registry of norms that are invoked by the Westem growth msdel, and altemative development
cur:rent Dalit movement to explain and justify its objectives and appropriate technology among many other"
and actions is increasingly human dig"ity and worth, and 4. Appiko Movement: Appiko Movement is one of
the capacity to be what one can be, that occupy the high the forest-based environmental movements in India.
ground. Dalits have begun to dig deep into layers and The movement took place in the Uttara Kannada
layers of folklore and alternative nationalist imagery to district of Karnataka in the Western Ghats. "
forge skilful use of signs, symbols and representations. 5. Silent Valley Movement: Silent Valley in Kerala
has a rich 89 sq. km biological treasure drove in the
a. Discuss the various forms of environmental vast expanse of tropical virgin forests on the green
movements waged in India. (CSE,2016) rolling hills. In 1980s, a 200 MW hydroelectric dam
Ans. Environmental movement is a type of "social on the crystal clear river Kunthipuzha under the
movement that involves an array of individuals, groups Kudremukh project was to come uP.
and coalitions that perceive a common interest in The proposed project was not ecologically viable, as
environmental protection and act to bring about changes it would drown a chunk of the valuable rainforest
in environmental policies and practices". The genesis of the valley and threaten the life of a host of
of concern for environmental protection in India, "can endangered species of both flora and fauna.
;; be traced back to the early twentieth century when 6. Tehri Dam Conflich One of the most protracted
people protested against the commercialization of forest environmental movements in the recent years
resources during the British colonial period". is the movement against the Tehri Dam. The
The emergence of environmental debate in 260.5 meter high Tehri Dam on the Bhagirathi
contemporary India and renewed scholarly attention in the Garhwal-Himalayas was protested by
tolvards environmental topics can be attributed to the environmental organisations and local people.
 SOCIAL MOVEMENTS .i..i' 395
Environmentalist Sundar Lal Bahuguna led the These distortions refer to class character of nationalist
anti-Tehri Dam movement. It was against the leadersfip and its social, cultural and economic policies.
displacement of people and on weak environmental It is said these colonial distortions contributed to the rise
eco-system. of communalism, partition of the country and persistence
of communal politics even after independence.
a. Discuss the impact of post-L970 feminist The national movement and the ideology of
movement on Indian middle class. (CSE,20i.S) nationalism according to this view suffered in India
Ans: The feminist thought and feminist movement from structural cleavages between the mass mobilization
in the west have had some influence on the woman,s on horizontal lines and its vertical mobilization by elite
movement in the developing country like India. The nationalist leadership.
turning point came in 1970s, when several events- The mass movernent was located in principles of
some within and some outside India- gave a radical kinship, caste, class and territory; it was spontanebus
turn to the women's movement. The "new feminism,, in making and allied at social resistance against
in developed Western countries led in 7971 to the exploitation. Its mobilization was not based on formal
international year and then decade of women. The focus ideological or legalistic strategy and it could change
was on development. course and operation in midstream.
The mid-1970s were also a watershed in Indian The national movement led by elite leadership
politics. Congress, under Indira Gandhi, inaugurated made use of such subaltern mobilization selectively.
a new era of populist politics, and there was a gradual The subaltern could not forge national movement all by
broadening of the democratic base of mainstream itself. Yet the elite leadership did not help forge these
political institutions. A start was made in this period rirovements into a united front for social mobilization
toward the formation of women's organizations along due to its own class ideology.
lines completely different from pre-independence Nationalism is a process a product of historical
ones. Instead of forming all-India organizations, conjuncture of social forces through which the
new organizations were local and tightly knit, with linkages are not only established or expanded but also
focused agendas. In 7973-74 Maoist women formed qualitatively strengthened.
the Progressive Organization of Women, initiating Nationalism is therefore not a finished product nor
a self-consciodsly feminist critique of radical leftist a formal structure or normative model but an organic
politics along with an overarching analysis of gender historical process through which civilized societies
oppression. strengthen themselves by qualitative differentiation from
This led to other Maoist women's organizations within and their superior integration organically within
in Pune and Bombay, culminating in the first major a territorial boundary. As Louis Dumont nationalism
celebration of March 8 as International Women's Day refers to the nation as a tendency inspired by its
in1975. While in earlier discourses on Sati and Age of existence or as the aspiration to build up a nation.
Consent, women's bodies were the site on which men
fought their battles, in the 1980s feminists themselves a. Dynamics of Contemporary Dalit movements.
drew attention to the facts and consequences of violence
against women. The national character of this movement
is usually ascribed to the countrywide protests on a case
Ans: The contemporary moveme", ,:::*'-::r1
emancipation of dalits can be traced back to the later
of custodial rape, gang rape, dowry deaths etc. This part of the 19th century, when Jyotirao phule established
movement along with Shah Bano case attempted to Satya Shodhak Samaj to attain equal rights for lower
revive the Uniform Civil Code within the framework of castes. The main issue around which these movements
gender politics. The women's movement helped expose have been revolving are abolishment of untouchability.
the "gender markings" of the woman in the process of These movements project the indignities, agonies,
invoking her rights and entitlements, and building an humiliation, and overall sufferings of the sudras, ancl
emancipatory politics on that basis. particularly the untouchables.
Dalits being deprived of education and freedom of
a. Discuss the social background cif Indian occupation and subjected to stigmatised manual labour,
nationalism. (CSE,2014) it brings virtual economic slavery to them.
Ans: There are several distinctive conceptual These movements can be classified into reformative
formulations of Indian nationalism both bv Indian and (reforming the caste system and solving the problem of
foreign scholars. A dominant view is that of historians untouchability) and alternative movements respectively
and sociologists who see the rise of nationalism in the (attempts to create an alternative socio-cultural structure
context of British colonialism and the distortions it by conversion to some other religion or by acquiring
created in social structure and ideology of our society. education, economic status and political power).
396 iirr:r, SOGIOLOGY Q & A

Later, B.R. Ambedkar emerged as the all India leader Rather, it is increasingly
seen as a corunodity to
to champion the cause of dalit identity and social be purchased by a consumer in order to build a ?set of
upliftment. He launched anti-untouchability movement skills? to be used in the market place or a product to be
in the 1920s in Maharashtra. However, Ambedkar was bought and sold by the MNCs.
not successful in bringing together all Dalit castes and Oxfam in their study observed that the processes
creating a common feeling of deprivation. As a result, of globalisation make education more accessible to
his dalit movement was not lvidespread. the privileged, marginalised, disadvantaged and
isolated groups are left behind. Thus, the key players
Post-independence, there are two major contemporary
in the education system must ensure it is inclusive and
Dalit movements: addresses rather than aggravates inequalities.
Dalit Panthers movement In Independent India, Modern educational entrepreneurs are not guided
a leader in Bihar namely Babu jagjivan Ram coming by philanthropic motives of the earlier reformers,'but
from dalit community rose to become the deputy prime intend to invest in educational institutions to realise
minister of India. He also formed Khetmajoor Sabha higher rates of return on their investments, because the
and Depressed Class League. Then in the early 1970's demand for professional education is very high and the
a radical dalit movement emerged in the Maharashtra risk involved in this investment minimal'
known by the name of the Dalit Panthers. To Quote jean Dreze, "educational disparities,
Kanshi Ram's Bahuian Samaj Party (BSP): Later in which contribute a great deal to the persistence of
the 1980's, in North India a new party emerged under massive inequalities in Indian Society, also largely derive
the leadership of Kanshi Ram, this party advocated for from more fundamental inequalities such as those of
social advancement of the dalits and later the leader of class, caste and gender".
this party i.e. Mayawati became the chief minister of A large proportion of children from the economically
the Uttar Pradesh. poor and socially disadvantaged groups especially
One feature that is common to all contemporary in rural areas, are either denied access of increasing
Dalit movements is the assertion of Dalit identity privatization and commodification of Education. So,
and Ambedkarite iconography. Ambedkar's statues Private sector institutions should also take affirmative
have become a symbol their oppressed status and the action to help the weaker sections to acquire professional/
movement has spread widely creating a pan-Indian higher education which is otherwise not within the reach
community. "These movements have raised the pride of the society. In conclusion privatisation does not
consciousness in the Dalits rvay of life. What emanated appear to be promising in the sense of raising the quality
from all these movements was leveling of the castes and of national education. Governments, while taking steps
struggle igainst the upper caste domination. to regulate the existing private institutions, should
In pursuant to the rising political weightage and concentrdte on enhancing the adequacy and quality
bargaining power of dalit community, the government of of public education through not only increasing the
India and the various state governments have introduced investments but also improving the system particularly
legislative interventions, including reservations in in regard to teachers' quality and nnotivation.
educatiory employment and panchayati raj institutions,
all these have changed the dalit landscape. Q. What are the main features of the second wave
Although dalits are climbing the economic ladder of Women's movement in the Indian context?
but it is very slow and the economic parity with upper (csE,2014)
castes is long to be achieved. So, we can conclude that
Ans: Gail Omvelt advocates that post-independence
the contemporary movements have raised the level of
period women movements were more focused on
awareness within the dalit community and they are now
equality based movement. The second wave of women
assrting their identity, but it will be an exaggeration
movements in the last few decades were based on right
to believe that these movements have in any manner
oriented.
contributed to the annihilation of castes.
]ane Evarett distinguished between corporate
women's movement from liberal feminist movement in
a. Impact of privatisation on educational India. She considers that corporate feminist movement
disparities. (CSE,20L4)
speaks about the visibility of women in every sphere
. Ans: Education is becoming an internationally of social life, they speak of women reservation in
traded commodity in the present day of globalisation. political sphere, women entry into army, speak against
No longer is it seen primarily as a set of skills, attitudes feminization of occupations and reject the idea of pink
and values required for citizenship and effective color jobs. They largely speak about women entry into
participation in modern society- a key contribution to occupations like police, army,legal court which were
the common good of any society or the externalities. earlier dominated by men.
 soclAl MOVEMENTS :::::::t 397
To its contrast liberal feminism is committed to problems and needs of their survival even in the absence
concessionalism. They speak about women right to of a malg's leadership.
adoption, education and employment, gender sensitive Even though the Chipko Movement is widely
budgeting, gender sensitive policing system, law in viewed today as one of the first successful non-violent
favour of right to inheritance and changes in certain environmental protests, it holds a deeper meaning
laws which are not gender sensitive. and significance for eco-feminists as the first political
Radical feminist like Radhika Chopra, Kumkum and environmental movement led by traditionally
Sangari, consider that women movement in contemporary subordinated women for recognition by their state and
India should focus towards a challenge to patriarchy their communities.
and other sponsored institutions of patriarchy like Thus, the bold and brave women's activism in the
marriage, family, childbirth and conventional role of Chipko movement to stand up for both themselves and
women. There{ore, contemporary women's movement their bnvironment not only shaped their own fate in their
must be right focused directed towards state aggression, society but also the ideals and principles of the modern-
expansion of market economy, 4nd subsequently the loss day eco-feminist movement against the patriarchal
of women right over body and decision making capacity. dualism of women and nature in all societies. Culturally
Therefore, women's movement in India is a situated, yet universally dispossessed, the Chipko
testimony to the evolution of .India into an inclusive Movements' connectedness to nature and their steadfast
society liberating itself from the bondage of hierarchy political and social activism was an embodied reaction
and patriarchy. When there is a quest for transformatiory to traditional gendered roles and their subordination to
structural contradictions are inevitable and the men in a patriarchal society.
manifestation of these are are domestic violence, sexual
harassment, and increase in crime rate against women a. Satya Sodhak movement of Mahatma ]yotiba
in India. Phule. (CSE 2013)
These contradictions largely indicate women's
Ans: Satya Sodhak Samaj was started by Mahatma
desire for social transformation and hegemonic
structure of the society offering resistance to it. The ]yotiba Phule in Pune in 1873. In Lgth century it was
essentially a socio-religious reform movement that was
intensity of resistance is not so high that India can be
transformed by Shahu Chhatrapati into a powerful Non-
considered as a closed society. It can be concluded
Brahmin movement, which sought to bring a change into
that social transformation in India is negotiating with
a power structure. Thus, it started as reform movement
forces of confusion, contradiction and crisis. Although
but got converted into the political movement.
its progressive attempt for change is not significantly
diluted.

a. Discuss the'Chipko movement'as an example

of eco-feminism. (CSE,2014)
The Sathya Sodhak movement attacked the Brahmin
Ans: Some women are drawn into feminism by priests who insisted on acting as intermediaries between
environmental activism. These women are the catalysts God and devotees. They believed
that there was no need
of eco-feminism, a newer branch of feminism. Eco- for any intermediary in matters of religion and refused
feminism connects the degradation and oppression of to recognize the traditional role of the Brahmins
as
women with the degradation of the ecosystem. custodians of Hindu religion or interpreters of scriptures.
The Chipko Movement in India became one of the They totally rejected the Vedic tradition and the
most successful environmental activism struggles in Aryan heritage. He regarded
the Aryans as conquerors
the world. Local women physically put their bodies and destroyers of the indigenous non-Aryan
culture. He
' between the machinery and the forest that provided launched a vigorous
attack on the Vedas and ridiculed
their livelihood-literally hugging the trees. Though those who believed in the absurd stories narrated by
many men were involved in these activities u, *e11, their Brahmin authors. It
was described by Gail Omvedt
the Chipko movement became exemplary of one of the as a cultural
revolt in a colonial society.
first demonstrations of eco-feminism in action.
The Satya Sodhak movement continued to
As Shobita Jain highlights that "the collective emphasize the role of education in facilitating social
. mobiiization of women for the cause of preserving forests change. It
started school for girls, untouchables and
brought about a situation of conflict regarding their own home for widows.
Gradually, this movement spread to
status in society". Namely, women's spontaneous tree- southern
states in the first half of century and various
hugging activism allowed them to show men that they intermediary castes such as Kammas,
Reddis and vellas
were capable of making decisions and responding to the joined it.
398 ,,,'. soclolocY Q&A

