Fundamentals of Algebra

Part - 01
Indices:
Definition of Indices:
If '𝑎' is any non-zero real or imaginary number and '𝑚' is a positive integer, then 𝑎𝑚 = 𝑎. 𝑎. 𝑎. . . . 𝑎 (𝑚 times). Here 𝑎
is called the base and 𝑚 is the index, power or exponent.

Law of indices:
(i) 𝑎0 = 1, (𝑎  0)
1
(ii) 𝑎–m = m , (𝑎  0)
a
(iii) 𝑎𝑚 . 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚+𝑛
am
(iv) = 𝑎𝑚–𝑛 , 𝑎  0
an
(v) (𝑎𝑚 )𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚𝑛 = (𝑎𝑛 )𝑚
𝑝
q ( )
(vi) ap = 𝑎 𝑞 , 𝑞 𝑁 and 𝑞  2
(vii) If 𝑥 = 𝑦, then 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑎y, but the converse may not be true. e.g. : (1)6 = (1)8, but 6  8
For 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑦 we have following possibilities
• If 𝑎  ±1, 0, then 𝑥 = 𝑦
• If 𝑎 = 1, then 𝑥, 𝑦 may be any real number
• If 𝑎 = – 1, then 𝑥, 𝑦 may be both even or both odd
• If 𝑎 = 0, then 𝑥, 𝑦 may be any positive real number
𝑔(𝑥) ℎ(𝑥)
But if we have to solve the equations like (𝑓(𝑥)) = (𝑓(𝑥)) (i.e. same base, different indices) then we have
to solve:
(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 (b) 𝑓(𝑥) = – 1
(c) 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 (d) 𝑔(𝑥) = ℎ(𝑥)
Verification should be done in (b) and (c) cases
(viii) If 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑏 𝑥 then consider the following cases:
• If 𝑎  ±𝑏, then 𝑥 = 0
• If 𝑎 = 𝑏  0, then 𝑥 may have any real value for which 𝑎 𝑥 is well defined.
• If 𝑎 = –𝑏  0, then 𝑥 is even.
• If 𝑎 = 𝑏 = 0, then 𝑥 can be any positive real.
If we have to solve the equation of the form [𝑓(𝑥)]ℎ(𝑥) = [𝑔(𝑥)]ℎ(𝑥) , i.e., same index, different bases, then we
have to solve:
(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥)
(b) 𝑓(𝑥) = – 𝑔(𝑥)
(c) ℎ(𝑥) = 0
Verification should be done in (a), (b) and (c) cases.

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Fundamentals of Algebra – Part 01

Illustration 1:
2
(125)1 /3  =
(A) 25 (B) 5 (C) 125 (D) 625
Solution:
Ans. (A)
2
(53 )1/3   (5)2  25
 

Illustration 2:
(2)3 (8)−1/3 (4)2
=
(64)−1/ 6 (8)2
(A) 8 (B) 2 (C) 16 (D) 64
Solution:
Ans. (B)
23.2−1.24 27
 =2
2−1.26 26
Illustration 3:
2 3
729 =
(A) 3 (B) 9 (C) 27 (D) 81
Solution:
Ans. (A)
( (3 ) )
1/ 2
6 1/3
 3

Illustration 4:
If 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑏, 𝑏 𝑦 = 𝑐, 𝑐 𝑧 = 𝑎, prove that 𝑥𝑦𝑧 = 1, where 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 are distinct numbers.
Solution:
We have, 𝑎xyz = (𝑎x)yz
 𝑎xyz = (𝑏)yz [ 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑏]
 𝑎xyz = (𝑏y)z
 𝑎xyz = 𝑐z [𝑏 𝑦 = 𝑐]
 𝑎xyz = 𝑎 [ 𝑐 𝑧 = 𝑎]
 𝑎xyz = 𝑎1
 𝑥𝑦𝑧 = 1

Illustration 5:
Solve (𝑥 2 − 4)2𝑥 = (𝑥 2 + 2𝑥)2𝑥 .
Solution:
Case-1 : When 𝑥 = 0
Base : 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 = 0, so 𝑥 = 0 does not satisfy given equation
Case-2 : 𝑥 2 – 4 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥  0
 𝑥
Case-3 : 𝑥 2 – 4 = – 𝑥 2 – 2𝑥  0  2𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 – 4 = 0
𝑥2 + 𝑥 – 2 = 0 𝑥=1
satisfies the given equation
Case-4 : 𝑥 2 – 4 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥  𝑥 = –2
𝑥 = –2 does not satisfy the given equation.
From all above cases, 𝑥{1}

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 Fundamentals of Algebra
Part - 02

Surds:
If ‘𝑥’ is a rational number, which is not the 𝑛𝑡ℎ power (n  N \{1}) of any rational number, then the number x1/n usually
denoted by n
x is called surd. The sign ' n x ' is called the radical sign. The number in the angular part of the sign,
i.e., '𝑛' is called order of the surd. In case of 𝑛 = 2 the expression 2
x , simply written as x.
Note :
• If n
x is a surd then – ( n x ) is also a surd.
• Every surd is an irrational number (but every irrational number is not a surd).
a
• To rationalize the denominator of a fraction of the form , multiply the numerator and denominator of the
b
a a b a b a b
fraction by b  = . = = .
2 b
b b b b
Ex.
(a) 3 is a surd and 3 is an irrational number.
(b) 3
5 is surd and 3
5 is an irrational number.
(c)  is an irrational number, but it is not a surd.

Conjugate of a Surd
If two binomial surds (surds containing two terms such as 2 + √3, 2√5 − √7 etc.) are such that only the sign connecting
the individual terms are different, then they are said to be conjugate of each other. If these surds are quadratic, then
their product would always be rational. So in case of a binomial quadratic surd, we use its conjugate as its rationalizing
factor.
Ex. Conjugate of 3√2 + √5 is 3√2 − √5 or – 3√2 + √5

Illustration 1:
1
Rationalize the denominator of .
3 2+ 5
Solution:
A conjugate of 3√2 + √5 is 3√2 − √5
Therefore multiplying the conjugate in the numerator and denominator of the given fraction.
3 2− 5
(3 2 + 5 )(3 2 − 5 )

3 2− 5 3 2− 5 3 2− 5
= = =
(3 2 ) − ( 5 ) 18 − 5
2 2
13

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Fundamentals of Algebra – Part 02

Illustration 2:
1
Rationalise the denominator of .
3 − 2 −1
Solution:
1 1 3 + 2 +1
= 
3 − 2 −1 3 − 2 −1 3 + 2 +1
3 + 2 +1 3 + 2 +1 3 + 2 +1
= = =
( 3 − 2 − 1)( 3 + 2 + 1) ( 3) − (
2
2 + 1)
2
−2 2

 6 + 2 +2
= − 
 4 

Illustration 3:
4+3 5
Find rational numbers 𝑎 and 𝑏, such that = a+b 5 .
4 −3 5
Solution:
4+3 5 4+3 5
 = a+b 5
4 −3 5 4 +3 5
61 + 24 5
= a+b 5
−29
61 24
a=− ,b = −
29 29

Illustration 4:
1
If x = 3 – 2 2 , find x2 + .
x2
Solution:
We have, x = 3 – 2 2 .
1 1 1 3+2 2 3+2 2 3+2 2
 = =  = = = 3+2 2
x 3 − 2 2 3 − 2 2 3 + 2 2 (3) − (2 2)
2 2 9−8
1
Thus, x2 + = (3 – 2 2 )2 + (3 + 2 2 )2
x2
= 2((3)2 + (2 2 )2) = 2(9 + 8) = 34

Illustration 5:
1 1
Simplify −
(5 − 2 6) (3 − 2 2)
(A) 4(1 + 6 – 2 ) (B) 2(1 + 5 + 2 ) (C) 2(1 + 6 – 2 ) (D) 2(1 + 6 + 5 )
Solution:
Ans. (C)
(5 + 2 6) (3 + 2 2)
−
(5 + 2 6)(5 − 2 6) (3 − 2 2)(3 + 2 2)
 (5 + 2 6 ) – (3 +2 2 )
 2(1 + 6 – 2 )

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 Fundamentals of Algebra
Part - 03

Factorizations (Type 1 to 3)
1. 𝒂𝟐 – 𝒃𝟐 = (𝒂 – 𝒃)(𝒂 + 𝒃)

