UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI 2024/2025

DEPARTMENT OF GEOSPATIAL AND SPACE TECHNOLOGY

COURSE : FGE 433: Hydrographic Mapping

Course objective : To introduce fundamental concepts of Hydrographic Surveying/

Mapping

Marks
Course Assessment : Final exam - 70
Coursework - 20
Term paper - 10
COURSE CONTENT
1. Introduction
Definitions
Surveying tasks for hydrography
Maritime zones
Law of the sea
Nautical Charts.
Status of Kenya maritime boundaries

2. Position Determination at sea

Position Lines
Optical Methods
Radio Positioning
Acoustic Positioning

3. Depth Determination
Marine Acoustics
Vertical Beam Echo Sounding

4. Sea Level Determination

Sea level variations
Ocean tides
Water level gauges
5. Emerging Developments in Hydrography
References
1. Laurila, S.H.(1976), Electronic Surveying and Navigation, John Willey & Sons.
2. D.B. Thomson E.D. Wells and W.K. Falkenberg (1981), An Introduction of Hydrographic
Surveying, “Lecture Notes No. 53”, University of New Brunswick, Canada
 FGE 433: HYDROGRAPHIC MAPPING

I General Introduction
 Conduct of course and assessment
 Overview of course outline
 Surveying vs mapping

II Introduction
 Specific objective--- to define and appreciate HS/HM; to introduce
fundamental concepts of HM.
 Definitions
1. Hydrography – HYDRO-GRAPHY
 marine environment, sea/ocean/Land/airspace
 maritime regions
2. Bathymetry---mapping of water body and its environment.
3. Oceanography- description of water masses and processes that
drive world oceans (for oceans only)
 Physical
 Chemical
4. Hydrographic Surveying -Surveying to determine relative or
absolute positions of different points on/under/near water
surfaces.

 Delineation of the sea floor topography with the primary purpose of

production of nautical information to afford safe navigation to
mariners. (upto 20th century). This is earlier definition

Contemporary Definition
 Hydrography: is the branch of applied sciences which deals with the
measurement and description of the physical features of oceans, seas,
crustal areas, lakes and rivers, as well as with the production of their
change over time, for the primary purpose of safety of navigation and
in support of all other marine activities, including economic
development, security and defence, scientific research, and
environmental protection
Hydrography versus Hydrgraphic Surveying
Marine Geology and Geophysics
Concerned with geologic structure, processes and history of the
continental shelf, slopes, and ocean basins which may yield exploitable
mineral resources and processes involved in coastal plate tectonics
 Broadly,HS– the discipline concerned with measurement, analysis,
and description of the physical features (man- made or natural)of
that part of the earth included in the marine environment.

To carry out the tasks implied we must study;

1. The physical properties of terrain, sea and atmosphere as they relate to
Hydrographic Surveying.
2. Concepts and principles of measurement processing and analysis of
Hydrographic Surveying.

SYMBIOSIS OF HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYING (Fig1)

This underscores the links with other displines
 Geodesy – reference surface, heights, geoid, gravity.
 Adjustment Calculus-sequential adjustment in Navigation &
positioning.
 Photogrammetry-sequential photographing, depth, difficult
coastlines.
 Cadastre - Linking with property
 Geology- Seabed
 Cartography – Nautical charts and allied documentations
 Oceanography - water parameters.
 2. Figure 1: Hydrographic Surveying and Related Subject Matter

Treated here are the topics of Geodesy, Adjustments, photogrammetry,

cadastre, cartography etc.

THE PRIMARY TASKS FOR HYDROGRAPHY ARE;

1. Determination of vessel position.
2. Determination of position of point on/above the sea floor.
3. Establishment of shore controls
 Coordinates as secondary evidence on land.
 At sea coordinates govern

HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYING VERSUS LAND SURVEYING

1. Few survey monuments on longer lines
2. Non stationary observing station
3. Longer distances, v not c required with signals
4. Heights and depths Versus reference surfaces
SURVEYING TASKS FOR HYDROGRAPHY (Fig2)
 Delineation of sea floor for charts for safe navigation
 Mapping of geological and geophysical information for resource
exploration
 Placement of points at sea
 Location of apparatus used in recovery of natural resources on/under
sea surface
 Marine engineering works, dredging, laying cables, pipelines.
 Projects on environmental damage corrections, e.g. clean-up after
mishap.
 Determination of legal boundaries at sea (leases, inter-, intra-national)

 Figure 2: Surveying Tasks for Hydrography.

Other data may also be obtained for hydrography from;

 Geomagnetic and geophysical surveys
 Gravity and seismic surveys
 Surficial and subsurface sea bottom samplers e.g. drills
 Moored or lowered instruments/sensors e.g. cameras
Measurements systems have to be positioned
Hydrographic Surveying Organizations
 IHO- International Hydrographic Organization
 UKHO- United Kingdom Hydrographic Organisation

Hydrographic Surveying in Kenya

 KMA- Kenya Maritimes Authority
 SURVEY OF KENYA (hs unit)
 NCHS- National Committee on Hydrographic Surveying
 KTF—Task force on delineation of Kenya’s outer continental shelf
ORGANISATIONS IN KENYA RELATING TO HS
KPA- Kenya Ports Authority
KEMFRI- Kenya Marine and Fisheries Institute
MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT & NATIONAL RESOURCES
KENYA NAVY
FISHERIES DEPARTMENT.
KENYA NAVY TRAINING COLLEGE IN MTONGWE, KWALE
BLUE ECONOMY BLUEPRINT
KENYA COAST GUARD AUTHORITY

HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYING SECTION IN SK

- Cabinet memorandum approved in 1991

- The division responsible for acquisition, maintenance, updating of

hydrographic data.

Main activities
Hydrographic surveys, charts, publications, oceanographic activities,
Collaborating with government ministries
 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
 Originated in the need for.
- Production of charts for use by mariners
 Oldest existing charts drawn in Italy in the (14th Century).