Thus, this movement must be seen in the overall

context of backward class movement. It gave a new Poverty
spirit and confidence to the backward classes leading
to more assertiveness and finally their emancipation in
modern India. Inequality Deprivation

a. Bring out the main features of farmers' In the linguistic based issues, people demand
movement in Modern India. (CSE,2013) separate state on the basis of language. As people
speak same language they develop solidarity among
Ans: Farmers' movement in India started after themselves. More specifically, this distinct language
Independence. It was led by the middle level peasantry represents a distinct culture. Therefore, by demanding
which initially got benefitted by the land reforms and
.,

a separate state they want to preserve and promote

further consolidated their gain by green revolution. their culture.
Once they became economically strong, they asserted Therefore, when a state consists of people speaking
themselves politically and demanded reservations. two distinct languages there occur constant conflict
The farmers' movement was led by the upper between them as one group seems to dominate over
shudra group which lvas a dominant force with respect the other group.
to the lower shudras. In the ethnicitv based states as in the north-east
After getting their land rights, they obstructed the there are issues of assimilation of one culture by the
benefits to reach to lower shudras. Because of their dominant culture. These ethnic groups have developed
economic and numerical strength they took control their identity over a long period of time. Therefore, when
of village panchayats, state legislature and formed they feel that a dominant culture is being imposed upon
government at the centre. For example, they formed a them, they retaliate back and demand a separat€ state.
coalition government at the Centre in 1977. Thus, by getting a separate state, they preserve their
The farmers' movement was active in the areas cultural identity.
of Green Revolution. Being capital intensive, it was In the development based demands, as in Telangana,
the upper shudras who got benefitted at the cost of it is the continuous neglect of one community or region
lower shudras. (Jnable to compete with upper shudras, by the others, set the ground for their demands. Because
the lower shudras gradually lost their land to upper of relative deprivation, the neglected community
shudras. A study shows that the land share of upper organizes itself politically to get a separate state where
shudras went up from24%-29%.But, gradually the input they will have their own goverrunent who will look after
cost started'rising and to rernain competitive, the upper their interests in a better manner. If we look this demand
shudras demanded concessions such as subsidized for separate states in terms of overall framework of
water, electricity and high MSP. nationalism, then we can say that these demands have
Once they got concessions because of their political some substance in it. Forcibily, bringing them in the
strength they further asserted themselves by demanding mainstream nationalism without their consent will be
reservations in jobs and educational institutions by the divisive.
acceptance of Mandal Commission report.
Thus, farmers' moventent is a success story in the Q. What is the Dalit movement? Examine the
sense that they challenged the hegemony of upper issues highlighted by it (CSE,2013)
castes. They made full use of democracy to overcome
Ans: Dalits are generally referred to as people
their age- old backwardness. But, they set a dangerous
belonging to scheduled castes. These castes were placed
precedent of using caste for political gains which led to
outside the varna system and were considered as impure
the phenomenon of "casteism" in Indian politics.
and untouchables. They were not allowed to enter the
temples, had no access to power and were landless. It
a. Discuss the sociological aspects of movements r.vas this cumulative inequality which gave rise to dalit
for separate States. (CSE,2013) movements in India.
Ans: In sociological terms, a movement is defined Dalit movement refers to the sustained and ;
as an organized collective action sustained over a organized action by the members of dalit community
period of time. There is organizatiory leadership and to demand their rights.
ideology of a movement which motivates the followers They were inspired by the ideals of equality of
of the movement for their cause. In India, we have opportunity and were against the bppressive caste
witnessed mainly three kinds of movements for separate system. Initially the movements were reformist in
states. These are linguistic based, ethnicity based and nature but gradually they aimed to capture political
development based states. power and use it to gain the socio-economic power.
 SOCIAL MOVEMENTS lil.i.. 3gg
For example,Iyotiba Phule opened schools for dalits and Redfield says that generally tradition of illiterate people
women as he believed that only through education dalits is treated as little tradition. On other side, there are such
can emancipate themselves. But, later on the Labour traditioni which is supported by some interested people
Party and Justice Party were formed to contest elections. of elite class and slowly adopted by people of all classes
BSP, a dalit based party, was even able to hold power and areas which is called great tradition. Explanations
in Uttar Pradesh in the recent past. of these traditions are found in basic epics and these are
The issues highlighted by it are as follows:
in nationalized form.
Despite different nature of great and little tradition
1. Opposition to Brahiminical Hegemony: They were
they have close relation. It is true that little traditions are
and Brahmins, as it is the
against the caste system
large in number because of their relation with illiterate
Brahmins who give religious sanction to the caste
peasant and general people but it cannot be said that
system.
one tradition is better than other. In peasant society
2. Relative Backwardness: Dalits highlighted that of India, the continuous interaction is seen between
there are some social barriers to their development. these two types of tradition. Dr. Yogendra Singh by
There are inequalities of opportunity by birth. Being clarifying mutual dependency between little and great
the part of Jajmani system they always served upper traditions explained that all institutions at elementary
class and were always involved in doing menial level start from local beliefs. In the beginning, these
tasks which led to their baakwardness. beliefs develops in the form of little tradition but when
3. Reservations: To remove this inequality at birth, elements of external civilization started to assimilate
they demanded reservation in jobs and educational these traditions, then some universal patterns develop
institutions. Subsequently, Indian Constitution which becomes permanent {eatures of society in the form
provided them the reservations. of great tradition.
4. Political Mobilization: Another important issue Redfield has also explained that little and great
highlighted by these movements is that political traditions are complementary to each other'from the
mobilization is an important factor in demanding angle of ideology and expansion. Mutual dependency is
concessions from others. However, in their quest found between them. In this way, it is clear that little and
to gain political power, dalit leaders collaborated great traditions have some importance in rural culture
with the upper caste leaders. This puts a question of India and for understanding uniformity of culture it
mark on their ideology which was termed by Gail is necessary to know the interaction between them" By
Omvedt as "Vague ldeology" doing this we can understand society in totaliff.
This clearly shows that the dalit movement has lost
its vigor. Allhough it led to the development of middle a. Stages of the women's movement in India.
class among dalits, it seems to be less interested in their (csE,20111
cause. There is an urgent need for introspection among
Ans. Women's movement in India is not of recent
dalits to find out the right ways to achieve it.
origin. The organised Women's movement may be
traced back to the freedom struggle and the p"rlod
O. Interaction of 'little tradition' and 'great immediately after freedom.
tradition'. (CSE,2012) The social reform mor.ements of the 19th centu-ry
Ans: In the form of differentiated society, Indian calling for widow remarriage, ban on Sati, and child
society is made up of so many small and large marriage and promotion of women's education may
communities, in which a vast diversity is found in its be taken as the first wave of Women's movement. The
tradition, religious beliefs, rites and ideology. In reality active participation of women in the freedom movement
every society has its own separate little or local tradition and the emergence of serveral national level women's
due to which they have maintained continuity of their organisation such as Al1 India Women's Conference,
culture. National Federation of Indian Women and Women's
Robert Redfield has given important place to the India Association may be seen as the next wave of
concept of little and large tradition to understand the Women's movement. They raised the issues of women's
complexity and diversity of Indian culture. According education, right to franchise, purdah and individual
to Redfield, every culture is made up of tradition. The rights. The third wave of the Women's movement began
tradition is divided into two partsJittle tradition and after 1947. During this period most of the women's
4
great iradition. organisations worked in the field of social service and
If traditions related with religious life or culture welfare.
has no relation with basic epics or that tradition is The period immediately after independence
prevalent in a small area and most of the people do not witnessed two leftist movements-Tebhaga Movement
understand its real meaning, it is known as little tradition. in Bengal and Telengana Movement in Andhra Pradesh.
 Ii( SOCIOLOGYQ&A
Led by the communist party the poor peasants fought the four walls of domestic household to assert their
against the landlord and capitalist forces. The women individuality not just socially, but also economically.
took active part in these movements along with men.
They fought against'not only military power but also a. Assess the contribution of contemPorary
against gender inequality, domestic violence, cl'rild \Ar'omen's movement in women/s empowerment.
marriage, polygamy and restriction on their movements (csE,20L0)
outside the forewalls of household.
Ans: Since the times of 19th century socio-reform
Women's movement took new shape aftet 1970.
movement through India's freedom struggle, into the
By this time women's mass movement had realised
21st century with constitutional and legal provisions,
that women's issues and problems could not be welfare schemes and activism of voluntary sector,
solved through patchwork type of social reform women surely can be said to have come of age.
and social welfare and the basic issues had to be
Tenacious efforts on the part of social reformers
confronted head on. This realisation pushed them to
like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar,
the forefront of all the major social-economic, political
D.K. Karve, etc. laid a strong foundation in ushering
and environmental issues. Women's involvement in
gender equality and women empowerment in the form
Chipko Movement focussed on preservation of forests
of abolition of sati, promotion of girls' educatioo Child
and related environmental issues, show their increasing
Marriages Restraint Act or legalizing widow remarriage.
understanding of core issues. Between 1970-90 women
These awakened women when beckoned by freedom
also fought against liquor tobby in Kumaun and Garhwal
fighters, especially Gandhiji, took active part in freedom
in Uttaranchal, Haryana, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu.
struggle, fighting shoulder to shoulder with men for their
The decade of 1980s was largely dominated by anti-
motherland's liberation end also their ovrm. Women have
dowry movement throughout the country. The decade not looked back since then. Free India's Constitution
1960's witnessed deep concern for Muslim women and
took the journey further, providing for equality of sexes
their problems along with movement against female and offering protection to women against any kind of
foeticide, inJanticide. Women's movement in India is exploitation and discrimination. Various legislations
now an important part of the worldwide movement of in this direction are Hindu Marriage Act, L955, Hindu
women for justice, equality and empowerment. Succession Act 1,956, Special Marriage Act L954,
Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961-, Medical Termination of
Q. Women in the I.T. Sector: (CSE,20L0) Pregnancy Act, 1971-, Indecent Representation of Women
Ans: Some recent figures from Nasscom revealed (Prohibition) Act, \986, just to name a few.
that female technicians are steadily narrowing the These legislations have not only equipped women
gap on their male counterparts and their numbers are with rights as equal as men but have also given them
steadily increasing in the IT sector. ]awaharlal Nehru greater say and participation in social and political
famously remarked-"You can tell the condition of a sphere. Women literacy which was a negligible 0.6%
nation by looking at the status of its women". Increasing in 1901 has increased to 54.16% (2001). Education has
visibility of women in the IT sector speaks about that enabled girls to become aware of their rights and
women have indeed come a long way in their journey pursue active careers and progressions for themselves.
towards emancipation and empowerment. As a corollary to this, women today are making +apid
It also reflects how, organisations are adopting strides in economic and employment field. From
gender sensitive and gender inclusive HR practices like agricultural land to software industry to NASAs space
transportation policy, flexible working hours and leave shuttle, women are standing firm along with men.
policy which have playecl a major role in attracting Swayamsiddha, STEP Swavlamber, Swa shakti project,
women in the industry. According to senior executives Rashtiya Mahila Kosh are few measures and schemes
in many such organisations, women lvork force is not for economic empowerment of women.
just enabling themselves by working but also, its a major Recently many NGOs and civil society organizations
factor for continued growth of industry. However there have come forward to fight for the rights of women from
are still,certain areas that need to be worked upon to vuinerable sections like dalit women or those who are
make it a level-playing field for women. Lack of mentors, poverty stricken or suffeling from debilitating diseases.
fewer promotional opportunities, sexual harassment These organisations are not only voicing the concerns
are few issues that women are still grapling within the of these women but also helping government formulate
sector. Nevertheless, women's successful foray into the policies for their uplifment and helpifrg these women to
IT sector does speak about women's liberation from avail such schemes.

..t .f..:.t
 CHAPTER

14

a. Citing some case studies, expand the concept opportunities, discrimination, fragile ecosvstem,
of 'Development-induced Displacement'. socio-religious notions etc.
(csE 2023) . Tribals and ethnic groups are often at the receiving
end. Fernandes in his study of Maharashtra found
Ans: Development refers to the change in the de- that in case of displacements due to projects, ma-
sired direction. According to Yogendra Singh, 'devel- jority of the affected were tribals and only 15.8% of
opment refers to the strategv of planned social change tribal families were given land.
which is considered desirable by the members of the As economic progress and the improvement of
society'. The notion of development may differ from
living conditions frequently depend on development
society to society. It often leads to increase in sca1e, ef-
projects, it is essential to make sure that these initia-
ficiency, mutuality and freedom.
tives do not result in the eviction of individuals without
Development-induced Displacement providing them with sufficient compensation and reha-
. The term "development-induced displacement" bilitation. The rights and interests of all stakeholders,
especially the disadvantaged and vulnerable groups,
describes the forcible relocation of individuals from
must be taken into account in more inclusive and par-
their homes as a result of development initiatives
ticipatory methods to development planning.
such building highways, ports, airports, industrial
complexes, urbanisation, dams, and so on.
. Millions of individuals are impacted by this world- Q. What role do co-operatives play in poverty
wide pandemic each year. There are frequently
alleviation in rural India? (CSE,20221
negative cultural, social, and economic effects from Ans: Cooperative is a voluntary group of people on
relocation. equal basis with similar iriterests and activity who lever-
age their resources for collective as well as individual
Case Studies gains. In Indian rural context, the role of cooperatives
. The Narmada Valley Project in India is one of the 'r.t as envisaged to extricate rural peasant from the grip

most contentious instances of relocation brought on of moneylenders, provide technical knowhow, promote
by development. Numerous indigenous people with economies of scale and uplift the standard of living.
strong cultural and spiritual links to the land were Intermediaries in the production chain are cut and its
among the numerous people who were uprooted as benefits accrue directly to the fatmers, poor and rural
a result of the construction of massive dams on the community.
Narmada River. Many of the displaced individuals Role of Cooperatives in Poverty Alleviation
endured destitution, loss of means of subsistence, . The aim of the cooperative institutions include pov-
and cultural disruption despite assurances of res- erty reduction by providing essential agricultural
toration and compensation. inputs and credit to farmers, ensuring adequate
. According to Fernandes, in the past 50 years around return to the farmers. for their produce , ensuring
3.crore people were displaced and more than 42% supply of essential commodities to villagers at rea-
of them were tribals. Displacement is direct as well sonable rates and promoting harmonious relations
as indirect. Direct displacement is often in the form and a sense of participation among rural people.
of eviction due to various reasons and indirect dis- Credit societies, service cooperatives, producers'
placement is often in the form of migration due to cooperatives and labor cooperatives came into ex-
uneven developmental process, lack of livelihood istence, as the cooperative movement grew.
 402 l:r( sOctoLocy e &A
. P R Dubhashi considers cooperative as not an in- nize certain traits as requirements for membership.
stitutiory but as a movement because the needs of In other words, the cultural elements that define a
peasant class keeps on changing and so movement pafticular ethnic group are taught, not inherited.
also evolves. For example, r.vhen the cooperative
movement started in India it was for credit needs, but
Ethnic Movernents
today cooperatives are there in almost every field.
. Generally, those ethnic groups which are in mi-
o I R Desai observed that effort towards establish- nority involve themselves in ethnic mobilization.
ment of cooperatives can help to overcome the However, in India scholars generally prefer to call
debacle of agrarian social order caused by colonial such movements with their specific nomenclatures
rule. Cooperatives as institutions can complement iike linguistic mobilization, communal mobiliza-
land reforms in changing the picture of agrarian tion, Dalit mobilization, caste mobilizatiory tribal
social structure. mobilization, etc.
. According to B S Baviskar, power conJlict is one . In Tndia, onJy the tritral movements and racial move-
of the factors that have marred the growth of co- ments are generally kept under the category of eth-
operatives. Political neutrality and people's active nic movements. For exarnple, PauI Brass uses ethnic
role was envisaged as the spirit of cooperatives, and communal rnobilization interchangeably" On
however the opposite happened. A new breed of the other hand, Dipankar'Gupta differentiates be-
politics -'Cooperative Potitics' emerged as a result. tween communalism and ethnicity. He argues that
. Similarly, Daniel Thomer indicated that cooperafives the ethnic mobilization is related to the nation-state
are hijacked by the richer sections and have become - the territory and the sovereignty" And communal
agencies serving their interests. Further, they func- mobilization does not involve the nation-state
tion on the basis of 'caste economics' of the village. . In general, cornmon causes dor the rise of ethic
In his study he found that many cooperatives were movements can be broadiy orthogenetic or internai
dominated by single families in villages of Gujarat" causes and heterogenetic or external causes. Mod-
Membership of big farmers to cooperatives is itself ernization and industuialization in large, multiethnic
against the very philosophy of cooperatives. societies tend to proceed unevenly and oftery if not
always, tried to benefit some ethnic group or some
Limitations region of a country more than others.
\
Despite the perception that the cooperative move- . The rich regions may also be ethno-nationalist if
ment has failed, there have been significant achieve- they perceive relative deprivation. Indian scholars
ments especially in Maharashtra Sugar Cooperatives often cite Punjab insurgency as an example. The
and Gujarat Milk Cooperatives. Their achievement is colonial period had brought about a high degree of
their reach which is now coverage of more than 80% of politico-territorial integration throu gh an efficient,
villages, their failure is their effectiveness.' centralized way, coercive machinery of the govern-
ment. However it also helped cultural and ethnic
a. Define ethnicity. Discuss the factors respon- groups organize themselves politically.
sible for the growth of ethnic movements in . Development leads to a rise rather than a decline
India. (CSE, Z022l in ethnic mobilization because it provides resources
Ans: Ethnicity is a concept referring to a shared to ethnic groups in the periphery, increasing their
culture and a way of life. This can be reflected in lan* bargaining position and org;anizational capacity for
guage, religion, material culture such as clothing and action. The internal colonial model also challenges
cuisine, and cultural products such as music and art. the functionalist prediction of an inevitable decline
Ethnicity is often a major source of social cohesion as in the salience of ethnicity w,ith the increase of cul-
well as social conflict. tural homogenization of the population in step with
The world is home to thousands of ethnic groltps, industrialization and modernization.
from the Han Chinese-the largest ethnic group in the
. The apprehensions of minority ethnic Eiroups
world-to the smallest indigenous groups, some of about loss of their cultural identity arise from tr.t o
which include only a ferv dozen people. Almost all of sources. The first is the dominant majority attempt-
these groups possess a shared history, language, reli- ing to impose its own religious or cultural values
gion, and culture, which provide group members with as that of the whole society. The second arises from
a common identity. the ideology of the modern states to equate the state
with the nation.
Ethnicity and Race . Ethnic and identity movements r,vhen take the
. Ethnicity, unlike race, is not based on biological forms of movements for regional autonorny, for
traits, except in the case of ethnic groups that recog- creation of separate states, demand for secession
 =* 403
CHALLENGES OF SOCIAL TRANSFORMATION

