ELECTRICAL MACHINE II Notes

Dr. Tapas Kumar Panigrahi

IIIT Bhubaneswar

MODULE- V 10 HR
Constructional features, cylindrical rotor synchronous
machine - generated EMF, equivalent circuit and phasor
diagram, armature reaction, synchronous impedance,
voltage regulation. Operating characteristics of synchronous
machines, V-curves. Salient pole machine – two reaction
theory, analysis of phasor diagram, power angle
characteristics. Parallel operation of alternators -
synchronization and load division.

Synchronous Machine:
In an ac m/c in which the rotor moves at a speed, which bears a constant
relationship to the frequency of current in armature winding.
120 * f
NS   Synch Speed
P
P  No of Poles, f  freqin Hz
MAIN PARTS:
The main parts are Stator & Rotor. Armature winding is placed on the
stator slots. Rotor carries the field poles. The field winding is supplied from a
low voltage (110 V to 600 V) DC supply to produce the necessary flux.
 When the rotor is rotated by a prime-mover, the m/c work as a generator.
The same m/c will work as a motor, when 3-ph vol is applied to the arm winding
placed on the stator slots.
The construction of synch alternator depends on type of prime mover
used to rotate the rotor.
1. Turbo Alternator – (High Speed)- Thermal or Nuclear Power Plant
(Non-Salient/ Cylindrical Rotor)

2. Salient-Pole Alternator – (Low Speed) – Hydel Power Plant (Salient/

Projected pole Rotor)
Hydro Turbines are classified on the basis of water head available in the
Dam.
a. Kaplan Turbine – Water Head upto 50 meter
b. Francis Turbine - Water Head upto 380 meter
c. Pelton Turbine - Water Head more than 380 meter

3. Diesel Generator - Low Rating Synch M/C

CONSTRUCTION:
Construction is same for motor & alternator.

Alternator - Basic principle of Alternator - Synchronous Generator.mp4

3 Phase AC Motor Working Principle.mp4

 How does an Alternator Work _.mp4 ---Working of Synchronous Motor - YouTube.mp4

---How Electric Motors are made_2.mp4

[A] STATOR:
Alternator coil & core is placed inside the outer frame i.e. stator. The arm
core is build up of laminations of special mag iron or steel alloy. The core is
laminated to reduce eddy cur loss. The laminations are insulated from each
other. Air-ducts are provided in the core for cooling purposes.
For large synch m/c, 3-ph windings are made on stator slots. The three
windings are wound for a particular no of poles, depending upon the types of
Prime-mover used to drive the rotor. The 3-ph windings are insulated from each
other & displaced in space at an angle of 1200.
The 3-ph windings are distributed uniformly in space for following
advantages.
1. Better heat dissipation (I2R)loss in arm).
2. Sinusoidal waveform of emf.

The windings may be connected in Wave, Lap or Spiral.

 The windings may be again wound for single layer or double layer. When
the windings is made with coil-span less than full-pitch, the winding is called
Fractional-Pitch Coil.
ADVANTAGES OF FRACTIONAL PITCH WINDING:
1. The emf waveform is more towards a Sin Wave.
2. Weight of copper is less as length of wire needed is less.
DIS-ADVANTAGES of Fractional Pitch Coils:
Magnitude of induced emf is less.

Short-pitch windings are usually 2-layer Lap-wound.

ADVANTAGES OF STATIONARY ARMATURE & ROTATING FIELD:

1. EASE OF CONSTRUCTION:

In a 3-ph synch m/c, arm-winding is more complex than field- winding.

The coil phase connections including insulation bracing of the winding, can
be done easily & securely on a stationary armature.
2. Less no of Slip-Rings required.

Three Slip-rings required for rotating armature. It is difficult to insulate slip-

rings from rotating shaft for high-voltage. The distance between the slip-rings
should be sufficiently large to prevent flash-over.
While only 2 Slip-rings of much smaller size are required to supply
excitation current to the rotating field winding, as power required for field exc.
Is much less & supplied at a low voltage.
3. BETTER INSULATION TO ARMATURE:

It is easier insulate arm winding from core, if the windings are placed
in the stator, instead of rotor.
4. REDUCED ROTOR WEIGHT & INERTIA:

Arm winding is much heavier than field- winding. So with rotating field,
the rotor will take much less time to attain rated speed.
So all large synch m/c are having stationary arm winding & rotating field
winding.

B. ROTOR:
 Depending upon the type of prime-mover used, the rotors are of 2-
types.
1. Cylindrical/non-salient type
2. Salient/projected pole type.

1. Salient-Pole Alternator:
Alternators driven at low speed by prime-movers like Hydro-turbines
have Salient-pole rotors. They are built with a vertical shaft & projected pole.
They have large inertia. Salient-pole rotors have small axial length.
Salient-pole alternators are generally provided with Damper-windings on
the rotor to damp rotor oscillations, during transient conditions and for
operation under un-balanced load conditions. The damper-windings are
placed in the slots on the pole-shoes.
2. Cylindrical-Pole Alternator:
 This construction is used for turbo/high-speed alternators used in
Thermal/ Nuclear Power stations. This type of rotor is having small diameter
& large axial-length.
Either stator slots or poles are skewed to reduce harmful tooth ripple.
To reduce centrifugal force at high speed, the rotor diameter D is kept small.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION:
1. SYNCHRONOUS ALTERNATOR:
The field-winding in a rotor is supplied by a dc source. When the rotor
rotates , the armature conductors are cut by rotating mag flux. So emf is
induced in the arm coil. Since mag poles are alternately N & S, an ac emf is
produced in the stator, whose freq depends on no of poles moving past a
conductor in one second, whose direction is given by Flemming’s right hand
rule.
2. SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR:
When a 3-ph supply is given to a 3-ph winding distributed in space, a
mag field of constant magnitude & rotating at a constant speed Ns= 120 f/P
is produced.
The rotating field can be thought of as a north-south pole pair, rotating
synchronously in space. Fig shows 2 fictitious stator poles Ns& Ss assumed to
rotate clockwise at synchronous speed Ns.

With the rotor position as in Fig [A], the two similar poles N & Ns as
well as S & Ss repel each other, so the rotor experience anti clock-wise
torque.
But half-cycle later, stator poles interchange their position as Fig [B]. The
rotor has not rotated much because of its inertia. So now there is an
attraction force between the stator & rotor poles. So the rotor tends to
rotate clock-wise. So the rotor is subjected to a rapidly alternating torque. So
the rotor does not rotate, owing to its large inertia.
Now suppose, as in Fig [C], the rotor also rotates near to sy speed. So by
the time stator poles interchange their position, the rotor poles also
interchange their position, resulting in unidirectional torque, converting el
energy to mech energy.
So 3-ph synch motor is not a self-starting motor. But once the motor is
started, the stator & rotor poles are magnetically locked with each other. So
a synch motor always runs at synch speed or not at all.
 STARTING OF SYNCH MOTOR:
3-ph supply is given to the stator winding. The rotor is speeded up to
nearly synch speed, by some means (induction principle using aux winding,
Prime mover, separate motor AC/DC). Then the DC excitation is supplied to
the field. Now the magnetic locking between stator & rotor poles takes place
(Pull into synchronism). Now the rotor rotates at synch speed in the same
direction as rotating stator field.

