LOCOMOTION

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 LOCOMOTION
Locomotion is the movement of the
whole organism from one place to Structures used in locomotion are
another. referred to as limbs and they
Movement is the displacement of part include;
of the body of an organism. i) Wings
Forms or types of locomotion ii) Fins
✓By crawling iii) Legs
✓By walking iv) Arms
✓By flying v) Cilia
✓By creeping vi) Flagella
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vii) Pseudopodia
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An animal locomotes in order to;
✓ Look for food
Requirements for locomotion
✓ Search for mates
Locomotion requires the following.
✓ Avoid danger and
catastrophes. 1. Energy. This is obtained from respiration.
✓ Avoid competition with other 2. Skeleton. This is a rigid framework for
animals support and attachment of muscles.(Read and
make notes about the 3 types of skeletons i.e.
✓ Colonize new areas. definition, advantages and disadvantages)
3. Muscles. These contract and relax in order to
move the skeleton during locomotion.
4. Medium. This is the environment in which
the organism moves. The medium can be
water, land or air
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 LOCOMOTION IN MAMMALS
Mammals possess Endoskeleton on which muscles are attached.
The muscles pull on the skeleton to effect movement.
The skeleton is made up bone and cartilage.
Differences between bone and cartilage
Bone Cartilage
It is hard and compact due to hard ground This is soft and flexible with chondrin
tissue called collagen. ground tissue.
Contain nerves No nerves.
Contain blood vessels No blood vessels
This consists of calcium and phosphorous This has no salts
salts
Rate of growth is slow Growth rates are high.
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 Functions of mammalian skeleton
1) Support. The skeleton forms a rigid framework over which body
organs are suspended e.g. the lungs, heart, intestines, kidney,
bladder or else these organs would crush into one another and
hence make the body shapeless.
2) Locomotion. It provides surfaces for attachment of muscles to
allow movement.
3) Protects delicate organs of the body. Delicate parts of the body
are protected by the skeleton. The skull protects the brain, inner ear
and eyes. The vertebral column protects the spinal cord. The rib
cage protects the heart, lungs and all organs in the thoracic cavity.

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4). Stores calcium for usage in the body. Calcium is an element that is
added to cartilage to form bone. All bones contain calcium, which
makes them strong. When calcium is needed in other areas, it can be
obtained from the bones.

5). It is a site for manufacture of red blood cells and white blood
cells. These cells are made in bone marrows.

6). It is used in breathing. The rib cage adjusts the volume of the
thoracic cavity during breathing

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STRUCTURE OF THE MAMMALIAN SKELETON

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PARTS OF THE SKELETON
The skeleton consists of two major parts
1. Axial skeleton
2. The appendicular skeleton
AXIAL SKELETON
1. Skull
It is made of the brain box (cranium) and the upper jaw which together form the
upper part. A cranium is made up of several flattened bones joined together by
immovable joints called the suture joints. A cranium protects the brain, eyes
and inner ear.

2. Vertebral column
The vertebral column is made up of small bones called the vertebrae. Their
number varies from one organism to the other. They are joined to one another by
cartilage called inter vertebral disks which allow slight movement of the bark.
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 AXIAL SKELETON

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 Functions of the vertebral column
i) It protects the spinal cord and allows for emergence of the spinal nerves.
ii) It provides support to the head.
iii) The joint between atlas and the skull allows slight movement of the
head in a vertical plane.
iv) Transverse processes provide points of attachment of tendon muscles,
which straighten the back.
v) The caudal vertebrae form the tail.

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 Types of the vertebrae
The vertebrae include:
Type of vertebra Region of the vertebral Number in the human
column skeleton

Cervical vertebra Neck 7

Thoracic vertebra Thoracic region 12
Lumber vertebrae Abdomen 5
Sacral vertebrae Lower abdomen 5
Caudal vertebrae Tail 4
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 Functions of parts of the vertebrae
1) Centrum. This is the lower part of the vertebra with a thick
protective mass. It provides the main support of the backbone
and allows articulation with other vertebra.

2) Transverse processes. These are projections on the sides of the

neural arch. It provides surface for attachment of muscles. It
also helps to articulate with ribs in the thoracic vertebra.