or insurgencyt are also called 'Self Determination . They followed Sanskritic norms and rituals. They.
\
Movements'. The self-determination movements tried to justify their claim to a higher social status in
t actually question the nation-stdte building model the caste hierarchy by inventing suitable mythoi.o-.
I
which was introduced by Independent India. gies.
. Although the movements started with the demand . The Shanars or Nadars of Tamil Nadu how,er.er
based on a single marker like - language or culture, have crossed the boundary of untouchabiiity. The
they drew support from people who shared more Iravas of Kerala have also blurred, if not completeLy
than one attribute in a particular region. Starting destroyed, the line of untouchability. The Nadars
with the rejection of the Indian constitution by organized movements in the late 19th centurv
Nagas in the North East, it spread in the form of against the civic disabilities they suffered.
Dravidian ethnic movement and demand in the for- o f, major anti-untouchability movement was
mation of linguistic states with the classic example launched by Dr Ambedkar in the 1920s in lvlaha-
of creation of Andhra Pradesh. rashtra. F{e saw the opportunity and possibilit,v of
' According to Virginius Xaxa, emergence of a advancement for the untouchables through the use
middle class within the tribal society - especially in of political means to achieve social and economie
North East - is giving a new direction to the tribal equality with the highest classes in modern society"
movements by making issues of culture, traditioru He organized the independent labour party on secu-
livelihood, even conkol over land and resources, as lar lines for protecting the interests of the laboring
well as demands for a share in the benefits of the classes. It was dominated by Mahars.
projects of modernity, have become an integral part . Assertion for dalit identity has almost become a
of the articulation of identity among the tribes. central issue of dalit movement. This involves lc,ca-l
Therefore, success or failure of ethnic movements level collective action against discrimination and
depends on political factors. Once a set of demands in atrocities.
ethnic mobilization is accepted, in due course time on . The Dalit movements are dominated by their rnid-
other demands the ethnic movements start. Thus, ethnic dle class raising issues related to identity and reser-
mobilization is a continuous political process. vations of government jobs and political positions.
There is widespread local level assertion against
a. Bring out the various issues involved in Dalit the practice of untouchability and discrimination.
movements in India. (C9F.,2022) Their struggles have brought dalits on the agenda
Ans: The main issues around which most of the of mainstream politics.
Dalit moverrtents have been centered in the colonial and Criticism
post-colonial periods are confined to the problem of un- . Several scholars and activists feel that dalits have
touchability. They launched movements for maintaining been reduced to a pressure group within main-
or increasing reservations in political offices, govemment stream politics. Gail Omvedt observes that the
jobs and welfare programmes. post-Ambedkar Dalit movement r.vas ironically
Issues involved in Dalit Movement only that in the end- a movement of dalits, chal-
. lenging some of the deepest aspects of oppression
Ghanshyam Shah classifies the Dalit movements
and exploitation but failing to show the way to
into reformative and alternative movements. The
transformation.
former tries to reform the caste system to solve the
Thus, the movements have forced a section of
problem of untouchability. The alternative move-
intellectuals to critically review not only Indian tradi-
ment attempts to create an alternative socio-cultural
tions and culture but also the paradigms of modernity.
structure by conversion to sorne other religion or
They have exploded a number of ml,ths created by
by acquiring education, economic status and politi-
Brahminical ideology. The Dalit movements have also
cal power. Both types of movements use political
successfully built up a good deal of pressure on the
means to attain their objectives.
. ruling classes.
In the 1990s with the increased political partici-
patiorr in elections and success of Bahujan Samaj
Party in Uttar Pradesh some scholars consider their Q. Critically examine the dialectics between'de-
mobilization as a new political movement of the velopment and environment'" (CSE, 2022)
dalits. Ans: Development refers to the change in the
o d section of untouchables who could improve desired direction. According to Yogendra Singh,'devel-
their economic condition either by abandoning or opment refers to the strategy of pLnned social change
continuing their traditional occupations launched which is considered desirable by the members of the
struggles for higher status in the caste hierarchy. society'.
 404 '':::': socrolocY e & A
So, the notion of development may differ from . The global concern for the environment has been 1
l
i
society to society. It often leads to increase in scale, ef- aptly echoed in the preambular assertion made at
ficiency, mutuality and freedom. According to Gunnar the Earth Summit in the year 1992.
I
Myrdal, rationality is the precondition of economic and . We are in the midst of the sixth era of extinction.
social development in the modern world. This problem can be solved only by proper guid-
Crisis of development is a paradoxical situation ance, awareness, educatiory transfer of advanced
which refers to the ill effects as a result of the develop- technology, research, conservation and sustainable
ment strategv which r.t as adopted. It thus questions use of biological diversity.
the prevailing notions of development vis-d-vis the . Environmental protection was perceived by many
emerging challenges, problems and hardships for those as an obstacle to development. However, Our
who are purported beneficiaries of this developmental Common Future Report recognized "environment
process and a dialectical process starts between devel- or development" as a false dichotomy. Focus shilted
opment and environment. This paradoxical situation is to "environment and development," and then to
manifested in the form of displacement, loss of liveli- "environment for development." Principle 1 of
hood, emotional trauma, migration, environmental Agenda 21 states: "FIuman beings are at the centre
damage, inequality and so on. of concerns for sustainable development. They are
The'environment'is where we live; and develop- entitled to a healthy and productive life in harmony
ment is what we all do in attempting to improve our with nature."
lot within that abode. The two are inseparable. Envi- Thus, in a new globalised order, sustainable de-
ronmental crises not only inr.olve social, political & velopment is the integration of economic, social and
economic aspects but also pose a philosophical problem. environmental development and considered as the inter-
The report of the lVorld Commission on Environment dependent and mutually rein{orcing pillars which oper-
and Development (WCED), ernphasized the need for a ate at the local, national, regional and global levels. This
sustainable way of life which not onlv addresses cur- sets out two fundamental principles of intergenerational
rent environmental challenges but also ensures a secure and intra-generational equity.
society well into the future.
Dialectics betyreen'Develcpment and Environment' a. Does "economic empowerment" automati-
. F{uman activities motir.ated by the attitude of ram- cally bring about "substantive empowerment"
pant consumerism anci unsustainable patterns of for women? Briefly describe the main issues
production and consumption have never been such in women empowerment in India.
inhumane and callous towards the environment as (csE 2021)
in the modern era of .cientific and technological Ans:'India ranks 140th among 156 countries in the
innovations. Global Gender Gap Report. This highlights the dismal
. Man's greed attacks the environment and ecology status of women in India. To address this there's a need
and wounded nature backlashes on the human to bring about substan[ive empowerment for women.
future. Ilnvironment has clearly emerged as one Economic empowerment relates to making women
of the biggest contemporary issues we face. An economically independent by increasing their share
unprecedented rise in the human population has in workforce by financial inclusion, and by proiziding
overburdened ecological and social systems. property rights among others. Many consider economic
. There are also serious social consequences for local empowerment as a necessary prerequisite for bring-
communities of big businesses rampaging through ing substantive empowerment for women. However
forested areas. While it is argued that mines and economic empowerment may not automatically bring
industries bring in jobs and improve economic about substantive empowerment for women. Accord-
well-being, this analysis is disingenuously one- ing to Blood and Hamblin, the true measure of women
dimensional. Such simplistic, dichotomous compari- empowerment is through her decision making power in
son of environment vs. development neglects many the family. Similarly, even after economic empowerment
aspects of human well-being. It also compromises women continue to face discrimination. Karuna Ahmad
future ecological security of natural resources like highlights the gender disparity faced by women in the
water, clean air, local climate, and forest resources workforce. She argues that women tend to cluster in
:'l 'that
people depend upon. few occupations that are accorded low status in society.
. The foundations of global security are threatened. Furthermore women receive lower salary than men. T
The most vital task is to build an environmental S Pappola highlights that women face discrimination at
ethics that constructs an adequate theory of intrinsic the time of promotion.
values of nature.
 CHALLENGES OF SOCIAL TRANSFORMATION iiiiIII. 405
Main Issues in Women Empowerment in India Hate crimes against LGBT indivi,-luals are still
. Demographic: Issues such as female infanticide, shockingly prevalent across the worlci . which makes
issue of missing women, preference for male Child it difficuit for the LGBTQ to fight for e,qual rights in
and lower sex ratio at birth create a demographic terms of marriage rights as there is lesser acceptability
imbalance that hampers women empowerment in the society.
measures. Example: nearly one in five hate crimes committed
. in the US was due to sexual orientation, and another 2%
Health: Nearly 57% of women are anaemic in India
of crimes were committed because of gender identity in
(NFHS-S). They are often the last to eat in a family.
the past few years.
This leads to poor health and restricts their physical
There is lack of legal protection to LGBTQ in terms
and mental capability.
of parenting rights as given to others. Also, they suffer
. Education: According to Census 2017, female lit- due to discrimination in employment opportunities,
eracy rate is only 657, which is significantly lower healthcare facilities, social security schemes and housing
than rnale literacy rate of nearly 80%. Similarly facilities across the globe.
share of women in STEM sector is poor.
Therefore it can be said that societies have come a
. Employment Discriminatory work culture, glass long way in protecting the rights.of LGBTQ citizens, but
ceiling, clustering in pink collar works, sexual ha- there's stili work to do in terms of other rights.
rassment at workplace, etc. are some of the issues

.
related to employment for women in India. a. Comment on the critical issues of
Political: Women constitute orly 14% of parliamen- comrnercialization of higher education in
tarians in India. This restricts their ability to bring India. (CSE,2019)
female voice in policy making, leading to neglect
Ans: There are signals that India's higher and
of gender concerns.
technical education is being thrown open to '{or profit'
. Cultural: Discriminatory cultural practices such as private entities. The threat of global competition via the
purdah, child marriage, triple talaq, lack of property WTO route is already here, a;rd it is likeiy to aggravate
rights, etc. further hinders empowerment of women in the future.
in India. i Under WTO, educational services, particularly
Therefore there is a need to look beyond economic the tertiary educational services like higher education,
empowerment. For a substantive empowerment women are treated as globally tradable services. Thus, if our
must be empowered politically and socially as well. government fully adheres to the WTO mandate under
GATS, the education sector in general, and higher and
Q. What do you understand by LGBTQ? technical education in particular, wc rld be considered to
Comment on the issues concerning their be a tradable sector only, and not a'public good' sector.
marriage rights. (CSE-20L9) Thus, public funding rvould dry out for this important
Ans: LGBTQ stands for lesbian, gay, bisexual, sector. Because of the cominitment and obligations under
and transgender. It was used to replace the term gay IMF conditionalities, India has undertaken market-
in reference to the LGBT community beginning in the friendly economic reforms since 1991-92.
mid to late 1980s. The activists believed that the term The government has reduced, and in some cases
gav community did not perfectly represent all those to withdrawn, subsidy for higher education and allowed
whom it referred. the private finance to flow into the higher education
Later the initials were adopted into the public as system. Thus, gradually a dual system of ltgher education
a ccrmplete umbrella term for use when naming topics emerged, one is public funded, and the other private
per.,-rining to sexuality and gender identity. The letter Q funded. Especially in the sphere of technical educatiory
w'-;, for those who identify as queer or are questioning the government allowed 100 per cent domestic private
the sexual identity. investment. Except primary and secondary, all other
educational services are tertiary education. The higher
Issu.rs Concerning their Marriage Rights education sub-sector, which also includes technical
o .'hough share of people who favor same sex- education, is an area of concern for India with respect to
rnarriage grew steadily for most of the last decade, the opening of services trade under the WTO negotiations.
but there is also present a strong opposition from India is already a signatory of GATS. At the Nairobi meet,
conservative groups. further liberalisation of GATS is not rul'ed out.
o Only 29 countries and jurisdictions allow gay and Thus, this would inevitably imply that meritorious
lesbian couples to marry legally, due to which but less well-off students would be denied access
LGBTQ lacks legal protection for their union. to higher education. If it is treated as a public good,
406 ,,, socroLocY e &A