 Evidence on earlier existence of descriptive information for mariners

exists.
 Through centuries HS activity has been devoted to
 Fisheries
 Shipping Industries
 After World War II (1945) focus has been on
 Food, natural, energy; resources.
 Currently, hydrographic surveying is used in Sea Navigation,
bathymetric mapping, Sea level determination and monitoring,
scientific endeavors, rescue missions, military surveillance, with GIS
for sea surface modeling & oceanographic studies.
 Provision of primary data for NSDIand Delimitation of state offshore
boundaries inter alia.
 Current endeavors involve;
 Integration of geographical, geological, geophysical and
positioning data in sophisticated software systems for global
analysis and interpretation of the marine environment.

Maritime Environment
1. Continental shelf.
2. Dryland
3. Slope (continental)
4. Foot of slope
5. Deep Sea Floor
3. NAUTICAL CHARTS

Attributes;
- A graphic representation of a maritime area and adjacent coastal
regions.
- Legal documents which contain the official description for permitted
safe routes against sea hazards.
- Serve as base maps for resource management and shoreline
development planning.
- Uses symbols to provide navigation information on seabed,
seamarks and land marks.

Details (Fig 3)
The charts depict:

1. Aids to Navigation
- Buoys, beacons, lighthouses, radar stations.
- Shipping channels.
- Hazards to navigation

2. Water depths (soundings).

3. Near-shore depths shown by contours and layered tints.
4. Physical features: shorelines, shallows, reefs, submerged
rocks, ocean bottom sediments.
5. Results of local and regional surveys:
Projection, scale, reference datum, seabed nature, tidal
information.
Its role in navigation is like a torch at night.
DEPICTION OF DETAILS.

SYMBOLS to provide navigation information of the seabed such as its

depth, material, hazards or position and characteristics of buoys, lights,
crustal and land features.

COLOURS to distinguish between man-made features, dry land, sea bed

that dries with tide or vice-versa or strong currents.

TIDAL FLOW information using tidal diamonds (speed and bearing).

Nautical Charts Universally use Mercator projections.

Nautical chart depicting coastline and features.

Fig 3

4. LAW OF THE SEA (United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea)
Introducing UNCOLOS
(a) The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea is the
codification of international law that States developed and adopted
to govern matters relating to the management, utilization and
jurisdiction of States within the sea.

(b) Exercise of jurisdiction done through maritime zones

- The sea is divided into different maritime zones
 - The convention specifies specific duties, rights and obligations of
coastal States applicable over each zone.
- It provided mechanism for delineating the extent of the zone.

(c) The maritime zones.

The Convention has established the following maritime zones:
- Internal waters.
- Territorial Sea measuring 12nM from the baseline.
- Contiguous Zone measuring 24nM.
- Exclusive Economic Zone: 200nM
- Continental Shelf: 200 or up to 350nM
- The Area; and
- The high seas.

The territorial sea, contiguous zones, EEZ and continental shelf fall under
national jurisdiction and a coastal State is entitled to exercise its
sovereignty and jurisdiction over the zone subject to the rights of other
States and rights and duties as spelt out in the Convention;

5. BASELINES
Sea baselines follow the low- water line of a coastal state. It is the line
from which the seaward limits of a states’ territorial sea and other
maritime zones of jurisdiction are measured. They are;
- Low water
- low tide on charts
- straight lines enclosing bays, estuaries and rivers
- (100 km lines defined by latitude φ, and longitude λ)
Expand on the above !!!!!!
(a) Internal Waters (zone)
 Coastal exercises full sovereighty
 Inward/landward with respect to baseline
Look for diagrammatic representations !!!!!
(b) Territorial Zone
Extends up to 12nM from the baseline
 States exercise sovereignty over the airspace, water column
as well as the seabed and subsoil.
  Other States enjoy right of innocent passage.
Sometimes includes contiguous zone at 24nM
(c) Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)
 Extends up to 200nM from the baseline.
 includes water column, the continental shelf and its resources
 States have sovereignty for the purpose of
exploiting ,conserving and preserving living and non-living
resources.
 Jurisdiction for establishment and use of artificial islands,
installations and structures.
 Maritime scientific research and protection of environment.

(d) Continental Shelf

 Natural prolongation of landmass into the sea.
 rights apply to the Sea bed, its subsoil and their resources
 Include the right to exploration and exploitation of its natural
resources.

(e) High Seas

 The water column beyond country’s EEZ
 Guaranteed access to all States in terms of freedom of
navigation.

(f) The Area (Common Heritage of Mankind)

 The seabed and subsoil beyond country’s continental shelf.
 Right: Requires licensing from International Seabed Authority
(ISBA) for exploration and exploitation of natural resources.

Other Zoning Criteria

Offshore Zone
 With respect to depth and Range from shoreline.

Zone Range (km) Depth (m)

Inshore 0-30 40
Coastal 30-150 100
Offshore 150-1000 200
 Deep sea 1000+ >200

 Line of Sight Zone.

-The continental shelf area extending from shore to the limit of
unobstructed direct radio or optical signal transmission, within which
positions can be determined using many commonly used microwave
or optical survey systems. Subjective hence obsolete

Maritime Boundary defined as a conceptual division of the earths’ water

surface areas using physiographic or geopolitical criteria. It includes areas of
exclusive national rights of a territory over mineral and biological resources
encompassing maritime features, limits and zones.
It is regulated upon by treaties.
A treaty is an express agreement under international law entered into by
actors, namely sovereign states and a credited international organizations
like UNCOLOS.

Status of Kenya Maritime Boundaries

Tanzania
- The two states held a crucial meeting in 1972 in which the need to
determine the maritime boundary was mooted.

- On site surveys were done by mainly cartographers from both

countries to determine the boundary.

- The resultant boundary map complete with coordinates of the

cardinal points was adopted by the two state parties with maritime
boundary marked as finalized in 1976. The document was handed
over to the United Nations Tribunal to confirm the agreement
between the parties as stipulated in UNCLOS. The rigorous
determination of the boundary is yet to be done.

