Chapter Two

AXIAL FLOW TURBOMACHINES

2-1.Introduction:
The flow through an axial flow turbomachine is primarily in the
axial direction. Axial flow turbomachine have airfoil-shaped surfaces,
called blades, attached to the periphery of a rotating disk like spokes on a
hub. The unit is known as rotor and is usually enclosed by casing to
minimize leakage over the tips of the blades. The fluid flows axially
through the annular space between the hub and casing. An example of the
axial flow turbine is the Kaplan turbine which is usually chosen for heads
of 15 m or less. Figure (2-1) shows the principle of an axial flow rotor.

Figure (2-1): Axial Flow Rotor.

Many axial flow machines have sets of alternating moving blades

and stationary surfaces called vanes. The vanes are also airfoil-shaped
and attached to the inside of the casing. A circumferential set of vanes is
called stator. The stator does not change the mechanical energy of the
flow but simply alters the proportion between static and dynamic
pressure. Since the fluid is confined, substantial changes in static pressure
can occur. One rotor and its adjacent downstream stator are called a
stage. Some axial flow compressor may have as many as 15 stages; axial
flow turbines usually have no more than three stages.
Axial flow compressor often have a set of fixed surfaces called
inlet guide vane, at the entrance to the compressor to bring the flow at the
proper angle on to the first stage rotor. Note that the annular area
decreases in the direction of the flow because the air is being compressed
and its density increased.

2-2.Basic Equations and Characteristic Curve:

To focus our attention on a specific axial flow turbomachine,
consider a stage of an axial flow compressor. The blade length is assumed
small compared with the hub radius, and there are a large number of
closely spaced thin blades and vanes.

Figure (2-2): Stage Velocity Triangle.

Figure (2-2) shows the stage "Unrolled" and visualized as rows of

blades and vanes and velocity triangle of the stage. The fluid leaves the
stator of the previous stage with absolute velocity V1, which makes an
angle 1 with the tangential direction. Since density changes are small
across a single stage, continuity requires that the axial velocity be nearly
constant
1=2=3=4
The rotor at 1 and 2 is the same
U1= U2= U3= U4=R
The velocity triangles show an increase in  across the rotor; the
rotor does work on the fluid. Across the stator, the kinetic energy is
decreased (V32 < V22) and the static pressure increased. The stator acts as a
diffuser to convert dynamic pressure into static pressure.
Using equation (1-12) to obtain the head change the across the
rotor, we get
U
( ΔH i )1→ 2= (ν −ν )
g θ2 θ1
From the velocity triangles
ν θ1 =ν a cot( α 1 )
And
ν θ1 =U−ν a cot( β 2 )
Then,
…(2-1) U2 ν
( ΔH i )1→ 2= ( 1− a (cot( β 2 )+cot(α 1 ))
g U
This is the total head change across the stage since there is no head
change across the stator.
Note that the relative velocity leaving the blades W2 is drawn
nearly tangent to the trailing edge of the blade.
β 2≈ β b2
Also, the absolute velocity vectors leaving the vanes, V1 and V3, are
drawn nearly tangent to the trailing edge of the vanes.
α 1≈α b1 and α 3≈α b3
This assumption is valid for very closely spaced very thin blades
and vanes. Returning to equation (2-1), we divide through by U2/g. The
left-hand side of the equation is now dimensionless quantity g(Hi)12/U2,
which is called the head coefficient  and is a measure of the total head
change, since the a used to determine the flow rate through the machine
so the dimensionless velocity ration a/U, called the capacity coefficient
 is a measure of the flow rate.
A plot of  vs.  is called the characteristic curve of the
turbomachine, equation (2-1) can be used to give the ideal characteristic
curve of axial flow turbomachine. In terms of  and. Equation (2-1)
becomes
…(2-2) Ψ =1−Φ ( cot( β 2 )+ cot( α 1 ) )
Figure (2-3) shows a plot of equation (2-2)

Figure (2-3): Ideal Characteristic Curve for an Axial Flow Turbomachine.

  is positive for pumps since they increase the head of the flow,
(Hi)12>0;  is negative for turbines since they extract work from the
flow and decrease the head , (Hi)12<0.
According to equation (2-2), the slope of the characteristic curve
for an axial flow pump may be positive or negative, depending on the
sign of the quantity (cot(2)+cot(1)), as shown in Figure (2-3). As noted
before 1, 2 depend on the actual trialing edge angles of the vanes and
blades. Pump operation stability requires that the characteristic curve
have a negative slope.
This requirement can be simply demonstrated by considering what
happens if a momentary partial blockage or resistance occurs, causing
the flow rate to decrease. For the pump to recover to its original flow rate
it must increase the head or pressure of the flow to overcome the
resistance. Increasing head for decreasing flow rate requires a negative
characteristic. Similarity, if the flow rate fluctuated to a higher value, the
head would decrease and the normal resistance of the system would cause
the flow rate to drop to its original value. In stable operation deviation
which returns the system to its original operating point.
What happens if the pump has a positive characteristic and
encounters momentary resistance which lowers the flow rate?
The reduced flow rate results in a decreased head which is not even
high enough to pump the original flow rate without the increased
resistance. The increased resistance causes the flow rate to decreases
further, causing a further drop in head, etc… The pump operation is
unstable because there is mechanism to overcome the resistance and
return the flow to its original operating condition.
Figure (2-3) is a convenient way of presenting the performance of
pumps. When using a pump, we are primarily interested in moving a
given flow rate against a certain pressure resistance or increase in
elevation, but when using a turbine, we are primarily interested in its
power output and speed. Using equation (2-1) to give:

…(2-3)
P
=
U U
[
ρ Q̇ ν θ 1 ν θ 1 ν θ 1
2
−( 1+ cot β 2 tan α 1 )
]
P
The dimensionless quantity ρ Q̇ ν θ 1 is called the Power Coefficient.
Figure (2-4) shows a plot of the ideal power coefficient versus the
U U
velocity ratio ν θ 1 . When ν θ 1 is less than (1+cot  tan  ), the power is
2 1
 U
negative, indicating turbine operation; ν θ 1 greater than (1+cot 2 tan 1)
results in positive power, or pump operation. Maximum turbine power
U 1
= ( 1+cot β 2 tan α 1 )
output occurs at ν θ 1 2 .

Figure (2-4): Ideal Power Coefficient for an Axial Flow Turbomachine.

Finally, since U1=U2, the static pressure change across the rotor
from Bernoulli's equation (1-21) is:
…(2-4) P −P = 1 ρ W 2 −W 2
2 1
2
( 1 2)

The velocity triangle of Figure (2-2) show that W1  W2 because

2  1 and a1=a2; that is, the static pressure increase across the rotor,
the stator is stationary, U=0, and no work is done on the flow. The
Bernoulli equation (1-19) gives a static pressure change across the stator
of
…(2-5) P −P = 1 ρ V 2 −V 2
3 2
2
( 2 3)
From the velocity triangle of Figure (2-2), V2  V3, and the
pressure rise across the stator. The stator acts as a diffuser.

Example (2-1):
A single stage axial flow pump takes water from a large reservoir.
The pump has a hub diameter of 0.9144 m and a tip diameter of 1.2192
m, turns at 600 rev/min, and delivers 8.495 m3/sec. of water. There are no
inlet guide vanes. The trialing edge of the rotor blades makes an angle of
30o with the tangential direction. The railing edge of the stator vanes is
horizontal, i.e., it makes an angle of 90o with the tangential direction.
Neglecting frictional effects, calculate the static pressure change across
the inlet, rotor, stator, and diffusing case. Assume that here are enough
closely spaced thin blades vanes for flow angles to correspond to the
actual blade and vane angles.

Solution:

In the inlet region there are no moving surfaces to do work on the

fluid as shown in figure above. Furthermore, since there are no inlet guide
vanes to import a tangential component of motion to the flow, assume the
flow coming on to the rotor is purely axial. Then the axial velocity is the
absolute velocity at 1, V1=a
Applying the Bernoulli equation between the reservoir and 1 gives
1
P∞ =P 1 + ρ ν 2a
2
Where
P- is the pressure in the reservoir. The axial velocity is obtained from the
flow rate
Q̇ 8 . 495
ν a= = =16 . 632 m2 /sec .
π 2 2 π
( D −d ) ( 1 .21922 −0 . 9144 2 )
4 4
The axial velocity through the rotor and stator is the same because
the annular cross sectional area does not change. The static pressure
change across the inlet is:
1 1
P∞ −P 1= ρ ν 2a = ∗999 .546∗ ( 16 . 632 )2=138248. 92 N / m2
2 2
The static pressure change across the rotor is calculated using
Bernoulli's equation with a change in a total head due to moving blades,
for an axial flow turbomachine U1=U2, the relative velocities 1 and 2, W1
and W2, must be calculated. First, calculate the blade speed using he mean
diameter of the annulus space, 1.0668 m.
π∗1. 0668∗600
U= =33 .5145 m /sec .
60
From the velocity triangle at 1 (Note that purely axial flow at 1 gives,
(1=0)
√
W 1 = U 2 +ν 2a =√(33 . 5145)2 +(16 .632 )2 =37 . 414 m/ sec .
From the velocity triangle at 2
νa 16 . 632
W 2= = =33 . 264 m /sec .
sin β 2 sin 30
The static pressure change across the stator is then
1 1
P2 −P1 = ρ ( W 21 −W 22 )= ∗999. 546∗(37 . 414 2 −33. 264 2 )
2 2
=146590 .27 N /m2
The stator vanes are stationary and do no work on the fluid. Their
function is to diffuse the flow leaving the rotor, converting dynamic
pressure into a static pressure increase; V2 is obtained from the velocity
triangle at 2
1 /2
V 2 =[ ν 2a +(U−W 2 Cos β 2 )2 ] =[(16 . 632)2 +(33 .5145−33 .264 Cos 30 )2 ]
1/2

=17 .285 m /sec .