Illustration 1:
(3𝑥 – 𝑦)2 – (2𝑥 – 3𝑦)2
Solution:
Use 𝑎2 – 𝑏 2 = (𝑎 – 𝑏) (𝑎 + 𝑏)
(3𝑥 – 𝑦)2 – (2𝑥 – 3𝑦)2 = (3𝑥 – 𝑦 + 2𝑥 – 3𝑦) (3𝑥 – 𝑦 – 2𝑥 + 3𝑦) = (5𝑥 – 4𝑦) (𝑥 + 2𝑦)

2. Factorising the Quadratic expression

Illustration 2:
𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 – 187
Solution:
𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 – 187
= 𝑥 2 + 17𝑥 – 11𝑥 – 187
= 𝑥(𝑥 + 17) – 11(𝑥 + 17)
= (𝑥 + 17) (𝑥 – 11)

3. Factorisation by converting the given expression into a perfect square.

Illustration 3:
9𝑥 4 – 10𝑥 2 + 1
Solution:
9𝑥 4 – 10𝑥 2 + 1 = (3𝑥 2 )2 – 2.3𝑥 2 + 1 – 4𝑥 2
= (3𝑥 2 – 1)2 – (2𝑥)2
= (3𝑥 2 – 1 – 2𝑥)(3𝑥 2 – 1 + 2𝑥)
= (𝑥 – 1)(3𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 1)(3𝑥 – 1)

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 Fundamentals of Algebra
Part - 04

Factorizations (Type 4 to 5)

4. 𝑎3 ± 𝑏 3 ≡ (𝑎 ± 𝑏)(𝑎2 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 )

Illustration 4:
𝑎6 – 𝑏 6
Solution:
𝑎6 – 𝑏 6 = (𝑎2 )3 – (𝑏 2 )3
= (𝑎2 – 𝑏 2 ) (𝑎4 + 𝑎2 𝑏 2 + 𝑏 4 )
= (𝑎 – 𝑏) (𝑎 + 𝑏) (𝑎2 – 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 ) (𝑎2 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 )

5. Using Factor Theorem:

Illustration 5:
𝑥 3 – 13𝑥 – 12
Solution:
As 𝑥 = – 1 makes given expression 0, 𝑥 + 1 is a factor
x2 − x − 12
x + 1 x3 − 13 x − 12
x3 + x 2
− x2 − 13x − 12
− x2 − x
−12x − 12
−12x − 12
0
 𝑥 – 13𝑥 – 12 = (𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 2 – 𝑥 – 12)
3

= (𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 – 4) (𝑥 + 3)

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 Fundamentals of Algebra
Part - 05

Factorizations (Type 6 to 7)
6. 𝑎3 + 𝑏 3 + 𝑐 3 – 3𝑎𝑏𝑐 = (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐) (𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 – 𝑎𝑏– 𝑏𝑐– 𝑎𝑐)

Illustration 1:
8𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 + 27𝑧 3 – 18𝑥𝑦𝑧
Solution:
8𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 + 27𝑧 3 – 18𝑥𝑦𝑧 = (2𝑥)3 + (𝑦)3 + (3𝑧)3 – 3(2𝑥)(𝑦)(3𝑧)
= (2𝑥 + 𝑦 + 3𝑧) (4𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 9𝑧 2 – 2𝑥𝑦 – 6𝑥𝑧 – 3𝑦𝑧)

Illustration 2:
Factorize (𝑎 – 𝑏)3 + (𝑏 – 𝑐)3 + (𝑐 – 𝑎)3
Solution:
Let 𝑥 = 𝑎 – 𝑏, 𝑦 = 𝑏 – 𝑐, 𝑧 = 𝑐 – 𝑎
 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 0
 𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 + 𝑧 3 = 3𝑥𝑦𝑧
 (𝑎 – 𝑏)3 + (𝑏 – 𝑐)3 + (𝑐 – 𝑎)3 = 3(𝑎 – 𝑏)(𝑏 – 𝑐)(𝑐 – 𝑎)

Illustration 3:
Factorize
27𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 + 64𝑧 3 – 36𝑥𝑦𝑧
Solution:
(3𝑥)3 + 𝑦 3 + (4𝑧)3 – 3(3𝑥)𝑦(4𝑧)
= (3𝑥 + 𝑦 + 4𝑧)(9𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 16𝑧 2 – 3𝑥𝑦 – 4𝑦𝑧 – 12𝑧𝑥)

7. Cyclic Expression and its Factorization:

An expression is said to be cyclic with regard to the variables 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , . . . , 𝑥𝑛 arranged in this order, when it is
unchanged by changing 𝑥1 into 𝑥2 , 𝑥2 into 𝑥3 , 𝑥3 into 𝑥4 , . . . , 𝑥𝑛 into 𝑥1 .
For three variables
𝐸(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is cyclic if 𝐸(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝐸(𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑥) = 𝐸(𝑧, 𝑥, 𝑦)
Ex.
1. 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 is a cyclic expression
2. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 + 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦𝑧 + 𝑧𝑥 is 𝑎 cyclic expression
3. 𝐸(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑥(𝑦 – 𝑧) + 𝑦(𝑧 – 𝑥) + 𝑧(𝑥 – 𝑦) is 𝑎 cyclic expression because
 𝐸(𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑥) = 𝑦(𝑧 – 𝑥) + 𝑧(𝑥 – 𝑦) + 𝑥(𝑦 – 𝑧)
and 𝐸(𝑧, 𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑧(𝑥 – 𝑦) + 𝑥(𝑦 – 𝑧) + 𝑦(𝑧 – 𝑥)
 𝐸(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝐸(𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑥) = 𝐸(𝑧, 𝑥, 𝑦)

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Fundamentals of Algebra – Part 05

Theorem :
If 𝐸(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is a cyclic expression and 𝑥 – 𝑦 is a factor of 𝐸(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) then 𝑦 – 𝑧 and 𝑧 – 𝑥 are also factors of 𝐸(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧).

Illustration 4:
Factorize 𝑥 2 (𝑦 – 𝑧) + 𝑦 2 (𝑧 – 𝑥) + 𝑧 2 (𝑥 – 𝑦)
Solution:
𝑥 2 (𝑦 – 𝑧) + 𝑥(𝑧 2 – 𝑦 2 ) + 𝑦𝑧(𝑦 – 𝑧)
= (𝑦 – 𝑧) (𝑥 2 – 𝑥(𝑧 + 𝑦) + 𝑦𝑧)
= (𝑦 – 𝑧) (𝑥 2 – 𝑥𝑧 – 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦𝑧)
= (𝑦 – 𝑧) (𝑥(𝑥 – 𝑧) – 𝑦 (𝑥 – 𝑧))
= (𝑦 – 𝑧) (𝑥 – 𝑧) (𝑥 – 𝑦)
= – (𝑥 – 𝑦) (𝑦 – 𝑧) (𝑧 – 𝑥)
OR
Let 𝐸(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑥 2 (𝑦 – 𝑧) + 𝑦 2 (𝑧 – 𝑥) + 𝑧 2 (𝑥 – 𝑦)
when 𝑦 = 𝑥, 𝐸(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑥 2 (𝑥 – 𝑧) + 𝑥 2 (𝑧 – 𝑥) + 𝑧 2 (𝑥 – 𝑥) = 𝑥 3 – 𝑥 2 𝑧 + 𝑥 2 𝑧 – 𝑥 3 = 0
 𝑥 – 𝑦 is factor of 𝐸(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
So, 𝑦 – 𝑧 and 𝑧 – 𝑥 are also factors of 𝐸(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
𝐸(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝐴(𝑥 – 𝑦)(𝑦 – 𝑧)(𝑧 – 𝑥) ...(i)
Since degree of 𝐸(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is 3 so A is constant. We can find 𝐴 by substituting values of 𝑥, 𝑦 & 𝑧 in (i)
Let 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 1, 𝑧 = 2
𝐸(0, 1, 2) = 𝐴(– 1)(– 1)(2)
 1(2 – 0) + 22 (0 – 1) = 2𝐴
 𝐴 = –1
𝐸(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = – (𝑥 – 𝑦)(𝑦 – 𝑧)(𝑧 – 𝑥)

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 Fundamentals of Algebra
Part -06

Miscellaneous Algebraic Manipulations

Illustration 1:
1
Suppose x + = 5 find
x
1 1
(i) x2 + (ii) x4 −
x2 x4
Solution:
1
(i) Given : x + =5
x
2
 1 1 1
By squaring both sides  x +  = (5)  x2 + 2 + 2 = 25  x2 + 2 = 23
2

 x x x
2 2
 1  1 1
(ii)  x −  =  x +  − 4 = 21  x − =  21
 x  x x
1
x2 − = 5 21
x2
1
from (i) we have x2 + = 23
x2
1
So x4 − = 23  5 21 = 115 21
x4

