4_ 1,

DO&Uni)iT RESON2

BD 210 §-85 CG 415,610,

AUTHOR Heppner, "El: Paul; Petersen, Chris H.

TITLE A Personal Problem Solving Inftntory. 1

PUB DATE Apg 81 . . .

NOTE 13p.: Paper Rresented at the Annual Conventiof'W the

American Psychological Association 189th, Lcs N
Angeles, CA, August 24-26, 1981). For related
document, :see CG 015 609..
.
EDRS PRICE BFO /Pc01 Plus Postage.
DESCRIPTORS Beh vier Patterns: *Coping; *Decision Baking; Factor
An ysis: *ocus of Control:' *Problei Sclvitg; Social
Cognition: Student.Attitudes: *Test Construction;
Test leliabilityf Ttst Validity '1
IDENTIFIERS *Personal Ptroblems
\ _
ABSTRACT ,

Few studies have explicitly attended tc the personal

,problem - solving process within' the counseling literature, perhaps due
in Part totEe.dearth of, relevant assessment instruments. To examine
the dimensions underlying the applied problem-solving process, an
exploratory factor analysis was conducted using data collected from
foui samples of college students. A problem- solving instrument4Vas
developed based on the factor analysis results, which revealed three
'distinct constructs, i.e., problem solving confidenZe, ,

.approach-avoidance style, and persom'al control. The constructs were

imtesnally cbpsisteit and stable over time: Initial estmateS of
validity' suggest that the instrument measures constructs which are:
'' (1). amenable to- change through specific skill training in
-problem-solving: (2)- unrelated -to conceptualiiing means tc solving a
/ hypothetical problem situatLen1 (3) relatgd to general perception of
(
problemliving-skills: (4) unielated to Intelligence cr sOcial
aesipabil ty; And '0) related to personality variables, especially
locus of contrpl..(Author/JACr .
.1
s' J

tra
'41rt
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A Personal Problem Solving Inventory*

P. Paul Heppner

University of Missouri - Columbia

a U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

Chris H. Petersen
'NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION .

EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION

4.- ..
, a
XENTER MMM
Concordia University r
X ills document has been reproduced as
...."
rson or organtabon
recehteCI,fiorn the person . i
....
ongtnattng d
Knot changes have been made to improve
mpraMcbOn Quality . .
Potnts of vew or optmons stated m this docu
ment do-not necessanIy represent eke! NIE
posdan or pol.cy

Complete Address:

P. Paul Hepprier, Ph.D.

210 McAlceter_Hall
Psychology Department.
University of Missouri- Columbia
Columbia, MO 65211

"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE HIS

.
MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY
-Running Head: Problem Solving Inv.tntory

TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES

INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)."
I

PaPer,presentedat.the annual meeting of the Atherican Psychological gssociation,

Los Angeles, Augilst, 1981.

*For more complete information about.the inventory, contact the first authqr.

.1\ I

I
 Personal Solving Inve.ntoty4,-
2

A Problem Solving InVentorY

.
.

-Problem-saving is of special concern for professionals who are interested

in helping others, solve problems whin are particularly, troublesome. Counselors

A . ,
.\, , .
...
. . .
`,....64.."
are a.group of such profesionals as Krumboltz (1965) so aptly state
* '
15 years
, t
.
. . ago. WhM.e a great deal of research within psychology has been conducted With
.-.

,regard to problem' solving (e.g., DaviS,1966; Gagne, .1964;- Maier, 1970; Newell,
, . .
c
*.
Shaw, & Simon,.a958), aost of the research within'counaeling haairemained at the
.

-conceptual level.(e.g., Clark, Gelatt, & Levine; 1965; Urban & Ford, 1971). In

addition; a review of the co unseling literature revealedtHat only a fe4of

'

studies have explicitly attended to the problem solving process (Hepprier, 1978).