ALTERNATOR EMF EQUATION:

T= no of turnf of coil in series/ phase
ɸ=flux/ pole in weber
P= no of poles
N= rotor speed in rpm
Mag flux cut by a conductor in one revolution of rotor poles= P ɸ weber
Time taken to make one rev=60/ N
p * pN p 120 f
Flux cut/ second by a conductor=   *  2f
60 60 60 P
N

Total no of cond/ph=2T

Av emf induced/ph= 2 f * 2T  4 fT
E rms  E av * form factor  4 fT *1.11  4.44 f T Volt

Actual available voltage/ph=4.44 Kc Kd f ɸ T Volt

Kc=coil span factor
Kd=Distribution Factor
COIL SPAN FACTOR:
Kc=coil span factor = cos (nα/2)
N= harmonic order
α= short-pitch angle
A coil having a span less than 1800, is called short-pitch coil. If coil span is
reduced by an angle , the coil span is (180-α). The phasor sum of Ec1 & Ec2
is Ec.
Phasor sum of vol of two coil sides
Kc 
Arithmatic sum of vol of two coil side
AC 2 AD AD 
    Cos
2 AB 2 AB AB 2
DISTRIBUTION FACTOR Kd :
Practically, coils are not concentrated in a single slot, but are distributed
in a no of slots in space.
phasor sum of coil vol / phase
Kd 
Arithmatic sum of coil vol / phase
Let m= slots/pole/phase
β= Angular displacement between adjacent slots in Elec degree

180 0
 
slots / pole
Sin ( n * m / 2)
Kd 
m Sin ( n *  / 2)
n= nth harmonic
If fundamental freq is f, the freq of nth harmonic is fn=n*f
Ex:1 A 3-ph 25 Hz star connected alt has 12 poles. Arm
has 180 slots, having a 2-layer winding with 4
conductor/slot. All cond are in series. Flux/pole is 5&107
lines. The coil throw is 12 slots. Find the emf induced/ph
& terminal voltage.
Sol: T=180*4/3*2=120, f=25, ɸ=0.5 Wb (as 1wb=108
lines or Maxwells)
Pole pitch=slots/pole=180/12= 15 slots
Coil span is lesser by 15-12= 3 slots
1800 180
Slot angle     12
slots / pole 15

So α = 3*12= 360
Kc=Cos (α/2)= Cos 18= 0,951
m= slots/pole/ph=180/12/3= 5
m=5
Sin ( m / 2) Sin ( m / 2)
Kd  
m Sin (  / 2) m Sin (  / 2)
Sin (5 * 12 / 2) Sin 300
  0
 0.9566
5 Sin (12 / 2) 5 Sin 6
Eph= 4.44 Kc Kd f ɸ T
=4.44* 0.951*0.9566*25 *0.5*120
=6058.78 volt

E Line  3 * E ph  3 * 6058 .78  10493 .8 volt

AIM OF EXPERIMENT: 2
TO FIND REGULATION OF 3-PHASE ALTERNATOR BY POTIER / ZPF METHOD:
(AT FULL-LOAD, 0.8 PF LAG, U.P.F, 0.8 PF LEAD)
APPARATURS REQUIRED:
SL.NO Name of the Apparatus Type Range Quantity
1 Ammeter MC 1
2 Ammeter MI 1
3 Voltmeter MC 1
4 Voltmeter MI 1
5 Rheostat Wire wound 1
6 Rheostat Wire wound 1
7 Tachometer Digital 1
---
8 TPST knife switch - - 1
- -
THEORY:

This method is more accurate than EMF (SY IMP METHOD) or MMF
method. In Potier method, the leakage reactance drop & the mmf required for
overcoming the Armature reaction can be determined.

The data required for this method are,

i. OCC ii. SCC iii. ZPFC, iv. Ra

 ZPF char is a relation between terminal vol &
excitation, when arm is delivering full-load cur at
ZPF lagging.
The ZPF lagging char can be obtained by,

1. By loading the Alt with pure reactors (inductive load)

2. By connecting the Alt to a 3-ph line, with ammeters & watt-meters.
3. By adjusting field current, so that we get full-load arm current, with
zero wattmeter reading.

PROCEDURE:
To plot ZPFC, point P & B are only needed.

1. Point P corresponds to a field cur, which gives

the rated terminal voltage, while ZPF load is
adjusted to draw F.l. current.
2. Point B obtained from a short-ckt test (S.C.C.)
with F.L. arm current.

OB= field-cur which is equal & opposite to

de-mag arm reaction. It balances leakage reactance
drop at full-load.

3. From P draw PQ equal & parallel to OB.

4. From Q, draw a parallel line to air-gap line. It

cuts OCC at R.

5. Join RP.

6. Draw RS perpendicular to PQ.

7. The triangle PSR is known as Potier-triangle.

8. Other points on ZPFC such as P’, P” can be

located by sliding the triangle PQR, parallel to
itself, so that point R remains on the OCC.

RS=drop in vol due to arm leakage reactance.

RS=IXl
Xl=RS/ I = Potier Reactance.

SP= field-cur necessary to overcome de-mag

effect of arm reaction at full-load.
 SQ= field cur required to balance arm leakage
reactance drop RS.

CALCULATION:
1. XL=RS/ I = Potier Reactance

EL  (V Cos   IRa ) 2  (V Sin   IX L ) 2

2. Compute
where IX L  RS from Potier triangle

3. Find field-cur IFL correspond to EL from OCC

4. IFA =PS from potier triangle= field-cur req to

overcome arm reaction.

5. Now

I F O  I 2 F L  I 2 F A  2 I F L * I F ACos(90   )

6. From OCC, find E0 , correspond to IF0.

7. Find % Reg=[(E0-V)/V] * 100

PHASOR DIAGRAM POTIER METHOD:

RESULTS:
The Potier Reactance of 3-ph alternator is found to be ………..
The Full-Load voltage regulation of the 3-ph alternator is,

1. At UPF……………
2. At 0.8 p.f. Lagging…………..
3. At o.8 p.f. Leading…………….
PRECAUTION:

(i) The motor field rheostat should be kept in the minimum

resistance position.
(ii) The Alternator field potential divider should be in the position
of minimum potential.
(iii) Initially all switches are in open position.
ALTERNATOR ON LOAD:

As the load on the alternator is varied, its terminal

vol is also found to vary as in DC Gen.
This variation in terminal vol V is due to following
reasons,
1. Vol drop due to arm res, Ia Ra drop.

2. Vol drop due to arm leakage reactance XL, Ia XL drop

3. Vol drop due to arm reaction.

1. IRa drop: This drop is practically negligible.

2. IXL drop: When cur flows through arm conductors,

fluxes are set-up which do not cross the air-gap, but
takes diff paths. Such fluxes are known as “Leakage
Fluxes”. This leakage flux set-up an emf of self-
inductance which is known as “Reactance EMF”,
which is ahead of I by 900. So arm winding is
assumed to possess leakage reactance XL (also
known as Potier Reactance).
 3. Armature Reaction: Effect of arm flux on Main-flux.
In case of Alternator, the p.f. of the load has
considerable effect on arm-reaction.
In a 3-ph synch m/c, the combined ampere-turn or mmf is
sinusoidal, which moves synchronously. The mmf wave is fixed
relative to the poles, its amplitude is proportional to the load-
current, but its position depends on p.f. of load.
1. Unity Power Factor:
Armature flux is cross-magnetizing. Armature
reaction for UPF is distortional.
2. ZPF Lagging:
Arm reaction is wholly de-magnetizing. So it
Weakens the main flux, so less emf generated.
3. ZPF Leading:
Arm reaction is wholly magnetizing, which results in
greater induced emf.
4. For intermediate power factor, the effect is partly
distortional & partly de-magnetizing.
Synchronous Reactance and Synchronous
Impedance
The Synchronous Reactance (XS) is the imaginary reactance
employed to account for the voltage effects in the armature
circuit produced by the actual armature leakage reactance and by
the change in the air gap flux caused by the armature reaction.

Similarly, the Synchronous Impedance ZS is a fictitious

impedance employed to account for the voltage effects in the
armature circuit produced by the actual armature resistance, the
actual armature leakage reactance and the change in the air gap
flux produced by the armature reaction.

The actual generated voltage consists of the summation of the

two component voltages. One of these component voltages that
would be generated if there were no armature reaction. It is the
voltage that would be generated because of only the field
excitation. This component of the generated voltage is called the
Excitation Voltage (Eexc).
The other component of the generated voltage is known as the
Armature Reaction Voltage (EAR). Thus, the two voltages that
are the armature reaction voltage and the excitation voltage are
added to keep a check on the effect of armature reaction upon
the generated voltage. The equation is shown below.

The Inductive Reactance XAR is a fictitious reactance. As a

result a voltage is generated in the armature circuit. Therefore,
armature reaction voltage can be modeled as an inductor in
series with the internally generated voltage.

In addition to the effects of armature reaction, the stator winding

also has a self-inductance and resistance.
Let,

 La is the self-inductance of the stator winding

 Xa is the self-inductive reactance of stator winding
 Ra is the armature stator resistance.

