LOCOMOTION IN MAMMALS

INTRODUCTION

Locomotion is the movement of a whole organisms from one place to another. Movement
involves displacing body parts with the whole body in one place. The skeletal system works as
support for the body as well as performing other functions. In this chapter you will understand
how muscles and the skeleton interact to produce movement in mammals

Forms of locomotion

✓ Crawling
✓ Walking
✓ Flying
✓ Creeping

Why animals locomote

• To look for food

• To search for mates
• To avoid danger
• To avoid competition with other animals
• To colonize new areas

Requirements for locomotion

1. Energy. This is obtained from respiration

2. Skeleton. For support and attachment of muscles
3. Muscles. These contract and relax in order to move the skeleton during locomotion
4. Medium. This is the environment in which the organism moves. The medium can be
water, land or air

HUMAN SKELETAL SYSTEM

The skeletal system comprises of bones, cartilage, ligaments and joints. Skeletal system provides
the basic frame work to support the body.

Functions of mammalian skeleton

➢ Support. The skeleton forms a rigid frame work over which body organs are suspended
e.g. lungs, heart, intestines, kidney etc.
➢ It provides surface for attachment of muscles to allow movement
➢ It protects delicate organs of the body e.g. the skull protects the brain, inner ear and eyes
➢ It stores calcium for usage in the body
➢ It is a site for the manufacture of red blood cells and white blood cells. These cells are
produced in bone marrows
 ➢ It is used in breathing especially rib cages

Understanding the Structure and functions of human skeleton

Activity 1

1. Using biology references and ICT research on the structure of human skeleton and it’s
functions to the body. Write down your findings

Skeletal system divisions

The skeletal system is sub divided into two parts; Axial and appendicular divisions

➢ The axial division forms the body’s central axis. It consists of the skull and vertebral
column (back bone
➢ Appendicular division comprises of pectoral girdle (shoulder), upper limbs, lower
limbs and Pelvic girdles (hips)

Axial skeleton

It is made up of skull and vertebral column

1. The skull
It is made up of the brain box (cranium). A cranium protects the brain, eyes and inner ear.
2. The vertebral column
It is made up of small bones called the vertebrae. Their number vary from one organism
to another. They’re joined to one another by cartilage which allow slight movement of the
back
Functions of the vertebral column
- It protects the spinal cord
- It provides support to the head
Types of vertebrae bones
Type of vertebra Region of the vertebral Number in the human
column skeleton
Cervical Neck 7
Thoracic Thoracic region 12
Lumber Abdomen 5
Sacral Lower abdomen 5
Caudal Tail 4

Functions of parts of the vertebrae

1. Centrum. This is the lower part of the vertebra with a thick a protective mass. It
provides the main support of the backbone and allows articulations with other
vertebrae
 2. Transverse processes. These are projections on the side of the neural arch. It
provides surface for attachment of muscles. It also helps to articulate with ribs in
the thoracic vertebrae
3. Neural arch. It is a ring of bone above the vertebra. It forms a bony tube that
protects the spinal cord
4. Neural spine. This is the pointed part of the neural arch at dorsal part.
5. Neural canal. It is central hole that provides passage for the spinal cord
6. Facets. For articulation with other vertebra and ribs for the thoracic vertebrae
7. Vertebraterial canal. Allow passage of blood vessels

The cervical vertebrae

These are found in the neck region. They are seven in number

- They support the head region

- Support and protect the spinal cord

-Provides attachment for head muscles

Adaptations/characteristics of the cervical vertebrae

• They have a pair of vertebral canal for passage of neck blood vessels
• Have numerous processes which provides surface area for attachment of neck
muscles
 • Have large neural canal for passage of the spine cord
• Have broad centrum for increased support

Note: The first cervical vertebrae is called Atlas and lacks centrum while the second is the Axis

Thoracic vertebrae

They found in the chest region (thorax)

Adaptations of thoracic vertebrae

▪ Has large centrum to support the upper body weight

▪ Has long neural spine for attachment of thoracic muscles
▪ Have extra facets to articulate with the ribs
▪ Has wide neural canal for passage of the spine cord