then it will be funded by the government, and access Committee, which will look into the matters of sexual
will be available to the qualifying poor students. The harassment of women at workplace. In this background,
access, eoll-lrry and excellence were the mission of higher Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Preventiory
education in India. Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013 came which defines
sexual harassment:
a. Has reduction of green cover affected It includes "any one or more of the following
ecological degradation leading to global "unwelcome acts or behaviour" committed directly or
warming? Elaborate your answer with by implication: Physical contact and advances, Sexually
illustration. (CSE,20L9) coloured remarks, Showing pornography, A demand
or request for sexual favours, Any other unwelcome
Ans: Forest has an enormous potential in mitigating
physical, verbal or non-verbal conduct of sexual nature.
climate change through forest restoration. Trees and
While the law covers several categories of workers,
other rzegetation fix carbon as part of photosynthesis
in practice both the nature of sexual harassment and the
ar-rd soil too holds organic carbon from plants and
access to remedies and justice differs depending on the
animais" The amount of soil carbon varies 'it ith land
often intertwined position of the woman worker,-her
management practices, farming methods, soil nutrition
work space, the establishment, her status within it, her
and temperature.
u.,ages/salary, and her social support system.
Cutting down forests to create farmland led to
For women from the working class, registering
changes in the amount of sunlight reflected from the
a complaint is perceived to be a risk and often actually
ground'oack into space (the surface albedo). About half
is. Many women can't a{ford to take the risk, aggravated
of the land-use changes are estimated to have occurred
by power imbalance due to low pay, precarious
during the industrial era, much of it due to replacement
oi forests by agricultural cropping and grazing lands
employment due to contractual or non-formal
employment status, being the sole family breadwinner,
over Eurasia and North America.
having low family support, and lack of worker
High Latitudes region is largely affected due to
organisations and unions.
deforestation as the albedo of snow-covered land,
For Example, in many sectors, women are not in
previously forested, has increased. This is because snow
managerial positions. In such cases the women who
on trees reflects only about half of the sunlight falling
complain are seen as adversaries who disturb business
on it, whereas snow-covered open ground reflects about
two-thirds. Overall, the increased albedo over Eurasian operations, including the pace of production, and
and North American agricultural regions has had a are disliked by the management because they have
questioned the line of authority.
cooiing efiect. Tropical deforestation which changes
evapotranspiration rates - the amount of water vapour In most cases, factory workers find that resigning
poi it-tto tie atmosphere through evaporation and from one organisation and joining another is their most
transpiration from trees; desertiJication - which increases feasible option, as their ability to take risks is low.
srrrface albedo, and the general effects of agriculture on Migrant workers are even more vulnerable, as they find
soil moisture characteristics. these options difficult to exercise.
Forests are one of the most important solutions Thus, to enable working women to benefit from the
to addressing the effects of climate change. Therefore law, it is important first to recognise the impediments
increasing and maintaining forests is an essential to their agency in engaging with grievance mechanisms.
soiution to climate change. Support from co-workers and senior management is
key to build confidence among workers to regislsl
complaints. Senior management can play a decisive role
Q. What is POSH Act? "Identification of tormentor
by promoting a conducive atmosphere.
by women at workplace does not come easily
Top management should set standard , for
even today". Examine the statement with
supervisors on factory floors and in middle manag€: aent.
substantive examples from India. (CSE, 2019) They should be at the forefront of efforts to stop
Ans: Sexual harassment at the workplace has practices of gender-based violence and to demonstrate
alrrrays been one of the central issues of the women's zero tolerance for sexual harassment.
movement in India since a long time. The Supreme
Court of India in a judgment in 1997 laid the Vishaka a. Assess the impact of ban on 'Triple Talak'
guidelines, which are legally binding, defined sexual on marriage and divorce among the Muslim
harassment and imposed three key parameters on the
community in India. (CSE,2018)
institutions i.e., prohibitiory prevention and redressal.
The Supreme Court directed for the establishment
' Ans: Triple Talaq or talaq-e-biddat (instant divorce)
is a practice to end marriage or to claim divorce in Islam.
of redressal mechanism in the form of Complaints
 CHALLENGES OF SOCIAL TRANSFORMATION
= 407
In India, the practice was held unconstitutional, arbitrary Even Fundamental Right to Equality (Article 15(3))
and not a part of Islam by Supreme Court in 2017. The and Directive principle of state policy (Article 39) puts
Supreme Court also asked the government to enact a law the moral obligation on state to realize the dream of
to ban this practice by law. Consequently, the Central gender neutral India by ensuring gender equality and
Governn'Lent introduced Muslim Women (Protection of right to livelihood for all.
Rights on Marriage) Bill, 2017 in Parliament. Equality A welfare state is duty bound to protect and
of women is a fundamental right for any nation which promote the economic and social well-being of its
defines itself as secular, sovereign, socialist and republic. citizens based on the principles of opportunity and
As many as 8 Islamic countries have officially banned fairness.
the practice of triple talaq, Therefore Supreme Court State can play an important role in promoting girl
judgement was a step towards positive social change. chiid education by focussing on Teacher Education
A survey by Bharatiya Muslim Mahila Andolan ,Building Good Assessment Systems, Geirder neutrhl
revealed that 95 percent of divorced women receive no education at a young age (Boys and girls taught to
maintenance from their husbands. The situation turns ponder about gender equality from an early age), Skills
grave, if woman is not in a position to become the Development and bv shifting focus towards gender
breadwinner and manage kids simultaneously. based budgeting to mobilize more resources and to
The bill proposes man to pay maintenance and ensure an inclusive approach.
custody of child is to be co-shared by both parents. The In this direction government has taken initiative
ban rvill bring gender parity and help in uplifting the like Beti Bachao Beti Padhao abhiyary lr{id Day Meal
status of the women in sociai institutions like marriage. program/ SABLA scheme, Sukanya Samriddhi yajana,
Though" marriage is a social contract in Islam, banning CBSE Scholarship Scheme, Women Helpline Scheme,
Triple talaq wili help in dilution of marriage providing Support to Training and Employment Programme
more security to urornen and may help in reducing for Women (STEP), etc. to become a source, of social
instances of arbitrary divorces. change in the society, which in turn will help in women
Hoive\rer, no law, unless internalized within empo!verment.
community can r,.york successfully, as is evident by Thus, state can act as catalyst in bringing gender
high cases of dqu,ry related deaths and prevalence of parity in the society along with fighting against age
caste practices even after lan s were formulated. This is old patriarchal traditional practices which continue to
precisely the reason Directive principles of state policy, suppress and subjugate women across the globe.
which envisages the ideals of Uniform Civil Code
(UCC) was'kept noir-justiciable. This allows internal a. Construct a sociological narrative on the
democratization within the society r,r,hen the time is increasing trend of child abuse in India.
ripe, and helps strengthen the fabric of Democracy in
India. Triple talaq is another such monumental biil in
Ans: Child abuse is neglect of a child especially
right direction that tries to move societv towards gender
by a parent or any other'caregiver. It may be physical,
justice in the country.
sexual, or psychological.
Child abuse may include anv act or failure to act
a. Assess the e"mle of the State in promoting by a parent or other caregiver that result in actuil or
education of girl child" (CSE,2018) potential harm to a child. This abuse can occur in a
Ans: Education is an essential part of human being child's home, organization, schools, communities or
which nurtures an individual to be smarter and helps in and around the environrnent where the child
him evolve continuously. A proactive educational interacts.
system can be iife changing be it with regards to women
Social causes resulting in increasing trends of child
empowerment or addressing gender discrimination.
abuse are-
The role of state in promoting girls education is
profound when the patriarchal mindset of society is o Bondage - Children are pledged due to poverty as
realized, which inhibits and discourages women from "begar" or bonded labour
asserting their rights in public space. The multitude o Gender discrimination - Girls are more prone to be
of problems faced by young adolescent girls while forced into child abuse.
pursuing education related to health (high prevalence o Poverty - Lack of monetary resources forces poorer
of anemic women), sanitation, sexual harassment, households to push their child to work as a survival
adolescent marriages etc and are major causes for high strategy
dropout rates can only be dealt with a multi prolonged o Increased family size and population among poorer
approach by the state. sections of society.
408 :l:'::':': SOCIOLOGY Q & A

o Vulnerability of children makes them easy targets, o Rape and verbal and physical abuse
as they rarely protest and are even considered o Fluman trafficking since they are easily repressed.
suitable for certain works like carpet weaving, o Social Exclusion from social, cultural and economic
bangle industry etc. life as weil as employment and livelihood
o Lack of accountability in welfare and social security opportunities present in economY
measures taken by the state denies empowerment o Restricted access to education, health care, personal
of the masses and puts their children into a vicious care as well as social securitY net
circle of illiteracy and povertY. c Limited access to public sPaces/
o Low levels of female literacy. o Limited access to collectivization
o Small uneconomic land holdings in agriculture. o Limited rights of Citizenship who are excluded from
o Poor legal framework and implernentation decision-ma kiLrg
challenges- lack of powers among statutory
Steps towards Recognizing Rights of Transgenders
organizations dealing with child abuse
o High proportion of scheduled caste and scheduled India is a country where we have well-established
tribe population areas are prone to child abuse.
framework of Fundamental Rights embedded in-the
constitution which provides iransgenders (referred to
Despite one in every two children being a victim
as the third gender) some entitlements. Some of the
of child sexual abuse, the debate in political forum has
fundamental l{.ights specific to transgenders include:
been mute on child abuse. Lack of empirical data on the
Article 14; State shall not deny any person equality
magnitude of sexual violence against children persists.
before the iau, or equal protection of laws within
Educating children, demanding basic protection for
territory of the State.
country's chiidren from all spheres of society as well
as collective recognition of state of victims are some of
Article 15: State shall not discriminate against any
basic steps to fight this social evil.
citizen on the grounds of race, caste, religion, sex, place
of birth or any of them
Article 21: Right to his life and personal liberty
a. Discuss the issues relating to the entitlement
The Supreme Court has directed Central and
of transgender in Indian society. (CSE, 2018)
State Governments to grant legal recognition to
Ans: Transgender is a general term applied to a transgenders by identifying them as third gender. The
variety of individuals, behaviours and groups who court also directed government to legally recognize
tend to diverge from the normative gender roles. Social rights of people h"ansitioning within male/female binary.
exclusion of transgenders not only generates tension, Proper health and sanitary facilities to Transgender
violence and disruption but also perpetuates inequality must be'ensured by Centre and State. Further, with
and deprivation in Society. Overcoming 'exclusion' the striking down of provisions of Section 377 which
constitutes the most elementary pre-requisite for the punished homosexuality,,the court has given voice to
building of a democratic society. the voiceless.
Reasons Hampering Entitlement of Transgenders Thus, Indian society is passing through a change
o cultural and economic difficulties.
Faces legal, social,
where differences are being accepted and the state is
acting as source of social change in recognizing the
o Discrimination- in terms of education, employment,
rights of the marginalizecl sections of the society.
entertainment, justice etc.
o Disrespected in each and every aspect of life except
a. How have the struggles against untouchability
in few cases like after the birth of a child for their changed their forms and perspective from
blessings or to bless a newly wedded couple
Gandhian to Ambedkarite positions?
o Downtrodden sections as they are treated badly or (csE,2oL7\
oppressed by people in power.
Ans: Untouchability in Indian society is a practice
o Prostitution: As they are forced to enter the in which some lower caste people are kept at a distance,
profession by their community, friends or relatives denied of social equalitl' and made to suffer from
with full parental consent in general. some disabilities for their touch, is considered to be
o Isolation: They are forced and pressurized to leave contaminating or polluting the higher caste people'
parental home once their identity is identified. Gandhi and Ambedkar offered specific goals for and
o Unwanted attentiory by the public to transgenders pathways to the creation of a just social order in India.
creates a sense of fear within the community' They differed over objectives as well as the methods for
o Rejection to entry, in religious places, public places achieving their ends to eradicate untouchability from
like hotels, restaurants, theaters, parks, etc. Indian society.
 CHALLENGES OF SOCIAL TRANSFORMATION ffi 409
Views of Gandhiji on Untouchability o Carole Sheffield writes that the right to control
Gandhi believed that standing at the heart of the the female body is the cornerstone of patriarchy
inherited Hindu tradition, including its caste system, as patriarchy is a system in which men dominate,
it was possible to overcome untouchability. According oppress and exploit women. Men who harass
to the Mahatma, "The caste system is a hindrance, women think that they can get away with it.
not a sin". He was not against caste system itself, a The perpetrators think that the victim will be too
but the disabilities imposed by it, one of which was ashamed or scared to report to the police and even
untouchability. if she will report no action will be taken against the
Views of Ambedkar on Untouchability aggressor.
For his part, Ambedkar initially sought equality a With the developing cyber network and social
within the Hindu tradition, hoping to gain a place media, around the globe, women are becoming the
of religious and social equality with caste Hindus. soft targets of the criminals in the cyber domain.
For more than a decade, he struggled to overcome o Society has a tendency to blame the victim for
untouchability while staying within the Hindu fold. instigating violence by wearing certain type of dress
Finding Hinduism too flawed to be a force for justice and makeup, etc. That needs to be taken care of
and the Hindu orthodoxy too resistant to change, he through intensive sensitization through mass media
gave up on Hinduism and proper education.
Ambedkar wanted the dissolution of the whole
caste system, according to him the whole system is Q. Write a note on Education and Equality in
responsible for the exploitation and sub-ordination of India. (CSE, ZOtn
the Dalits. After years of reflection and in the hopes of Ans: The success of democracy depends upon
carrying along with him Dalits as well as caste F{indus, a education of its citizens. Education should aim at total
few days before he died, Ambedkar turned to Buddhism. development of individual's personality.
Both were great nationalist leaders who sought
social order and a sense of equality in the country. The Need for equality of Education
Constitution of India itself constituted Rights to the o It is needed for the establishment of an egalitaria4
citizens against, the practices of untouchability under society.
Article 17. o It is needed because it is through the education
to all people in a democracy that the success of
Q. What are the reasons for the escalation of democratic institution is assured.
violenbe againstwomen in the public domain? o The equality of educational opportunities will
ensure.a rapid advancement of a nation.
(csE,20L7) . It will help to develop a close link between the
Ans: Experts define violence against women as manpower needs of a society and the availability
behaviour that is violen! uses physical force or threat of skilled personnel..
and is intimidating, coercive, damaging to women. It
Reasons for inequalities in
includes physical, visual, verbal or sexual acts that may
Difference in economic
be termed as threat, invasion or assault"
Gender disparities
Violence on women at public spaces in India
Regional Imbalance
includes horrific crimes like gang rape, molestation,
Difference in home conditions
harassment at public places, acid attack, branding and
Disparity between backward and advanced classes
burning as witch, abduction, murder, black mailing,
Non-availability of adequate opportunities
naked parade, thrashing, sexual exploitation, getting
unwanted calls on mobiles, abusive and vulgar tanguage Measures taken for Equalisation of Educational
and actions and indecent touching of sensitive areas of Opportunity:
bodies in crowded bus, train, etc. Constitutional Provisions: On the basis of the
constitutional provisions we must provide compulsory
Reasons for the escalation of violence against women elementary education to all children of the country.
in the public domain Debarring restriction-on admission in educational
o According to feminist theory, the main factors institutions: Admission to educational institutions has
that contribute to violence against women include been made available to all irrespective of caste and
historically male domirrrt"d social structures religion.
and socialization practices. It focuses on po\ rer, Wide distribution of Institutions: Educational
gender and the structure of relationships in a male institutions have been opened in large numbers in order
dominated patriarchal culture. to provide opportunity to all for getting education.
410 $irti soctoLocy e & A
Provision of Pre-school education: In order to o The non-creamy lower castes people need leaders
overcome wastage and stagnation in primary education, to fight for the exclusion of the creamy layer from
Pre-school education is to be given priority. Pre-school the purview of reservation.
education centres like Balwadi, Anganwadi, etc. have o These leaders would be from the creamy-layer itself
been opened and are to be set up in large scale. and they may not be interested in taking up a cause
Provision of scholarship and other facilities: whose success would make them lose the benefit
Provision of free ships and scholarships are being made they are enjoying now.
for the backward and disadvantaged groups. Hence, we can see from above that the problem
In-spite of all attempts in the direction of the associated with the creamy layer is more complex and
national goal-quality of opportunity, the result is not requires out of the box solutions through great political
satisfactory. Ieadership.
Flence in order to accelerate in the progress of
providing equality of opportunity, incentive measures a. Discuss some of the striking issues of
are to be properly implemented and administrative development induced imbalances that need
structure has to be properly streamlined with a strong urgent attention. (CSE,1A1.7'1
will and determination.
Ans: Development can be defined as an upward
ascending movement featuring greater levels of
a. Give an account of the problems relating to
the "creamy '!.aye{'.
energy, efficiency, quality, productivity, complexity,
(CSE,?:0L[
comprehension, creativity, mastery, enjoyment and
Ans: The creamy layer is a term used in Indian accomplishment. Development is a process of social
politics to refer to the relatively wealthier and better change, not merely a set of policies and programs
educated members of the Other Backward Classes instituted for some specific results. Development is the
(OBCs) who are not eligible for government sponsored result of society's capacity to organize resources to meet
educational and professional benefit programs. challenges and opportunities.
The problems associated with the creamy layer is Development does not always result in the welfare
as follows: of the society. There strikes a number of imbalances
Upper Caste Dilemma in the process of development. Some of them are as follows:
The upper castes in India have been quite vociferous r Development-induced displacement and
in raising the issue of reservation benefit given to the resettlement (DIDR): This phenomenon occurs
well-off people of the lowers castes. They, however, are when people are forced from their homes andf or
not interested in taking the agitation further, because land as a result of development. This subset of forced
even if they succeed in introducing creamy-layer mlgrition has been associated with the construction
concept, they would gain nothing in the process as the of dams for hydroelectric power and irrigation,
benefit would flow only to the lower castes that are poor. mining, agriculture, the creation of military
They, therefore, want that reservation to be based installations, airports, industrial plants, weapon
on economic criteria. The well-off section of the upper- testing grounds, railways, road developments,
caste are unlikely to pursue this agenda which would urbanization, conservation projects, and f orestry.
make them lose the benefit themselves as this quota can o Development and Ecological Imbaian"",
only be carved out from their own seats after selling out Balancing growth and development and ecological
the quota of 49.5% for SC/ST and OBC. conservation has literally become a jigsaw that
Lower Caste Dilemma refuses to be solved by the most known experts in
If the creamy layer is introduced and the benefit ecology.
is denied to those who have got the reservation once o Development and Migration: Increased
or become prosperous otherwise, the real beneficially industrialisation has led to the greater migration
would be the poor and socially backwards people in the of people from the rural areas to the urban areas,
lower castes only. They are the real loser if the creamy thus unbalancing their way of life, and leading to
layer concept is not being introduced and they must the swelling up of cities with difficulty in survival.
actually agitate when the benefit of reservation is given o Development and Social Problems: Many social
to the well-off society in their castes instead of the upper problems like Child abuse, drug trafficking, etc.
castes who are usually seen making all the noises. poses challenges to the society.'
A difficult situation o Development and Health: Frenk points out that
The introduction of creamy layer is thus entangled health system currently face complex challenges
in a complex situation: due to new pressures such as ageing populations,
 CHALLENGES OF SOCIAL TRANSFORMAT!ON ]}B 411