The terminal voltage V is given by the equation shown below.

Where,

 RaIa is the armature resistance drop

 XaIa is the armature leakage reactance drop
 XARIa is the armature reaction voltage

The armature reaction effects and the leakage flux effects on the
machine are both represented by inductive reactance. Therefore, all these
combine to form a single reactance called Synchronous Reactance of
the machine XS.
Therefore,

Where,

The impedance ZS in the above equation (7) is the

Synchronous Impedance, and XS is the Synchronous
Reactance.
SYNCHRONIZATION OF ALTERNATORS: (PARALLEL
OPERATION)
The process of connecting two alternators or an alternator
and an infinite bus bar system in parallel is known as
synchronization.
Why Synchronization Required?

Reliability
Several small units are more reliable than single large unit. This is
because, if one alternator is failed, other alternators are still active
and hence the whole system will not be shutdown.
Continuity of Service
In case of periodic maintenance, break-down or repairs of one
alternator, it must be shutdown and removed from service. Since
the other machines are operating in parallel, the interruption to
supply the load is prevented.
Load Requirements
The load requirements in the central station changes
continuously. During light-load periods, only one or two
generators are operated to supply the load demands. During
peak-load demands, additional alternators are connected in
parallel to meet the demand.
High Efficiency
Generators run most efficiently when they are loaded at their
rated values. Due to the operation of few generators at light-loads
and more generators at high peak loads efficiently loads the
generators.
Expanded Capacity
As the demand for electric power is increasing continuously, utility
companies have been increasing the physical size of the
generating plants by adding more alternators. So, these
alternators have to be connected in parallel with the existing
generator equipment.

What are the methods of synchronization of alternator?

The two methods of synchronizing an alternator are..

All Dark Lamp method

Two bright and one dark lamp method.

2 Bright 1 Dark Lamp Method
In this method, the lamp connections are made as shown in Figure. One
lamp is directly connected across R - R' and the other two are cross-
connected. The proper instant of synchronizing will be when the alternator
voltage phasors and bus-bar voltage phasors are in phase. At this instant,
lamp connected across R-R' will receive zero voltages and will be dark. The
lamps across Y-B1, and across BY ' will receive large and equal voltages
and will glow equally bright. This is the proper instant of synchronizing. But
when alternator voltages phasors are not in phase with the bus bar voltage
phasors the three lamps will glow with unequal brightness. The speed the
prime-mover is adjusted for obtaining the correct instant.
All Dark Lamp Method
When voltages are equal and the frequencies of alternator B and Bus is the same and the
phase sequence of both is correct then the voltage across three lamps will be zero. Hence
lamps are completely dark and this is the right time to close synchronizing switch.

Conditions to be fulfilled for Synchronization:

i) The terminal voltage of the incoming machine must be same as that of bus
bar voltage.

ii) The frequency must be same as that of the incoming machine as well as that
of the bus bar. This necessitates that speed must be properly adjusted (f =
PN/120).

iii) Phase sequence for the two voltages must be same with respect to the
external load.

Synchoroscope method.

SYNCRONOSCOPE:

A syncronoscope determine the period of synchronization more accurately than

lamp methods. It consists of a rotor (moving coil) & a stator (fixed coil), one of
which is connected to i/c m/c and the other to bus-bar. A pointer is connected to
the rotor. The pointer will rotate if there is a difference in freq. Pointer is
stationary, when both side freq are equal. At this point synchronization is done.
Synchronization Power:

EXPLANATION:
When 2 similar alts having equal gen vol are (E1 & E2) are in phase
opposition in local ckt (Fig A & B). So there is no circulating current in local ckt. E1
& E2 are in same phase w.r.t. external ckt.
Now suppose, due to change in speed of governor of 2nd m/c, E2 falls back
by an load-angle δ (Load on m/c-2 increases), (Fig C). Now Er is the resultant
voltage. So now there is a local current known as Synchronization current Isy.

Er
I SY  , Zs = Synch Impedance of each m/c= Ra + j Xs
2 ZS
Isy lags behind Er by an angle θ.
 2 Xs
tan 
2 Ra
Since Ra is very small, θ = 900.
So Isy lags behind Er by 900.
So ɸ1 is very less.
Now m/c-1 is in generating mode, as Isy is in phase with E1 & m/c -2 is in
motoring mode, as Isy is anti-phase with E2.
So this cur Isy, set-up a synchronizing torque, which tends to retard the
generating m/c-1 & accelerate the motoring m/c-2.
Similarly, if E2 tends to advance in phase (Load on m/c-2 decreases), then Isy (Fig-
d) is in phase with m/c-2 & anti-phase with E1. So it will set-up a synch torque,
which will retard m/c-2 & accelerate m/c-1.
Hence any departure from synchronism results in the production of
synchronizing current Isy & set-up a synchronizing torque to maintain
synchronism between the two machines in parallel.

DERIVATION:
Consider Fig C, m/c-1 is in Gen mode & supplying synchronizing power
Psy=E1 Isy Cos ɸ1
As ɸ1 is very small, Cos ɸ1 =1 (As θ1 = 900, ɸ=90-θ1=very small)
So Psy=E1 Isy
Psy supply,
1. Power i/p to m/c-2 (motoring)
2. I2R (cu loss) in local arm ckt.
So Psy=E1 Isy= E2 Isy Cos φ2 + I2R
Now E1= E2= E, as they are operating in parallel.
Er= 2 E Cos[(180-δ)/2)]= 2 E Cos (90-δ/2)= 2 E Sin (δ/2)
= 2 E *(δ/2), as δ is very small
Er= E δ, where δ is in electrical radian. Δ el= δ mech* P/2 deg
Er Er
Isy   ( Ra neglected)
2 Zs 2 Xs
Er E
Psy  E1 Isy  E E
2 Xs 2 Xs
 E2
 Psy ph 
2 Xs
3 E 2
3   synch power  3 * Psy ph 
2 Xs

This is the synch power when 2 alts are operating in parallel & are on no-load.

ALTERNATOR CONNECTED TO INFINITE BUS-BAR:

In this case, synchronous Impedance of only one alternator is
considered, as Xs for infinite bus-bar is very small.
Er= E δ
Er Er
Isy   ( Ra neglected)
Zs Xs
Er E
Psy  E1 Isy  E E
Xs Xs
 E2
 Psy ph 
Xs
3 E 2
3   synch power  3 * Psy ph 
Xs
 SYNCHRONIZING TORQUE Tsy :
1. Two alternator in parallel

Psy  Tsy * 
E 2
Psy 2 Xs N  M
 Tsy Ph  
2Ns 2Ns
60 60
So Total torque due to 3   is,
3E 2 3E 2
 Tsy 3 Ph  2 Xs N  M  9.55 * 2 Xs N  M
2Ns NS
60
2. Alternator connected to Infinite Bus-bar

E 2
Psy Xs N  M
Tsy Ph  
2Ns 2Ns
60 60
So Total torque due to 3   is,
3E 2 3E 2
 Tsy 3 Ph  Xs N  M  9.55 * Xs N  M
2Ns NS
60

Effect of Load on Synchronizing Power:

3 EV
3   synch power  3 * Psy ph 
Xs
E  (V Cos  IRa ) 2  (V Sin  IXs) 2
Prob:1
A 300 KVA, 6-pole alt runs at 1000 rpm in parallel with other machines on
3300 volt bus-bar. The synch reactance is 20 %. Calculate synch power for 10
mech displacement & corresponding synch torque.
Solun:
3300
Vph   1905V
3
300 * 103 KVA
I FL   52.488 A 
3 * 3300 3 * VL
IX S  20% of Vph  0.2 * 1905
0.2 * 1905
XS   7.259 
52.488
3 E 2 P 6  
Psy  ,  el   m *  1 *  30 elec  3 *  el rad
XS 2 2 180 60
 19052
 Psy  3 * *  784.9 Kw
60 0.7259
Psy Psy 784.9 *103
Tsy   9.55 *  9.55 *
2N S Ns 1000
60
Tsy  7495.7 N  m
Prob 2: A 750 kva, 11 kv, 4-pole, 3-ph, star-connected Alternator has %
resistance & reactance of 1 & 14 respectively. Calculate the synch power/mech
degree of displacement at i. no-load, ii. F.L at 0.8 p.f. lag. Terminal Vol=11 kv.
Solun:
IFL= 40 Amp
Vph=6351 volt
IRa= 1 % 0f 6351= 63.51 v
Ra= 63.51/40 =1.588 Ω
IXs=14 % 0f 6351= 889.14 v
Xs= 889.14/40 = 22.2 Ω
So Zs2= 1.5882+22.22
Zs= 22.26 Ω
i. No-Load
δ= 10 mech= 1*4/2=20 el= 2*π/180=π/90 el rad

