20IC201T

BASIC ELECTRONICS
B.Tech. 1st Year
 Unit III:
INTRODUCTION TO
OPERATIONAL
AMPLIFIERS (OPAMP)
 UNIT-III: CONTENTS:
Block Diagram and Characteristics of Ideal Op-Amp
Parameters of an Op-Amp
Concept of Feedback
Inverting and Non- Inverting Amplifier
Differential Amplifier
Virtual Ground
Adder, Subtractor, Comparator, Integrator and Differentiator,
Zero Crossing Detector, Voltage Follower.
Ref. Book:
(1) R. A. Gaikwad, “Operational Amplfier and Linear
Integrated Circuits”, Pearson, 4th Edition.
 (2) Boylestad and Nashlesky, “Electronic Devices
and Circuit Theory”, PHI, 11th Edition.
 3
MODULE - 1
Operational Amplifier (OPAMP)
An operational amplifier, or op-amp, is a very high
gain differential amplifier with high input impedance
and low output impedance.

Typical uses of the operational amplifier are to

provide voltage amplitude changes (amplitude and
polarity), oscillators, filter circuits, and many types of
instrumentation circuits.

An op-amp contains several differential amplifier

stages to achieve a very high voltage gain
 Introduction to Operational
Amplifiers: OPAMP
• Available in IC form
• The actual count varies, but an Op-Amp contains several Transistors,
Resistors, and a few Capacitors.
• OPAMP is Very high gain differential amplifier with high input resistance
and low output resistance
• Differential amplifier: Amplifies difference between two input signals
• Number of mathematical operations can be performed OPAMP
• Linear Applications: DC and AC voltage (small signal) amplifiers,
Oscillators, filters, many types of instrumentation circuits signal
conditioners, Analog Computers  Combination of integrators,
differentiators, summing amplifiers, and multipliers
• Non-linear Applications: Comparators, Converters, Timers, Multi-vibrators
etc.
• Major field of Applications: Control, Communication and Instrumentation
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Operational Amplifier (OPAMP)
Operational Amplifier (OPAMP)
Operational Amplifier (OPAMP)
Operational Amplifier (OPAMP)
Operational Amplifier (OPAMP)
Operational Amplifier (OPAMP)
 Operational Amplifier (OPAMP)

signals that are opposite at the inputs are highly amplified, whereas
those that are common to the two inputs are only slightly
amplified—the overall operation being to amplify the difference
signal while rejecting the common signal at the two inputs.
Differential Amplifier Circuit

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In single-ended operation, a single input signal is applied. However, due to the
common emitter connection, the input signal operates both transistors, resulting in
output from both sides collectors.

In double-ended operation, two input signals are applied, the difference of the
inputs resulting in outputs from both collectors due to the difference of the signals
applied to both inputs.

In common-mode operation, the common input signal results in opposite signals

at each collector, these signals canceling, so that the resulting output signal is
zero. As a practical matter, the opposite signals do not completely cancel, and a
small signal results.

The main feature of the differential amplifier is the very large gain when opposite
signals are applied to the inputs as compared to the very small gain resulting from
common inputs. The ratio of this difference gain to the common gain is called
common-mode rejection.

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 OPAMP: Circuit Symbol

• Vo= A (V1-V2) = AVd

where, Vd = V1-V2  Differential Input Signal

• A = Open loop (large signal) voltage gain of OPAMP

• V1 and V2 can be dc or ac input signals.
• V1 ,V2 and Vo are measured w.r.t. grond (reference) point

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 Practical vs Ideal OPAMP

AC equivalent of op-amp circuit: (a) practical; (b)

ideal.
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 Ideal OPAMP Characteristics
1. Infinite open loop voltage gain
2. Infinite Input resistance: Zero input current: Zero power
consumption: No loading on signal source
3. Zero Output resistance: Full output Voltage drops across load: Drive
infinite no of other devices
4. Infinite Bandwidth (Range of frequency of signal): frequency signal
from 0 to ∞ Hz can be amplified without distortion
5. Infinite Slew Rate (Rate of change of output signal w.r.t. time):
Output voltage changes occur simultaneously with input voltage
changes
6. Zero output offset voltage: Zero output when two input signals are
same in magnitude and phase (differential input is zero)
7. Infinite Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR): Zero output when
two inputs are made common (same signal connected to both inputs)
8. No temperature dependence
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 Basic OPAMP Characteristics

Operation of op-amp as constant-gain multiplier: (a) op-amp ac equivalent circuit;

(b) ideal op-amp equivalent circuit; (c) redrawn equivalent circuit.
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 Derivation: Gain of an inverting amplifier
For source V1 only (-AvVi set to zero)

For source -AvVi only (V1 set to zero)

The total voltage Vi is then

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 Solving for Vo/Vi, we get

Unity Gain
If R1 = Rf
Voltage gain Av = -Rf/R1 = -1
the circuit provides a unity voltage gain with 180° phase inversion.

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 Virtual Ground
Gain = Vo/Vin
As gain is very high
Vin = 0
Vin = V1-V2
V 1= V2
A virtual short-circuit (or simply virtual short) refers to a condition of a
differential input amplifier such as an op-amp in which its noninverting and
inverting inputs have almost the same voltage.