Somalia
 - The fluid agreement between the two countries reached before 1972
was dishonored by Somalia in 1972.
- According to the original unauthenticated agreement, the maritime
boundary consisted of a prolongation of the land boundary line
running South-east into the Indian Ocean up to the limit specified by
UNCLOS.

- On September 10th 1972 the then president of Somalia, Siad Barre

decreed the law on Somalia Territorial Sea and Port known as Law No.
37 which laid a unilateral claim on sea and marine land from Gulf of
Aden to deep into Kenyan territorial waters.

- The decree placed the maritime boundary line to run from around
Kismayu point along the line of longitude straight southward.

- The year 2015 Somalia government hurriedly enacted law that would
actualize the decree alluded to above. The dispute document has
already been forwarded to the International Court of Justice to be
deliberated on for adoption. This has put Kenya in a precarious
situation since the sites where oil and gas deposits were being
commercially harnessed are set to be in the Somalia territorial waters.
A unilateral declaration by Kenya adopted the line of latitude through
Kismayu to be part of the Kenya/Somalia boundary. The case is
currently at ICJ and is going for full hearing.

Disputes in Maritime Boundaries

These are controversies about territorial waters which tend to be caused by;
 Territorial sovereignty which is a legacy of history
 Relevant jurisdictional rights and interests occasioned by differing interpretation
of the law of the sea
 Discovery of minerals and valuable resources in the sea

4. HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEY BASIC INSTRUMENTATION.

 Survey boat
 Equipment.
- Land based positioning
- Space based
- Sea- based positioning
 In-situ instrumentations
-Tide gauges
-Current meters.
Typical Hydrographic Surveying projects.
- Dredging of ports.
- Tidal observations.
- shore control establishment
- Delimitation of maritime boundaries.
- Determination of EEZ
- Resourse Location

5. MODERN EQUIPMENT IN HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYING.

- Echo Sounders (fathometer)
 Depth determination.
 Acoustic-based
 Also used in locating school of fish.
- Spray Glider
 Robotic submarines that navigate without human crew on-
board.
 among ocean instruments termed automatic underwater
vehicles (AUVs)
 For research.
 With sensors for temperature, salinity and turbidity of ocean
areas.
 For understanding ocean circulation and its influence on
global climate.

- Side Scan Sonar.

 Bathymetry for study of underwater depth.
 Bathymetric map or chart shows floor relief as contour lines
(isobaths)
 Bathymetric surveys crucial in environmental assessment of
marine system.
 Uses sound waves to delineate objects on the sea-floor.
 Turns echo strength into image.
 - Currents Meters
 Measures velocity of water.
 Optical CM measures surface velocities in open channels.
 Flood velocities.
 Microwave water surface meter measures current speed in
open channel e.g. river without contacting the water.
 Determines river discharge or stream flow.

- Tide gauge
 Sea level measurements
 Determination of tidal parameters

POSITION DETERMINATION.

 Primary task in HS is determination of (Ø, λ) or (x, y) in real time.

- We require (φ,λ) in a specified coordinate system.
- h assumed known or determined independently.
 Facing the objectives of :
- Optimum design
- Data collection.
- Data processing.
- Data analysis.
The surveyor considers the following factors in surveying offshore;
1. Availability of necessary measurement instrumentation
2. Position accuracy required.
3. Area of survey(distance offshore, depth, vessel size, coastline
configuration e.t.c)
4. Dynamic or post-mission positioning requirements.
5. Availability of shore control.
6. Positioning methods (observables).
7. Interfacing requirements(echo sounders, gravimeters,
magnetometers,GPS).
8. Duration of surveying operation.
9. Cost.
10. Availability of necessary computational devices

 Mathematical models; the underlying factor for each of the above

factors
- Hydrographic Surveying originally treated as a geometrical
problem.
- Analytical techniques being used now.

 Line of Position (LOP)

- Measurements used in determining (φ,λ) same as those used
on land (angles,azimuth, distance )
- Distance difference used at sea.
- Relative to (φ,x) of shore controls each measurement made
defines a LOP.

LOP: a line on any part of which a position is located.

 It is based on the observation of a single quantity to determine the

relationship of the observer to one,or one set of reference positions.

 Determination of (φ,x) offshore involves two intersecting LOPs.

 Types of LOPs.
- 4 types of LOPs associated with observables utilized in
offshore positioning.
- The associated equations are only mathematical
representations and not maths models. The latter requires
linearization to facilitate solutions.

 (1) Straight lines (LOCI of constant azimuth).

- Associated with instrumentation that yields direction (or
azimuth) information e.g. gyroscope, theodolite or compass.
- The equation
tan α iu = xiu
yiu
(2) Circular lines.
 - Concentric (Loci of constant ranges)
- Eccentric ( Loci of constant angles).

a) Concentric.
- Known point is associated with distance measurement (S) to
unknown point u.
- The equation
siu2= X2iu + y2iu.
b) Eccentric.
- Associated with 2 known points i and j and unknown point u
at which angle a is observed.
- Observe angles and measure distances.
- Circle can be drawn through any 3 points hence using cosine
rule cosaiuj = f(xiu, yiu, xju,yju).

- cos aiuj = x2ju + y2ju) + x2iu + y2iu) – x21j + y2ij)

- 2(x2iu + y2iu)1/2 (x2ju + y2ju) ½

- Associated with direction observation at u e.g. sextant.

(3) Hyperbolic Lines.

- Hyperbola-locus of a points with constant range difference
from 2 points (foci).
- Associated with electronic measuring devices that yield
distance difference
- a=Sju – Siu = f(xiu,yiu, xju, yju,)
 Geometrical Configuration for Position determination
- Combine any two mathematical expressions for position
determination.
1. Direct problem.
2. Azimuth intersection.
3. Range intersection
4. Hyperbolic intersection
 5. Resection.