3 E 2 3 *  * 63512
Psy    189.66 kw
Zs 90 * 22.26
ii. FL at 0.8 p.f. Lag

3 EV
Psy 
Zs
E  (V Cos  IRa )2  (V Sin  IXs )2 = 6967.89 v
Psy= 208.08 kw
PARALLEL OPERATION OF TWO ALTERNATORS:

V=I*Z=(I1+I2)*Z
E1=V+I1*Z1=(I1+I2)*Z+ I1*Z1= I1 (Z+Z1) + I2 Z…………..*1+
E2=V+I2*Z2=(I1+I2)*Z+ I2*Z2= I1 Z + I2 (Z+Z2)…………..*2+
USING CRAMER’S RULE
Z  Z1 Z I1 E
*  1
Z Z  Z2 I2 E2
E1 Z
E2 Z  Z2
 I1 
Z  Z1 Z
Z Z  Z2
E1 ( Z  Z 2 )  E 2 Z E1 Z  E1 Z 2  E 2 Z ( E  E 2 ) Z  E1 Z 2
 I1   2  1
( Z  Z1 )( Z  Z 2 )  Z 2
Z  ZZ 2  ZZ1  Z1 Z 2  Z 2
Z ( Z1  Z 2 )  Z1 Z 2

Similarly,
Z  Z1 E1
Z E2 ( E 2  E1 ) Z  E 2 Z 1
I2  
Z  Z1 Z Z ( Z1  Z 2 )  Z1 Z 2
Z Z  Z2
I=I1+I2
E1 Z 2  E 2 Z 1
I 
Z ( Z1  Z 2 )  Z1 Z 2
E1 Z 2  E 2 Z 1
V  IZ 
Z Z
( Z1  Z 2 )  1 2
Z
E1  V E V
I1  , I2  2
Z1 Z2
E1  E 2
IC   Local Circulating Current
Z1  Z 2
LOAD SHARING:
[A]. EFFECT OF CHANGE IN EXCITATION:

Suppose m/c-I & II are operating in parallel & are identical.

So each alternator supply half of active load (KW) & half of reactive load
(KVAR), as in Fig-A.
 Now suppose, excitation of m/c-I is increased, E1 become more than E2. So
a circulating current IC is produced in local ckt.

E1  E2
IC 
2Z S
Now Ic is vectorially added with I1 & subtracted from I2. The 2 m/c now deliver
load current I1 & I2 at respective power factors Cos φ1 & Cos φ2.
φ1 is increased as I1 is increased. So Cos φ1 is decreased. φ2 is decreased as I2 is
decreased. So Cos φ2 is increased.
So KW sharing remain same, but KVAR1 supplied by m/c-I increases & KVAR2
supplied by m/c-II decreases.
B. EFFECT OF CHANGE IN STEAM SUPPLY OR GOVERNOR INPUT:

If keeping excitation constant, steam supply to m/c-I is increased, m/c-I

share more active KW power than m/c-II. Speed can’t change, as both alternators
are operating in parallel. So m/c-I utilizes its increased input to share larger part
of the load. This is done by advancing the E2 by an angle δ.
So resultant voltage Er produces synchcurrent Isy which is in phase with E1 & anti-
phase with E2.
So power/ph for m/c-I is increased by E1 Isy, where for m/c II is decreased by same
amount.
Since Isy has no appreciable reactive component, the increase in system
supply doesn’t disturb reactive power sharing. But m/c-I share more KW power
than m/c-II. So alternators share the total load in proportional to the system input
at different power factors.
Prob: Two identical 3-ph alternators work in parallel & supply total load of 1500
kw at 11 kv, at p.f. 0.9 lag. Synch reactance of each m/c is 40 Ω/ph, Ra= 2 Ω/ph.
The field excitation of m/c-I is adjusted so that its arm cur is 48 Amp lag.
Find arm cur of 2nd alternator & generating voltage of 1st m/c.
Solun:

KW * 103  3 VL I L Cos 
1500 * 10 3
 IL   87.48 A
3 * 11000 * 0.9
I Cos ɸ=87.48*0.9= 78.7 A= active component of current
I Sin ɸ=87.48*0.43=38.14 A Reactive
Initially each alt supply half i.e. 87.48/2 =43.74 A
Vph= 6351 volt
Ia of m/c-I changes from 43.74 A to 48 A.
Since steam input is not changed, active component of each m/c will remain
constant= 78.7/2 = 39.35 A

Reactive component of m/c-I= 48 2  29.35 2  27 .48 A

Reactive component of m/c-2= 38.14-27.48= 10.66 Amp

Ia2 of 2nd alt= 39 .35 2  10 .66 2  40 .76 A

 39.35
Cos 1   0.819, Sin 1  0.572
48

Gen vol of 1st m/c is

E (V Cos1  Ia1 Ra ) 2  (V Sin1  Ia1 Xs ) 2

 (6351 * 0.819  48 * 2) 2  (6351 * 0.572  48 * 40 ) 2

Eph= 7678 volt

E Line m / c  I  3 * 7678  13,298 Volt

Eline m/c-I=
 13.298 KV
Prob: Two alt A & B operate in parallel & supply 10 MW at 0.8 p.f. Lag. By
adjusting steam supply of alt-A, its power output is adjusted to 6000 kw & by
changing its excitation its p.f. is adjusted to 0.92 lag.
Find p.f. of alt-B.
Solun:

Fig-1: Total Load= 10 MW=10000 kw

Initially alt-A share 5000 kw, Cos φ=0.8, φ1=36.860,
Alt-B share 5000 kw
tan φ=tan 36.86=KVAR/KW=KVAR/10000
or Total KVAR=7500
KVAR shared by alt-A=7500/2=3750 kvar
KVAR shared by alt-B=7500/2=3750 kvar
Fig-2:
m/c-A Cos φ1=0.92, φ1=23.070, Sin φ1=0.392, KW1= 6000 kw
KVAR1= 6000 tan φ1=6000*tan 23.070= 2555.5
m/c-B KW2=10000-6000=4000 kw
KVAR2= KVAR-KVAR1= 7500-2555.5= 4944.5
tan φ2=KVAR2/KW2=4944.5/4000=1.236
Cos φ2=0.6289 lag
PARALLEL GENERATOR THEOREM:
The terminal vol may be expressed in terms of short ckt currents of the two
alternator.