Illustration 2:

Simplify 6 + 11 + 6 − 11

Solution:

Let x = 6 + 11 + 6 − 11
By squaring both sides

( ) +( )
2 2
x2 = 6 + 11 6 − 11 + 2 36 − 11
= 12 + 10 = 22
Since 𝑥 is positive, so x = 22 .
OR

x = 6 + 11 + 6 − 11 =
1
( 12 + 2 11 + 12 − 2 11 )
2

=
1
2
( ( 11 + 1) +
2
( 11 − 1)
2
) = 12 ( 11 + 1 + 11 − 1)

 x = 22

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Fundamentals of Algebra – Part 06

Illustration 3:
2
 1 1
If  a +  = 3 , then a3 + 3 equals :
 a a
(A) 6 3 (B) 3 3 (C) 0 (D) 6 3
Solution:
1
a+ = 3
a
3
1  1  1
a3 + =  a +  − 3 a +  =  3 3 3 3 = 0
a 
3
a  a

Illustration 4:
3− 2 3+ 2
If x = and y = , then find 𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 .
3+ 2 3− 2
Solution:
3− 2
( )
2
x= = 3− 2
=5−2 6
3+ 2
y =5+2 6
𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 = (𝑥 + 𝑦) (𝑥 2 – 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 )
= (𝑥 + 𝑦) [(𝑥 + 𝑦)2 – 3𝑥𝑦]
= 10 × [100 – 3] = 970

Polynomial in One Variable

An algebraic expression of the form 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛–1 𝑥 𝑛–1 + … + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 is called a polynomial function in '𝑥' where
𝑎𝑖 (𝑖 = 0, 1, 2, . . . , 𝑛) is a constant which belongs to the set of real numbers and sometimes to the set of complex numbers
and 𝑛 is a whole number.
• 𝑎𝑖 is the coefficient of 𝑥 𝑖 for 𝑖 = 1, 2, 3, . . . , 𝑛 and 𝑎0 is constant term of 𝑝(𝑥).
• If 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0, then 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 is called leading term and 𝑎𝑛 is called leading co-efficient.
• If 𝑎𝑛 = 1, then polynomial is called monic polynomial.
• If 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0, then degree of the polynomial is 𝑛.
• 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎0 is called constant polynomial. Its degree is 0, if 𝑎0 ≠ 0. If 𝑎0 = 0 the polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) is called ZERO
polynomial. Its degree is defined as – to preserve following two properties listed below. Some people prefer not to
define degree of zero polynomial.
If 𝑓(𝑥) is a polynomial of degree n and 𝑔(𝑥) is a polynomial of degree 𝑚 then
1. 𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥) is a polynomial of degree ≤ 𝑚𝑎𝑥{𝑛, 𝑚}
2. 𝑓(𝑥) × 𝑔(𝑥) is a polynomial of degree 𝑚 + 𝑛.

1. Types of Polynomials (w.r.t. Degree)

Degree of the polynomial in one variable is the largest exponent of the variable. For example, the degree of
the polynomial 3𝑥 7 – 4𝑥 6 + 𝑥 + 9 is 7 and the degree of the polynomial 5𝑥 6 – 4𝑥 2 – 6 is 6.
Polynomials classified by degree
Degree Name General form Example
Undefined or – Zero polynomial 0 0
(Non-zero) constant
0 a; (a  0) 4
polynomial
1 Linear polynomial ax + b; (a  0) x+1
2 Quadratic polynomial ax2 + bx + c; (a  0) x2 + 1
3 Cubic polynomial ax3 + bx2 +cx + d; (a  0) x3 + 1

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Fundamentals of Algebra – Part 06

Usually, 𝑎 polynomial of degree 𝑛, for 𝑛 greater than 3, is called a polynomial of degree 𝑛, although the
phrases quartic polynomial for degree 4 and quantic polynomial for degree 5 are sometimes used.
Note :
Polynomials having only one term are called monomials. E.g. 2, 2𝑥, 7𝑦 5 , 12𝑡 7 etc. Polynomials having exactly
two dissimilar terms are called binomials. E.g. 𝑃(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 1, 𝑟(𝑦) = 2𝑦 7 + 5𝑦 6 etc. Polynomials having
exactly three distinct terms are called trinomials. E.g. 𝑃(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 6, 𝑄(𝑦) = 9𝑦 6 + 4𝑦 2 + 1 etc.

2. Division in Polynomials
Consider two polynomials 𝑃(𝑥) & 𝑑(𝑥) with 𝑑(𝑥) being not identically zero and degree of 𝑑(𝑥)  degree of
𝑃(𝑥) then there exists unique polynomials 𝑄(𝑥) and 𝑟(𝑥) such that
𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑄(𝑥) . 𝑑(𝑥) + 𝑟(𝑥)
Here 𝑃(𝑥) is called as dividend,
𝑑(𝑥) is called as divisor,
𝑄(𝑥) is called as quotient,
& 𝑟(𝑥) is called as remainder with degree of 𝑟(𝑥) < degree of 𝑑(𝑥)

Note :
If 𝑑(𝑥) is a divisor of 𝑃(𝑥) then 𝑘𝑑(𝑥) will also be a divisor of 𝑃(𝑥); 𝑘 ∈ 𝑅 – {0} and 𝑑(– 𝑥) will be a divisor of
𝑃(– 𝑥).

Illustration 1:
Which of the following is polynomial?
1 3
(A) x2 + (B) x + x3 − x + 1 (C) x5 + x6 + 3 (D) +4
x x
Ans. (C)
Solution:
𝑥 5 + 𝑥 6 + √3 is polynomial.

Illustration 2:
Degree of the polynomial 6𝑥 2 – 9𝑥 3 + 3 𝑥 5 + 8𝑥 10 is
(A) 3 (B) 10 (C) 8 (D) 5
Ans. (B)
Solution:
Largest exponent of the variable in polynomial 6𝑥 2 – 9𝑥 3 + 3 𝑥 5 + 8𝑥 10 is 10
So degree is 10.

Illustration 3:
Which of the following is not monomial?
(A) 2 (B) 𝑡 2 (C) 3x (D) 1 + 𝑥 2
Ans. (D)
Solution:
1 + 𝑥 2 is not monomial.

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 Fundamentals of Algebra
Part - 07

Remainder Theorem

Statement : Let 𝑝(𝑥) be a polynomial of degree  1 and ′𝑎′ is any real number. If 𝑝(𝑥) is divided by (𝑥 – 𝑎), then the
remainder is 𝑝(𝑎).

Illustration 1:
Let 𝑃(𝑥) 𝑏𝑒 𝑥 3 – 7𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 4. Divide 𝑝(𝑥) with (𝑥 – 6) and find the remainder
Solution:
Put 𝑥 = 6 in 𝑝(𝑥) i.e. 𝑝(6) will be the remainder.
 required remainder be
𝑝(6) = (6)3 – 7.62 + 6.6 + 4 = 216 – 252 + 36 + 4 = 256 – 252 = 4
x2 − x
x − 6 x3 − 7 x 2 + 6 x + 4
3
x − 6 x2
− +

− x2 + 6 x + 4
− x2 + 6 x
+ −

Remainder = 4
Thus, 𝑝(𝑎) is remainder on dividing 𝑝(𝑥) by (𝑥 – 𝑎).
Remark :
(i) 𝑝(– 𝑎) is remainder on dividing 𝑝(𝑥) by (𝑥 + 𝑎)
[ 𝑥 + 𝑎 = 0  𝑥 = – 𝑎]

b
(ii) p   is remainder on dividing 𝑝(𝑥) by (𝑎𝑥 – 𝑏)
a
[ 𝑎𝑥 – 𝑏 = 0  𝑥 = 𝑏/𝑎]

 −b 
(iii) p   is remainder on dividing 𝑝(𝑥) by (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)
 a 
[ 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 = 0  𝑥 = – 𝑏/𝑎]

b
(iv) p   is remainder on dividing 𝑝(𝑥) by (𝑏 – 𝑎𝑥)
a
[ 𝑏 – 𝑎𝑥 = 0  𝑥 = 𝑏/𝑎]

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Fundamentals of Algebra – Part 07

Illustration 2:
Find the remainder when
𝑥 3 – 𝑎𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 – 𝑎 is divided by 𝑥 – 𝑎
Solution:
Let 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 – 𝑎𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 – 𝑎
𝑝(𝑎) = 𝑎3 – 𝑎(𝑎)2 + 6(𝑎) – 𝑎
= 𝑎3 – 𝑎3 + 6𝑎 – 𝑎 = 5𝑎
So, by the Remainder theorem, remainder = 5𝑎.