Similarities between cervical and thoracic

o Both have a neural spine

o Both have a centrum
o Both have a neural canal
o Both have articulating facets

Differences

Cervical Thoracic
 Short spine Long neural spine
Has vertebraterial Lacks vertebraterial
canal canal
Has no notch Has a notch
Transverse process Transverse process
divided undivided

Lumber vertebrae

These are found in the abdominal region

Adaptations of lumber vertebrae

✓ Has a long and broad transverse process to increase surface area for attachment of the
abdominal muscles
✓ Has short and broad neural spine for attachment of muscles
✓ Has a wide and thick centrum to support weight of the abdominal organs
✓ Has a thick neural arch for protection of the spinal cord

Action of muscles on the skeleton

Vertebrates move by actions of muscles on bones. Tendons attach many skeleton muscles across
joints, allowing muscle contraction to move bones across the joint.

Muscles work in pairs, to produce movement: when one muscle flexes (or contracts), the other
relaxes a process known as antagonism. The junction between two or more bones is called a
joint. Bone movement or displacement occurs at joints
JOINTS

A joint is a place where two or more bones meet

The bones are connected together by ligaments to allow movement

Types of joints

Joints are classified depending on the degree of movement into the following categories

1. Immovable joints. These are joints where no movement is possible e.g. joints in the skull
2. Movable joints. These allow some degree of movement. They are also called synovial
joints. The movable joints are further divided into the following types
a) Gliding joints. These are joints that allow bones to slide over one another e.g. in
the wrist and ankle
b) Pivot joints. These allow rotation of one bone over the other e.g. between the axis
and atlas of the vertebral column
c) Hinge joints. This allows movement in one plane eg elbow of the hand, knee joint
d) Saddle joints. It allows twisting movement i.e. rotation of each bone between two
axis e.g. radius and ulna
e) Ball and socket joint. This allows movement in all directions e.g. the hip joint,
shoulder joint

Activity 2

In a group of 3 students, observe one student as he/she moves his/her body parts in different
directions and then fill the table below

Body part moving Direction of Type of joint

movement observed
Head at neck
Arm at shoulder or
leg at hip
Arm at elbow or leg
at knee
Palm at wrist or
foot at ankle
Fingers or toes
Vertebral column
Lumber vertebrae

Structure of a hinge joint

Parts of the joint

1. Ligament. This is a tissue that connects a bone to another bone

2. Tendon. This is a tissue that connects a muscle to a bone
3. Cartilage. This is a tissue that encloses the ends of bones at joints. It reduces friction
between bones. It also acts as a shock absorber
4. Synovial cavity. It holds the synovial fluid
5. Synovial fluid. It acts as a lubricant during movement
Activity 3
1. Carry out research on structure of any one movable joint in the human body
2. Develop a model of the joint from the materials available in your environment

MUSCLES

Muscles are bundles of elongated cells enclosed in a sheath of connective tissue

Movement of the arm at the elbow

During bending

The biceps muscles (flexor muscles) contract pulling the radius which causes the arm to be
raised. This causes the elbow to bend hence bending of the whole arm

During straightening

The biceps relaxes while the triceps contracts pulling the ulna thus straightening the arm

Muscle cramps
These are painful involuntary contractions of muscles

Causes of muscle cramps

• Inadequate blood supply

• Nerve compression in the spine
• Mineral depletion. Too little potassium, calcium and magnesium in the diet can contribute
to leg cramps
• Alcoholism
• Kidney failure
• Hypothyroidism
 • Pregnancy

Prevention of muscle cramps

✓ Drinking plenty of liquids every day. Fluids help muscles to contract and relax so as to
keep muscle cells hydrated and less irritable
✓ Stretching muscles before and after you use any muscle for an extended period.
✓ Limit exercises that strain your muscles and cause cramps
✓ Avoid exercising immediately after eating
✓ Lower intake of food and drinks that contain caffeine such as coffee and chocolate
✓ Increasing calcium and potassium intake naturally by drinking milk and orange juice and
eating bananas