V=I*Z= (I1+I2)*Z
E1  V E 2  V
V  (  )*Z
Z1 Z2
E1 E 2 1 1
(  ) * Z V * Z *(  )
Z1 Z 2 Z1 Z 2
1 1
V V * Z *(  )
E1 E 2 Z1 Z 2 V V V
     
Z1 Z 2 Z Z Z1 Z 2
1 1 1 V
 I SC  I SC1  I SC 2  V (   )
Z Z1 Z 2 Z0
1 1 1 1
 (   )
Z0 Z Z1 Z 2
V  I SC * Z 0
Prob: Two 50 MVA, 3-ph, alt operate in parallel. The rise in speed of governor
from full-load to no-load is 2 % in one m/c & 3 % in other m/c. The characteristic
is straight line.
If each m/c is fully loaded, when the total load is 80 MW. What would be the
load in each m/c, when total load is 50 MW?
Solun:
CD=CE+ED=50 MW
AB=80 MW=Total load when 2 m/c equal rating m/c loaded fully.
So each m/c share 40 MW initially.
But their governor characteristic is different, as shown.
AP 40
 in   ALM
x 3
40
AP  *x
3
40
CE  40  AP  40  *x
3
40
ED  40  BQ  40  *x
2
40 40
CD  CE  ED  40  * x  40  * x  50
3 2
40 40
 50  80  x * (  )
3 2
 x  0.9
40
Load Supplied by 1st m / c  ED  40  *x
2
Load Supplied by m / c  I  22 MW
Load Supplied by m / c  II  50  22  28 MW

Prob: Two similar alternator rated at 25 MW each run in parallel. Speed-Load

characteristics of driving turbines are such that, m/c-I drops from 50 Hz from no-
load to 48 Hz on full-load & m/c-II drops from 50 Hz to 47.5 Hz. How will the two
m/c share a load of 40 MW?
Solun:
As the two m/c are operationg in parallel, the freq of two m/c must be same at
any load.
Let BC = 40 MW=BD+CD , at a distance of x from A.
Δ ABD & Δ AEF
BD/x=25/2
BD = 12.5 x
CD/x=25/2.5
CD = 10 x
BC=BD+CD=40
10 x + 12.5 x = 40
X = 40/22.5
Load shared by alt-I = BD= 12.5*40/22.5= 22.22 MW
Load shared by alt-II= CD= 10 x= 17.78 MW
SALIENT POLE SYNCHRONOUS ALTERNATOR:

In case of Salient/projected pole synchronous m/c, the air-gap is not

uniform around the inner periphery of the armature. The air-gap is minimum
along the polar axis/d-axis & maximum along inter-polar axis/q-axis. Hence the
method of finding regulation of a cylindrical rotor m/c can’t be applied to salient-
pole m/c.
Blondel’s Two-Reaction Theory is applied to find the regulation of Salient-pole
type m/c.
Blondel’s Two-Reaction Theory:
According to this theory, two axes are recognized in the m/c are d-axis & q-axis
(which is 900 displaced from d-axis).
The arm mmf contains a quadrature (cross-magnetizing) and a direct (de-
magnetizing or magnetizing) component, which produce effects of different
kinds. The direct-component exerts de-magnetizing effect if Ѱ (angle between
E0 & I ) is an angle of lag and magnetizing effect if Ѱ is an angle of lead.
Two reactance are introduced.
Xd= direct axis synch reactance
Xq= quadrature axis synch reactance
Current can also be split up into components along these axis.

I Cos Ѱ is in phase with E0.

I Sin Ѱ is in quadrature with E0.
Both these components of arm reaction rotate at synch speed w.r.t arm
winding. These may be looked upon as a set of fictitious poles.
The set producing direct effect (de-mag or mag) is marked as Nd, Sd & is aligned
with main poles.
The set producing cross-mag effect is marked as Nq, Sq & lies mid-way between
main-poles.
The voltage vector diagram based on Two-Reaction Theory is shown.
E0  V  IaRa  I d X d  I q X q
Direct & q-axis reactance arise from fluxes, which have widely different paths. The
direct component of arm mmf acts on main magnetic ckt of m/c. The quad
component has a mag ckt largely through air-gaps and inner polar space. Hence
the q-axis synch reactance is smaller than the d-axis reactance. In non-salient
pole m/c Xd is nearly equal to Xq.
PHASOR DIAGRAM ANALYSIS:

In the phasor diagram, Ѱ=φ+δ is not known for a given V, I, and Cos φ. Since
the location of E0 is unknown , Id & Iq can not be found, which are needed to
draw the phasor diagram, This difficulty is overcome by establishing certain
geometric relation for the phasor.
AC is drawn at 900, to the current vector I & CB is drawn at 900 to E0.
Id = I Sin Ѱ, Iq = I Cos Ѱ
I= Iq /Cos Ѱ
In ∆ ABC, Cos Ѱ = BC/ AC= Iq Xq /AC
AC=Iq Xq/Cos Ѱ= I Xq
E0 can be drawn along OC, since point C is located.
In ∆ ODC,
Tan Ѱ = DC/ OD = (V Sin φ+ I Xq)/ (V Cos φ+ I Ra)

OC  (V Cos   IRa) 2  (V Sin   IXq ) 2

Angle < Ѱ can be now determined.

δ= Ѱ – φ
Now, E0 = V Cos δ + Iq Ra + Id Xd
Determination of Xd & Xq –SLIP TEST:

Xd & Xq of an Alternator can be determined from slip-test.

PROCEDURE:
1. Field ckt is kept open.
2. The m/c is driven very close to synchronous speed.
3. The speed of the m/c may be slightly more or slightly less than synchronous
speed.
4. The armature is supplied with 20 to 30 % of rated voltage, rated freq.

If the slip is sufficiently small, the pointers of the indicating meters will slowly
swing from a maximum to a minimum. This can be recorded in a CRO.
The voltage induced in the open field-winding is the result of varying flux
linked with it as the field-poles slip through the rotating armature field.
Max arm Vol
Xd  , Induced field vol is min imum
Minimum arm Current
Minimum arm Vol
Xq  , Induced field vol is max imum
Max arm Current
Analytical Method-Calculation of E0:
a. Lagging Power Factor

E0 = OC + CD

OC  (V Cos   IRa) 2  (V Sin   IXq ) 2 previously derived

CD= (I Xd- I Xq) Cos α = I *(Xd- Xq) Cos α
V Cos   IRa
tan  
V Sin   IXq

E0  (V Cos   IRa) 2  (V Sin   IXq ) 2  I ( Xd  Xq ) Cos 

b. Leading Power Factor:
E0 = OC - CD
OC  (V Cos   IRa) 2  (V Sin   IXq ) 2
CD= (I Xd- I Xq) Cos α = I *(Xd- Xq) Cos α
V Cos   IRa
tan  
V Sin   IXq =OB/ BC
E0  (V Cos  IRa)2  (V Sin   IXq) 2  I ( X d  X q ) Cos 
E0  V
% Re g  *100
V
E0 V lag p. f
E0  V Lead p. f
Problem: A 3-ɸ, 2000 kva, 2300 V, Y connected alt has Xd= 2 Ω/ph, Xq= 1.2
Ω/ph. It is supplying full-load at 0.8 p.f. lag. Find %reg. Ra is neglected.
Sol: Vph= 1327.94 Volt
Iph=502.06 Amp
V Cos   IRa V Cos   0 1062.35
tan      0.759
V Sin   IXq V Sin   IXq 1399.23
  37.20
E0  (V Cos   IRa)2  (V Sin   IXq) 2  I ( X d  X q ) Cos 
 (1062.35)2  (1399.23) 2  502.06 ( 2  1.2) Cos 37.2
 2076.74
E0  V 2076.74  1327.94
% Re g  *100  * 100
V 1327.94
 56.38 %

Prob: An alt has Xd= 0.8 pu, Xq= 0.6 pu. The m/c is operating at full-load, 0.8 pf
lag. Calculate the value of excitation, in terms of terminal voltage. Find load angle
δ and d and q-axis currents.
Sol: Ra neglected.