an increase in the occurrence of chronic illnesses, o Diversification of the tourism products: While
and an intensive use of health technologies which retaining the traditional image of cultural tourism
are expensive. that India enjoys, diversification of the tourism
a Development and Economic Inequality: These product would continue, particularly the field
include economic inefficiency, undermining of social of leisure, adventure, convention and incentive
stability and solidarity and its unfairness to some tourism, thereby responding to the changing
sections of the society in general (Todaro and Smith). consumer needs.
O Development and Increased Pollution: According o Increase in India's share in world tourism:
to the World Bank, the rate at which natural Presently the foreign tourist arrivals in India
resources, i.e. land, water and air, are being constitute only about 0.4 per cent of the total foreign
degraded in many countries is 'alarming'. The tourist's movement all over the wodd. One of the
health of many is also threatened by factors such objectives of the action plan would'be to increase
as air pollutioo waterborne diseases and exposure India's share to 1 per cent within the next five years.
to harmful chemicals. Recently Union government has launched a
Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana
a. Examine the impact of heritage tourism on (HRIDAY) scheme to preserve and rejuvenate the rich
urban socio-spatial patterns in India? cultural heritage of the country that will further enhance
I the socio-spatial quality of the urban centres.
I
(csE,20Tn
t
Ans: India is famous the world over for its
rich heritage and ancient culture. The country's
a. Explain the issue relating to ethnicity and
cultural diversity and glorious history attracts millions
sub-ethnicity. (C58,2017\
of tourists each year to visit its numerous heritage sites Ans: India is extremely diverse ethnically, with
scattered throughout its lands. India's rich heritage is more than 2,000 different ethnic gloups.
amply magnified by the numerous monuments, temples, Ethnicify: Ethnicity is a shared membership in an
forts and palaces that bear testimony to a glorious by- important cultural grouping. For example, race, is a
gone era. cultural category, not a biological one. Ethnicity can be
a function of the common culture of a geographical area;
Impact of helitage tourism on urban socio-spatial
people of Bengal wear a distinctive style of clothing and
patterns
speak one of the dialects of the Bengali language.
o Socio-economic development of areas: Tourism
Throughout the history of India, ethnic relations
con-ferred considerable socio-economic benefits to
ha'n e been both constructive (as with mutual cultural
the community thereby uplifting the quality of
influences) and destructive (as with discrimination and
life. It can further foster development even in areas
ethnically-based violence). The issues related to ethnicity
where other economic activities would be difficult
and sub-ethnicity are as follows:
to sustain.
o Increasingemployment opportunities: Tourism o In recent years there have been many reports of
industry generates employment directly and discrimination against people from India. Many
indirectly like guides, auto rickshaw or cuisines North-Eastern Indians face discrimination and are
subjected to racial slurs. In 2014, a North-Eastern
centres etc.
o Developing domestic tourism: In India student named Nido Tania was killed in New Delhi.
also,
facilities for domestic tourists will be improved and o In North-East India, there have been many attacks
expanded so as to ensure an affordable holiday for on those from outside the region.
them as the urge to lure the tourist that brings huge o The emergence of Jharkhand, Uttarakhand and
earnings. Telangana as autonomous separate state entities
o Preservation of national heritage and environment: was due to perceived discrimination that these
Tourism should be developed in a manner that our ethnic entities were facing in the previous states.
cultural expression and heritage are presented in o The demand for recognition is becoming more
all its manifestations including support to arts and frequent day by day owning to the emergence of
- crafts. Preservation and enrichment of environment various sub-ethnicities like the present agitation of
.should also form an integral part of tourism Gorkhaland.
development. o Inter-religious and Inter-regional. animosity has also
o Development of international tourism and been an important issue emerged due to excessive
optimization of foreign exchange earnings: ethnic orientation and becoming intolerant like the
International tourism contributes substantially to case of il.lluzzafarnagar riots or Son of soil factors
i foreign exchange earnings. (Maharashtra for Maharashtuians).
I
\
412 t::': soclolocY Q&A

o The issue of North Indians vs. South Indians is also Are they changing?
one such example of issue of ethnicity. With the increasing rate of education and
o Sometimes the ethnicity and sub-ethnicity become modernisation, the intensity of social discrimination
so deep that they start challenging the machinery in India is slowly fading away. Caste system does not
of the government and its institutions and follow hold relevance in every field of life like was the case in
terror activities as a means to attain their objective ancient India.
like the case of Khalistan in Punjab. Also, women are given equality of opportunities
now, to study, to work or find life-partners to marry. But
Q. What, according to you are the two fundamental the ultimate sight of change is still far away. Caste- based
discrimination in Indian society?
axes of social politics and vote-bank are very important especially in
Are they changing? (CSE,z0[.n the North Indian belt, honour killings are prevalent
in the name of caste and religion, many instances of
Ans: Social discrimination is necessarily an gender discrimination in family, society, workplace is
intergroup social phenomenon transcending class
still visible, which requires a social attitudinal change.
differentiation - visible when one or few social group
commands and practises social sanctions against
other social group. Two fundamental axes of social a. Comment on the factors.behind the changing
discrimination in Indian society are Caste and Gender. status of women in urban India? (CSE, 2016)
Caste Discrimination in India Ans: The status of women-social, economic,
Ghurye states, "Caste is a Brahminic child of Indo- political, and general-in India today is much higher
Aryan culture cradled in the land of the Ganges and than in ancient and medieval periods. Women today
then transferred to other parts of India." enjoy many more rights-social and legal-and have i
,
o The caste discrimination is a check on economic greater freedom and voice, and participate more freely I
and intellectual advancement and a great stumbling in public affairs. But it is also true that they are still I
i
I
block in the way of social reforms, because it keeps discriminated, harassed, humiliated, dominated and \