 Mathematical Models
- Gives relationship between observed quantities
and parameters sought
Example: Azimuth and Angle model.
Non-linear form of the model on conformal mapping plane
coordinates.
Fiu = tan-1xiu,/xyu – αiu = o (1)

- Aim is to combine 2 azimuths to solve for (x u, yu) using linear

algebraic techniques. Fiu to be linearized.
equation (1) rewritten

Fiu = α (xi - yi, xu, yu)- αiu= o (2)

Approximate (1) by the linear part of Taylors Series namely:

Fiu = F0iu + dFiu (3)

in which subscript o implies approximate values of coordinates.

Fuio – azimuth computed via approximate coordinates

minus measured values.

dFiu – differential change due to changes in coordinates in

the measured values.
Designating α (xi, yi, xu, yu) that is azimuth computed
via final coordinates x, and αiu by ℓ, we get
Fiu = α ( xi, yi, x0u,yu0 ) – αiub) +

dα (xi, yi, xu0, yu0) – Vαui = 0 (4)

written in the general form.
 W + AX – V = 0
in which
W – Approximate minus observed values.
A – Coefficient of differential corrections to coordinates.
V – Corrections to observed quantities
Parametric approach of the method of Least Squares used to obtain X
MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS.

Land – based Measurement Systems are:

- optical
- electronic
- acoustic.

 Optical Measurements.
 Most common devices used are theodolite, sextant, level and
tacheometer.
 Most obvious criteria for Optical Measurementis clear line of sight
between observer and target.
 Consider the sextant for Hydrographic Surveying.
 Uses of other optical instruments for hydrographic surveying are less
common.

The Sextant.

 Basic physical construction.

- Index mirror, M
- Vernier device, A
- Horizontal glass/mirror, I
- Mirror, M
- Reference objects (shore controls) on land, O&H
 Observation procedure.

 Basic principle
- If a ray of light suffers two successive reflections in the same
plane, by two plane mirrors, the angle between the first and
last directions of the ray is equal to twice the angle between
the mirrors or twice the angle rotated by the movable mirror
M.
Prove that a = 2(i-e) from diagram

 The objective of using sextant is to observe two angles simultaneously

from unknown vessel position to three known shore controls.
 Figure; Sextant Resection.

 The result is a Sextant resection solved:

- Using two angle equations to yield position and accuracy.
- Using well known geometric/trigonometric resection
formulae for position only.
- Graphically using a station pointer(3 arm protractor) yielding
a position plot.

 Angle to be reduced to local horizontal plane. See Figure below

- when ΔV < 10 no reduction
- when ΔV > 10 compute correction
- Use unit sphere as computational surface
- Use of pre-computed tables may be an alternative
 Standard deviation of sextant angle is 4 minutes of arc with
contributors;
- Vessel motion
- Haze
- Uncertain target elevation
- Index errors
- Fix errors.

Fig1

uuu

UNIT SPHERE AS COMPUTATIONAL SUR

From the spherical triangle

sin (a/2 )=(cos (vi-vj)-cos a’ )1/

2 cos vi cos vj (5-6)

or

-1
a = 2 sin ( cos (vi-vj)-cos a’ )1/2 (5-7)

2 cos vi cos vj

Standard deviation of coordinates of a position is 5-50m

Methods
 Optical
 EDM
 Acoustic
 Satellite

Electromagnetic Distance Measurements.

 In Hydrographic survey EM waves used are in the lower third
portion of Electromagnetic Spectrum.
 Microwaves and Radio waves.
 Diagram of radio and Microwaves.

 Radio waves used for longer ranges owing to longer wavelengths.

 RW for offshore distances travel in the earth/ionosphere duct.
 Frequencies used are Microwaves, MF, LF, and VLF

Radio Positioning
The measurement of distances and distance differences by
electronic means to determine an offshore position is commonly
referred to as R.P.
 Uses s=v.∆t
 Deals with transmitted not direct waves
 Signal traverses upto ionosphere

 Characteristic of typical waves.

 Electromagnetic Wave Propagation. (Microwaves and Radio waves)

= Travels through the earth,Troposphere and Ionosphere as medium

= Suffers Attenuation and retardation
= Travels as Surface/ground, Ground-reflected, Direct, Sky waves
Note; We identify Ground,Surface, Ground-reflected, Direct, and Sky waves

At VLF (3-30 KHz, λ=100 – 10km)

 Earth’s surface and lower atmosphere act as wave guide.
 Low signal attenuation with distance
 Predictable propagation characteristics.

At LF band (30KHz – 300KHz, λ = 10 – 1km)

 Surface wave follows earth’s curvature with little attenuation

At MF and HF bands.
 Attenuation of surface wave increases.
 Surface wave disappears at 30 MHz.
 Ground wave extends into atmosphere to height of one λ.
 GW penetrates into sea-water ~1m depth.
 Signal travels as sky wave.
 Signal >30MHz are not reflected but penetrate and absorbed by
ionosphere.

At Microwave (> 30 MHz)

 Surface and skywave diminish.
  Direct and ground reflected waves dominate.

 Propagation of EM Waves.
C= 299 792 458 ± 12ms-1
 In any medium, propagation is affected by
- Attenuation (strength decrease with distance)
- Retardation (signal travels slower)
For electronic distance measurement we are interested in v.
n=c
v
 For hydrographic survey purposes v may be determined by
 Direct (analytical) method since v = f(t,p,e)
 Indirect (empirical) method
- More popular
- More practical.
- Uses two distance measurements

 Propagation Mediums. (ground surface, troposphere, ionosphere)

 Troposphere
- Spherical shell of gas extending to 30km attitude.

III. ELECTRONIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENT.

Measurement of distance and distance difference by electronic means to determine

the offshore position is referred to as Radio positioning.

S= V. dt

R.P involves;

 Typically longer distances.

 Knowledge of atmosphere.
 On land we use microwave and infrared with direct measurement.
 Uses transmitted not direct waves.
 Properties of land, sea, atmosphere important.

REVISIT THE 3 REGIONS OF EM SPECTRUM

(i) Radiation described as particles of energy.