E0  (V Cos   IRa) 2  (V Sin   IXq )2  I ( X d  X q ) Cos 

Let V= 1 pu, VCos ɸ= 0.8, V Sin ɸ=0.6

Xd=IXd/V=0.8
IXd=0.8
IXq=0.6
V Cos   IRa V Cos   0 0.8
tan      0.66
V Sin   IXq V Sin   IXq 0.6  0.6
  33.69 0 , Cos   0.832
E0  (V Cos   IRa) 2  (V Sin   IXq )2  I ( X d  X q ) Cos 

E0  (0.8) 2  (0.6  0.6) 2  (0.8  0.6) 0.832

 1.606 pu
  90    90  33.69  56.31
I q  I Cos  0.5546 I  0.5546 pu
I d  I Sin  0.832 I  0.832 pu
      Load  angle
 56.31  36.86
 19.450

Prob: A salient pole alt has Xd= 100 %, Xq= 10 %. Find exc vol as % of rated
terminal vol V, when operating at 0.8 p.f. lag. Find load-angle & value of d & q-
axis currents. Ra=0.
Sol: V=1=100 %
Cos ɸ=0.8, V Cos ɸ=0.8, VSin ɸ= 0.6
Xd= 100 % =1
I Xd= 1
IXq= 0.1
V Cos  0.8  0 0.8
tan      1.14
V Sin   IXq 0.6  0.1 0.6  0.1
  48.80 , Cos   0.658
E0  (0.8) 2  (0.6  0.1) 2  (1  0.1) 0.658
 1.652 volt
1.652V
E0  *100  165.2 %
V
  90    90  48.8  41.2
I q  I Cos  0.752 I  75,2 %
I d  I Sin  0.658 I  65.8 %
      Load  angle
 41.2  36.86
 4.34 0
Prob: A salient pole alt has Xd= 1.2 pu, Xq= 0.8 pu, Ra=0.025 pu. Compute exc
voltage in pu, when alt is delivering rated kva at rated vol & at p.f. a) 0.8 lag, b)
0.8 leading.
Sol: a ) Cos φ=0.8 lag, Sin φ=0.6
Let V= 1 pu=terminal vol
IXd=1.2 pu
IXq=0.8
IRa= 0.025 pu
V Cos   IRa 1 * 0.8  0.025
tan   
V Sin   IXq 1 * 0.6  0.8
  30.50 , Cos   0.861

E0  (V Cos   IRa)2  (V Sin   IXq) 2  I ( X d  X q ) Cos 

 0.8252  1.4 2  (1.2  0.8) * 0.861
 1.9694 pu
b) Cos φ=0.8 lead
V Cos   IRa 1 * 0.8  0.025
tan     4.125
V Sin   IXq 1 * 0.6  0.8
  76.370 , Cos   0.2356

E0  (V Cos  IRa)2  (V Sin   IXq)2  I ( X d  X q ) Cos 

 0.8252  ( 0.2)2  (1.2  0.8) * 0.2356
 0.94 pu
Prob: For a salient pole synch m/c, prove that Xd can be obtained from its OCC &
SCC. Ra=0
Sol: E0= V+IRa+IdXd+IqXq

V Sin φ= Iq Xq
For Short Ckt Condition (SCC)
V=0
So Iq Xq= V Sin φ=0
So Iq=0
Isc=Id + Iq=Id
E0= V+IRa+IdXd+IqXq= Id Xd
 E0 E
Xd   0
Id Isc
O.C. Exc voltage for a given field current
Xd 
S .C. current for the same field current

POWER ANGLE CHARACTERISTIC OF SALIENT-POLE SYNCH M/C:

Neglecting Ra, the phasor is drawn for lag p.f.

The component of V along Id & Iq are, V Sin δ & V Cos δ respectively.
Power=P=Id* V Sin δ + Iq* V Cos δ ….[1]
V Sin δ=Iq Xq
Iq= V Sin δ/Xq ……………….[2]
V Cos δ=E0-IdXd
E0  V Cos
Id  ……………..[3]
Xd
Substituting Id & Iq in [1]
E 0  V Cos  V Sin 
P . V Sin   .V Cos 
Xd Xq
E 0V V 2Sin  Cos  V 2Sin  Cos 
 Sin   
Xd Xd Xq
EV 1 1
 0 Sin   V 2Sin  Cos  (  )
Xd Xq Xd
E 0V V2 1 1
 Sin   Sin 2  (  )
Xd 2 Xq Xd
E0V V2 1 1
P Sin   .(  ) Sin 2 
Xd 2 Xq Xd

Power angle char is obtained by plotting power P Vs Power angle δ. P consists of a

fundamental component & a 2nd harmonic component.
1st term is identical with cylindrical rotor m/c (electro-mag power).
2nd term is known as reluctance power, as it arises from saliency.
The 2nd term is independent of excitation voltage E0 & would be present even if
field is un-excited.
In view of above, a salient-pole synch m/c, connected to infinite bus-bar, would
continue to rotate, as a reluctance motor & at synch speed, if it’s field current is
reduced to zero.
For a cylindrical pole m/c, reluctance power is zero. So it can’t run as reluctance
motor.
 3-phase synchronous motor:
Concept of Back-EMF: (Eb)
In a synch motor, back emf Eb is set-up in the armature, by the rotor flux, which
opposes applied voltage V. This back emf depends on rotor excitation only (not on
speed as in DC motor).
The net voltage Er is the vector diff of V & Eb. Arm current Ia is obtained by
dividing Er by arm impedance Zs.
E R V  Eb
Ia  
ZS ZS
 V  Eb  I a Z S

Pm  3 VL I L Cos   3 I a Ra
2

Pm= Mechanical power developed in the rotor.

When the motor is running on no-load & no-loss, Eb = V (100 % Excitation)
So Eb – V= 0, & Ia= 0 (Fig-1)
If motor is loaded, (Fig-2), Eb falls back by an angle δ, so resultant vol Er produces
arm cur Ia to supply the load.
Neglecting Ra:

Pph=V Ia Cos φ
AB=Eb Sin δ= Ia Xs Cos φ
Eb Sin 
Ia Cos  
Xs
Eb Sin 
 Pph  V .
Xs
3V E b
P3 ph  Sin 
Xs
3V E b
Pmax  , at   90 0
Xs
P3 ph
Tmech  9.55. N m
NS

At δ=900, the torque is known as pull-out torque. Ns is in rpm.

WITHOUT NEGLECTING Ra:

Er=resultant of V & Eb= IaZs

Mech power developed in rotor= Pm
Pm=Eb Ia Cos Ѱ ………..[1]
θ=tan-1(Xs/Ra)
φ=p.f angle between V & Ia
Ѱ=Angle between Eb & Ia
CD is drawn at an angle of θ to AB(Eb).
AE is parallel to CD.
AC & ED are perpendicular to CD & AE.
In ∆-OBD
BD = Ia Zs Cos Ѱ
CD-BC=AE – BC = Ia Zs Cos Ѱ
V Cos (θ-δ) - Eb Cos θ = Ia Zs Cos Ѱ

V E
 Ia Cos  Cos(   )  b Cos 
Zs Zs
2
EbV Eb
Pm  Cos(   )  Cos 
Zs Zs
If Ra is neglected,
Zs= Xs, θ=900
2
EV E
Pm  b Cos(90   )  b Cos 90
Xs Xs
EV
 Pm  b Sin 
Xs
Salient-pole Synch Motor:
Power & torque expression for salient pole alternator also applies to salient-pole
motor.

E bV V2 1 1
P Sin   .(  ) Sin 2 
Xd 2 Xq Xd
Pm 3
Tg  9.55
NS
Power angle characteristic is same as alternator.
Prob: A 3-φ, 150 KW, 2300 V, 50 Hz, 1000 rpm, salient pole motor has Xd=32
Ω/ph, Xq= 20 Ω/ph. Calculate torque developed by the motor if field excitation
is adjusted, so that back emf Eb is twice the applied voltage V and δ=160.
Solun: Vph= 1328 V, Eb=1328*2=2656 V
EbV 2556 * 1328
Exc Power/ph= Sin   Sin16  30382 watt
Xd 32
V2 1 1 13282 1 1
.(  ) Sin 2   (  ) Sin 32
Reluctance power /ph= 2 Xq Xd 2 20 32
 8760 watt
3-φ power developed=3*(30382+8760)=117425 watt
Pm 3 117425
Tg  9.55  9.55
Torque developed= NS 1000
 1120 N  M
SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR PHASOR DIAGRAM:
1. Lagging P.F. V > Eb
Vt=Eb+IaRa+j IdXd+ j IqXq=terminal voltage

Id=I Sin Ѱ
Iq= I Cos Ѱ
Ѱ= φ- δ= angle between Eb & Ia
δ= angle between Vt & Eb
Iq Xq= Vt Sin δ+ Id Ra
Eb= Vt Cos δ- Iq Ra- Id Xd
 Vt Sin   I a X q
In ∆-oab tan 
Vt Cos   I a Ra

Leading P.F motor: Eb > Vt

Ѱ= φ + δ
Id= Ia Sin Ѱ
Iq= Ia Cos Ѱ
In ∆-oab
Vt Sin   I a X q ab
tan  
Vt Cos   I a Ra oa
Prob: A 400 V, 3-φ, Y-connected synch motor with Xd= 6 Ω, Xq= 4 Ω , is connected
to infinite bus-bar. If now field current is reduced to zero, find max load that can
be put on synch motor. Also find arm current & p.f. at max power. Ra=0.