.Perhaps contributing to the lack of research is the-dearth of instruments which

measure aspects of the personal problem solving prOcess: .,The Means-Ends Problem

\Solving Procedure (MtPS) developed-by Platt and Spivack (1975)-is a notable

xception.
J
. . 4

Another reason which might explain the-lack of research on problem solving

counselpg is the seemingly, irrelevancy of the problem solving m4search, for

e practitioner, such as research which emP5.oys4water jar problems (e.g.,

Cobui,JOhpson, 1464), anagram problems (e.g.,.Tresselt Mayzner,

&
.an arithmetic problems-(e.g., Klausmeier & Laughlin, 1961). Wickelgrin (1962)

no ed that such research methodologies may be examining how people solve pre-

iped laboratory problems (i.e., fOrmal problesm), which may be different

differen ,, or
,d
411'
--- 4
les 'complex than how people solve real life, applied personal probleffis. *

Earlier)investigators have postulated the existence of several "stages" with-

in 'he problem solving prodess (Clark, etal., 1965; Dewey, 1933; D'Zurilla & '

GO). ried, 1971; Gol.dfreldj& Goldfreid, 1975; Urban & Ford, 1971). In general,
t

five stages are'common to most models of problem solving: general orieptation,,

prob em.definition, generation of alternativeg, decisionrmaking;. and evaluation.

In.a dition, training pr crams designed to enhance subjects' problem solving skills
.
 Problem Solving Inventory

.
3

often are developed around variaus"stages" (e.., Dixon, Heppner; Peterson, &

Roning, 1979; D'Zurilla & Gdldfired, 1971; Mendonca & Siess, 1976). While some 4tr
evidence has suggested that problem solving is a function of different activities

(Johnson, Parrott, & Stratton, 1968; Spivack & Shure, 1974), there has been an

absence of research which has empirically investigated the existence of these

stages and concomitant problem solving skills in app led problem solving situations.

In additiOn, it is unclear whether there are dimensi cjns underlying the applied

problem solving _process, and if the process is most ccurately described in.-terms
,

of distinct stages or perhaps dimensions which cut across stages.'

The purpose of this investigation was to examine the dimensions underlying

the applied Problem,solving process through an exploratory factor analysis:

In Addition, the article desCribes the development di. a problem salving instru-

ment based on the factor analysis results, and also delineates reliability and
.
% .

validity estimates of the Instrument. . A .

r
Method

Data was collected from four samples of students. A total of 150 students
. .

initially responded to the PSI, the'data of which served the basis for the factor

analysis. On the basis of the factor analysis, the 35 item questionnaire was re-
.

duced to,32 items. Additonal data was collected from other students to establish
0

an estimate of test-retest reliability amd'estimaies of concurrent validity (N=31,

62). Finally, data was collected pre and post a problem.solving workshop to pro -

vide an estimate of construct validity (N = 20).

Demographic data on the subjects will be presented as well'as reliability an

validity information relating to the ten instruments used in the study: the

Problem Solving Inventory (pSI): Level of Problem Solving Skills' (IPSSEFi. Heppner,

1979), Rotter.Internal - External Locus of Control (Rotter, 1966), School and Co,l.lege

, Ability Test (SCAT.: Educational Testing.Serviee, 1967), Missouri College glish

Tett (MCET: Callis & Johnson, 1965), ?:Missouri Mathematics Placement Tes (?2v T;

.4
 At c.,
,ProblemSolving Inventory

4'

Krauskopf, Baucham, & Willis, 1/67), Social Desirability Scale (SDS: Crown
, . )

& Marlowe, 1964), Myers-Briggs Type'Indicator (MBTI: Myers, 1962), the Means-End'

Problem, Solving Procedure (NIPS; Platt & Spivack, 1975), and Unusual Uses Test

LL,(Torrce,
an 1966).

Results

Factor Analyses-

A nrinCipal components factor analysis was performed using the Statistical

) .

Package f'or the Social Sciences (Nie, Hull, Jenkins, Steinbrenner, & Bent, 1970).