Illustration 3:
Find remainder when 𝑥 4 – 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑥 – 𝑏 is divided by 𝑥 – 1.
Solution:
Let 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 – 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑥 – 𝑏
𝑝(1) = 1 – 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑎 – 𝑏 = 1
So, by the remainder theorem, remainder = 1.

Factor Theorem
Statement:
Let 𝑓(𝑥) be a polynomial of degree  1 and a be any real constant such that 𝑓(𝑎) = 0, then (𝑥 – 𝑎) is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥).
Conversely, if (𝑥 – 𝑎) is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥), then 𝑓(𝑎) = 0.
Proof :
By Remainder theorem, if 𝑓(𝑥) is divided by (𝑥 – 𝑎), the remainder will be 𝑓(𝑎). Let 𝑄(𝑥) be the quotient. Then, we can
write, 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 – 𝑎) × 𝑄(𝑥) + 𝑓(𝑎) ( Dividend = Divisor × Quotient + Remainder)

If 𝑓(𝑎) = 0, then 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 – 𝑎) × 𝑄(𝑥)

Thus, (𝑥 – 𝑎) is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥).
Converse Let (𝑥 – 𝑎) is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥).
Then we have a polynomial 𝑄(𝑥) such that 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 – 𝑎) × 𝑄(𝑥)
Replacing 𝑥 by a, we get 𝑓(𝑎) = 0.
Hence, proved.

Illustration 4:
Use the factor theorem to determine whether (𝑥 – 1) is a factor of
𝑓(𝑥) = 2√2𝑥 3 + 5√2𝑥 2 − 7√2
Solution:
By using factor theorem, (𝑥 – 1) is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥), only when 𝑓(1) = 0
𝑓(1) = 2√2(1)3 + 5√2(1)2 − 7√2 = 2√2 + 5√2 − 7√2 = 0
Hence, (𝑥 – 1) is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥).

Illustration 5:
Use the factor theorem to determine whether (𝑥 – 𝑎) is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 – (5 + 𝑎)𝑥 2 + (5𝑎 + 6) 𝑥 – 6𝑎
Solution:
(𝑥 – 𝑎) is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥), only when 𝑓(𝑎) = 0
𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑎3 – 5𝑎2 – 𝑎3 + 5𝑎2 + 6𝑎 – 6𝑎 = 0
Hence, (𝑥 – 𝑎) is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥).

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 Fundamentals of Algebra
Part - 08

Equations Reducible to Quadratic Equations

There are certain equations which can be reduced to 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 by some proper substitution.

𝟐
1. 𝒂(𝒇(𝒙)) + 𝒃(𝒇(𝒙)) + 𝒄 = 𝟎, where 𝒇(𝒙) is expression of 𝒙.

Method of solving : Put 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦

Illustration 1:

(a) Solve 2𝑥+3 + 2–𝑥 – 6 = 0

2
 x   x 
(b) Solve   + 6 − 5 x + 1  = 0
 x +1  
Solution:
(a) Put 2𝑥 = 𝑦

1
8y + −6 = 0
y

8𝑦 2 – 6𝑦 + 1 = 0
(4𝑦 – 1) (2𝑦 – 1) = 0

1 1
y= ,
4 2

 2𝑥 = 2–2 and 2𝑥 = 2–1

 𝑥 = – 2, 𝑥 = – 1

x
(b) Put =y
x +1

𝑦 2 – 5𝑦 + 6 = 0
(𝑦 – 2) (𝑦 – 3) = 0

x x
 = 2 and =3
x +1 x +1

𝑥 = 2𝑥 + 2 and 𝑥 = 3𝑥 + 3
3
𝑥 = −2 𝑥=−
2

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Fundamentals of Algebra – Part 08

2. 𝒎𝒂𝟐𝒙 + 𝒏(𝒂𝒃)𝒙 + 𝒓𝒃𝟐𝒙 = 𝟎 (𝒂 & 𝒃 > 𝟎)

x
a
Method of Solving : Divide the equation by 𝑏 2𝑥 and put   = t for 𝑡 > 0
b

Illustration 2:
32𝑥+2 + 5.6𝑥 – 4𝑥+1 = 0
Solution:
32𝑥+2 + 5.6𝑥 – 4𝑥+1 = 0
 9 × (3)2𝑥 + 5 × (2 × 3) 𝑥 – 4(2)2𝑥 = 0
2x x
3 3
 9   + 5  − 4 = 0 ...(1)
2  2
x
3
Let   = t for 𝑡 > 0
2

Equation 1 becomes
9𝑡 2 + 5𝑡 – 4 = 0

−5  25 + 144 4
 t= = −1 or
18 9

𝑡 = – 1 (rejected)
x 2 −2
4 3 2 3
t =    =  = 
9 2 3 2
 𝑥 = –2
Solution of the given equation is 𝑥 = – 2

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 Fundamentals of Algebra
Part - 09

Equations Reducible to Quadratic Equations

𝒎. 𝒂𝒇(𝒙) + n.𝒃𝒇(𝒙) + r = 0, where ab = 1, a & b > 0 and 𝑓(𝑥) is expression of 𝑥

1
Method of Solving : put 𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑡, then b f ( x ) =
t
Illustration 1:
( ) +( )
x x
Solve 5+2 6 5−2 6 = 10
Solution:

Let a = 5 + 2 6 and b = 5 − 2 6
𝑎𝑏 = 1
Let 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑡
Given equation become
1
t + = 10  𝑡 2 – 10𝑡 + 1 = 0
t
10  96
 t= =52 6
2

 (5 + 2 6 ) = (5 + 2 6 ) 
x/2 x
=1  𝑥 = 2
2
(5 + 2 6 ) = ( 5 − 2 6 ) = (5 + 2 6 )
x/2 −1
or
x
 = −1  𝑥 = – 2
2
Solutions of the given equation is 𝑥 = 2 or – 2.

5. (𝒙 + 𝒂)(𝒙 + 𝒃)(𝒙 + 𝒄)(𝒙 + 𝒅) + 𝒆 = 𝟎 when 𝒃 + 𝒄 = 𝒂 + 𝒅

Illustration 2:
Solve 𝑥(𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 + 2) (𝑥 + 3) – 8 = 0
Solution:
𝑥(𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 + 2) (𝑥 + 3) – 8 = 0
 𝑥(𝑥 + 3) (𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 + 2) – 8 = 0
 (𝑥 2 + 3𝑥) (𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 2) – 8 = 0
 (𝑥 2 + 3𝑥)2 + 2(𝑥 2 + 3𝑥) – 8 = 0
 (𝑥 2 + 3𝑥)2 + 4(𝑥 2 + 3𝑥) – 2(𝑥 2 + 3𝑥) – 8 = 0
 (𝑥 2 + 3𝑥) (𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 4) – 2(𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 4) = 0
 (𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 – 2) (𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 4) = 0
 (𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 – 2) = 0 or (𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 4) = 0
−3  17 −3  7 i
 x= or x =
2 2

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Fundamentals of Algebra – Part 9

6. (𝒙 + 𝒂)(𝒙 + 𝒃)(𝒙 + 𝒄)(𝒙 + 𝒅) + 𝒆𝒙𝟐 = 𝟎, where 𝒂𝒅 = 𝒃𝒄.

ad
Method of solving : Divide given equation by 𝑥 2 and put x + =t
x

Illustration 3:
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 6) = 3𝑥 2
Solution:
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 6) (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 3) – 3𝑥 2 = 0
 (𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 6)(𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6) – 3𝑥 2 = 0
 6  6 
  x + + 7  x + + 5  − 3 = 0
 x  x 
6
Let x + = t
x
(𝑡 + 7)(𝑡 + 5) – 3 = 0  𝑡 2 + 12𝑡 + 32 = 0  𝑡 = – 8 or – 4
6
when x + = −8  𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 + 6 = 0  x = −4  10
x
6
x+ = −4  𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 6 = 0  x = −2  2 i
x

Illustration 4:
Solve (𝑥 2 – 3𝑥)(𝑥 2 – 3𝑥 + 2) + 1 = 0
Solution:
Let 𝑥 2 – 3𝑥 = 𝑦
 𝑦(𝑦 + 2) + 1 = 0
 𝑦 2 + 2𝑦 + 1 = 0
 (𝑦 + 1)2 = 0
 𝑦 =–1
Putting 𝑦 = – 1 in 𝑥 2 – 3𝑥 = 𝑦
we have 𝑥 2 – 3𝑥 = – 1
 𝑥 2 – 3𝑥 + 1 = 0
3 5
 x=
2