 (ii) Radiation has physiological effects.
(iii) Radiation generated and transmitted electronically.

Constraints in signal propagation in region 3

 Response times of electron processes in electronic devices.

 Difficulties in propagating extremely long wavelength radiation.
 Radio waves (RW) for offshore distance measurement propagate in the
troposphere, earth, and ionosphere.
 Low signal attenuation with distance.
 Predictable propagation characteristics.
 Width of duct varies diurnally at the upper interface.
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE PROPAGATION VELOCITY

In vacuo

C= 299 792 458 ± 12m s -1 (1974)

In any medium propagation affected by

(a) Attenuation – signal strength decreases with distance.

(b) Retardation – signal travels at a different velocity V(slower).

n=C N = (n-1) 106

The troposphere and determination of R.I.

 Spherical shell of gas 0 – 30 km altitude.

 n>1
 Apparent distances > geometrical (vacuum) distances.

THE IONOSPHERE

 Ultraviolet radiation from sun causes gas atoms in the atmosphere to ionize into
electrons and protons.

 Within 50-80km these quickly recombine.

 At higher altitudes recombination decreases with ionization gradient present.
  This region retains ionization density throughout
 From around 80-400km altitude lies the ionosphere.
 At night recombination highest at lower altitude shifting interface upward.

IONIZATION DENSITY GRADIENTS.

 Solar radiation absorbed unequally.

 Producing regions of ionization density gradients.
 4 regions where radio waves are reflected back to earth namely; D, E, F1, F2

At night

 D layer disappears, F1 looses id.

 At sunset and sunrise conditions
fall.g444g

D – Layers

 Reflects VLF and LF

 Absorbs MF
 Weakens HF through partial absorption.
E – Layers

 Reflect MF at night when D is gone.

 Reflect HF during day.
F1 -

 Occasionally reflects HF
F2

 Principal reflector of the HF waves at night.

 Providing long distance communications.
THE EARTH’S SURFACE AND PHASE LAG CORRECTIONS.
Let us consider the example of surface wave propagation of low frequency

TILT
Figure 5-9: Tilt of Radio Wave due
to

In considering the propagation of surface waves over the earth’s surface the
conductivity of the earth is important. The earth acts like a capacitor and resistor in
parallel in carrying current induced by surface waves.

 Earth surface is an imperfect conductor

 Ground edge of wave front of surface wave will be retarded

causing forward tilt.

 The tilt increases with frequency and decreases with conductivity.

 Over sea water it is few degrees.
 Over land it is 20-30 degrees.
 This retardation of the surface waves introduces a phase lag into the surface
wave which increases with distance from transmitter, and decreases with
conductivity and frequency.
 At great distances e.g. 100km the signal propagation is determined by

- Tropospheric refractivity.
- Earth’s conductivity.
- Earth curvature.
 - The height gradient (vertical lapse of tropospheric refractivity rate).
For tropospheric refractivity

 Slows down the signal

 Accounted for by assuming a constant propagation velocity, V, which is
lower than C. (Primary Phase Lag)
 The effects of the remaining three are complicated.
Their combined effect treated as problem of secondary phase lag
correction (Also referred to as Additional Secondary Correction (ASC) or
Additional Secondary Factor (ASF)

Typical parameters used in computing secondary phase lag are:

 t1 – atmospheric permittivity (asu )

 t2 - earth permittivity (esu)
 R-Effective earth radius (compensates for vertical lapse of permittivity).
 - α –conductivity.
 Tables are used for specific frequencies.
 In most marine areas, we assume only over water propagation paths and
constant sea water conductivities given as theoretical phase lag (p) by the
polynomial.

P = A/S + B + Cr + Dr2

Where A,B,C,D are constants associated with a particular EDM on a given frequency, r
is the earth radius of curvature, S is measured distance, P is phase lag (secondary)
correction.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RADIO SYSTEMS

- Fall naturally into 4 groups (Microwave, MF, LF, VLF)

- Frequency Determines

 Measurable range.
 Size of shore transmitters.
 Accuracy of measurements.
- Longer ranges imply;

 Longer waves (lower frequency)

 Lower accuracy
 Increased transmitter size and power requirements.

- Accuracy decreases for longer ranges because;

 It’s technically difficult to measure to better than about( 1/100)λ.

 Difficult to predict V at long range;
 Transmitter size and power requirements increase because the signal has
farther to travel.
 Radio waves propagate efficiently from antenna at least λ/4 long.
 Anything shorter requires additional power.

MODES OF MEASUREMENTS IN RADIO POSITIONING

Obtaining x,y of points on platforms at sea.

Assume equipments located at either the landward and/or seaward

sites. The modes include;

 Range – Range
 Rho – Rho
 Rho – Theta
 Hyperbolic

Electronic Equipments for Radio Positioning are;

Transponders, Responders, Beacons, Transducers.

Responder---Bounces back the signal from the transmitter

Transponder-----Receives signal from transmitter, analyses it then

retransmits to the transmitter
Beacons---- Continuously transmits signal at a constant frequency to sea-
based receiver

Transducer---- Transmits and receives signal either on land or at sea

Availability of shore controls as platforms for the above electronic

equipments assumed.

Range – Range

 Transmitter carried on board the sea.

 Signal received at 2 or more transponders ashore.
 Retransmitted to vessel.
 Intersection of 2 range circles.
 Most accurate due to strong geometry of the pattern of intersecting
circles.
 Limited number of vessels to use same shore control simultaneously.
 Mainly for microwave – based equipment

Rho – Rho

 The ship does not carry transmitter.

 Both shore transmitter and ship- borne receivers are controlled by
precise atomic frequency standard.
 Once synchronized in both rate and epoch with the shore transmitter
the receiver should show no phase change until the ship moves.
 The receiver position is ro.
 Any phase change converted to ∆ r .

 Current ship range r = ro + ∆r

 Good geometry as range – range above.
 Measurement accuracy inferior to r-r because of small frequency
difference of the atomic drift (parts in 1014).
  No transmitter or large antenna on board.
 Greater range of larger, more efficient shore transmitter employed.
 No limit to number of users.
 Cheaper since one needs only receiver on board.