The analysis yielded ten factors having eigenvalues great6r than 1.00 and accounting

for 64% of the common variance.! Using a screen test to identify only the major

common factors (Cattell, 1965),,,three factors were extracted. Using a varimax

rotation and applying the rule of retaining only those factor loadings above 0.3,

three factors were identified with 11, 16, and 5 items.' The factors were labled

by the experimenters and contained the following respective range of loadings:

problem solving confidence (.42 to .75), approach-avoidance style (.30 tir.71),

and personal cont;91,(..,,42 to .71). The items contributing to each factor will be

listed in Table 1, along with the respective factor loadings.

Normative Data

Based on the responses from 147 undergraduate students, thefollowing norm-

ative data was obtained for each of the, three factors and the total Inventory:

factor one (problem solving confidence), raw mean = 46.21, standard deviation =

'11.51, factor mean = 2.88; factor three(personal control), raw mean = 18.40,

stanArd deviation = 4.06, factor mean = 3.68; total inventory, raw mean = 91:50,

-standard deviation;= 30.65, inventory mean = 2.86.

A second sample (N = 62) from the same universe; undergraduat'e students from

anintroductorypsychology class, provided cross-validation data. The similar norm-

data is, as 'follows:: factor one, raw mean = 26.16, standard deviation = 7.90,

factor mean = 2.38; factor two, raw mean = 43.68; standard deviation = 11.40, factor
, i'
5
.

.°
 cs

. .
.1 Problem Solving InventOry

mean = 2.71; factor three, raw mean '= 18.32, standard deviation = 5.19, factor

mean = 3.66; 'total inventory, raw mean .= 88.16, standard, deviation = 19.199, in,

ventory mean = 2.75.

Estimates ofwValiditi

Estimates410 concurrent construct and validity were established through

several means: First, scores on the three factors and the total PSI were Cor-

related with the LPSSEF (N=150), specifically with students' self-rating regarding

their'level of problem salving skills (R =.-.44, -.29, -.43, and -.46,respectively)

and students' perceived satisfaction/dissatisfaction with their problem solving

skills (r = -.42, =.24, -.39, and -.42 respectively). A1' correlations were sta-

istically signifi 4C.001). Scores on the P8I were also correlated with

scores on the first threestories of the MESP,( = 62). All correlations were

statistically non-significant (p's>

Campbell (1960) maintained /that in establishing construct validity for any

new test, it is useful to correlate the new instrument with an intelligence test.

Scores.ori the PSI were correlated with the SCAT, Series II (N = 98); the scores

on.all three factors and the total PSI were correlated with scores on the- Verbal

section (r .09, .08, .11, N24spectively); 'with scores on the Quantitative

section (r = .14, .10, .12, .15 respectively), and with the total score (r = .13,

.11, .13 respectively). Scores on the t 'actors and total PSI were alo

correlated with'MCET scroes (N = 98; r = -.03; ?J.12, ..16, -,02, respectively), ,and

NMPT scor'es(N-= 99; r -.02, .11, .06 re ectively). In addition, scores

4

on the three factors and the total PSI were corr fated with subjects' high school

rank.(N = 88; r = .14, -.01, .18, .06 respective y). Again, all correlations

were statistically non-significant (p's ) .05).

.4
Campbell (1960) also maintained that in esta ' slung construct validity each

new test 'should be correlated with a general measure of social desirability.

Scores' on the three_factors and total PSI were correlated with SDSOI = 62; r = -.09,
 Problem Solving. Inventory,
Tft

-.09, -:24, and -,.16 respectively). ?The correlations were statistically non-.

significant (p'S > .05), except with the third factor fr = -.24', p < .05). Thus,
. ,
.

scores on the 1SI do not seemto be highly carrel dted with scores on a general

measure. of social ,d sirability. 1

Validity coe?fi ents were also comp ed by correlating the scoreson the

three faclors and the total PSI with scor s on the Rotter I-E Scale (N = 33), the