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 Fundamentals of Algebra
Part - 10

System of Equations
1. 𝒂𝒙𝟒 + 𝒃𝒙𝟑 + 𝒄𝒙𝟐 + 𝒅𝒙 + 𝒆 = 𝟎, where 𝒂 = 𝒆 & 𝒃 = ± 𝒅
1 1
Method of solving : Divide given equation by 𝑥 2 and put 𝑥 + = 𝑡 or x − = t whichever is applicable.
x x
Illustration 1:
Solve 𝑥 4 – 2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 – 2𝑥 + 1 = 0
Solution:
𝑥 4 – 2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 – 2𝑥 + 1 = 0
By dividing 𝑥 2 both sides we have
2 1
𝑥 2 – 2𝑥 + 3 – + =0
x x2
1  1
 x2 + 2
− 2 x +  + 3 = 0
x  x
1
Let x + =t
x
Above equation become
𝑡 2 – 2 – 2𝑡 + 3 = 0
 𝑡 2 – 2𝑡 + 1 = 0  (𝑡 – 1)2 = 0
1 1 3 i
𝑡 = 1 𝑥 + = 1  𝑥2 – 𝑥 + 1 = 0  x =
x 2
1 3 i
Roots are
2

2. By Guessing Rational Roots of Polynomial.

Illustration 2:
Solve : 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 3 – 2𝑥 2 – 𝑥 + 1 = 0
Solution:
Let 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 3 – 2𝑥 2 – 𝑥 + 1
𝑃(1) = 0 and 𝑃(– 1) = 0

 (𝑥 – 1) (𝑥 + 1) factor of 𝑃(𝑥)
We can find other factor of 𝑃(𝑥) by dividing 𝑥 2 – 1 from 𝑃(𝑥).
𝑃(𝑥) = (𝑥 2 – 1) (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 – 1) = 0
 𝑥 = ±1 or 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 – 1 = 0
−1  5
 𝑥 = ±1 or 𝑥 =
2
−1  5
solution of 𝑃(𝑥) = 0 are 𝑥 = ±1 or .
2

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Fundamentals of Algebra – Part 10

Illustration 3:
Solve: 𝑥 3 – 12𝑥 2 + 41𝑥 – 30
Solution:
Let 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 – 12𝑥 2 + 41𝑥 – 30
𝑃(1) = 0
 (𝑥 – 1) is factor of 𝑃(𝑥)
We can find other factor of 𝑃(𝑥) by dividing (𝑥 – 1) from 𝑃(𝑥)
𝑃(𝑥) = (𝑥 – 1)(𝑥 2 – 11𝑥 + 30)
 𝑥 = 1 or 𝑥 2 – 11𝑥 + 20 = 0
 𝑥 = 1 or 𝑥 = 5, 6
Solution of 𝑝(𝑥) are [𝑥 = 1, 5, 6].

Illustration 4:
𝑥 4 – 13𝑥 2 + 36
Solution:
Let 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 – 13𝑥 2 + 36
𝑃(2) = 0 & 𝑃(– 2) = 0
 (𝑥 2 – 4) is factor of 𝑃(𝑥)
We can find other factor of 𝑃(𝑥) by dividing
(𝑥 2 – 4) from 𝑃(𝑥)
𝑃(𝑥) = (𝑥 2 – 4)(𝑥 2 – 9)
 𝑥 = ±2 or 𝑥 = ±3
Ans. [𝑥 = 2, – 2, 3, – 3]

Observe the followings:

Illustration 5:
1 1
If 𝑥 – 𝑦 = 2 and 𝑥𝑦 = 24, find the value of + .
x y
Solution:
(𝑥 + 𝑦)2 = (𝑥 – 𝑦)2 + 4𝑥𝑦 = 4 + 4(24)
 (𝑥 + 𝑦)2 = 100
 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 10, – 10
x + y 10 5 x + y 10 5
 = = ; =− =−
xy 24 12 xy 24 12

Illustration 6:
x2 + 3xy
If 2𝑥 – 3𝑦 – 𝑧 = 0 and 𝑥 + 3𝑦 – 14𝑧 = 0, then find .
y2 + z2
Solution:
2x 3 y x 3y
− =1 & + = 14
z z z z
x y
Solving = 5; = 3
z z
2
 x  3x y
 z  + z . z 25 + 3(5)(3) 70
   2 = = =7
( 3) + 1
2
 y 10
 z  +1
 

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Fundamentals of Algebra – Part 10

Illustration 7:
Given 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 20 and 𝑎3 + 𝑏 3 = 800, find 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2.
Solution:
𝑎 + 𝑏 = 20
 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 2𝑎𝑏 = 400 ...(1)
3 3
𝑎 + 𝑏 = 800
 (𝑎 + 𝑏) (𝑎2 – 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 ) = 800
 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 – 𝑎𝑏 = 40 ...(2)
By adding twice of second equation with first equation.
3(𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 ) = 480
 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = 160.

Illustration 8:
𝑥(𝑦 + 𝑧) = 29, 𝑦(𝑧 + 𝑥) = 26; 𝑧(𝑥 + 𝑦) = 51 find 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧.
Solution:
𝑥𝑦 + 𝑧𝑥 = 29 ...(1)
𝑦𝑧 + 𝑥𝑦 = 26 ...(2)
𝑥𝑧 + 𝑦𝑧 = 51 ...(3)
 2[𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦𝑧 + 𝑧𝑥] = 106
 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦𝑧 + 𝑧𝑥 = 53
Now : 𝑥𝑦 = 2, 𝑧𝑥 = 27; 𝑦𝑧 = 24
 𝑥 2 𝑦 2 𝑧 2 = 24 × 2 × 27 = (36)2
3 4   3 4 
 𝑥𝑦𝑧 = ± 36  ( x , y , z )   , ,18  or  − , − , −18 
 2 3   2 3 

Illustration 9:
If 𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 = 35; and 𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦 2 = 30, then find (𝑥, 𝑦).
Solution:

x3 + y 3
=
( )
( x + y ) x2 − xy + y2 35 7
= =
x2 y + xy2 xy ( x + y ) 30 6
 6𝑥 2 – 13𝑥𝑦 + 6𝑦 2 = 0  (3𝑥 – 2𝑦) (2𝑥 – 3𝑦) = 0  3𝑥 = 2𝑦 or 2𝑥 = 3𝑦
3
 3x 
Case-I : 3𝑥 = 2𝑦, x3 +   = 35  35𝑥 3 = 8 × 35  𝑥 = 2, 𝑦 = 3
 2
3
 2x 
Case-II : 2𝑥 = 3𝑦, x3 +   = 35  35𝑥 3 = 27 × 35  𝑥 = 3, 𝑦 = 2
 3 

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 Fundamentals of Algebra
Part - 11

Inequalities
Basic Rules:
• If 𝑎 > 𝑏 and 𝑏 > 𝑐, then 𝑎 > 𝑐.
• If 𝑥 > 𝑦, then 𝑥 + 𝑐 > 𝑦 + 𝑐 for any real number 𝑐. Additionally, if 𝑎 > 𝑏, then 𝑥 + 𝑎 > 𝑦 + 𝑏.
• If 𝑥 > 𝑦 and 𝑎 > 0, then 𝑥𝑎 > 𝑦𝑎.
• If we multiply or divide an inequality by a negative number, we must reverse the sign.
For example, if 𝑥 > 𝑦 and 𝑎 < 0, then 𝑥𝑎 < 𝑦𝑎.
• If 𝑥 > 𝑦 > 0 and 𝑎 > 𝑏 > 0, then 𝑥𝑎 > 𝑦𝑏.
1 1
• If 𝑥 > 𝑦 and 𝑥 and 𝑦 have the same sign (positive or negative), then  .
x y
• If 𝑥 > 𝑦 ≥ 0, then for any positive real number 𝑎, we have 𝑥 𝑎 > 𝑦 𝑎 .
In particular, if 0 < 𝑎 < 𝑏, then n
a  n b for all positive integral values of 𝑛 > 1.
E.g. 4
2  4 7, 3 3  3 5, 5 10  5 13 etc.
If two simple surds of different orders viz. n
a and m
b have to be compared, they have to be expressed as surds of
the same order i.e. LCM of 𝑛 and 𝑚.
E.g. Compare 4
6 and 3
5,
we express both as the surds of 12th order.
 4
6 = 12 63 and 3
5 = 12 54 . As 63 < 54  4
635

Illustration 1:
Which of the following is greater 5 + 3,3 + 14 ?
(Without calculating the values of 3, 14 )
Solution:
Lets assume 3 + 14 is greater than 5 + 3 .
3 + 14  5 + 3
14 − 3  2
Squaring both sides
14 + 3 − 2 42  4
13  2 42
13
 42
2
Squaring again
169
 42
4
42.25 > 42
Which is true so we can say that
What we assumed initially is true.
So, (3 + 14) is greater than 5 + 3 .