economic and intellectual opportunities confined to even exploited. The situation did undergo some change
a certain section of the population only. owing to Bhakti movement which permitted some social
o It undermihes the efficiency of labour and prevents and religious freedom to women.
perfect mobility of labour, capital and productive In the British period, the status of women improved
effort. a little because of spread of education, Christian
o It perpetuates exploitation of the economically missionaries' interest in girls' education, abolition
weaker and socially inferior castes, especially the of social customs like sati, enacting of some legal
untouchables. measures (like Widow Remarriage Act, 1856, Special
o It has inflicted untold hardships on women through Marriage Act,1872, Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929)
its insistence on practices like child-marriage, and a few social movements initiated by enlightened
prohibition of widow-remarriage, seclusion of leaders like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, ]ustice Ranade,
women, etc. Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Maharishi Karve, Swami
Gender Discrimination in India Dayanand Saraswati, Annie Beasant, Mahatma Gandhi,
o Any denial of equality, gender and opportunity on etc., and the growth of women's organisations like Banga
the basis of gender is gender discrimination. Mahila Samaj, Bharat Mahila Parishad (1904), Women's'
o An unborn girl child is aborted with the help of sex IndianAssociation (1917), National Council of Women in
determination techniques. A girl child who is born India (1925), and All India Women's Con{erence (1927).
is seen as a burden on her parents. The change in the status of women got further impetus
o She is not given proper nutritious food in some after independence because of the enactment of new
cases. As she grows, she is either denied of right laws (Special Marriage Act,1954, Hindu Marriage Act,
to education and in some cases it is limited to 1955, Hindus Succession Act 1956 and Anti Dowry Act
elementary level. 1961). Other factors which affected women's status were:
o Her health and well being is not given die attention effect of educatiory leadership provided by educated
and concern. She is married at an early age and this elite women, increasing -opportunities of employment,
puts an end to any possibilities of growth. change in the rigidity of the caste system, and so on.
o The discrimir-ration against women is not only The need for linkage between programmes oriented to
hampering the growth of women at social, economic women and national policy towards weaker sections has
and personal level but also significantly lower come to be increasingly realised.
female-to-male ratios impact the growth in both The National Commission for Women (NCW), set
agriculture and industrial sectors. up in january 1992, was directed to look into women-
 CHALLENGES OF SOCIAL TRANSFORMATTON ::r 413
related issues, probe the status of women, examine One rather obvious result of this intersection of changes
various legislations and point out loopholes and gaps in family composition and the labor market has been
and assess the causes of discrimination and violence a deeper polarization in economic well-being among
against women and suggest possible remedies. urban populations, which is especially marked between
Some observers associate changing status of households with two or more workers and those with
women with factors like increase in divorce and female none. Such labor market changes are also interrelated,
share of rlir.e16g petitions outnumbering that of men, as cause and effect, with shifts in domestic relations
inrrsase in inter-caste marriages, decrease in number inside the household and family. The impact of these
of crimes against women, and so forth. But factors changes have been most obvious for married women.
which really point out the high status of women are: Not only has their involvement in the formal (paid)
involvement of women in paid-work and acquiring labor market increased, but so too has their economic
economic independence, increase in the number of position within the family. This gives women more
higher and better-paid positions in different departments autonomy in decision making, but it has not been
occupied by womery increase in the number of female without drawbacks. For many women the challenges
entrepreneurs and managers/ etc., increase in the of balancing work, domestic responsibilities, and the
number of women in legislative bodies, increase in the imperatives of everyday urban life, have increased,
number of girls studying in universities, colleges and not decreased. Smaller families, and the dispersion of
professional institutions, and so forth. extended families in contemporary urbanized societies,
In the developed societies, modernization and have in combination also reduced the level of kinship
urbanization are instrumental in improving the status support systems available to these lvomen."
of working women. Increased female participation in
economic activity not merely liberated women from the a. Discuss the emerging forms of inequalities'
tyranny of the 'household trap' but also enabled them and 'acute poverty/ as maior challenges of
to take decision on their fertility status and family size. social transformation in India. (CSE,2016)
Urbanization has modified domestic roles and relations
Ans: Equality, like fairness, is an important value
within the family, and redefined concepts of individual
and social responsibility. The societal shift from rural
in most societies. Irrespective of ideology, culture, and
religiory people care about inequality. Inequality can be
to urban alteri rates of natural population increase.
Children are clearly less useful in urban settlements, as a signal of lack of income mobility and opportunity-a
units of labor and producers, than in rural settings, and reflection of persistent disadvantage for particular
are more expensive to house and feed. In fact, fertility segments of the society. Widening inequality also has
levels in developed countries have dropped so low significant implications for growth and macroeconomic
that cities are seldom capable of reproducing their own stability, it can concentrate political and decision making
populations. power in the hands of a few, Iead to a suboptimal use
And this directly impacts the women in a household. of human resources, cause investment-reducing political
The evolution to an urban society is also frequently and economic instabilit)., and raise crisis risk. The
equated with a decline in the status of the family, and economic and social fallout from the global financial
with a proliferation of nontraditional family forms and crisis and the resultant headwinds to global growth
new types of households. Not only does urbanization and employment have heightened the attention to iising
involve obvious changes in employment and working income inequality.
life, it alters the relationships between households (the High and sustained levels of inequality, especially
collective units of consumption) and labor markets (the inequality of opportunity can entail large social costs.
production sector). Two countervailing processes are Entrenched inequality of outcomes can significantly
at work here in reshaping the linkages between living undermine individuals' educational and occupational
arrangement and work. One is that over the last half choices. Further, inequality of outcomes does not
centuiy the proportion of the population in the labor generate the "right" incentives if it rests on rents.
force-that is, the participation rate-has increased, In that event, individuals have an incentive to
especially among married women. Historically, of divert their efforts toward securing favored treatment
course, women always had full-time jobs in pre-urban and protection, resulting in resource misallocation,
societies, but through the process of urbanization much corruptiory and nepotism, with attendant adverse social
of that work became marginalized as "domestic" (and and economic consequences. In particular, citizens can
unpaid) work. lose con-fidence in institutions, eroding social cohesion
Second, the decline in average household size has and confidence in the future. Higher inequality
tended to fragment the incomes of consuming units, lowers growth by depriving the ability of lower-
usually meaning fewer wage earners per household. income households to stay healthy and accumulate
414 is soctoLocY e & A
physical and human capital. For instance, it can lead to large-scale trans-national migrations in the current era
underinvestment in education as poor children end up of unprecedented globalizatron. The ethnic upsurges and
in lower-quality schools and are less able to go on to assertions of cultures in India are the consequences of
college. As a result, labor productivity could be lower excesses of modernization and the homogenizing trend
than it would have been in a more equitable world. of modern states and of their technological/educational
The health of a nation is also determined by the imperatives.
standards of living that are enjoyed by its people apart Some of the critical factors responsible for inflamed
from the national income and the Gross Domestic ethnicity in India are:
Product. Poverty thus becomes a huge blot on the e India is a plural society. It is characterizedby a large
development of any nation. Poverty can be defined diversity in its population with multitudes of castes
as a condition wherein a person is unable to fulfill the and several religious, linguistic, cultural and racial
basic necessities for the sustenance of life. These basic groups living here. Because of intensi competition
necessities include- food, clothing and shelter. Extreme for scarce economic resources and the heightened
poverty eventually leads to death. Poverty in India is consciousness among people of different groups to
defined keeping in mind all the dimensions of economy, preserve their age-old cultures, India has always
semi-economy and the definitions which are devised been vulnerable to assertions of ethnic identities.
according to international conventions. India judges I Lopsided economic development of the country
poverty levels on the basis of both consumption and because of which some groups feel that they have
income. been marginalized and completely left behind
Consumption is measured on account of the money in the process of development. This makes them
that is spent by a household on essential goods and highly susceptible to the politics of ethnicity.
income is calculated according to the income earned by o Representative parliamentary democracy in India
a particular household. Nearly half of the population where different ethnic groups (castes; religious
doesn t have proper shelter, access to a decent sanitation groups/ linguistic groups etc.) compete for political
system, villages do not have a nearby water source, and power by stressing on horizontal solidarity and
villages also do not have a secondary school and lack o{ consolidation of shared interests.
proper roads. Sgme sections of the society like the Dalits o \
Increasing politicization of caste and religion. Caste
are not even included in the poverty list maintained by
and religious identities are often whipped up by l
!
the concerned authorities assigned by the government.
political leaders to mobilize people for their vested i
They're groups that are marginalized in the society.
interests and petty political mileages.
Poverty exerts some gravely concerning effects over the
overall societal health as well like increasing incidences
o Fear among minorities (both linguistic and religious)
that thby might get assimilated into the dominant
of violence and crime, homelessness which affects child
healttu women safety and overall increase in criminal
culture leading to the dilution of their cultural I
t
heritage. Hence, there is an increasing stress on
tendencies, stress, child labour, terrorism, etc.
ethnic identity to forge horizontal solidarity. Such
feelings have also increased because of the process
Q. What are the factors accounting for the of globalization and cultural homogenization
resurgence of ethnic identity movements in occurring everywhere. Cultural globalizatibn is
India? (CSE,2016) even causing the Hindu majority to assert itself and
Ans: The surge in ethnic unrest and conflicts in India is spawning Hindu revivalism in India.
in recent years has become a matter of serious concern. o Intense feeling of alienation among the tribes of
Linguistic assertions, communalism, regionalism, caste India because of faulty development policies,
conflicts and tribal identity movements- all are on the leading to forced displacement from their age-old
rise. They are not only choking the developmental efforts inhabited land and forest, reducing them to abject
but also threatening the unity and integrity of the nation. poverty and destitute.
Acute poverty and inequality, political maneuvering India is a multi-cultural nation. Its diversity is its
and deleterious effects of hasty globalization are some greatest strength. Forging unity among different ethnic
of the critical factors responsible for the intensification groups holds the key to India's success as a vibrant
of ethnic assertions in India. democracy. This requires multi-pronged strategy -
An ethnic group is a group of people united on balanced regional development, inclusive economic
the basis of some shared experience or some common development, safeguarding the interests of ethnic
physical or socio-cultural attributes. For e.g. race, minorities and tribes, stamping out all communal and
culture, language, religion, region, nationality, heritage casteist tendencies and fostering a sustained inteiaction
etc. Ethno-nationalism is on rise in recent years due to arnong different cultural groups in the country.
 CHALLENGES OF SOCIAL TRANSFORMATION S 415
a. Feminization of poverty. (CS8,2015) the aged are more likely to be victims of poor mental
Ans: The feminization of poverty is the phenomenon health, which arises from senility, neurosis and extent
in which women experience poverty at rates that are of life satisfaction. The common psychological problems
disproportionately high in comparison to men.70% that most of the older persons experience include feeling
of all the people in the world living in poverty are of powerlessness, feeling of inferiority, depression,
women. Women also constitute the majority of the 1.5 uselessness, isolation and reduced competence.
billion people living on $1 a day or less. Women living Government has a significant role in effective
in poverty are often denied access to critical resources legislations like Maintenance and Welfare of Parents
such as credit, land and inheritance. Their labour goes and Senior Citizens Act,2007 providing legal sanctions
unrewarded and unrecognized. to the rights of the elderly. Social security by the state
Their health care and nutritional needs are not assumes great importance. Constitutional provisions for
given priority, they lack sufficient access to education old age security, old age pension, establishing old age
and support services, and their participation in decision- homes, expanding geriatric services, liberalizing housing
making at home and in the community are minimal. policy for elders have been undertaken.
Caught in the cycle of poverty, women lack access to The concept of the old age home as care givers are
resources and services to change their situation. An gradually gaining acceptance. \Arhile there is a view that
important achievement of the Beijing Conference has increasing institutionalization of elderly people would
been the recognition by governments that there is a lead to erosion of the desirable traditional family values
gender dimension to poverty. This has resulted in and may even lead to the breakup of the institution
efforts to refocus poverty eradication policies to address of family itself, there is also need for various types of
specifically the needs of womery particularly in rural institutions to accommodate the increasing number of
areas. It is a common worldwide knowledge that women elderly parents whose children are unable or unwilling
earn much less than men for the same nature of job. The to care for their parents. The reciprocal care and
highly gendered nature of economic disparity remains support within multi-generational families of parents,
largely unaddressed on a global stage. grandparents and children should be encouraged.
Traditional values of filial obligations can also be
a. Discuss t\e problems of elderly in India. reinforced in school curricula and through the media.
What are the different perspectives to solve It is necessary to increase public awareness of the need
their problems? (CSE,2015) for protection of this sub group. There is a great need to
protect the target Soup i.e. rural old, and old womery
Ans. In. the Indian context, the age of 60 years has and widows. There is also need for the elderly to remain
been adopted by the census of India for the purpose of
active, to knpw that they still have a part to play in the
classifying a person as old, which coincides with the family or community to which they belong and can make
age of retirement in government sector. Indian society
a useful co contribution to nation and society as a whole.
is undergoing rapid transformation under the impact
of industrialization, urbanization, technological change,
education and globalization. With the rapidly increasing
a. Effect of displacement through development
number of aged compounded by disintegration of joint
on the rural landless and marginal farmers.
families and ever increasing influence of modernization (csE,2015)
and new life styles, the care of elderly has emerged as Ans: The consequences of development-induced
an important issue in India. displacement and resettlement depend largely on
In modern society with improved education, rapid how resettlement is planned, negotiated, and carried
technical change and new forms of organization have out. It is rare to find examples of positive resettlement
often rendered obsolete the knowledge, experience and experiences. The policy-makers andf or developers
wisdom of older persons; The growth of nuclear families formulate development and resettlement plans, often
has also meant a need for changes in role relations where without informing those to be displaced.
old persons have neither authority in the family, nor People learn about their future displacement,
do they feel needed. If the older person is economically which heightens the level of stress experienced. After
dependent on the children, the problem is likely to their physical relocatiory displacees begin the process
become even worse. of rebuilding their economy and social networks.
Another development impacting negatively on the Unless specifically addressed by targeted policies,
status of older people is the increasing occurrence of forced displacement can cause impovei"ishment among
dual career families, which has implications for elderly displacees by bringing about landlessness, joblessness,
care. Old age also implies increasing physical, mental homelessness, marginalization, food insecurity, loss
and psychological disabilities. Besides physical illness, of access to common property resources, increased
416 ffi soctoLocYQ&A
morbidity and mortality, and community disarticulation' history and backgrounds. This gives rise to the problem
There is also loss of access to public services, disruption of adjustment with the majority community' Different
of formal education activities, and loss of civil and identity and their small number relative to the rest of
human rights. For example, experience of indigenous the society develop feeling of insecurity about their
peoples with dams has been characterized by cultural life, assets and well-being, especially when relations
uli"rutiot, dispossession of land and resources, lack between the maiority and the minority communities in
of consultation, insufficient or a complete lack of a society are strained or not much cordial as is manifest
compensation, human rights abuses, and a lowering in Hindu-Muslim con{licts' Sometimes, because of the
of living standards. A small number of studies have difference in identity, the minority community develops
shown ihut *o*un, children, elderly and disabled the perception of the sense of inequity and they may
often experience the ad.verse consequences of forced also remain deprived of the benefit of opportunities of
resettlement more strongly than men' deveiopment as a result of discrimination' \
Thus, the targeted resettlement policies should The present plethora of religious and ethnic conflicts \I
include land-based (as opposed to mere cash-based) coincides and is also fueled by the declining terms- of I
resettlement, job creation, health and nutritional trade dictated by the industrialized internal bottlenecks; i
safeguards, and social network rebuilding' DIDR is agricultural underemployment and migration to cities;
an ethically complex issue, in which public interest increasing disparities of income among the expectant \
i
and distributive concerns stand in tension with self- participants in the literacy explosion; the visible !l
determination and individual rights protecting against pauperisation of the urban and rural underclass' The i
harm and coercion. more dangerous aspect of India's emerging democratic
politics has been political parties' ruthless and cynical l
Q. What are the major concerns of ethnic identity use of communal and ethnic contradictions for short- t,l
and religious identity in India? (CSE, 2015) term, natrow political gains. I
I{
However, the battle of preserving and promoting
Ans: India's religious and ethno-comunities have
"unity in diversity" in India is far from being lost' It
multilayered and multidimensional identities that
can be won not because of the coercive power of the
impinge on e4ch other in a non-stratified and dynamic
Indian state, but because of the inherent strength and
manner. Ethnicity is often seen as a wider category
resilience of Indian society. The problem is not with the
including caste, tribe, race and language, making
institutions and the common people in India, but with
ethnicity the umbrella term. Aside from the about for
a leadership that surrenders values and larger gains
2000-odd castes, there are eight "major" religions,
short-term, selfish advantages.
22-scheduled languages spoken in various dialects in
29 states and union territories, and a substantial number
of tribes and sects. Any diversity and heterogeneity is a. How serious is the problem of trafficking
not con{lict-producing per se, although it may carry a against wolnen and children in India?
(csE,20L5)
potential for conflict. in the process of the "passing" of
ethnic identities and politicization of ethnic groups/ a Ans: Human trafficking is the acquisition of people
number of "seculat" or "non-ethnic" factors like state' by improper means such as force, fraud or deception,
pace, and Pattern of economic development, political with the aim of exploiting them. It is the third largest
io.."t, and outside subversion play a critical role' organized crime after drugs and the arms trade across
Three ethnic or religious conflicts have stood the globe. About 80% of the human trafficking across
out in Indian history: Assam and Nagaland; other is the world is done for sexual exploitation and the rest
Punjab; and third is the more widely known Hindu- is for bonded labor and India is considered as the hub
Muslim conflict in Kashmir and elsewhere' The Assam- of this crime in Asia. Trafficking of children is done
Nagaland problem is primarily ethnic; the Punjab for physical or sexual exploitation, slavery, servitude
p.otl"* is based on both religious and regional conflicts; or the forced removal of organs. While children and
while,the Hindu-Muslim problem is predominantly men are sold to work in brick kilns, carpentry units,
religious. Not only have these intensified and the extent as domestic servants,-beggars etc, girls and women
of violence grown with time, even the character of these are trafficked for the purpose of sexual exploitation in
insurgencies, in terms of their objectives, ideologies, various forms including brothel-based prostitution, sex-
leadeiship, and methods, is becoming more strident and tourism, and pornography. Trafficking of minor girls
uncompromising. has surged 14 times over the last decade and increased
The main issue that the ethnic and religious grouPs 65% in 2A14, according to new data released by the
have to grapple with is the issue of identity everywhere National Crime Records Bureau. India is witnessing
because of the differences in socio-cultural practices, an increase in human trafficking because of economic
 CHALLENGES OF SOCTAL TRANSFORMATION ,.. 417
injustice, poverty, migratiory social inequality, regional Otherwise, India faces a huge risk in wasting its
gender preference, imbalance and corruption. Tens of "demographic dividend" it currently has, potently
thousands of children are going missing from some of catalyzing it into a cursing liability: poor education as
India's remote tribal areas and poor districts, as human well as severe health and nutrition issues that, besides
traffickers respond to a surge in demand for domestic the death toll, make substantial parts of the population
child labour in booming urban districts. less productive than they could be.
Parents in tribal areas think that sending their kids On the one hand, economic growth provides the
means a better life in terms of education and safety. resource to permit sustained improvements in human
In 201.4, India reported a surge of nearly 39% in the development; on the other, sustained improvements
number of cases registered across the country for human in the quality of human capital are an important
trafficking. The Home Ministry has launched a web portal contributor to economic growth through accumulation of
on anti-human trafficking, and the Ministry of Women human capital through investment in health, educaticiry
and Child Development is implementing Ujjawala, a skills training and R&D, accessible opportunities for
programme that focuses on rescue, rehabilitation and people to contribute to economic growth through social,
repatriation of victims. political and economic participation.

a. Human development approach affirms that a. Modernisation of Indian traditions.

education and health-care growth are more (csE,2014)
important than economic growth. Discuss this Ans: Yogendra Singh sees the process of social
issue in the light of post-liberalized Indian change through two perspectives- (i) structural, and (ii)
society. (CSE,2015) evolutionary. Structural changes are seen through the
Ans: Since the era of liberalization in India began in variables of social mobiiity, technological modernity
earnest in1991,, the country has experienced consistent and secular institutions, changes in norms and value
rates of growth of its gross domestic product (GDP) of systems etc and modernisation is seen through the flow
around 6-7.5% p.a. and exceeded 9% in several years of these values and their impact decides the nature and
after 2005 before the World Recession. extent of the transformation. Flowever, an evolutionary
Economic $owth expands the material resources perspective is based on theoretital assumptions and
available for the fulfillment of human needs. But these theoretical perspectives can be either structural-
the extent to which these needs are met depends on functional or dialectical. Dialectical approach sees the
the allocati.on of the rewards of growth through the 'breakdown' of old institution as the pre-requisite criteria
distribution of private and public resources. Economic for the change and change in psycho-neurological factors
growth will not invariably translate into human are not appreciated in this method.
development if other important factors are not in place. The concept of modernity cannot be understood in
A healthy and better-educated population is capable of isolation to tradition. So, it is necessary to see how the
being economically more productive. modern values are being assimilated into the traditional
norms and develops a composite norm, which provides
|agdish Bhagwati and Arvind Panagariya take
a liberal stance in arguing "Why Growth Matters" the continuity to the process of social change. So the
and maintain that economic growth - measured by Historicity of modernisation should be seen in Indian
GDP - constitutes the foundation for any meaningful sense as Marriot calls it "Indianisation of modernity".
development and the reduction of poverty. Only on the Modernity and traditions are found together in one
basis of fast growth, redistributive reforms for poverty basket where traditional role structures are giving way
alleviation and human capital / capacity building to the modern norms and traditional norms are also
become viable. keeping its own significance.
By contrasf Jean Drdze and Amartya Sen look at the
[rdian growth story of recent years as "An Uncertain Glory". a. Domestic Violence Act,2005. (CSE,2014)
For them India's main contradiction is the persistence of Ans: The Domestic Violence Act 2005 is a piece of
poverty combined with rising inequality, despite rapid legislation meant to provide more effective protection to
economic growth. The absolute number of Indians in the right of women guaranteed under the constitution
poverty has far less reduced than the high GDP growth who are victims of violence of any kind occurring within
may suggest. Instead of mere economic growth, Drdze the family. The very nomenclature of the Act indicates
& Sen see the developmental process primarily as the that it is not restricted to violence perpetuated against
need to grow human capacity, and on the systems that women by her husband or in-laws. It includes under its
enable and help to provide it: education, health, and protective umbrella every women living in a domestic
social support services. relationship as a member of family with the person
 418 w socrolocYe&A
indulging in violence. Thus the law protects women For the former, through more educated people
who are victims of violence occurring within family or which has lead to increased literacy and awareness of
in domestic relationship. Moreover the Act has been human rights and laws and could have lead to more
designed to create certain civil rights, some declaratory reports, for the latter it can be seen as 'modernization'
(e.g., right to protection against Domestic Violence) and has contributed to create a dissonance among the people
some substantive (e.g., right to maintenance, right to regarding norms and values that were prevalent in the 1

compensation, right to shared household). more'traditional' society and therefore could have lead t
I