Unusual Uses Aciivity (N = 62), and the NWT (N = 62). All correlations were
A.
.
,
i
statistically significant ('p's <:.01) with the Rater I-E Scale (r = N4, -53,r
.
. _'
.40,,and .61 respectively). CorrelltIons between scores on factor one, facitor(iwc,
.',

the 'total PSI and both the fluency .and'Ilexibility scores on the Unusual Uees were

%not statistically significant-(all p's-> .05). Correlations between.sc res on

.

factor three ,(personal control), however, were moderately llow bUt-statisticallY

,

significant ('p's <.02) with_bOih_the fluency and flexibil ty scores .(,r and
A
.
r .
.

-.34 respectirfY)...All correlatio Twith the continuous scores of each of the .

four type indicators on the MBTI wei statistically non- significant (p's > .05k

except between scores on the third factor and the thinking-feelitg scores (r =.
,

.25, p < .05).

Discussion"

The results of the factor analySis indicate that there are at least thrge

dimensions underlying the perceived personal problem solving process of'college

`students. An analysis of the items that 16a4ed on each factor revealed constructs

-such as confidence in one's problem solving ability, an approach - avoidance style,

:-
1.- .
-.
and personal control.
.\
iicate these constructs-are
Estimates of reliabili ty indicate
,
.

internally consistent as-well-as stale over time. iIn addition, cross validation
.
.-
data from two different samples indidates that the normative data iS,consistent
,
- . . ,

across similar samples of college students. It is important to note that the

,
.
_.
.

items depictingeach.of the five Stages loaded in an &most random fashion across.
/-.
each of,three constructs. Although severdi writers haire .described distinct stages
.
 ry Problem Solving Inventory
'41.
7
..
.
*
N , .

within the problem solving, process (e.g., cia4c, et.al., 1965; Dewey, 1933;
. _ .
.t.-
/ i
i D'Zurilla & Goldfireq, 1971)i , th'results can be interpreted as suggesting the
.
.
. A.:... .

existence of underlying d.menslons across "stages "within students' perceptiOnrof

40
.

their real -life,,personal problem solving. Suc a notion may more sea-urately ,

portray the complexity of real life problem solving; describing applied problem

solving at the level most stage-theorists do may not only be an oversimplificatidil

?-
but also may mask important individualdifferences in the applied problem solving

process. e

The initial findings with regard to establishing concurrent and construct

validity provide additional, information about the instrument. First, it appears

that the PSIcorrelates moderately well with a simple self-raring scale. Subjects

.Who respond to the PSI in ways which reflect behaviors and attitudes typically

associated with successful problem solving also tend,to rate themselves as better

problem.solvers and to be more satisfied with 'their problemsolving skills. Second

the PSI is able to detect.differences between groups of students who have re-

training in problem solving and.those who 'have not received such training.

Third, subjects' responses to.the PSI do not seem to be related to responses on

4 .

another measure of problem solving, the MEPS. This finding' may indicate that

thes4 two instruments Afferent aspects of the personnAl problem solving`

, .
. . -/, -\,
I , I
process; conceptualizing means, to a hypothetical problet situation is quite dif-
/
< , ,

ferent from 'reflecting on what one actually doeS,in solving real-life personal .'

problems. Parenthetically; Janis and Nhnn (1977) note that there.is a growing
i

body of evidence which indicates that people respond dffferenoptly , to hypOthetical

.
.
,
situations than they do to real-life situations (Collins Sejloyt, 1972; Cooper,
4;$
1971; ,DeliSch, Krauss, & Rosenhan, 1962; Gerard, Blevens,98c Malcolm, 1964; Nei, )$

Relmreich, & Aronson,'1969; Singer & Kornsfield,.1973; Taylor, 1975). Fourth, 1

, .
.

'the Thstrument'does not seem to be another variation of ari intelligence test,

. ,

nor does it seem to be a mislabeled social desirabiilty inventory. Fifth, cor-

e ,

)
 .
1 % I

. S
Problem Solving Inventory
. k
i , 8

. \ .
.

relatiOft-with bthe1 iny..entoiies indicate that'sCores of the PSI are'not .