In OPAMPSs the term virtual ground means that the voltage at that particular
node is almost equal to ground voltage (0V). It s not physically connected to
ground.

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 Virtual Ground

The concept of a virtual short implies that although the voltage is nearly 0 V,
there is no current through the amplifier input to ground.

If v1 is grounded then v2 can not be more than few μV which is

very very small and close to ground.
Therefore v2 can also be considered at ground if v1 is at ground.
Physically v2 is not connected to the ground yet we considered
v2 at ground that is called virtual ground.
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 Virtual Short in OPAMP:

• Ri  ∞ W
– Therefore, i1 = i2 = 0A

• Vd = vo/A; as A  ∞; vd0; i.e. v1-v20; i.e. v1≈v2

• So current into OPAMP is zero and voltage across OPAMP
input terminals is also zero and hence voltage at inverting
and non-inverting terminals are almost equal.
• So two input terminals of OPAMP are behaving like they are
virtually short with no current into it.
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 Practical OPAMP Circuits

• Inverting amplifier

• Non-inverting amplifier

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 Close Loop OPAMP Configurations:
Inverting Amplifier

Gain Derivation

• Assuming ideal OPAMP: i1=i2=0 Current in R1 and Rf

are same.
• v1≈v2 (virtually shorted); As v1=0; v2 is also 0.
𝑉2 −𝑉𝑖 𝑉2 −𝑉𝑜
• Node equation at v2: + =0
𝑅1 𝑅𝑓
𝑣0 −𝑅𝑓
• Substituting v2=0 we get =
𝑣𝑖 𝑅1
−𝑅𝑓
• Close loop gain: 𝐴𝑣 = 𝑅1
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 Close Loop OPAMP Configurations:
Non-Inverting Amplifier

Gain Derivation

• Assuming Ideal OPAMP:v2=v1=vi

• Writing node equation at v2:
𝑣2 −0 𝑣2 −𝑣𝑜
• + =0
𝑅1 𝑅𝑓
𝑣𝑖 −0 𝑣𝑖 −𝑣𝑜
• + =0
𝑅1 𝑅𝑓
𝑣0 𝑅𝑓
• =1+
𝑣𝑖 𝑅1
𝑅𝑓
• Close loop gain: 𝐴𝑣=1+
𝑅1
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 Practical OPAMP Circuits

• Unity Follower

• Summing amplifier

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Practical OPAMP Circuits
Integrator

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Practical OPAMP Circuits
Integrator

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31
C is the integration constant and is proportional to the value of the output
voltage v0 at time t = 0 seconds.

The above equation indicates that the output voltage is directly

proportional to the negative integral of input voltage and inversely
proportional to the time constant R1CF
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33
Practical OPAMP Circuits
Differentiator

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iC = iB + iF
Since iB = 0, iC = iF
C1 d/dt (Vin- V2) = (V2-V0)/RF
But V1 = V2 , because A is very Large. Therefore

C1 dVin/dt = -Vo/RF or Vo = -RFC1dVin/dt

The output V is equal to the RFC1 times the

negative instantaneous rate of the input voltage Vin
with time 35
Block Diagram of OPAMP

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bipolar op-amp IC is the 741

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IC 741: Most Popular OPAMP IC

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 Practical OPAMP: Equivalent Circuit
• A is finite, Input resistance (Ri) is finite, Output
resistance (Ro) is non-zero and finite
• Typical values: A: 105 to 106; Ri: 100KΩ to 1M Ω;
Ro:100 Ω to 1K Ω

• Open circuit
output voltage:
vo=Avd
=A(v1-v2)
Voltage
Controlled
Voltage
Source: 39
VCVS
 Open Loop OPAMP Configurations:

• The Differential Amplifier:

v1 = vin1 and v2 = vin2.

vo = A (vin1 – vin2 )
where, A is the open loop gain.

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• The Inverting • The Non-inverting
Amplifier: Amplifier:

v1= 0, v2 = vin. v1 = vin, v2 = 0

vo = -A vin vo = A vin
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 Voltage Transfer Curve (VTC)
• Linear over very limited range
+Ve
Saturation
Range
where we
operate
the op
amp as an vd
amplifier.

-Ve
Saturation Real Op Amp: +Vsat ≈ +VCC and –Vsat ≈ -VEE
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 Open Loop Output Voltage
Input Voltage Output Voltage
Range
Positive Saturation vd > +Vsat/A vo =+Vsat≈ VCC
Linear Region -Vsat/A < vd < +Vsat/A vo = Avd
Negative Saturation vd < -Vsat/A vo =-Vsat ≈ -VEE