S. Seema argues that Domestic Violence Act fails, to sexual violence. In this line of reasoning it can be seen
at various fronts, the muster of an effective piece of as a clash between'tradition' and'modernity'.
legislation aiming social engineering, it is founded on
the premise that domestic violence at the hands of men a. 'Many caste conflicts are between castes which
folk is the general rule in every next household. are ctose to each other on the hierarchical
R.K Gauba indicates that after coming in force of the scale.' Give a sociological explanation for this
Domestic Violence Act the general perception among the phenomenon. (CSE,2014)
public seems to be that domestic violence is an offence
Ans: Caste changes along with the changing natuie
but contrary to this, reality is that domestic violence
of Indian society and correspohding to that access of
per-se is not an offence under Domestic Violence Act.
class conflict is subjected to change. The paradigm
What has been made criminai is the conduct of the
shift in domain of caste conJlict is testimony to social
male offender vis-d-vis the women in the domestic
transformation. Caste system in India owing through
environment amounting to breach of protection order
transformation over various periods and genesis of caste
obtained by the women from the Magistrate.
conflict also subjected to change.
causes of
During 1,960's and 70's caste conflict in India
Q. What are the possible underlying got new dimension, political decentralization, Green
the spurt of increased violence against women revolution, Community Development Programme, and
in public spaces in the last decade? expansion of demographic space has contributed for
(csE,2014) rise of Indian peasantry to formidable social group. The
Ans: Accolding to Human Rights Watch (HRW), peasant class in India went for collective mobilization
24,206 rape cases were registered in India in 20LL, which developed politiial aspiration and subsequently glorified
is seen as just the tip of the iceberg. HRW explains that their caste controlled state power.M.N. Srinivas calls
many women are turned away by police or hospitals. this as 'rise of Dominant caste'. Dominant castes are
Between 2003 and 2007, the Indian government reported going through process of modernization of caste in
a 30% increase in reported rape cases (with a further upper strata and castisation of caste in the lower strata
increase of 20% between 2007 and2011), andeven a 50% making caste conflict intensive and variable. Yogesh
jump in abduction, kidnapping and molestation cases. Atal and S.C. Dube consider that different domain of
In the big cities, some of the rapists are uneducated dominant caste are engaged in conflict with traditional
men who feel inadequate in the face of women with dominant caste.
jobs or a good educatior,r, as may have happened in the F.G. Bailey finds out how distillers and warriors
recent case. Minotee Chatterjee writes that roughly half are engaged in conflict for land in Orissa. Oscar Leuis
of the incidents of rape, people involved are belonging in his study of UP village (Rampur), he finds Rajputs
to family and relatives of family. and Jats are engaged in conflicts for control over land
The incidents of rape is higher in urban areas as and power. Similar are also used for explaining conflict
compared to rural areas because the social protection between Reddy and Kamma in Andhra. Therefore caste
system is absence here, police people ratio is very low conJlict in India during this period is explaining fission
and urban space being very big, criminals can hide and Fussion in Caste system.
themselves, openness of urban society is a new culture Anddre Betille reflecting on caste conflict indicates
to migrant population ratio gets into this kind of crimes. how different groups of Brahmins are engaged in caste
Feminist like Bina Mazumdar considered that rape conflict over rituals, ideological doctrines and symbols
is mani-festation of patriarchal aggression over women's and how conflict between different caste groups is
body that indicates that whether it comes into purview driven by principle of interest. Therefore, ideology and
;it
of uiarriage or not, a women's body is meant for interest offer foundation to inter and intra caste conflict.
domination of man. Social reality shows'modernization' Oscar Luois finds out that whole of North India
process has had a positive effect for the increased caste and caste conflict is regular phenomena mostly
reporting of sexual violence against women in India involving intermediary caste those who have experienced
as well as it could be seen as having a negative effect. benefits from different forms of state sponsored policies
 CHALLENGES OF SOCIAL TRANSFORMATION i 41.9
like community development programme, land and poverty makes ethnic groups feel they are alienated
distribution system, rise of cooperatives and panchayat from the.mainstream development and aspire for their
Raj Institutions. political and economic advantages using ethnic conflict
Thus it can be concluded as Andre Beteille indicates as a background for their movement. Now Sociologist
that individualism and equality are harmonically in the current scenario are more interested in the stu,lv
interrelated to each other in modern societies of Europe of new dimension rising out of ethnic confiict than
but it is irony that collectivism in India is searching for studying the age old identity and socio*economic causes
equality as a result egalitarian benefits are reaching the for ethnic conflicts.
individuals or families on behalf of collectivity. As a
result, inequality persists in India not between the castes
but within the caste offering new dimension to caste and
a. Explain the inter-linkages befween poverty,
deprivation and inequality. (CSE,201^Z)
caste conflict in contemporarv India.
Ans: There are various t,vpes of inequality present
in the society. These are caste, class, gender, race or
a. 'Tribal conflicts based on ethnic differences ethnicity. Based on these inequaiities there occur_s
often camouflage a struggle for political various deprivations. Out of these, it is the income
and economic advantage.' Substantiate with deprivation which leads to poverty.
examples. (CSE,2O'[4) Inequality of caste leads to deprivation of choice
Ans: Ethnic conflict is not caused directly by inter- in social life. Low caste people depend on upper castes
group differences, but "ancient hatreds" and centuries- and have less freedom to act independentlv. inequality
old feuds, or the stresses of modern life within a global of gender leads to low status of women as they depend
economy leads to ethnic conflict. Today, ethnicisation on men for their livelihood and can't take decision
of politics and politicisation of ethnic communities independently. Inequality of class leads to deprivation
have become very common and have diffused mutual of income and finally to poverty.
tolerance, and have thus, sharpened ethnic consciousness Once the poverty sets in, it leads to manlr other
among various communities. deprivations. For example, a poor person lacks proper
Dr Suresh Kulkarni uses a resource perspective education. This hampers his ability to make informed
to understand the ethnic conflicts of Manipur and decisions and he becomes vulnerable to various
to explain ethnic conflicts arising out of material manipulations leading to perpetuation of inequality.
conditions. He notes that groups conflict with each other Also, a poor person is deprived of better health facilities
because they perceive that the distribution of resources as he can't afford them. Poor people can be easily lulscl
is a zero sum game, i.e. one group's access to resources by political parties. People living in slums, working
is a loss of access for another group. This perspective in inJormal Sector and child labor are examples of this
accommodates many other theories of ethnic relations kind. This leads to deprivation of their political freeciom.
and conflict, which attempt to construe conflict as either Thus, poverty leads to deprivations which perpetuates
a struggle for economic or political power, or for both. inequality.
As Kulkarni's theorv on ethnic conflict in Manipur Consider the case of disabled people. They are
can be applied to ethnic conflicts such as the Naga basically deprived of bodily integrity. This leads to
and Kuki have been nurturing incompatible political many deprivations. For example, blind men can't *alk
aspirations, the Naga demanding the creation of Greater by themselves. This leads to unequal rewards for them
Nagaland (or Nagalim), the Kuki the creation of Kuki and leads to inequality. Similar is the case of elderly
State, or a full-fledged revenue district within Manipur. people and widows. Thus, new forms of ineqr"rality are
Yumnam, on studying the ethnic conflict, cites being created by various deprivations.
institutional collapse as the cause of ethnic conflict: ethnic In our present model of development lvhere we
con{Iict arose because of the failure of the state machinery. are degrading environment shamelessly, we are getting
The economy was backward and, despite heavy rainfall, deprived of ecological services.
the majority of households did not have access to safe For example, pollution of river will deprir.e us of
drinking water. Such a situation gives rise to their water. But, it is the poor people who .lr,ill be hurt most
political aspiration and economic advantage from the as they depend too much on ecological services. Thus,
power of politics. to mitigate the deprivations, a person must be up in the
Thus, it can be concluded, India has several ethnic stratification. It is those who are at the bottom suffer
groups with different ideologies and interest ranging the most.
from secessionist to revirzalist movements to achieve Thus, there occurs a complex relationship between
their desires makes conflicts inevitable. Such conflicts poverty, deprivation and inequality. To minimize the
has given rise to displacement, economic deprivation negative impact of these deprivations, government
 :i
makes policies for vulnerable sections such as NREGA against women. Although condition of women has not I

.t
and Food Security Act. People can also overcome their been very good since olden times, there has been rise :i
deprivation by organizing themselves in SHGs and in cases of violence against women with faster social .l
.l
cooperatives. changes.
.{
Condition of women has improved with deve- AI
1
a. Analyze the role of communalism in lopmentofeducation.Theyhavebecomelessdependent
'{
undermining democracy in India?(CSE,20L3) economicallf 31 thllr male counter-parts with their t
. increasins oarticioation in emolovment arena. Thev are
AIIS| Lr'l]llT'lUnallsm lS a feellng OI Defonglng tO oL r r J r
:]
:.1

emoowerine
t u themselves usinsu this social chanee. Their
one s own communrty. ln soclologlcat terms/ lt ls an u
ideology which believes that the secular interests of the
economic prosperity in the patriarchial society has made $ri
. ,, ,
memDers or tne same communrry are common. rt also ,^^^,_^
nossible the rise in cases of violence and exploitation il
against-them ,*
implies that different communities have different secular :7
interests. These communities can be based on religion,
Indian society is standing at cross-roads of tradition
tx
-4
and modernization. Blind following of western life st,vle
caste, region, etc. 3
..
It rs neallnler lI rt ls ln mooerate rorm. lt means such as clothins and behavior has also led to increase in i
=t

violence asainst women.

tnat everv communrty ls locuseo on lts own rnterests o $
without ur-ry ,"gurd to the interests of other community. are being depicted as usable objects in this
era
Yo*en
of globalization' sexual appeal of women is being
In moderate foim, it promotes the solidarity a-ong th"
members of its community.
used in advertisement to sell products. Market economy il
,,
DUt, rt ls olvrslve ln lts extreme torm. lt means
on one hand orovided avenue of emolovment but on
that the securar interests of communities are not onlv the other hand women's role in lower hierarchies of
orrrerent out In conrllct
.,, eacn, otner.
n. . wltn ,r ' employment
t r _
has led to increase in sexual exploitation
cases which have hurt the respect and honour of women'
Democracy is tolerant in nature. Dissent is cenkal to
,r , Ti t.rt i , it
tne oemocracy. r ne oltlerences can oe resolveqr tnrouqn , Todav modern values have led to development of
discussions and debates. Through its various ideab #d
new thinking in youth' They have been able to choose
institutions it provides enough space to accommodate all their life partner crossing the
l-'arriers of caste and creed'
the diversity.iBut, u, oppor"d to this, communalism is Today love marriages' inter-caste marriages are getting
intolerant and uses violence to fulfill its demands. This accepted in the society normally' other traditional
kind of behavior undermines the democracy and peopre sections of society still follows the old customs and is
lose faith in the democratic institutions.
' not in sync with new styles'
In tiie past, we have seen many communal riots ntly' violence has taken the form of honour
such as anti-sikh riots of 19g4, Godhra riots of 2002
killing' Rgcent acts by Haryana khap panchyats is a clear
and anti-Christian riots of Kandhmai in 2007 etc. example here'
Many sociologists including veena Das have pointed male-oriented mindset is responsible for this
out that communalism is predominantly ur, ,rbu., violence even today' Increased individuality of both
phenomenon but the recent Muzaffarnaear riots has men and womerL busy life of husband as well as wife
shown that even rural areas are prone ti communal has increased the violence' Increased significance of
violence. ^ money has led to rise in dowry cases, tension, {ivorce
Both people and the political parties are responsible
and degradation of family'
{
for this menace of communalism. Because of weak Following are different forms of violence against i
electoral politics, the politicians resort to identity politics women:
of religion and people also attach more importance.to 1. Rape, sexual exploitation, teasing t
the religion than other secular interest. The solution lies
Familial exploitation' violence and dowry deaths
in promoting securarism by the political ;;;;; ;;; ?
secularization arnong the masses. 3' Prostitution and trafficking
4. Sexual literature, movies, magazines, advertisement
a. Describe those social changes which have Following steps could be taken to control this violence:
contributed to increase of violence against 1.. Women empowerrhent in all aspects of social life.
. women. What are the emerging forms of 2. Speedy Police and judicial action on cases of violence.
violence against women? Suggest suitable
measures to contain this problem. (CSE, 2012)
3. Awareness about women's rights through education.
Ans: Every aspect of social life which acts as 4. Providing reservation legally.
an obstacle in establishing independent personality, 5. Strict implementation of provisions regarding
respect and honour of womery is a symbol of violence women safety.
 CHALLENGES oF socIAL TRANSFoRMATIoN ..:, 421
6' strict implementation of provision measures to
India has to develop most industries to become
ensure non-corunodification of women' a developed country. But many project have been
7' Economic inequality between male and female suspended for many years because
of lack of clear
should be reduced. laws related with land acquisition. policy makers and
politicians should pay attention on this. In recent years
a' Do you think that some policies and laws themaincausesofieductioninFDlinlndiaareobstacles
relating to environment have retarded the in environment related laws ancl delay in fast disposal
development process? Give examples. How of environmental clearances.
can an ideal balance between environmental Policy of sustainable development has to be made
protection and development goals be brought balance between environmental protection
1:_t,td"u'

Ans: In recent years, effect of development on ioss ura

displacement of people of project. Keeping
environment has attracted the attention of people at
environmental protection in mind, there should be less
global level. Today, in this time of globalization, all damage
of enviionment and it should be protected for
nations want to develop their economies by blindly future
generations
exploiting their resources. Due to this fast process of
economic development, negative impact has been put
on environment. New economic policy of governrnent a. structural factors behind violence against
has.worsened this process. For the development of any
women. (CSE, 2011)
:_"_:'.-:",
Ans: Violence against women have been an ugly
nation, energy, industries, new technology and large
,
skilled labor are necessary. Today first ilcessity f[r face.of any society. Violence against women is a
development is energy security.
- J manifestation of historically unequal polr,er relations
Without energy no industries and project can run. between men and women which have led to domination
_
A large number of power projects-ther*ul,'.,r.1"u. ur,J over and discrimination against women by men and to
hydro-electric- have been planned to be put up in the the prevention of full advancement of women. Violence
near future. Also large projects in mining, iion and agamst women continues to be a global epidemic that
steel and Industrial Corridors (like the Deihi-Mumbai kills, tortures physically and psychologically. It is one of
Industrial Corridor) are proposed to be set up. Imple- the most pervasive of human rights violations, denying
mentation of there projects comes into confliciwith the and girls equal rights, security, dignity and
Yomen
Ministry of E4vironment and the various Envi-ronment their right to enjoy fundamental freedom. Violence
Laws. against women is present in every country cutting across
Implementation of these projects would entail boundaries of'culture, caste, class, ethnicity, relig:ion etc.
widespread destruction of forest covet use of agricultur;i Even though societies proscribe violence against
-most
land, displacement of people specially tribals and also wom:n are often sanctioned under the garb of cultural
air and water pollution. Practices and norms or though the misinterpretation of
But a balance can be struck between the need religious tenets. If we look at the probl"rr-rr of violence,
for fast development and preventing environmental it is. patriarchy and social milieu that has surrounded the
degladation. Developmenl cannot f,e brought to a society have established an unequal power relationship
standstill. Adoption of environment-friendiv tech- between men and women. The erosion of traditional
nologies must be given priority. pollution of land, air values, increasing criminal tendency in society, poor
and water should be kept to minimum by adop-ting the enforcement of legal provisions, excessive depiction
strict measures. If we wint develop*".,ith"rrifr"r""*itt of violence in media have further contributed violence
be deterioration of environment. But we should trv to against women in society.
minimize this deterioration. The global dimensions of this violence are alarming
Today process of policy formation and laws related and no society presently can claim to be free of violence.
with environment have ireld up projects. For this, The various forms of violence such as domestic violence,
example can be taken from propt"ia FOSCO proiect harassment, beating and battering, rape, sexual
9o-ry
of South Korea for the establishment of iron steei plant. harassment of home and office, eveteasing are rampant
PO?9O.had firstly talked with Jharkhand govt. to in society. However, some specific group of women are
establish iron & steel plant by investment of 5O0I00 crore more vulnerable including minority groups, migrant
rupee. But this project cannot be established due to tribal women/ women in institution and detention, women
displacement and environment related problems. Later with disabilities, female children and elderly women.
on Orissa govt. has given approval for this project. But In India caste system is also responsible for violence
.
this project is hanging in balance due to above'reason. against women especially the dalit women. Due to social
 422 .i.:: SoclOLoGY Q & A 1