.
t
t 4.

strongly related to measures of creativity or the personality types-as indicated

by Myers-Briggs. People who report being mor4 like "the successful problem
.

solver" also tend to report having an internal locus of Control. Tiis finding
u
confirms an observation fromian early descriptive study about characteristics
a
Of successful prbblem6.solvers'(Bloom & BrOder, 1950). In short, these findings
u
I\ . .

as an aggregate provide somenitial estimates of validity for the PSI. Spe-

.

cificially, there is someievidence to_suggest that the PSI is measuring constructs

.

. .
. /
1 which are (a) amenable to'change through specific skill training in problem
. .
. .
i .

solving, (b) unrelated to conceptuaaizing means to hypothetical problem situatZon,

(c) related-to subjects' general perceptions of thei4 problem solving ski 1

. ..-

(d) unrelated to intelligence or sociailogesirability and (e) related to person- ,

ality variables.; most notably locus of control.

$

There has been an absence of instruments wh\ch attempt to measure constructs

associated with applied problem solvipg Thus, th'NPSI may serve as a much needed

research tool for investigators who want to assess people's perceptions of how
-
. they solve personal problems. Until further research is cohduc ed on the PSI,
I
t.
theinstrument would be` be restricteE to 'research functiipis: is also

essential to note that the PSI assesses people's peroeptions of the prOtlem Solving

process.. This self-report data should not be equated'with actual problem solving-

skills as additional research is neded't,:) examine the relationshik between these

two variables. An advadtage of the PSI is its ease to administer and score, 4lieh'

is in contrast to the rather cumbersome and difficult scoring procesS of the' MEM
s .
k
.Finally, the results of the study' raise some. questions about the most effacious

method to, enhance Oople's real -life problem solving skills. PreViously, skills
v.
associate d with the five problem solving stages have been thqofocus of various . ,

training formats (e.g., Dixon, Heppner, Petersen, Ronning, 1979; 4Zurilla.&

. 0
Goldfried, 1971; Mendorica & gess, 1976). There is not strong empirical evidence
 (
Problem Solving Inventory
9

fdr the efficacy of training formats built around these stages. Perhaps the
. -
.

effectiveness of training might be improved by also'focusing on the three under-"

6 , . .
t.
.
lying dimensions identified in this investigation, or on t'he,events associated

with the process of problem solving in general rather than solely on'the major

skills for each stage.

References

Q Bloom B. S., & Border, L. J. Prob ems solving processes of college students .

Chicago: Univeristy of Chic o Press, 1950.

& Johnson, W. Missouri College English Test; New York: Harcourt,

Callis,

Brace & World, 1965.

Campbell, D. T. RecomMendations for APA test standalTis regarding construpt,trait

546-5'0.
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Pactoranalysis:, An iaroduction to essentials. Biometrics,

Cattell, R.' B.
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Clarke, R., Gelatt, H., B.,-& Levine, L., A decision-making paradigm for local
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Collins, B. F,, & Hoyt,1111. F. Personal responsibility l'ofconsequenqes::

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ofE perimental Social Psychology, 1972, 8, 558-593.

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Personal responsibility and dissonance: The role offoreseen consequences.
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Jo:urill of Personality and Social Psychology, 1970, 389, 354-363.

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Crowne, D., & Mb..rlowe, D. The' approval motive. New y.osEk: Wiley, 1964. .
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DeweY, J. How te think. New York: Heath, 1933:

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 Problem SolvingInventory

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 a

Problem,Solving Inventory.
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.

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.. of abstract and action choices. Developmental. Psychology, 1973, 8, 314.

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 e

Problem Solving Inventory'

Spivak, G., & Shure, M. B. Social adjustment of young children. Sari Frapcisco:

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Journal of Psychology) 1960, 50, 349-354

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O