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Fundamentals of Algebra – Part 11

Illustration 2:
8− x
Solve 4
7
Solution:
8− x
 4  8 – 𝑥 ≥ 28  – 𝑥 ≥ 20
7
 𝑥 ≤ – 20  𝑥 ∈ (– ∞, – 20]

Illustration 3:
1
Solve 5
x
Solution:
1
5
x

1 1  1
>  5  0  x   𝑥 ∈  0, 
x 5  5

Illustration 4:
Which fraction is larger?
13 17 31 37
(a) or (b) or
17 21 35 41
Solution:
13 17
(a) or
17 21
13 17 221
Making Numerator same:  =
17 17 289
19 13 221
 =
21 13 273
Now number which will have high denominator will be smaller
13 17
So 
17 21
31 37
(b) or
35 41

31 41 1271
Making denominator same:  =
35 41 1435
37 35 1295
 =
41 35 1435
Now number which will have high Numerator will be larger
31 37
So 
35 41

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Fundamentals of Algebra – Part 11

Illustration 5:
What values of 𝑥 satisfy the inequality, 7 – 3𝑥 < 𝑥 – 1 ≤ 2𝑥 + 9?
Solution:
7 – 3𝑥 < 𝑥 – 1 ≤ 2𝑥 + 9
Equation can be written as:-
7 – 3𝑥 < 𝑥 – 1 …(1)
& 𝑥 – 1 ≤ 2𝑥 + 9 …(2)
Solving (1)
7 – 3𝑥 < 𝑥 – 1
8 < 4𝑥
𝑥 > 2 ...(3)
solving (2)
𝑥 – 1 ≤ 2𝑥 + 9
– 10 ≤ 𝑥
𝑥 ≥ – 10 …(4)
intersection of (3) & (4) 𝑥 ∈ (2, ∞) Ans.

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 Fundamentals of Algebra
Part - 12

Trivial and Sum of squares (SOS) Inequality

The square of any real number is non-negative. So if 𝑥 is real, then 𝑥 2 ≥ 0. This is known as Trivial inequality. Equality
holds only if 𝑥 = 0.

Sum of squares (SOS) of real numbers is non negative. That is xi2  0 . This is known as SOS inequality.

Equality holds if 𝑥𝑖 = 0 ∀ 𝑖
Ex. 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝑅 and 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 0  𝑥 = 𝑦 = 𝑧 = 0.
Note :
• 𝑓(𝑥) = [𝑔(𝑥)]2𝑛 where 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁  𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 0
1
• 𝑓(𝑥) = [𝑔(𝑥)]2𝑛 , 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁, 𝑔(𝑥) ≥ 0  𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 0

Illustration 1:
If 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑅 and 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 – 𝑎𝑏 – 𝑏𝑐 – 𝑐𝑎 = 0, prove that 𝑎 = 𝑏 = 𝑐.
Solution:
a2 + b2 + c2 – ab – bc – ca = 0
 2𝑎2 + 2𝑏 2 + 2𝑐 2 – 2𝑎𝑏 – 2𝑏𝑐 – 2𝑐𝑎 = 0
 (𝑎2 – 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 ) + (𝑏 2 – 2𝑏𝑐 + 𝑐 2 ) + (𝑐 2 – 2𝑎𝑐 + 𝑎2 ) = 0
 (𝑎 – 𝑏)2 + (𝑏 – 𝑐)2 + (𝑐 – 𝑎)2 = 0
𝑎– 𝑏 = 𝑏– 𝑐 = 𝑐– 𝑎 = 0
 𝑎 = 𝑏 = 𝑐.

Illustration 2:
For 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅, find the all possible values (range) of expression 4𝑥 2 + 9𝑦 2 – 12𝑥 + 6𝑦.
Solution:
If 𝐸(𝑥, 𝑦) = 4𝑥 2 + 9𝑦 2 – 12𝑥 + 6𝑦
= (2𝑥)2 – 2(2𝑥) × 3 + (3)2 + (3𝑦)2 + 2(3𝑦) + (1)2 – 10
= (2𝑥 – 3)2 + (3𝑦 + 1)2 – 10
By sum of square (SOS), (2𝑥 – 3)2 + (3𝑦 + 1)2 ≥ 0
 𝐸(𝑥, 𝑦) = (2𝑥 – 3)2 + (3𝑦 + 1)2 – 10 ≥ 0 – 10
So Range of 𝐸(𝑥, 𝑦) = [– 10, ∞)

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Fundamentals of Algebra – Part 12

Illustration 3:
If 𝑏 2 – 4𝑎𝑐 < 0 and 𝑎 > 0, then show that 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 > 0 ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅
Solution:
 b 
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = a  x2 + x  + c
 a 
 b b2 b2 
= a  x2 + x + 2 − 2  + c
 a 4a 4a 
2
 b   b2 − 4ac 
= a x +  −    0 ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅. Hence proved.
 2a   4a 

Illustration 4:
Find the values of expression 𝐸 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 – 4𝑥 – 6𝑦 + 15; 𝑥 , 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅.
(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 𝑒 (D) 
Ans. (B, C, D)
Solution:
𝐸 = 𝑥 2 – 4𝑥 + 4 + 𝑦 2 – 6𝑦 + 9 + 2
𝐸 = (𝑥– 2)2 + (𝑦– 3)2 + 2
By SOS (𝑥– 2)2 + (𝑦– 3)2 ≥ 0
Add 2 on both sides
(𝑥– 2)2 + (𝑦– 3)2 + 2 ≥ 2
𝐸≥ 2
So 𝐸 can take values 2, 𝑒 and 𝜋 from the options.

Mean:
In any collection of data a specific value between two extremes (minimum/maximum) is called a mean of the data.

For Two Variables :

Let 𝑥, 𝑦 be two positive real numbers with 𝑥 ≤ 𝑦.
x+ y
• The Arithmetic Mean (A) of 𝑥 and y is
2
x+ y
Observe x  y
2
• The Geometric Mean (G) of 𝑥 and 𝑦 is xy
Observe x  xy  y
We have 𝑥 ≤ 𝐺 ≤ 𝐴 ≤ 𝑦
Equality holds only when 𝑥 = 𝑦.
Proof: For two positive numbers 𝑥 and 𝑦, the Trivial inequality gives us ( x − y )2  0
 x + y − 2 xy  0
x+ y
  xy  A  G
2
Note :
1 1
• x+  2 ∀ 𝑥 > 0 and x +  −2 ∀ 𝑥 < 0
x x

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Fundamentals of Algebra – Part 12

Illustration 5:

4
Find all possible values (range) of the expression x + , when 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 – {0}.
x
Solution:
4
x+
When 𝑥 > 0, x  x  4 = 2 (By 𝐴 ≥ 𝐺)
2 x

4
 x+ 4,
x

So, when 𝑥 > 0, range = [4, ∞) ...(1)

4
x+
for 𝑥 < 0, x  − x 4
2 x

4
 x+  −4 ...(2)
x

From (1) and (2), range = (– ∞, – 4] ∪ [4, ∞)

Illustration 6:

x4 + 8
Find the minimum value of
x2

Solution:

x4 + 8 8
= x2 + 2
x2 x

 AM  GM

8
x2 + 1

 x2   x2 . 8  2
2  2 
 x 
1
8
 x2 +  2(8)2
x2

x4 + 8
 4 2
x2

x4 + 8
Minimum value of is 4 2 .
x2

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Fundamentals of Algebra – Part 12

Illustration 7:
3x2 + 12
For 𝑥 < 0, find the maximum value of .
x
Solution:
3x2 + 12 12
= 3x +
x x
12
As 𝑥 is negative, Applying AM  GM on – 3𝑥 & –
x
12 1
−3x −
 x   ( −3x ) − 12   2
  x 
2   
1
12
 −3x −  2  (36) 2
x
12
 −3x −  12
x
12
 3x +  −12
x
3x2 + 12
Maximum value of is – 12.
x

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 Fundamentals of Algebra
Part - 13