conditioning resulting from centuries old exploitative a. Linkages between patriarchy and honour li
caste system, dalit women face the collective threat of killings (CSE,2010) tl
la

physicat al-.,:se from men of upper castes. Besides these Ans: Patriarchy in simple terms means rule by men B
women become victim of special circumstances too such or control by men. It is an age-old tradition or practice {}

as atrocities against women in prison or custodial care, which refers to authority wielded by men in societv,
women in mental hosPitals. especially with regard to women and their lives' In a
palriarchal society, a women stands no ground, she
a. Explain the interface between population, i, u *"r" subject, without any freedom or identity of
€c;logy and environment in the context of her. It was thought and indeed not without reason that
India. (CSE,2011) patriarchy is dying a slow death in the modern w'orld 1
Ans: Environmental degradation is one of the with its emphasis on humanistic values of equality,
liberty, rationality, tolerance, gender sensitization and
serious problems faced by the people in the country
women emPowerment.
especially in the urban areas which not only expetiences
a rapid growth of population due to high fertility, low
However with recent incidents of women 1
being murdered by their kith and kin for alleg€dly
nlorlality and increasing rural-urban migration but also
dishonouring their family or the community forces one
industrialisation which is accompanied by growing
nurnber of vehicles. In India, the rapid increase of
human numbers combines with desperate poverty to
to give a rethink to the assumption.
Honour killings are socially sanctioned premeditated
murders of women by male kin because of an affected
lt
depelete and pollute local resource bases on which the
liveiihood of present and future generations depends' or real infraction of social andf or sexual behaviour'
According to Census data of 201L,India' s population
Interestingly these incidents are happening not just in
India but across the world. They represent an attempt
I
]ras crossed 1100 millions.
on the part of the patriarchal world to terrorize women
If the present population continues to multiply, the
ard prlt them back into submission.
impact on en'n'fuorurtent and ecology could be devastating
foi tndir. Population impacts on the environment and With women asserting their individualities,
stepping out of the four walls of domestic household'
ecology primarily through the use of natural resources
lives on their own terms, breaking the
u"a pioa"c\ion of lt'astes and is associated with living their patriarchal norms, these honour killings
shackles of
environmental stresses like bio-diversity, air and water
are desperate acts on part of men to tighten their hold
polirrtion and increased pressure on arable land' India is
on the loosening reigns of women's life and their
nou, the.lt orld's sixth largest and second fastest growing
sexuality. Men take on themselves a self imposed duty
prcducer of greenhouse gases. Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata
of proteeting the honour of family and inflict this most
ind Chennai are among the world's ten most populated
brutat form of violence or women to control woman's
cities. Here two-thirds of city dwellers lack sewerage,
sexuality within patriarchal power relations'
potable \,vater. India grows equivalent of another New
York city every year in its urban population'
Ethnic Movements (CSE,2010)
India is one of the most degraded environment a.
countries in the world and it is paying health and Ans: Cultural and Ethnic diversities make up for
econornic price for it also. The lack of services such as the social fabric of India.
In India, with its variety of
water supply, sanitation, drainage, treatment of disposal pluralities, in terms of language, race, religion and so on
waste water, management of solid and hazardous ethnic conflict has become a part of the political scenario'
wastes, supply of safe food, water and housing are all In most cases, the processes of development and
unable to keep pace with urban gtowth' All these in turn change have generated conditions for ethnic conflict as
leading to an increase in the pollution levels' Also the the fruits of these development processes have come to
unplannecl location of industries in urban and suburban be distributed unevenly' Also the nature and character
areas follow'ed by traffic congestion, poor housing and of the lower structure and rule of the political leadership
garbage accumulation, causing degradation of urban have their role to PlaY.
environment. These environmental degradation have Ethnicity signifies self-consciousness of a group of
adverse effects on the health of people' Due to air people united, or closely related, by shared experience
i poilution the incidence of respiratory diseases increasing tr.h ut language, religious belief, race, cofiunon heritage,
and water pollution triggering the number of patients etc. Ethnic movements existed in pre-Independence era
suffering from acute waterborne diseases' Hence, also. e.g Tribal rebellions like santhal movement caused
population, ecology and environments have been the by factors like land alienation, loss of political authority
*uir-t ut"ut of concern for demographers, ecologists, and dilution of culture and identity. These movements
planners and policy makers over the recent past' have become more conspicuous after independence,
 CHALLENGES OF SOCIAL TRANSFORMATION U\ 423
particularly in North-East, e'g Naga Movement, uLFA,
Demand of statehood in Assam by Bodos, etc. A careful
Q. Do you think that poverty, deprivation and
observation revears that ethnic movemenrc are generarly llil:1,,|.;[;li:r}ll;.Tffi1[irrff# *:
the expressions of deprivation and disparities in sharing
of privileges. Being l& out of the derreiopmental your suggestions to address and resolve these
process problems.
or even being a viitim of uneven development, ethnicity (CSE, 2009)
causes ethnic movements. Also, it is manifested in Indian Ans: Poverty, deprivation and inequalities are the
politics not merely due to grass root discontent but is major challenges in the process of social transformation
also a creation of vested political interest. as well as in the formation of equal and balanced society.
Poverty is a most unwanted human experience that
O. Highlight the important dimensions of inter leads to multiple form social exclusion i]e economic,
caste conflict in India. (CSE,2010) social, political and educational. Due to poverty a man

,,,*TJ};;::hf;:",1I#;"t#T?,?1,iT i:1"":#:[:1":Ti
fl,T'1r'fl%::J::,ii"xlT;::,$;
it own. C. Bougre defined .u,l", ,, nii,","r,i""uy
arranged hereditary groups separated from eacir r,Tffi::}ff|r:ffiiff:Tiji$#,i1"ffiH|Ii
i.in.r, grace of tth"rr. According to Marxists poverty
:fil#,:*::1"fiiffi:"':::1#:;}f:'Jf:? :::1",'-,
man to get into u,,v ki',d or occupation
riving instead. Four major castes
-"," tiJii ""ffi
solidarity so that despite hierarchical differences' they ff:"X*?i,iH::rl*l::l,T:il#:#ff;:ffil::
were mutually dependent e'g Jajmani relations based l"*n"o by rich and powerfuyr. Hence he votes as a
on caste and family lives' Caste in a way was source .ril*oat,y. Thus undir the burden of poverty a poor
of social stability' No doubt there were marris voiceless. He also cannot take part in decision-
i"tt1t"t
i"* could be ;;1t", process of the government. poverty arso reads
of caste conflicts in pre-British era but they
discredited consideringo --"o--r io1]r"rtior-,
'" "; exclusion.
largely stable and harmonious
traditional life. Hence according to Marx a poor man produces
with the advent or British rule, the ,,"o*,:T,
form of caste started taking a different shape' British :::""nfilJiJi*H:gfrr:i,fi|:IrfljT#gi;
inkoduced uniform legal code' socio-reform movements
,i"lir", and Flounde on education in America ancl
Krishna Kumar on education in India revealed that
and various social legislation against caste rigidities,
attacked caste system and its inequalities at the root
;i-rtl;."" helonging to the poor families either dropout
and triggered many backward caste movement as a
,;;" early schooling to enter labour market or they
do not attend schoolit all. Less time spend in school
revolt against tyranny of caste system. Caste system
has survived all these onslaughts and has taken new
i;; a httle skill formation in the child. This provides
roles today. As M.N. Srinivas points o"t ,|: "vertical
nl*li,u" chance for competition, and little wage in
ifr" l.f market. Hence poverty will breed poverty in
solidarity" of castes has been replaced by ',horizontal
, .i"U" manner. Thus, people suffering from poverty
solidarity". Today each caste looks at the other with ca#otmakeopinior;cairnotjoinhandwithintellectgal
suspicion, contempt and finds in it a challenger, a
class who are dominant classes in the industrial and
competitor' Further, the provision of constitutional knowledge-able
society. poverty also forces a man to go
safeguards to SCs'/srs and oBCs has given a new lease for self containmen! accepting injustice and exploitation.
of life to the castes. These provisions have made some Though man is bo* us free and equal individual
of them develop vested interest to reap permanently the in relatioi to other but poverty justifies
benefits of reservation' They are also tempting many in inequality
society and hence it is a great hindrance in social
other castes to bring pressure on the government to transformation
process.
declare them as belonging.to the category of scheduled
similarly different kinds of inequalities existing in
castes' Today, castes are vying with each other to partake
society also creates problems in social transformation.
fruits of reservation for eg' conflict between Gujjars and In every
society some people have a greater share of
Meenas' resources in terms of money, property, education, health
Also with politicization of caste, politics of each and power than others. These
unequal resources broadly
state has become virtually, politics of confrontation of .un b" divided
into three forms of capital eg-
its 'dominant castes' Every caste wants to safeguard
its interests
(i) economic capital in the form of material assets and
and for fulfilling this purpose, the-y are income
getting themselves organized into various parties or
(ii) cultural capital such as educational qualification
organizations or labour unions.
and status and
424 i): SOCIOLOGY Q & A
(iii) social capitals in the form of networks of contacts lasting social change. Four major groups in India such
and social associations. as Dalits, Tribal or Adivasi communities, women and
Often, these three forms of capital overlap and disabled people have suffered from serious social
one can be converted into the other. For example a inequality and deprivation. These conditions of poverty,
person from a well off family can afford expensive social inequality and deprivation are bad for society
hlgh". education. On the other hand someone with as a whole. In India rise of Naxal movement can be
iniluential relatives and friends may access to good cited as an example of social deprivation, inequalities
advice, information and even manage to get a well-paid and poverty, which is a big problem for the state
job. The inequality in society also formed on the basis governments as well as central government. B
of inner capability of individual, gender, caste, race etc' Thus, there is a urgent need to take appropriate
Sociologists have used the term social stratification for action against these prevailing conditions in the society'
social inequalities. For this government should facilitate the participation
This inequality causes discrimination in society of people in getting gain{ul employment for those who
are poor and deprived one.
among different social groups. Typically, people with
the greatest social privileges express the greatest Deprived people must be given access to resources,
support for the system of stratification and those who health facilities, educational.opportunities. Various
have experienced the exploit4tion and humiliation of social protection measures must be initiated for SCs, STs,
being at the bottom of social hierarchy are most likely women and differently abled persons' The Government
to challenge it. Thus different kinds of conflicts based and civil society should come forward for helping the
on vaired interest originates within the society. The most vulnerable groups of people like poor, children,
presence of inequalities in society in some cases also try residents of area marked by social and economic
to block social mobility and thus, it is a great challenge deprivation.
for a society under going transformation. Deprivation The Government of India should also device
is another important fact exsiting in society. It focuses committed polices to cater the need of marginalized
attention on a broad range of factors that prevent sector of the society. This can be done through proPer
individuals or groups from having opportunities open education policy, compensatory package and by
to the majority of the population. The term deprivation providing employment opportunities to the poorest
includes lost right of an individual over social, cultural ssection of the society.
and material aspects. This deprivation cause impediment In this way the gap between the rich and poor
to full participation of individuals in the society. can be sufficiently marginalized. There is also need
Deprivation can also be considered as social of strengthening the cooperative movements in
exclusion r.n'hich is a combination of number of linked India on the basis cooperative movement. Because in
problems such as unemployment, poor skills, low present condition of globalisation the role of the state
incomes, poor houseing, high cirme environment, ind the private sector is mostly being regulated by the
bad health etc. These prolonged deprivaion produces influence of market which never been friendly to poor
reaction on the part of deprived one. The condition of and deprived people. Under such condition neither
deprivation provides less opportunity for inclusion in private sector nor public sector shall promote social
the society for those who are deprived because they do welfare.
not want to participate in the society. Thus, there is a need of meaningful reform in
India like most societies has been suffering from cooperative movement. This is also essential for ensuring
the practice of discrimination and deprivation' At higher standard of living for village people' The role of
different period of times there have been protect and cooperative may be helpful in tackling the problems
movement against deprivation but yet deprivation in of poverty, food security and employment generation'
terms of cultural, economical and political, educational Cooperative organizations have also immense potential
and health are intact with the society' The legislation to deliver goods and services in areas where both the
alone is also unable to transform the society or produce state and private sector have failed.

{.*n*
 UPSC & STAT'E PSCs
GENE]IAL
&OPTIONA f

for Prelirns & Mains

Solved Po
o Sociology l.\S Moins Q&A
r Geogrophy IAS Moins Q&A
. Public Administrolion IAS Moins Q&A
. Philosophy IAS Moins Q&A
. Hislory IAS Moins Q&A
. Anlhropology IAS Moins Q&A
. Pollficolscience & lnternolionol Relotions IAS Moins Q&A
r tfua"qgrrgr errSqqs E@ qfrerr qe-+f,{ sq t
r <vt-<grrq 3{r{qqs E@ qfren v{+fl{ 5q fr
. m qrEq e{€qqq E@ qfrerr v{-+il{ s-q fr
t EFd6r€r er€qqq E@ qten qc-+il sq fr
o 15qfrfr f{f,rq qE ei@q qi{q 3rr{qqq E@ qfren qc-+n{ s-q fr
r qqrcETr-q 3Tr€qqq E@ q$qr yq-+fl sq fr
r qrfoq 3rrtqqq E@ qfren q{+il{ sq fr
Generol Sludies Mqins Solved Popers
r UPSC-CSE Generol Studies Moins Solved Popers (Poper I to IV)
o upsc-csE Hrttl-q 3'rErqr 5@ qsen EE qeq-q=r (qT{ I t Iv)
. BPSC qf[rrar 3{Er€rT 5@ qfren EE ss{-qa (qq{ r q II)
. UPPCS qtlilq 3{tjErq{ E@ ]rfren Ed q{=r-.T{ (qT{ I t rv;
r UPPCS qrqrq sdErq;T E@ qfrqr 6sT qqq-q{ (qqr V q VD

r UPSC-CSE PYQ Sconner GenerolStudles with CSAI (Paper I & ID

. upsc-csE qrqrq 3{qq{ EE sq=r-q7 (qT{ I)
. BPSC qttlf.t[ 3;tEf€t=T Ee vqq-qa (qqr D
. UPPCS qFlra[ 3{ErqT Ec.t qe=I-]rq (qq{ I )
N.N. ff[$?frf{;lill :tE

r Environmenl c lndlon Economy

r Indion & World Geogrophy o lndion Polity
r Socio-Economic Development c A History of Modern lndio

tsBN 978-8 1 -969353-4-4

Talent Since 1990

,llll[ill$llllil{lffirll
Code:250 Rs.495