Rho – Theta

 Receiver on board
 Measures azimuth and range
 Poor geometry hence less accuracy since only one control used
 Cheapest of the four.

Hyperbolic.

 Master transmitter a shore; master-slave baselines forms a shallow v

concave to service area. Slaves ashore
 Shipborne receiver measures ∆t between the master signal and that
master elicits from slaves.
 Different frequencies used to identify signals from each station.
 ∆ts converted to range differences which plot as hyperbolae.
 Weak pattern geometry.
 No limit to number of users.
 Receiver less expensive.
 All MF, LF, VLF systems can be used in this mode.

Error Source in Radio Positioning.

1. Zero Error.
 All radio measuring systems to be calibrated for zero error.
 Microwave systems calibrated between geodetic control stations or
on known baselines.

 This is done by bringing the ship close to slave transmitter and

measuring the range simultaneously by microwave and by the MF or
LF system.
  Slave transmitter adjusted or the ships receive offset until the two
ranges agree.
 For the Rho – Rho the frequency standards must be properly
synchronized to cater for frequency offset.

2. Circle Identification Error.

 Except microwave pulse matching system, all R.P system suffer

from cycle ambiguity.
 Solved by instrumentally using coarse lane identification patterns.
 These techniques breakdown under bad conditions such as high
noise and long range.
 Improve condition

3. Propagation Velocity Error.

 For microwave only the atmospheric refractivity affect velocity and

ranges are so short that use is made of mean velocity without
significant error.
 For the ground wave systems ground conductivity and other factors
introduces a secondary phase lag in addition to the primary phase
lag.
 Over water this phase lag can be predicted accurately.
 Detailed calibration required for overland signals.
 Could be over 150m for ranges over 600km.

4. Errors Resulting from Radio Noise.

(including sky wave reference)

 Noise can be defined as any radiation, man – made or natural

within the frequency pass – band of the receiver, other than the
measuring signal.
 Causes of jitters of 2 or more hundredths of λ.
 Some receivers damped to reduce noise affect.
  In MF, LF system, the strength of unwanted sky wave signal
increases with distance (especially at night).
 Whereas ground wave signal strength decreases with range.
 Sky wave interference is a common cause of increased noise error
culminating in loss of ‘lock’.

5. Error in Frequency Standard

 All R.P. systems use frequency standards to make measurements.

 Accuracy requirement not critical in the lieu of standards available
(part in 1014).
 Rho – Rho systems, however, depend on maintaining a constant,
well-defined, clock rate (frequency offset) between the atomic
frequency standard over long periods.
 Require five orders of magnitude better frequency control than
other systems.
 A reasonable error in determining clock rate of 0.05 us per day (1
part in 1013) will introduce range error at the rate of 15m per day.

6. Pulse Amplitude in Microwave Systems.

 Measures travel time of a pulse without phase comparison.

 Liable to read too far back in return pulse when signal amplitude
falls off.
 Produces too great a distance.

ACOUSTIC WAVE VELOCITY MODEL

- Velocity of propagation of acoustic wave in a fluid in first

approximation, expressed as C=(k/r)1/2

k- Bulk modulus (volume elasticity)

 r- Density.

- Parameters vary with

 Temperature
 Pressure
 Composition.

For propagation velocity in water, C is expressed as a

function of temperature, hydrostatic pressure, salinity
(composition)

C=C0,35,0+DCs+DCt+DCp+DCstp

C - Velocity at 00 C
35 - 350/00 of salinity
p -atmospheric pressure
DC - corrective terms
Dstp – corrective term for simultaneous variation of the 3
parameters

The intensity of initially divergent acoustic waves decreases

with distance from source due to reflections, refraction,
diffraction. This causes signal attenuation.
ACOUSTIC POSITIONING
 Two types of acoustic positioning system (APS)
- Long baseline
- Short baseline.

 APS uses acoustic markers which are:

- Transponders ---retransmits
- Hydrophone -----receives only
- Beacons or Pingers ---transmits only
- Transducer -------transmits/receives

Long baseline system

- Uses ranges from 3 or more bottom-moored
acoustic beacons for position determination.
- Used when survey area is large
- Used in positioning of submerged and surface
vessels.
- Absolute positions and orientation of transponder
arrays determined from land based or satellite
positioning systems.
→ →
- With r of each transponder known r

of each vessel is determined using 3 or more

slant ranges.
- Ranges determined through acoustic pulse travel
time measurement.
- Maximum range limited by attenuation and
reflection of waves.
- Acoustic Positioning Systems.
- At great distances from shore conventional land based systems cannot
meet the precise relative positioning requirements for various offshore
operations. This led to the development of acoustic navigation and
positioning systems which provide local, accurate, and real time
information.
 - Acoustic positioning systems are of two basic types. A long baseline
system uses numerous acoustic beacons or transponders on the ocean
floor to position a ship (or submersible vessel) equipped with a single
hydrophone. A short base line systems uses on reference transponder in
conjunction with an array of hydrophones attached to the ship. There
are many different modes and principles involved in the instrumentation
of acoustic systems.
- The following sections overview the numerous types of acoustic
navigation and positioning systems. The basic concepts and principles
involved in their design and some applications are also mentioned.
- Long Baseline Systems.
- Along baseline system uses ranges from three or more bottom moored
acoustic beacons for position determination (Figure 6-2).

-
- Figure 6-2: Geometry of an Acoustic Transponder navigation
system
-

Sing Around Method

→
- Used to determine r of a submersible. Range –
range mode used.
- Submersible first interrogated from the ship at a
certain frequency.
- This gives ship-submersible range.
- Reply from submersible interrogates all the 3
transponders
- Yield 3 transponder replies from original
transmission.
- Submersible position in relation to transponder
determined by subtracting the submersibles
range and each transponder range from the total
sing around time minus interrogation delay time.
- Most accurate of all A.P.S.
 Short baseline
This is used in station keeping only and not in
determining position
- One submerged acoustic beacon required.
- Array of 3
-
- or more transducer / hydrophones mounted
or the ship.
- 3 types
 Range- range
 Range bearing
 Time difference.