Ratio and Proportion

a
If 𝑎 and 𝑏 be two quantities of the same kind, then their ratio is 𝑎: 𝑏; which is denoted by the fraction (This may be
b
an integer or fraction).
In the ratio 𝑎 ∶ 𝑏, 𝑎 is the first term (Antecedent) and 𝑏 is the second term (Consequent)
a ma na
A ratio may represented in a number of ways e.g. = = = ... where 𝑚, 𝑛, ... are non-zero numbers.
b mb nb
Let 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 be positive integers now to compare two ratios a : 𝑏 and 𝑐 : 𝑑 we use following :
• (𝑎 ∶ 𝑏) > (𝑐 ∶ 𝑑) if 𝑎𝑑 > 𝑏𝑐
• (𝑎 ∶ 𝑏) = (𝑐 ∶ 𝑑) if 𝑎𝑑 = 𝑏𝑐
• (𝑎 ∶ 𝑏) < (𝑐 ∶ 𝑑) if ad < bc
To compare two or more ratio, reduce them to common denominator.
Note :
a a+ x 41 45
• If 𝑎 > 𝑏 > 0 and 𝑥 > 0, then  , e.g. 
b b+ x 40 44
a a+ x
• If 0 < 𝑎 < 𝑏 and 𝑥 > 0, then 
b b+ x

Illustration 1:
What term must be added to each term of the ratio 5 ∶ 37 to make it equal to 1 ∶ 3 ?
Solution:
Let 𝑥 be added to each term of the ratio 5 ∶ 37.
x +5 1
Then =  3𝑥 + 15 = 𝑥 + 37 i.e. 𝑥 = 11
x + 37 3

Illustration 2:
If 𝑥 ∶ 𝑦 = 3 ∶ 4; find the ratio of 7𝑥 – 4𝑦 ∶ 3𝑥 + 𝑦
Solution:
x 3 3
= x= y
y 4 4
3
7. y − 4 y
7x − 4y 4
Now = (putting the value of 𝑥)
3x + y 3
3. y + y
4
5y 5
= = i.e. 5 ∶ 13
13 y 13

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 Fundamentals of Algebra
Part - 14

Proportion:
When two ratios are equal, then the four quantities compositing them are said to be proportional.

a c
So, if = , then it is written as 𝑎 ∶ 𝑏 = 𝑐 ∶ 𝑑 or 𝑎 ∶ 𝑏 ∷ 𝑐 ∶ 𝑑
b d

Where '𝑎' and '𝑑 ' are known as extremes and '𝑏 and 𝑐' are known as means.

(i) An important property of proportion : Product of extremes = product of means.

a c e a+c +e
(ii) If = = then each is equal to
b d f b+d + f

(iii) If a : b = c : d, then b:a=d:c (invertendo)

a c b d
i.e. =  =
b d a c

(iv) If 𝑎 ∶ 𝑏 = 𝑐 ∶ 𝑑, then 𝑎 ∶ 𝑐 = 𝑏 ∶ 𝑑 (Alternendo)

a c a b
i.e. =  =
b d c d

a+b c +d
(v) If 𝑎 ∶ 𝑏 = 𝑐 ∶ 𝑑, then = (Componendo)
b d

a c a c
i.e. =  +1 = +1
b d b d

a−b c −d
(vi) If 𝑎 ∶ 𝑏 = 𝑐 ∶ 𝑑, then = (Dividendo)
b d

a c a c
i.e. =  −1 = −1
b d b d

a+b c +d
(vii) If 𝑎 ∶ 𝑏 = 𝑐 ∶ 𝑑, then = (Componendo and dividendo)
a−b c −d

a c a c a+b c +d
i.e. =  +1 = +1  = ...(1)
b d b d b d

a c a −b c−d
−1 = −1  = ...(2)
b d b d
Dividing equation (1) by (2) we obtain

a+b c +d
=
a−b c −d

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Fundamentals of Algebra – Part 14

Illustration 1:
a b c d
If = = = , prove that (𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑐𝑑 + 𝑑𝑒)2 = (𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 + 𝑑 2 )(𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 + 𝑑 2 + 𝑒 2 )
b c d e
Solution:
a b c d
= = = , then we have
b c d e
(say)

i.e. 𝑎 = 𝑏𝑘  𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏 2 𝑘
𝑏 = 𝑐𝑘  𝑏𝑐 = 𝑐 2 𝑘
𝑐 = 𝑑𝑘  𝑐𝑑 = 𝑑 2 𝑘
𝑑 = 𝑒𝑘  𝑑𝑒 = 𝑒 2 𝑘
so, (𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 + 𝑑 2 ) = 𝑘 2 (𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 + 𝑑 2 + 𝑒 2 ) ...(i)
Now L.H.S. = (𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑐𝑑 + 𝑑𝑒) 2

= (𝑘𝑏 2 + 𝑘𝑐 2 + 𝑘𝑑 2 + 𝑘𝑒 2 )2
= 𝑘 2 (𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 + 𝑑 2 + 𝑒 2 )2
= 𝑘 2 (𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 + 𝑑 2 + 𝑒 2 )(𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 + 𝑑 2 + 𝑒 2 )
= (𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 + 𝑑 2 )(𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 + 𝑑 2 + 𝑒 2 ) = R.H.S

Illustration 2:
a 2 b 4 a+b
If = and = , then find value of
b 3 c 5 b+c
Solution:
a 2
=
b 3
a+b 5
Componendo  = …(1)
b 3
b 4 c 5
=  =
c 5 b 4
b+c 9
Componendo  = …(2)
c 4
a + b 5 4 20
(1) ÷ (2)  =  =
b + c 3 9 27

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 Fundamentals of Algebra
Part – 15 & 16

Sign-Scheme (Wavy Curve) Method

Given ƒ(x) and g(x) are polynomials.
f ( x)
To solve the inequalities of the type * 0, where '*' can be >, , < or , we take the following steps:
g ( x)
(i) Find all the roots of f (x) = 0 and g(x) = 0
(ii) Write all these roots on the real line in increasing order of values.
f ( x)
(iii) Check the sign of the expression at some x greater than the largest root. If it is positive, put + sign in
g ( x)
rightmost interval. In case of negative, put –ve sign in rightmost interval and while moving from right to left
change sign in accordance with step (iv).
(iv) If a root occurs even number of times, then sign of expression will be same on both sides of the root and if a
root occurs odd number of times, then sign of the expression will be different on both sides of the root.
(v) Write the answer according to need of the question.

Note:
• We don't give equality sign on '±' in the solution as they are two improper points of number line.
• We can't take zeroes of denominator in the final answer as at these points expression is not defined (because
division by '0' is not defined).
• In case of  0 or  0, zeroes of numerator will be part of the answer provided they are not appearing in
denominator also.
• Do not cross multiply the terms in the inequalities.

Illustration 1:
Find the solution of –x2 + 6x + 7  0
Solution:
–x2 + 6x + 7  0
 x2 – 6x – 7  0
 (x + 1) (x – 7)  0
+ – +
–1 7
 x  [– 1,7]

Illustration 2:
( x − 1)( x − 2)
Find the solution of the inequalities 0
( x − 3)
Solution:
x – 1 = 0, x – 2 = 0, x – 3 = 0
 x = 1, 2, 3
Since x – 3  0, x  3
– + – +
– 1 2 3 
So, x  [1, 2]  (3, )

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Fundamentals of Algebra – Part 15 & 16

Illustration 3:
( x − 3)( x + 2)( x + 5)
If f ( x ) = , then find 𝑥 such that
( x + 1)( x − 7)
(i) f (x) > 0 (ii) f (x) < 0.
Solution:
( x − 3)( x + 2)( x + 5)
Given f ( x ) =
( x + 1)( x − 7)
– + – + – +
–5 –2 –1 3 7
(i) f(x) > 0  x  (– 5, – 2)  (– 1, 3)  (7, )
(ii) f(x) < 0  x  (–, –5)  (– 2, – 1)  (3, 7)

Illustration 4:
1 2 3
Solve for real x : + 
x +1 x +2 x +3
Solution:
3x + 4 3

( x + 1)( x + 2) x + 3
3x + 4 3
 − 0
( x + 1)( x + 2) x + 3
4x + 6
 0
( x + 1)( x + 2)( x + 3)
+ – + – +
–3 –2 –3/2 –1
 3
So, x(–, –3)   −2, −   ( −1, )
 2

Illustration 5:
( x − 1)3 ( x + 2)4 ( x − 3)5 ( x + 6)
Let f(x) = . Solve the following inequality
x2 ( x − 7)3
(i) f(x) > 0 (ii) f(x)  0 (iii) f(x) < 0 (iv) f(x)  0