EbV V2 1 1
Solun: P  Sin   . (  ) Sin 2 
Xd 2 Xq Xd

Home work
Prob: A 3300 V, 1.5 MW, 3-φ, Y-connected, synch motor has Xd=4 Ω, Xq=3 Ω.
Neglecting losses, find Eb at rated load & UPF, Calculate max mech power for this
power factor.
Solun: Vph=1905 V, Cos φ=1, Sin φ=0, φ=0
3300
V ph   1905 V
3
P3 1.5 * 10 6
Ia    262 A
3VL 3 * 3300
Vt Sin   I a X q 1905 * 0  262 * 3
tan    0.4125,  22.4 0
Vt Cos   I a Ra 1905
      0  ( 22.4 0 )  22.4 0
I d  I a Sin  262 * Sin ( 22.4 0 )   100 A
I q  I a Cos  262 * Cos ( 22.4 0 )  242 A
Eb  V Cos   I d X d neglecting Ra from phasor
Eb  1905 * Cos ( 22.4 0 )  ( 100 * 4)  2160 V

E bV V2 1 1
P Sin   .(  ) Sin 2 
Xd 2 Xq Xd
2160 * 1905 19052 1 1
 Sin   . (  ) Sin 2 
4 2 3 4
 1029 * 103 Sin   151 * 10 3 Sin 2  Watt / ph
 1029 Sin   151 Sin 2  KW / ph
For Max power dp/dδ=0 = 1029 Cos δ + 2*151 Cos 2δ
Or, 1029 Cos δ + 302 (2 Cos2δ-1) = 0
Cos δ= 0.285, δ= 73.40
Pmax= 1029* Sin 73.40+ 151 Sin 2*73.40= 1070 KW/ph
Pmax 3-ph= 3*1070= 3210 KWE/ph
Prob: A 2000 V, 3-φ, 4-pole, Y-connected, synch motor runs at 1500 rpm. The exc
is constant & correspond to an open-ckt terminal vol of 2000 V. Ra=0. Xs=3 Ω/ph.
Find power i/p, power factor, torque developed, when arm cur= 200 A.
Solun: Vph= 1150 V, Eb= 1150 V,
Ia Xs= 200*3=600 V

Ra=0, θ=900
<BoA=90-φ
In ∆-BOA

E b  V 2  ( I a X S ) 2  2 *V * ( I a X S ) * Cos ( angle between V & I a X S )

2

 11502  11502  600 2  2 *1150 * 600 * Cos(90   )

 Sin   0.2605,   16.2 0 , pf  Cos16.2 0  0.965 lag
power i / p  3VL I L Cos 
 3 * 2000 * 200 *Cos16.2 0  668.50
P 66850
Tg  9.55  9.55  4255 N  m
Ns 1500
Prob: A 6600 V, Y-connected, 3-ph synch motor works at constant vol & constant
exc. Xs=20 Ω, Ra=0. When i/p power is 1000 KW, the pf is 0.8 lead, find the power
angle & power factor when the i/p is increased to 1500 kw.
Solun: Vph= 3810 V, Ra=0, θ=900

1000 * 103
Ia   109.3 V Eg=IaXs=109.3*20=2186 V
3 * 6600 * 0.8

Cos φ=0.8, φ= 36.870

Eb  V 2  E g  2 * V * E g * Cos (angle between V & E g )

2 2

 38102  21862  2 * 3810 * 2186 * Cos (90  36.87)  5410 V

Since exc is constant Eb will not change.
When power i/p is increased to 1500 KW (Fig-2)

3 * 6600 * I 2 * Cos 2  1500000

 I 2 * Cos 2  131.2 A
OB  I a 2 Z S  20 I a 2
BC  OB Cos 2  20 I a 2 Cos 2  20 *131.2  2624V
In ∆-ABC, AB2=AC2+ BC2
54102=AC2+ 26242
AC=4730 V
OC=4730-3810=920 V
 OC 920
tan 2   , 2  19.4
2624 2624
BC 2624
PF  Cos2  0.9432 lead , tan  2   ,  2  29 0
AC 4730

THE PER-UNIT SYSTEM:

An inter-connected power system typically consists of many
different voltage levels given a system containing several transformers
and/or rotating machines. The per-unit system simplifies the analysis of
complex power systems by choosing a common set of base parameters
in terms of which, all systems quantities are defined. The different
voltage levels disappear and the overall system reduces to a set of
impedances. The primary advantages of the per-unit system are,
1. The per-unit values for transformer impedance, voltage and current
are identical when referred to the primary and secondary (no need
to reflect impedances from one side of the transformer to the other,
the transformer is a single impedance).
2. The per-unit values for various components lie within a narrow
range regardless of the equipment rating.
3. The per-unit values clearly represent the relative values of the
Ckt quantities. Many of the ubiquitous scaling constants are
eliminated.
4. Ideal for computer simulation.

The definition of any quantity (voltage, current, power, impedance) in

the per-unit system
is

Once any two of the four base values (Vbase, Ibase, Sbase, and Zbase)
are defined, the remaining two base values can be determined according
their fundamental circuit relationships. Usually the base values of power
and voltage are selected and the base values of current and impedance
are determined according to

If we also assume that:

1. the value of Sbase is constant for all points in the power system,
 and
2. the ratio of voltage bases on either side of a transformer is chosen
to equal the ratio of the transformer voltage ratings,

Then the transformer per-unit impedance remains unchanged when

referred from one side of a transformer to the other. This will allow us to
eliminate the ideal transformer from the transformer model (i.e., we will
not have to reflect impedances from one side of the transformer to the
other).

Example (Per-unit system, transformer models)

A single phase 20 kVA, 480/120, 60 Hz single-phase transformer has

an impedance of Zeq2 = 0.0525<78.130 Ω referred to the LV winding.
Determine the per-unit transformer impedance referred to the LV
winding and the HV winding.

Solun:
The transformer impedance referred to the HV winding is given by

According to our convention, the base values for this system are

The resulting impedance bases are,

and the resulting per-unit impedances are,

Since the per-unit impedances are equal for both sides of the
transformer, we may designate a single transformer impedance.
Note that there are no primed quantities in the per-unit equivalent
circuit. Thus, there is no need to reflect impedances when using this
model. Using the per-unit transformer model eliminates the need to scale
quantities by the transformer turns ratio, thus eliminating a common
source for error. The per-unit full-load copper loss associated with a
given transformer can be shown to be equal to Req,pu. According to the
previously given definition of transformer copper loss,

the per-unit copper loss is given by,

where Sbase = V1rated* I1rated = V2rated* I2rated. Under full-load
conditions, the primary and secondary current and voltage magnitudes
are the transformer rated values. This gives

Thus, the resistance term in the per-unit transformer equivalent circuit

also represents the per-unit value of the transformer full-load copper
loss.
 3-phase Transformer Connections & Vector Group:
Depending upon the phase-shift of Line-Neutral (L-N) voltages between
primary & secondary, transformers are grouped.

GROUP-1: Zero phase displacement (Y-y-0/ 00, D-d-0/ 00, D-z-0/ 00)

GROUP-2:1800 phase displacement(Y-y-6/ 1800,D-d-6/1800,D-z-6/1800)

GROUP-3:300 Lag(D-y-1/ -300,Y-d-1/-300,Y-z-1/-300)

GROUP-4:+300 Lead (D-y-11/ +300,Y-d-11/+300,Y-z-11/+300)

The TFs with same phase group can be connected in parallel. T.F.s with
+300 & -300 phase-shift can be connected in parallel, by reversing the
phase sequence of one of them.

Connection Primery Sec Clock Phase-shift

Y-y-0/ 00 Y y 12 O’Clock 00
Y-y-6/ 1800 Y y 6 O’Clock 1800
Y-d-1/ -300 Y d 1 O’Clock -300
Y-d-11/ +300 Y d 11 O’Clock +300

Possible Connections with +300 -300

D-y-11 D-y-1
Y-d-11 Y-d-1
Y-z-11 Y-z-1
Connections not possible:

Y-y- ±300, D-z- ±300, Z-d- ±300, D-d- ±300,

Y-z-00,
Y-z-1800

Clock Convention:

Hour Hand: Secondary phase voltage w.r.t. neutral.