THE ECHO SOUNDER

As has been stated previously, the point of interest from which the hydrographic
surveyor must determine positional information is most often located on the seabed. The
common approach to sea-bottom location is to locate the horizontal position of a surface
vessel (e.g. Φ and λ in a desired coordinate system) and then determine the vertical
(ellipsoidal normal, distance between the surface vessel and the projected point on the
seabed. The approach yields the three dimensional position of the point of interest. It
should be noted here that the depth (height) coordinate may be required with respect to
the reference surfaces commonly used on land (e.g. reference ellipsoid, geoids), a
selected chart datum, or all of the former. More details on this topic are given in chapter
II.

The common approach to modern depth determination is to utilize measurements

associated with the travel time of acoustic waves. The waves are transmitted associated
by an instrument from the survey vessel to the sea-floor and are reflected back to the
vessel. Knowing the velocity of propagation of the waves c(t) at every point along the
wave path and measuring the two-way travel time, the depth is determined by

t
d= ½ r c (t) dt (8-1)

′
 t
t

t t
Where t and r are the instants of time transmissions and echo reception respectively. In
practice, c (t) is not known, but one can determine a mean velocity of propagation c m

t t
(see section 8.2). Using the time interval, Δt = r- t , the depth (measured) is then.

d = ½ cm. Δt . (8-2)

A depth determined in this way is called a sounding. A sounding that has been corrected
to refer to a particular reference surface (datum) is called a reduced sounding. The
reduction of sounding data is treated in section 8.3. The instrument used to generate the
acoustic wave, time its two-way travel time, and record this information is commonly
called an echo sounder.

Whether the device is called a depth sounder, depth indicator, echo sounder,
fathometer, bathymeter, or fish-finder, the basic principle of operation of a device used
to obtain measurements for depth determinations through the water are the same. The
device measures the time interval from the transmission of a pulse of sound energy is
generated, how it gets into water, how it is received, and most important how the time
interval is measured.

Before examining the items just mentioned, it is best to first get an overview of the
complete echo-sounder system. The basic components of any system are (Ingham
1975).

(i) the pulse generator (transmitter) to provide electrical power,

(ii) the switching unit to pass the power to the transducer,
(iii) the transmitting transducer to convert the electrical power to acoustical power
and project the latter into the water,
(iv) the receiving transducer to receive the reflected sound power (echo) and
convert it into electrical signals,
(v) the receiving amplifier to enhance the amplitude of echoes, particularly weak
ones, to enable them to activate the recording system,
(vi) the recording device which usually controls the emission of electrical energy to
the transducer, times the interval between transmission and reception of the
 acoustic pulse, stores the desired data in some convenient form for the user,
and, in many cases, converts the time interval to range before recording.
Figure 8-1 portrays, in a general sense the components and operation of the basic echo
sounder unit.

Figure 8-1: Basic Echo Sounder Operation.

Pulsed pressure waves in the frequency range 1-300 Khz are commonly used for echo
sounding. The transmitter is the device used to generate the electronic pulse that drives
the electro acoustic transducer. The transmitter contains a crystal oscillator that
oscillates in the range 1-10 MHz. The crystal oscillator signal is divided down to give a
continuous operating frequency signal. Each time a “trigger” is received from the
recording device, the operating signal is transmitted (after being properly amplified) to
the electro acoustic transducer for a fixed length of time (a pulse). The pulse length
will normally vary from 0.1 to 50ms. Many echo sounders are capable of transmitting at
several different frequencies and have pulse length control over the range 0.1 to 50 ms.

The receiver can be viewed simply as a signal amplifier to amplify the returning echo
signal for the recorder. Receivers have a bandwidth wide enough to receive a short pulse
with the least amount of noise as well as any expected Doppler shift. During the transmit
portion of the sounder operation, the receiver is protected from the powerful output
signal by the transmit/receive (T/R) switch.

The pressure waves used for echo sounding are created by a vibrating surface, its
resonant frequency being that of the frequency required. Electrical power from the
transmitter is used to produce a vibrating surface, which, when in contact with the
water, produces a sound pressure waves. A system component that acts solely as a
pressure wave creator is called a projector (transmitting transducer). If the device acts in
a reverse sense-changes sound (pressure) waves to electrical power it is termed a
hydrophone (receiving transducer). A device that will carry out both functions is simply
referred to as a transducer. The latter is the common system component in modern echo
sounding instrumentation.

As previously mentioned, pulsed transmissions are used. The pulse is generated by

applying a momentary electrical discharge to the transducer causing its diaphragm to
undergo physical change.

The transducer diaphragm, in contact with water, generates a pulse of acoustic energy.

Transducers for hydrographic surveying purposes are designed to produce beams of

acoustic energy of various shapes, concentrating the energy along an axis normal to the
radiating surface. The radiation of acoustic energy is dependent in part on the shape of
the transducer.

A long, narrow surface will produce (ideally) a narrow beam in the plane orthogonal to
the long dimension (Figure 8-2a). A circular transducer will produce, for all practical
considerations, a cone-shaped beam (figure 8-

1.1 OCEAN TIDES

The effects or manifestation of ocean tides are seen as:
 Daily or twice-daily rise and fall of the water on the face of a
 cliff or around the pilings of a pier,
 Advance and retreat of the water over shallow foreshore, or
 Variable horizontal flow of the water that carries the ship off
course.

There are basically three responses due to the tidal effect giving rise
to three distinct classes of tidal phenomena.
Body tide - being the response of the whole body of the earth to the
periodic fluctuations in the tide-raising forces of the moon and the
sun: similar responses on the solid earth and the ocean beget earth
and ocean tides. The ocean tide takes the form of long waves that
are generated throughout the ocean.