3) Neural arch. It is the ring of bone above the vertebra. It forms a

bonny tube that protects the spinal cord.

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4). Neural spine. This is a pointed part or extension of the neural arch at
the dorsal part.

5). Neural canal. It is the central hole that provides passage for the
spinal cord.

6). Facets: for articulation with other vertebra and ribs for the thoracic
vertebrae

7). Vertebraterial canal: allows passage of the blood vessels

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 THE CERVICAL VERTEBRA
These are found in the neck region. They are seven in number.
Characteristics of the cervical vertebrae
1. They have a pair of canals (openings) in the neural arch called vertebral canals
through which the neck vessels pass.
2. Their transverse processes are flattened and divide into two to form cervical
ribs.
3. They have a short neural spine.
4. They have a large neural canal.
5. They have a small Centrum.
General functions of the cervical vertebrae
1. Supports the head region
2. Protects the blood vessels and the nerves that pass through them.
3. Support and protect the spinal cord.
4. Wednesday,
Provides attachments to muscles
June 26, 2024
of the head
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Drawing of the cervical Note: The first cervical vertebra is
vertebra (anterior) the atlas and the second is the axis.
1. Atlas vertebrae
(characteristics)
✓Has no centrum
✓Has very large neural canal
✓Has a flat broad transverse process
for muscle attachment
✓Has two large facets for
articulation with the skull base to
permit the nodding movements of
the head.
✓Has a small rigid neural spine.
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2. Axis
(characteristics)
✓Has a relatively small neural canal than the atlas.
✓Has a large flat centrum that projects forward to form odontoids process
that fixes in the neural canal of the atlas.
✓Has a small transverse process
✓Has two facets at the posterior part of the vertebrae called post
zygapophysis for articulation with the atlas.

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 THORACIC VERTEBRAE
These are found in the chest region (thorax)
Characteristics
1. It has a large Centrum for articulation
with ribs. Structure of the thoracic vertebra
2. It has a large neural canal. (anterior view)
3. It has a long neural spine which
projects upwards and backwards.
4. It has a pair of short transverse
processes.
5. It has a pair of facets for articulation
with other vertebra.
6. It has a large neural arch.
7. Has a pair of pre and post-
zygopophysis for articulation with
other vertebrae.
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 Adaptations to its functions
✓ Has a thick centrum to support upper body weight
✓ Has a long neural spine for attachment of thoracic muscles
✓ Have extra facets to articulate with the ribs
✓ Has a wide neural canal for accommodation of spinal cord.

Similarities between cervical and thoracic

✓ Both have a neural spine
✓ Both have a centrum
✓ Both have a neural canal
✓ Both have articulating facets
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 Differences
Cervical Thoracic
Short neural spine Long neural spine
Has vertebraterial canal Lacks vertebraterial canal
Has no notch Has a notch
Transverse process divided Transverse process not divided
LUMBAR VERTEBRA
These are found in the abdominal region. They provide the only support for the trunk in the
abdominal region. They are five in man.
Characteristics
1. They have long transverse processes facing forward for muscle attachment.
2. They have a broad neural spine.
3. Has a short flattened neural spine projecting forward
4. They have a large and thick Centrum than cervical and thoracic.
5. They have extra processes called metapophyses for muscle attachment of abdominal
organs.
6. Wednesday,
Has aJune prominent
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 Structure of the lumber vertebra (anterior view)

@
op

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 Adaptations to its functions
✓ Has a long and broad transverse process to increase surface area for
attachment to the abdominal muscles.
✓ Has a short and broad neural spine for the attachment of muscles.
✓ Has a wide and thick centrum to support weight of abdominal organs.
✓ Has a thick neural arch for protection of the spinal cord.