Since the triangle edge of the stator vanes are horizontal the flow
leaves the stator with purely axial velocity, V3=a , then:
1 1
P3 −P2 = ρ (V 2−V 3 )= ∗999. 546∗(17 . 285 −16 .632 )
2 2 2 2
2 2
=11068. 873 N /m2
Finally, the static pressure change across the diffusing casing is
also obtained by applying the Bernoulli equation between 3 and 4. The
velocity downstream of the diffusing section V4 is obtained from
continuity.
Q̇ 8 . 495
V 4= = =7 .2765 m /sec .
π 2 π
D ∗(1. 2192 )2
4 4
1 1
P4 −P 3= ρ ( V 23 −V 24 )= ∗999 .546∗(16 . 6322 −7 .2765 2 )
2 2
=111787. 21
The overall static pressure change the axial flow pump P4-P is
P4 −P ∞=( P 4 −P3 )+( P3 −P2 )+( P2 −P1 )+( P1 −P∞ )
=111787.21+11068.873+146590.27-138248.92
=131197.43 N/m2

Example (2-2):
An axial flow fan operates at 1200 rpm the blade tip diameter is
1.1 m and the hub diameter is 0.8 m. The inlet and exit angles at the mean
blade radius are 30o and 60o, respectively. Inlet guide vanes give the
absolute flow entering the first stage an angle of 30o with the axial
direction. There is no change in axial component of velocity across the
rotor, for these idealized conditions, draw the inlet velocity diagram,
determine the volume flow rate of the fan, and sketch the rotor blade
shapes using the data so obtained, draw the outlet velocity diagram and
calculate the minimum torque and power needed to drive the fan.

Solution:
The blade shape is shown above with inlet and outlet velocity
diagram from continuity:

Q=V a1 A 1=V a2 A 2 and  = A1=A2

a1 a2
Since at mean blade radius
π D mean N D+d 1 .1+0. 8
U 1 =U 2 = Dmean = = =0 . 95 m
60 2 2
π ∗0 . 95∗1200
U= =59 . 7 m /sec
60
From the geometry of inlet velocity diagram
ν a1 νa 1
tan β1 = , tan α 1 =
U−ν θ1 ν θ1  ν a1 cot β 1 =U−ν θ1 ν a1 cot α 1 =ν θ1
U −ν θ 1 +ν θ1 =ν a1 cot β1 +ν a 1 cot α 1
U =ν a 1 ( cot β1 +cot α 1 ) 
U 59 .7
ν a1 = = =25 .9 m /sec
cot β 1 +cot α 1 cot (60)+cot (30)
ν 25 . 9
V 1= a 1 = =29 .9 m /sec
sin 60 sin 60
ν θ1 =V 1 cos 60=29 . 9 cos 60=14 . 95 m /sec
ν 25 . 9
W 1= a 1 = =51. 8 m /sec
sin 30 sin 30
Problems:

Q2-1:
A Kaplan turbine, operating under a net head of 20 m develops
50000 hps with an overall efficiency of 86 %. The speed ratio is 2 and
flow ratio is 0.6. The hub diameter of the wheel is 0.35 times the outside
diameter of the wheel. Find the diameter and speed of the turbine.

Q2-2:
An axial flow propeller turbine, the guide vanes are set at an angle
o
of 30 with respect to the radial direction. The inner radius of the guide
vanes is 1.7 m; the vanes have a height of 0.5 m. The fluid velocity at the
vanes is 3 m/sec. The turbine blades have a tip radius of 0.8 m and a hub
radius of 0.18 m. The rotor speed is 30 rad/sec. Determine the blade
angles at the leading edge of the propeller blades.

Q2-3:
An axial flow fan has a tip diameter of 2 m, a hub diameter of 0.8
m and rotates at 1450 rev/min, for the condition of zero inlet whirl
estimate the velocity diagram at tip section, if the inlet absolute velocity
is 55 m/sec the air has a density of 1.2 kg/m3 and losses are ignored.
Estimate also the fluid power, if p is 5 kN/m2.

Q2-4:
Axial flow turbo-machine driven at 45 rad/sec, if the energy
change is 120 J/kg. Find the blade angle at inlet and outlet for both
pumping and turbining modes of operation assuming a=12 m/sec, ignore
efficiency, and assume zero inlet whirl for the pump and zero outlet whirl
for turbine.
Note: the blade tip and hub diameter are 1500 mm, 600 mm, respectively,
then base your calculations on mean diameter.
Q2-5:
Show that the degree of reaction of a rotor in a frictionless flow
through an axial flow pump with inlet guide vane is:
1
[
υa
R= 1− ( cot( α 1 )−cot( β 2 ) )
2 U ]
where
a- Axial velocity component
U- Pump velocity tangent in clockwise.
1-The angle between the absolute velocity and the pump velocity at
inlet.
2-The angle between the relative velocity and the pump velocity at
outlet.

Q2-6:

Kaplan turbines draws water from a large reservoir with surface

head=15 m above the inlet to the runner and discharges to atmospheric
pressure. The turbine turns at 140 rev/min at a flow rate of 60 m3/sec. The
pertinent dimensions of the turbine are Dtip=3.75 m, Dhub=1.5 m, Dg=7.5
m, wg=1.5 m, and g=30o. Determine the angles at the inlet and outlet of
the blade 1 and 2 and estimate the power developed by the turbine.