Minute Hand: Primary phase voltage w.r.t. neutral.
HV Connection LV Connection Phase-angle

Y/ D/ Z y/ d/ z < l-n SEC wrt < L-N PRI

How to Make Connections:
1. Y-y-0 Connection

Steps to draw phasor:

1. In this case the HV L-N phasor A1A2 be parallel to LV l-n phasor
a1a2.
2. In this case the HV L-L phasor C2A2 be parallel to LV l-l phasor
c2a2.
3. Similarly, A2B2 be parallel to a2b2. And B2C2 be parallel to b2c2.
Making Connection as per Phasor:
2. Y-y-6 (1800)

Connection
Output of phases are taken out from A2, B2, C2 (HV side) & a1, b1,
c1 (LV side) respectively.
3. D-y-1 (-300)
l-n vol of LV side should lag L-N vol of HV side by 300.

1. Output of phases are taken out from A2, B2, C2 & a2, b2, c2
respectively.
2. LV side a1a2 lags by 300 HV L-N phasor.
3. HV side Line voltage A1A2be parallel to LV side l-n vol a1a2.
4. Similarly, B1B2 be parallel to b1b2.
Connection:

4. Y-d-1 (-300)

Steps to Draw Phasor:

1. Phase a must lag A1A2 by 300.
2. LV side a1a2 be parallel to A1A2.
3. b1b2 be parallel to B1B2.
4. c1c2 be parallel to C1C2.
5. l-n of LV side phase a lags L-N vol of HV side by 300.
6. So this is Y-d-1 (-300) connection.
Connection:

5. D-y-11 (+300)

1. LV l-n vol lead L-N vol of HV side by +300.

2. A1A2 be parallel with a1a2. B1B2 be parallel with b1b2. C1C2 be
parallel with c1c2.
Connection:

6. Y-d-11 (+300)

1. LV phase-a leads HV phase-A by 300.

2. Phase terminals are A2,B2,C2 (HV side), a2,b2,c2 (LV side).
7. Y-z-1 (-300)

1. LV Phase-a lag HV phase-A by 300.

2. Last leg of winding may be same phase i.e. a phase should be
either a1a2 or a3a4. Usually a3a4. a3a4 be parallel to A1A2.
3. Similarly, c3c4 be parallel to C1C2 & b3b4 be parallel to B1B2.
8. Y-z-11 (+300)

1. LV side phase a should lead HV side L-N voltage by 300.

2. Phase a (LV) leads phase-A (HV) by 900.
Zigzag Transformer:
Ungrounded systems that need protection against earth faults usually
need a grounding transformer. This is usually a delta-star transformer
whose neutral can be earthed. An alternative way of grounding the
system is by using a zig-zag transformer.
The Zig-zag Transformer generally has a ratio of 1:1. It consists of six
windings, two for each phase – . The two windings for each phase(outer
and inner windings) are wound on the same core but in opposite
directions.
In a perfectly balanced condition, the magnetic fluxes in the primary and
the secondary are able to cancel each other; therefore, their magnetic
fluxes cancel each other out. However, in a fault condition, the magnetic
fluxes may not be equal and hence a fault current may flow through the
neutral of the secondary winding.
Zig-zag Transformers are used to provide earthing for ungrounded
systems. They are advantageous over delta-wye systems due to their
low internal impedance and lower cost.
Apart from providing earthing to ungrounded systems, zig-zag
transformers can be used to filter harmonic currents. Zig-zag
transformers are connected close the loads that cause heavy
harmonics. Since the transformer has opposing windings, the harmonic
currents get cancelled.
Open-Delta Transformers: (V-V Connection)
• It is possible to transform the voltage of a 3-phase system by using
only 2 transformers, connected in open-delta.
• The open-delta arrangement is identical to a delta-delta
connection, except that one transformer is absent.
• The open-delta connection is seldom used because the load
capacity of the transformer bank is only 86.6 percent,
of the installed transformer capacity.
• The open-delta connection is mainly used in emergency situations.
Thus, if three transformers are connected in delta-delta and one of
them becomes defective and has to be removed, it is possible to
feed the load on a temporary basis with the two remaining
transformers.
• If one of the transformers fails in ∆ - ∆ bank and if it is required to
continue the supply eventhough at reduced capacity until the
transformer which is removed from the bank is repaired or a new one
is installed then this type of connection is most suitable.
• When it is anticipated that in future the load increase, then it
requires closing of open delta. In such cases open delta connection is
preferred.
Example: Two 1-ph 150 KVA, 7200V/600 V transformers are
connected in open-delta. Calculate the maximum load they can carry?
Solun: Although each TF has a rating of 150 KVA, the two together
can’t carry a load of 300 KVA in open-delta connection.
The secondary current of each TF= 150*103/600=250 A
The current Is in lines 1, 2, 3 cannot, therefore, exceed 250 A (Fig.).
Consequently, the maximum load that the transformers can carry is

S  3EI  3 * 600 * 250  260 KVA

Max Load 260 KVA
Thus the ratio, Installed TF Rating 300 KVA  86.7 %

Key point : It can be noted here that the removal of one of the
transformers will not give the total load carried by V - V bank as two third of
the capacity of ∆ - ∆ bank.
The load that can be carried by V - V bank is only 57.7% of it. it can be
proved as follows.
It can be seen from the Fig. A
∆ - ∆ capacity = √3 VL IL = √3 VL (√3 Iph )
∆ - ∆ capacity = 3 VL Iph ............(i)
It can also be noted from the Fig. B that the secondary line
current IL is equal to the phase current Iph.
V- V capacity = √3 VL IL = √3 VL Iph ...............(ii)
Dividing equation (ii) by equation (i)

Thus the three phase load that can be carried without exceeding the
ratings of the transformers is 57.5 percent of the original load. Hence it is
not 66.7 % which was expected otherwise.

The reduction in the rating from the expected rating can be calculated as

{(66.67 - 57.735)/(57.735)}x 100 = 15.476 %

Suppose that we consider three transformers connected in ∆ - ∆ fashion

and supplying their rated load. Now one transformer is removed then each
of the remaining tow transformers will be overloaded. The overload on each
transformer will be given as,

Total Load in V  V 3 VL I PH
  3  1.732 or 173 %
VA / transformer VL I PH
Key point : This overload can be carried temporarily if provision is made to
reduce the load otherwise overheating and breakdown of the remaining two
transformers would take place.
SCOTT OR T-T CONNECTION:

With the help of Scott connection, proposed by C.F. Scott, it is possible to

obtain 2phase supply which is required for furnaces or even three phase load
can be driven from the available 2phase supply source. The Scott connection
which is serving this purpose is shown in the Fig.1.

This connection uses two transformers with different rating. But identical
transformers with suitable tapping may also be used.

One of the transformers having 50 % taping is called main transformer and

other one having 86.6% tapping is called teaser transformer. If the secondary
of the two transformers are connected as shown in the Fig. 1 then two phase,
three wire system is obtained.
The same connection drawn slight differently is shown in the Fig. 2.

The main transformer primary winding consists of N1 turns connected

between lines Y and B of a symmetrical three phase supply. VRY, VYB and
VBR are all line voltages. Hence VRY= VYB = VBR = VL . But RO being the
altitude of the equilateral triangle, the voltage VRO is (√3/2)VL. The voltage
per turn will be same in primaries of both the transformers if number of turns
between R and O are (√3/2)N1.

The point O is not the neutral point of 3 phase supply voltage as its voltage
with respect to any line is not VL/√3. N is the neutral point shown in Fig. 3.
Voltage VRN is nothing but VL/√3 whereas VRO is (√3/2)VL. Hence the voltage
between N and O will be

(√3/2)VL -(1/√3)VL =0.288VL ≈ 0.29VL

Since 0.29 is one third of 0.866, N divides the teaser winding RO in the ratio
2 :1.