In Typical OPAMP: A=105, +Vsat=+15 V, -Vsat=-15V

Linear Region: -150µV<vd<150µV : Very very small input

voltage range
 Close Loop OPAMP Configurations:
Inverting Amplifier

• Assuming ideal OPAMP: i1=i2=0 Current in R1 and Rf

are same.
• v1≈v2 (virtually shorted); As v1=0; v2 is also 0.
𝑉2 −𝑉𝑖 𝑉2 −𝑉𝑜
• Node equation at v2: + =0
𝑅1 𝑅𝑓
𝑣0 −𝑅𝑓
• Substituting v2=0 we get =
𝑣𝑖 𝑅1
−𝑅𝑓
• Close loop gain: 𝐴𝑣 = 𝑅1
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 Close Loop OPAMP Configurations:
Non-Inverting Amplifier

• Assuming Ideal OPAMP:v2=v1=vi

• Writing node equation at v2:
𝑣2 −0 𝑣2 −𝑣𝑜
• + =0
𝑅1 𝑅𝑓
𝑣𝑖 −0 𝑣𝑖 −𝑣𝑜
• + =0
𝑅1 𝑅𝑓
𝑣0 𝑅𝑓
• =1+
𝑣𝑖 𝑅1
𝑅𝑓
• Close loop gain: 𝐴𝑣=1+
𝑅1
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 OPAMP Specifications:
DC offset parameters
input Offset voltage Vio : is the voltage
Offset Currents and voltages: that must be applied between the two
input terminals of an op-amp to null the
output
Input offset current: The algebraic
difference between the currents into the
inverting and noninverting terminals

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 Op-amp Specifications - Frequency Parameters

Gain–bandwidth:

An op-amp is designed to be a high-gain, wide-

bandwidth amplifier. This operation tends to
be unstable (oscillate) due to positive feedback.

To ensure stable operation, op-amps are built with

internal compensation circuitry, which also causes
the very high open-loop gain to diminish with
increasing frequency

Because of the internal compensation circuitry included in an op-

amp, the voltage gain drops off as frequency increases.

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Unity Follower and Voltage
Buffer: voltage follower
• Provides a gain of unity
(1) with no polarity or
phase reversal.
• The circuit operates like
an common collector
(emitter follower) circuit
except that the gain is
exactly unity.
• vo=vi

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• A voltage buffer circuit provides a means of isolating an
input signal from a load by using a stage having unity
voltage gain, with no phase or polarity inversion, and
acting as an ideal circuit with very high input impedance
and low output impedance.
• The load connected across one output has no (or little)
effect on the other output. In effect, the outputs are
buffered or isolated from each other.

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 Common-Mode Operation:

• Ideally, an op-amp provides output that is due to the amplification of the

difference (dissimilarity) of the signals applied to the inverting and non-
inverting inputs.
• The gain to the differential signal is called difference mode gain Ad or
simply A (open loop gain).
• If both the inputs are connected to a common signal, the two inputs are
equally amplified, and since they result in opposite-polarity signals at the
output, these signals cancel, resulting in 0-V output.
• Practically, a small output signal will result due to slight unbalance
(mismatching of two transistors) in the input stage of the OPAMP.
• The gain produced by OPAMP to the common mode input is called 50
common mode gain Ac.
 Common-Mode Rejection
• A significant feature of a differential connection is that the
signals that are opposite at the inputs are highly amplified,
whereas those that are common to the two inputs are only
slightly amplified—the overall operation being to amplify
the difference signal while rejecting the common signal at
the two inputs.
• Since noise (any unwanted input signal) is generally
common to both inputs, the differential connection tends to
provide attenuation of this unwanted input while providing
an amplified output of the difference signal applied to the
inputs.
• This operating feature is referred to as common-mode
rejection as described by a numerical value called the
common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR). 51
 Common-Mode Rejection Ratio:
CMRR
• Ability of an op-amp to reject common mode
signals (noise) while amplifying desired signal
(differential signal). CMRR  A d
Ac
A 
(CMRR) dB  20 log d 
 Ac 

• Ad : Difference mode gain

• Ac : Common mode gain
• The higher value of CMRR is the better.
• Means that high Ad and low Ac.
• Ideally, the value of the CMRR is infinite. 52
Illustration of CMRR:

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54
 Slew Rate of OPAMP:
• Maximum rate of change of the output voltage per
unit time (specified in volts per microsecond).
• Basically says how fast the output can “follow”
the input signal.
• Reflecting the op-amp’s ability to handle
switching signals.
• Provides information about maximum frequency
that can be handled by OPAMP at particular input
amplitude without distortion.

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 Summing Amplifier...
The amplifier provides weighted
sum of various input
The value of R1 may be fixed to
obtain desirable weight
Current form each source flow
through Rf which add to the
output voltage.
Total output voltage may be
obtained as--

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Subtracting Circuit

If
R1.R3=R2f=R22
Or, R1=R2=R3
V0=V1-V2
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Subtracting Circuit...

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Determine the output voltage for the circuit of Fig.

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 Comparator

Input Voltage Output Voltage

Less than reference voltage Negative
Equal to reference voltage Zero
Greater than reference Positive
voltage
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61
LED glows when Vin >Vref LED glows when Vin <Vref

LED glows only when

input is within the
range given by Vref
(HIGH) and Vref(LOW)

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Zero Crossing Detector

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 Multiple-stage Gains
The overall circuit is calculated by

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END OF UNIT: III