1.2 SEA LEVEL VARIATION

In addition to the tidal response on the ocean alluded to above are
some of key phenomena of non-tidal origin responsible for ocean
water level fluctuations namely:

1. Wind - driven current

The major current systems of the ocean are driven by the wind stress
acting on the surface. The direct wind stress effect is transmitted
only to a limited depth by viscosity and turbulence. The effect also
register as sea level variation.

2. Wind - setup:
This refers to the slope of the water surface in the direction of the
wind stress. The slope perpendicular to a wind blowing along a
coast balances the coriolis force on the- along the shore current
driven by the wind. It is an indirect effect of the wind.
3. Atmospheric effect.
This causes depression of the water surface under high pressure and
elevation under low atmospheric pressure. This is closely related to
wind-setup effect and change in water level caused by pressure
change cannot be easily separated from that caused by wind stress.

4. Storm Surges
Those are pronounced increases in water level associated with the
passage of storms. Much of the increase is the direct result of wind
setup and the inverted barometer effect.

5. Seiches
A seiches is the free oscillation of the water in a closed or semi-
closed basin at its natural period. They are frequently observed in
harbours, bays and almost in any distinct basin of moderate size.
Their occurrence is related to the build up and subsequent relaxation
of a wind set-up in the basin. Unless significantly reinforced, the
effect of seiches remains minimal in tidal records.

6. Precipitation, Evaporation, and Runoff:

The precipitation and evaporation considered here are those that
occur at the water surface, not those that occur elsewhere in the
drainage basin. The runoff is the net result of precipitation,
evaporation and absorption of water over the land portion of the
drainage basin.

7. Melting and Freezing.

Whenever sea water freezes, it is only the water that forms into the
crystal. Freezing has the effect similar to evaporation as it lowers
the water level and increases salinity. Melting does the reverse.

8. Tsunamis
A tsunami is a disturbance of the water surface caused by a
displacement of the sea bed or an underwater landslide usually
triggered of by an earthquake or an underwater volcanic eruption.
They normally cause a sudden and abnormally high rise in the
water level.

1.1 Establishment of Temporary Water Level Gauge

To provide information necessary for the transfer or
establishment of sounding datum.
With proper recording and documentation the information
can be used
(i) For provision of harmonic constants for tidal prediction.
(ii) On short term water level fluctuations/variations

1.2 Stilling wells.

- Vertical enclosure.
- Purposed to damp out rapid vertical oscillations of water
level.
- Wooden planks, metal, plastic, culvert.

1.3 Types of Water Level Gauges

- Float, Pressure, Sight, Staff.

1.4 Float Gauge

- Has long been the standard instrument for precise
measurement of Water Level Gauge.
- Provides direct measurement of Water Level.
- Water level information transmitted from the float to the
recorder by the cable.
- Float is cylindrical.
- When deployed the line or the float to be half way up the
cylindrical section.
- Increasing cross-sectional area of the float increases the
sensitivity of the gauge to changes in Water Level.
- The counter weight to be solid and heavy enough to keep
sufficient tension in the cable.

1.5 Pressure Gauge

- Based on hydrostatic pressure p = hpg
- Use of pressure sensors instead of float gauges becoming
standard practice.
- Their installation is much simpler.
- Slitting well not required.
- Damping supplied by the design of the sensor head.
Pressure gauge assembly (diaphragm type)
- Pressure sensor in a flexible rubber diaphragm connected to
air chamber.
- Outside of diaphragm has holes to the water pressure.
- Air chamber connected to Boarder tube by capillary tube.
- Either boarder tube, below or round chamber can be used.
- The devices translate changes in differential pressure (inside
vs outside) into motion conveyed by linkages to a recorder.
The pressure difference to which the below responds in the
hydrostatic pressure due to the column above diaphragm.
1.6 Pressure Gauge-Bubbler type
- Not frequently used.
- Do not require stilling well.
- Pressure sensor is orifice at the underwater end of the long
flexible air-tight tube.
- The pressure outside the Boarder type is atmospheric.
- Pressure difference to which it responds is equal to the
column of water above the orifice.
- The difference sensitizes the Boarder tube.

1.7 Pressure Gauge Deep Sea.

- Self contained.
- Anchored on the sea bottom.
- Record changes in pressure for periods up to several Kms.
- Senses pressure using quartz crystal oscillation by comparing
outside and inside instrument.
- In deep sea the gauge is unattended.
- The record is not unavailable until it is removed from the
gauge and electronically translated.
- Nowadays data can be retrieved through transducer linked
with shore-based hydro chore.
- Or through telemetric linkages.
- Yield best data for tidal constants.
1.8 Staff gauge
- Staff height readings observed on a graduated staff.
- Fastened to a straight plant.
- Fixed to wharf, stone-filled crib or tripped, three guy wires.
- More than one staff to be used in longer ranges.
- Checks automatic gauges.
Figure 1:
Staff gauge installations (a) on wharf, (b) on submerged platform and (c) on long sloping beach.
1.9 Sight Gauge.

- Consists of graduated metal tape, spooled in metal drum.

- Lower end is plumb bob forming zero point for tape
graduations.
- Gnomon.
- The tape is unrolled from the drum.
- When the tips of plummet touches the water surface the
galvanometer needle jumps.
- The depth of water level below the gnomon is read.
- Gnomon level is connected to BM by leveling.
- Data now recorded digitally and transmitted through tele-
announcing by telephone interrogation.

2.0 Selection of Gauge Site.

Ease of installation.
1. Existence of support structures.
2. Presence of sufficient deep water.
3. Accessibility of the site by water or land.
4. Suitability of nearby terrain for establishment of BMs.
5. Natural protection from impact of waves and current.
6. Relation to marine traffic rules.

Setting Gauge Zero.

- Level from BM to Gnomon to obtain elevation of GN above CD.
- The float gauge setting water level done by holding float wire
and slipping the pulley past it until the desired reading is
obtained.
- Pressure recorders usually have an adjusting screw for
setting.

Emerging developments in Hydrography

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