Similarities between lumbar and cervical vertebrae

✓ Both have neural spine
✓ Both have a transverse process
✓ Both have a centrum

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 Differences:
Lumbar Cervical
Long neural spine Short neural spine
Transverse process not divided Transverse process divided
Has no vertebraterial canals Has vertebraterial canals
ASSIGNMENT: compare and contrast the lumbar and the thoracic.
SACRAL VERTEBRAE
This consists of 5 vertebrae in man and 4 in rabbits. In adult man they fuse together
to form the sacrum that forms the base of the pelvis
Characteristics of the sacral vertebra
1. It has a narrow neural canal.
2. It has a small neural spine which is reduced to a small notch.
3. It has a large wing-like transverse process.
4. Each vertebra has a large Centrum.
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 CAUDAL VERTEBRAE
These decrease in size from the sacrum backwards and gradually lose
their transverse processes, neural spine and facets.
In man, the tail consists of four vertebrae called coccyx that do not
protrude from the body.
Characteristics:
i) Have no neural arch
ii) Have no neural canal
iii) Have no transverse process
iv) Have no neural spine
v) There entire body consists of the centrum only.

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 @ OP-25
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 APPENDICULAR SKELETON
This is the skeleton of limbs and limb girdles.
There are four limbs and two girdles. i.e. pectoral girdle (shoulder),
pelvic girdle (hip)
Functions of the limb girdles
1. It provides a connection between the Axil and the appendicular
skeleton.
2. It provides stability of the body by separating limbs.
3. It provides a suitable surface for attachment of muscles that
move the limb.
The pelvic girdle
It is made up of bone on either sides namely; Ilium, Ischium and
Pubis.
The three bones are fused so tightly that their joints can’t easily be
observed thus they are collectively known as nominate bones.
NOTE: Draw the Structure of pelvic girdle (biological science pg
631 fig. 18.10)
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 Functions of the parts
1. Acetabulum: It provides a surface where the head of the femur
articulates with the pelvic girdle.
2. Pubis symphisis: It joins the 2 pelvic girdles
3. Obturator foramen: It provides surface for attachment of muscles and
passage for some nerves and blood vessels.
The pectoral girdle
It consists of mainly;
1. The scapular (shoulder blade)
This is a flat triangular shaped bone. It’s anterior, with a hollow cavity called
the glenoid cavity which articulates with the head of a humerus.
A scapular ridge spine runs across the outer surface of where powerful
muscles are attached to.
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Note: DRAW the Structure of the scapular

2. Clavicle (colar bone)

It consists of a lot of bones attached to a ligament joining
the sternum to the end of the scapular ridge

LIMB BONES
✓The mammalian skeleton has limb bones; the fore and
hind limbs.
✓They are constructed with the same plan or arrangement
known as the pentadactyl plan.
✓The limb consists of an upper long bone followed by a
pair of long bones placed side by side and a set of small
bones.
✓In 3 rows five thin long bones and finally 5 digits
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 THE FORE LIMB
It consists of the upper arm, fore arm and the hand.
The upper arm consists of a long bone called the humerus.
The fore arm consists of the radius and ulna.
1. Humerus: it has a round head which articulates with a glenoid
cavity of scapular. Its lower end is grooved to articulate with the
radius and ulna.
2. Radius: it lies anterior to the ulna.
3. Ulna: it is longer than the radius at the elbow. It projects back ward
to form olecranon.
The tip of olecranon forms a joint with the humerus and so prevents the
joint from being straightened
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 HIND LIMB
It consists of the thigh, leg and the foot.
The leg is made up of the tibia and fibula.
1. Femur:
The proximal end is rounded to form the head which articulates with the
acetabulum of the pelvic girdle to form a ball and socket joint.
Near the head, there are three projections which are points for attachment of
some muscles.
At the distal (lower end) the femur has 2 rounded knobs which articulates
with the tibia.
NB: draw the Structure of the femur
2. Tibia: The proximal surface of the tibia is shaped into 2 shallow oval
hollows which fit the 2 rounded knobs of the femur.