Solution:
We mark on the number line zeroes of numerator of expression : 1, – 2, 3 and – 6 (with black circles) and the zeroes
of denominator 0 and 7 (with white circles), isolate the double points : – 2 and 0 and draw the wavy curve :
+ – – – + – +
–6 –2 0 1 3 7
From graph, we get
(i) x  (–, –6)  (1, 3)  (7, ) (ii) x  (–, –6]  {– 2}  [1, 3]  (7, )
(iii) x  (– 6, – 2)  (– 2, 0)  (0, 1)  (3, 7) (iv) x  [– 6, 0)  (0, 1]  [3, 7)

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 Fundamentals of Algebra
Part -17 & 18

Modulus & It’s graph

For any real number x, modulus or absolute value of x is denoted by |x| and is defined as
 x, if x0
| x |= 
 – x, if x0
9
• Graph of y = |x|
8

7
Note: 6
• |x| = |–x|  0 5

y
x

=
• Geometrically |x| is distance of real number x from zero =

–x
4 y
along the real number line 3

• More generally |x – a| is distance between 'x' and 'a' on 2

the number line. 1

|x – a| –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

0 –1
a x

• | x |= x 2
• |xy| = |x| |y|

Illustration 1:
Sketch the graph of following equation and also find all possible values (Range) of 𝑦,
y = |x| + x
Solution:
 x+x , x0
y = |x| + x = 
 0 , x0
 2x , x  0
= 
 0 , x0

y=2x

y=0

From graph we can find all

possible values (range) of 𝑦 which is [0, )

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 Fundamentals of Algebra
Part - 19

Modulus Equations

Illustration 1:
Solve for 𝑥
(a) |2𝑥 + 5| = 2 (b) |𝑥 – 3| = –1
Solution:
(a) |2𝑥 + 5| = 2
2𝑥 + 5 = 2 or 2𝑥 + 5 = –2
3 7
x=– or x = −
2 2

 3 7
Answer  𝑥  − , − 
 2 2
(b) |𝑥 – 3| = –1
A modulus quantity cannot be negative
So 𝑥   is our answer.

Illustration 2:
Solve for 𝑥; |2𝑥 – 3| = |3𝑥 + 5|
Solution:
5
Case I: 𝑥 < −
3
– (2𝑥 – 3) = – (3𝑥 + 5)
–2𝑥 + 3 = –3𝑥 – 5
5
𝑥 = –8 (Accepted as 𝑥 < − )
3
5 3
Case II: −  x 
3 2
– (2𝑥 – 3) = (3𝑥 + 5)
5𝑥 = –2
2 5 3
𝑥 = − (Accepted as −  x  )
5 3 2
3
Case III: x 
2
2𝑥 – 3 = 3𝑥 + 5
3
𝑥 = –8 (Rejected as x  )
2
 2
Final answer: 𝑥  –8, − 
 5 

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Fundamentals of Algebra – Part 19

Illustration 3:
If |𝑥 – 1||𝑥 – 2| = – (𝑥 2 – 3𝑥 + 2), then find the interval in which 𝑥 lies?
Solution:
|(𝑥 – 1)(𝑥 – 2)| = – (𝑥 – 2)(𝑥 – 1)
+ – +
– 1 2 
 (𝑥 – 1)(𝑥 – 2)  0
 1𝑥2

Illustration 4:
Solve for 𝑥; 𝑥 2 + 3|𝑥| + 2 = 0
Solution:
𝑥 2 + 3|𝑥| + 2 = 0
|𝑥|2 + 3|𝑥| + 2 = 0
|𝑥|2 + 2|𝑥| + |𝑥| + 2 = 0
|𝑥| (|𝑥|+2) + 1(|𝑥|+2) = 0
(|𝑥|+2) (|𝑥|+1) = 0
Either |𝑥| + 2 = 0 or |𝑥| + 1 = 0
|𝑥| = –2 |𝑥| = –1
Modulus cannot be negative
So 𝑥 

Illustration 5:
Solve for 𝑥; |𝑥| – 2|𝑥 + 1| + 3|𝑥 + 2| = 0
Solution:
Case 1: when 𝑥 < –2
–𝑥 + 2(𝑥 + 1) – 3(𝑥 + 2) = 0
–2𝑥 – 4 = 0
𝑥 = –2 (Rejected as 𝑥 < –2)
Case 2: when –2  𝑥 < –1
–𝑥 + 2(𝑥 + 1) + 3(𝑥 + 2) = 0
4𝑥 + 8 = 0  𝑥 = –2 (Accepted as –2  𝑥 < –1)
Case3: when –1  𝑥 < 0
–𝑥 – 2(𝑥 + 1) + 3 (𝑥 + 2) = 0
–𝑥 –2𝑥 – 2 + 3𝑥 + 6 = 0
4=0
Not possible
So no solution in this interval
Case4: 𝑥  0
𝑥 – 2𝑥 – 2 + 3𝑥 + 6 = 0
2𝑥 + 4 = 0
𝑥 = –2 (Rejected as 𝑥  0)
Final answer:- 𝑥 = –2

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 Fundamentals of Algebra
Part - 20

Determinant

Introduction:
If the equations a1𝑥 + b1 = 0, a2𝑥 + b2 = 0 are satisfied by the same value of 𝑥, then a1b2 – a2b1 = 0. The expression
a1b2 – a2b1 is called a determinant of the second order, and is denoted by:
a1 b1
a2 b2
A determinant of second order consists of two rows and two columns.
Next consider the system of equations a1𝑥 + b1𝑦 + c1 = 0, a2𝑥 + b2𝑦 + c2 = 0, a3𝑥 + b3𝑦 + c3 = 0
If these equations are satisfied by the same values of x and y, then on eliminating 𝑥 and 𝑦 we get.
a1(b2c3 – b3c2) + b1(c2a3 – c3a2) + c1(a2b3 – a3b2) = 0
The expression on the left is called a determinant of the third order, and is denoted by
a1 b1 c1
a2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3
A determinant of third order consists of three rows and three columns.

Value of a determinant:

a1 b1 c1
b2 c2 a2 c2 a2 b2
D = a2 b2 c2 = a1 – b1 + c1
b3 c3 a3 c3 a3 b3
a3 b3 c3
= a1(b2c3 – b3c2) – b1(a2c3 – a3c2) + c1(a2b3 – a3b2)

Note : Sarrus diagram to get the value of determinant of order three :

–ve –ve –ve
a1 b1 c1 a1 b1 c1 a1 b1
D = a2 b2 c2 = a2 b2 c2 a2 b2 = (𝑎1 𝑏2 𝑐3 + 𝑎2 𝑏3 𝑐1 + 𝑎3 𝑏1 𝑐2 )– (𝑎3 𝑏2 𝑐1 + 𝑎2 𝑏1 𝑐3 + 𝑎1 𝑏3 𝑐2 )
a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3 a3 b3
+ve +ve +ve
Note that the product of the terms in first bracket (i.e. 𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3 𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3) is same as the product of the terms in
second bracket.

Illustration 1:
1 2 3
The value of −4 3 6 is -
2 −7 9
(A) 213 (B) – 231 (C) 231 (D) 39

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Fundamentals of Algebra – Part 20

Solution:
Ans. (C)
1 2 3
3 6 −4 6 −4 3
−4 3 6 = 1 –2 +3
−7 9 2 9 2 −7
2 −7 9
= (27 + 42) – 2 (– 36 – 12) + 3 (28 – 6) = 231

Alternative : By sarus diagram

–ve –ve –ve
1 2 1 3 2 3 1 2
−4 3 6 = −4 3 6 −4 3
2 −7 9 2 −7 9 2 −7
+ve +ve +ve
= (27 + 24 + 84)– (18 – 42 – 72) = 135 – (18 – 114) = 231

Minors & Cofactors:

The minor of a given element of determinant is the determinant obtained by deleting the row & the column in which

the given element stands.

a1 b1 c1
b2 c2 a1 c1
For example, the minor of 𝑎1 in a2 b2 c2 is & the minor of 𝑏2 is .
b3 c3 a3 c3
a3 b3 c3
Hence a determinant of order three will have “9 minors”.

If Mij represents the minor of the element belonging to ith row and jth column then the cofactor of that element is
given by : Cij = (– 1)i + j.Mij

Illustration 2:
2 −3 1
Find the minors and cofactors of elements '– 3', '5', '– 1' & '7' in the determinant 4 0 5
−1 6 7
Solution:
4 5
Minor of – 3 = = 33; Cofactor of – 3 = – 33
−1 7
2 −3
Minor of 5 = = 9; Cofactor of 5 = – 9
−1 6
−3 1
Minor of – 1 = = – 15; Cofactor of – 1 = – 15
0 5
2 −3
Minor of 7 = = 12; Cofactor of 7 = 12
4 0

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