3. Fibula: This is a small bone which lies outside to the tibia and it’s joined
to it at the distal end.
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 JOINTS
A joint is a place where two or more bones meet.
The bones are connected together by ligaments to allow movement.
Types of joints
Joints are classified according to the degree of movement into the following
categories.
1. Immovable joints: These are joints where no movement is possible for
example the joints in the skull (sutures).
2. Movable joints: These are joints, which allow some degree of movement.
They are also called synovial joints. The movable joints are further divided
into the following types.
i) Sliding joints. These are joints, which allow bones to slide over one another
for example in the wrist and ankle.
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ii) Pivot joints.
These allow rotation of one bone over the other for example between the axis
and atlas of the vertebral column.
iii) Saddle joints:
it allows twisting movements i.e. rotation of each bone between 2 axis e.g.
the radius and ulna.
iv) Hinge joint.
This allows movement in one plane for example in the elbow of the hand, in
the knee, fingers and between the jaw and skull.
v) Ball and socket joint:
this allows movement in all directions. The hip and shoulder joints are ball
and socket joints.

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 Structure of a hinge joint at the knee

Structure of ball and socket joint at the shoulder

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 Parts of the joint
1. Ligament. This is a tissue that connects a bone to another bone.
2. Tendon. This is a tissue that connects a muscle to a bone.
3. Cartilage. This is a tissue that encloses the ends of bones at the joints.
It prevents articulating bones from wearing out due to friction. It also
acts as a shock absorber.
4. Synovial cavity. This is located between two surfaces of articulating
cartilage. It is surrounded by a synovial membrane that encloses the
synovial fluid.
5. Synovial fluid. This acts as a lubricant during movement. Damage of a
joint causes excess synovial fluid to be formed and the synovial cavity
bulges causing a swelling in the joint.

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 MUSCLES
Muscles are bundles of elongated cells enclosed in a sheath of
connective tissue.
When stimulated, the muscles contract to shorten e.g. during
locomotion or peristalsis.

NOTE: Most muscle cells are arranged in pairs where one moves in
opposite direction to the other. When one contracts, the other relaxes.
These muscles contract antagonistically.

Types of muscles
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 Smooth muscle/involuntary muscle.
This has spindle shaped cells held
together by connective tissue.
They are called involuntary muscles
because the individual cannot have
conscious control over them.
The cells have one nucleus each. This
muscle is located in the alimentally
canal, reproductive organs, among
other areas.

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 Cardiac muscle.
This is located in the walls of the
heart.
The cardiac muscle contracts without
fatigue and its contractions are not
initiated by the nervous system.
Their contractions are described as
myogenic that is the contractions
arise from the heart muscle itself.
The cardiac muscle has striations
(strips).
One cardiac muscle is connected to
another via a strip of cartilage called
intercalated disc
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 The skeletal muscle.
This consists of elongated cylindrical and
striated (striped) cells.
It is attached to the skeleton by tendons
and is responsible for voluntary
movements.
The cells occur in bundles surrounded by
a connective tissue.
Many bundles are enclosed by a tough
connective tissue to form muscles such as
biceps and triceps.
The cells in the skeletal muscle are made
up of more than one nucleus that is they
are multinucleated.
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 Movement of the arm at the elbow
The contraction of the biceps
(flexor) muscle pulls the radius,
• which causes the arm to be
raised.
This causes the elbow to bend
(flex) hence the bending of the
whole arm.
When the triceps (extensor)
muscle contracts, it pulls the
ulna thus straightening the arm.

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 Muscle cramps
These are painful, involuntary contractions of muscles.
Causes
The exact cause of muscle cramp is not known, but risk factors may include;
1. Tight, inflexible muscles
2. Poor physical condition
3. Poor muscle tone
4. Inadequate diet
5. Muscle injury
6. Muscle fatigue
7. Dehydration
8. Wearing high-heeled shoes for long periods
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 Effects
✓They are often associated with muscle strain, but they can also be a
sign of medical conditions e.g. circulation problems and liver disease.

✓Muscle cramps can interfere with your daily activities.

✓Because they often happen at night, they can affect your sleep. As a
result, they may reduce your quality of life.

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 Prevention strategies
1. Increase your level of physical fitness
2. Incorporate regular stretching into your fitness routine
3. Drink plenty of water before, during and after exercise
4. Regular massage to reduce muscle tension
5. Wear properly fitted shoes and avoid high heels
6. Include fruits and vegetables in your diet

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.
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END
BIOLOGY IS LIFE
SLIDES PREPARED BY TR.
PETER L OKION
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