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UNIT-4
CHEMICAL BONDING AND MOLECULAR STRUCTURE
Chemical Bond:
The attractive force which holds various constituents (atoms, ions, etc.) together in
different chemical species is called a chemical bond.
Lewis Symbols/ Lewis dot structures:
A simple notations to represent valence electrons [dots] in an atom. Valence e -s are
represented by dots.

Valence of the elements = the number of Valence e-s (or) 8 – Valence e-s
Ionic bond or electrovalent bond:
The electrostatic force of attraction between the positive and negative ions was
termed as the electrovalent bond.
Electrovalence = the number of unit charge(s) on the ion.
Electrovalence of Calcium, Ca2+ = 2, Na+ = 1, Cl- = 1,F- =1
Eg: Formation of NaCl
Na → Na+ + e- [Ionisation enthalpy]
Cl + e- → Cl- [Electron gain enthalpy]
Na+ + Cl- → NaCl or Na+Cl- [lattice enthalpy]
Conditions for the formation of ionic bond:
• Low ionization enthalpies of metals.
• High negative electron gain enthalpy of non metals.
• High lattice enthalpy of ionic compounds.
Octet Rule:
Atoms can combine with other atoms to attain stable octet configuration, either by
gaining or losing or sharing valence electrons.
Limitations of the Octet Rule:
Octect rule could not explain the formation of
 Compounds with incomplete octet of the central atom [elements (Li, Be, B)
having less than 4 valence electrons].
Eg: LiCl, BeH2, BCl3 , BF3 and AlCl3.
• Compounds with expanded octet of the central atom [elements having more
than 8 valence electrons]. Eg: PF5, SF6, H2SO4
• Odd-electron molecules. Eg: NO, NO2
• Compounds formed by noble gas. Eg: XeF2, KrF2, XeOF2
• It does not explain the shape, relative stability and energy of molecules.
Covalent Bond:
The bond formed by the sharing of an electron pair between the atoms to attain
stable noble gas configuration.The covalent bond formed by the sharing of 1, 2 or 3
electron pairs is called a single, double or triple covalent bond.

Q. Write the Lewis dot structure of NO2- ,N2, Cl2, H2O, CCl4,
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CO2, CO, C2H2, C2H4, O3, PF5, SF6, H2SO4 molecule.

Lattice Enthalpy of an ionic compound : It is defined as the energy required for

breaking one mole of a solid ionic compound into gaseous ions.
Eg: NaCl(s) → Na+(g) + Cl-(g) ; ∆latticeH = 788 kJ mol-1.
Consequences of lattice enthalpy :Greater the lattice enthalpy of ionic compound,
greater is its stability and lesser is its solubility.
Bond Length :It is defined as the equilibrium distance between the nuclei of two bonded
atoms in a molecule.
Bond Angle: It is defined as the angle between the orbitals containing bonding electron
pairs around the central atom in a molecule.
Bond Enthalpy: It is defined as the amount of energy required to break one mole of bond
between 2 gaseous atoms. Unit- kJ mol-1
H2(g) → H(g) + H(g) ; ΔaHΘ = 435.8 kJ mol-1
Bond Order:
Bond Order is the number of bonds between the two atoms in a molecule.
Eg: Bond order of H2 = 1[H-H], O2 = 2 [O=O], N2 =3[N ≡ N],CO = 3[C ≡ O].
Resonance:
According to the resonance concept, whenever a single structure cannot describe a
molecule accurately, a number of structures are drawn with similar energy, positions of
nuclei, bonding and non-bonding pairs of electrons. These structures are called canonical
structures. The intermediate of all structures is called resonance hybrid.
Resonance is represented by a double headed arrow [↔].
Characteristics of resonance:
• Resonance stabilizes the molecule as the energy of the resonance hybrid is less
than the energy of any single cannonical structure.
• Resonance averages the bond characteristics.
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Q. Explain the structure of CO32- ion in terms of resonance.

Q. Write the resonance structures for CO32-, O3, CO2, SO3, NO2 and NO3− .
Polarity of Bonds:
Non polar covalent bond: When covalent bond is formed between two similar atoms the
shared pair of electrons is equally attracted by the two atoms.
Eg: H2, O2, Cl2, N2 or F2
Polar covalent bond: When covalent bond is formed between two different atoms, the
shared pair of electrons gets displaced towards more electronegative atom. Eg: HF, HCl.
Dipole moment :[μ] It is defined as the product of the magnitude of the charge and the
distance between the centres of positive and negative charge. Unit - Debye (D).
• Dipole moment (μ) = charge (Q) x distance of separation (r)
• Dipole moment is a vector quantity
• It is depicted by a small arrow pointing from positive centre towards the negative
centre.
H2O: H2O molecule has a bent structure. Net dipole moment of is the resultant of the dipole
moments of two O-H bonds.

BeF2 / BeCl2 / BeH2 / CO2

It has a linear structure. The dipole moment is zero because the two bond dipoles are equal
and in opposite direction and hence cancel each other.
BF3 / BCl3 :
It has trigonal planar structure. The dipole moment is zero because the resultant of any
two bond dipoles is equal and opposite to the third.

Q. Although fluorine is more electronegative than nitrogen, the resultant dipolemoment of

NH3 is greater than that of NF3 (or)
NH3 is more polar than NF3. Give reason.
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Both NH3 and NF3 have pyramidal shape. In NH3, dipole moment of lone pair is in the
same direction as the resultant dipole moment of the 3 N – H bonds and hence added
up, more polar.
Whereas in NF3, the dipolemoment of lone pair is opposite to the resultant dipole moment
of the 3 N – F bonds and hence partially cancelled, less polar.
Q. Although both CO2 and H2O are triatomic molecules, the shape of H2O molecule is bent
while that of CO2 is linear. Explain this on the basis of dipole moment
Q. Apart from tetrahedral geometry, another possible geometry for CH4 is square planar with
the four H atoms at the corners of the square and the C atom at its centre. Explain why
CH2 is not square planar ?
Q. Explain why BeH2 molecule has a zero dipole moment although the Be- H bonds are
polar.
Q. Which out of NH3 and NF3 has higher dipole moment and why ?
Covalent character of an ionic bond.
Fajans rules:
• The smaller the size of the cation and the larger the size of the anion, the greater
the covalent character of an ionic bond.
• The greater the charge on the cation, the greater the covalent character of the ionic
bond.
• Transition metal cation has more polarising power than alkali and alkaline earth metal
cations due to poor shielding of d-electrons.
[The cation polarises the anion, pulling the electronic charge toward itself and thereby
increasing the electronic charge between the two. This is precisely what happens in a
covalent bond]
THE VALENCE SHELL ELECTRON PAIR REPULSION (VSEPR) THEORY
VSEPR theory is used to predict the shapes of covalent molecules.
The main postulates of VSEPR theory :
• The shape of a molecule depends upon the number of valence shell electron pairs
around the central atom.
• Negatively charged electron pairs repel each other.
• There is maximum distance between electron pairs to minimise the repulsion.
• A multiple bond is treated as if it is a single electron pair.
• The order of repulsion of electron pairs: lp – lp > lp – bp > bp – bp
• The presence of lone pairs distorts the geometry of the molecule.
[ Lone pair = lp; Bond pair = bp]

Electron Bond Lone Geometry Examples

pairs pairs pairs

2 2 - Linear BeCl2,HgCl2

3 3 - Trigonal planar BF3

3 2 1 Bent SO2, O3

4 4 - Tetrahedral CH4, NH4+

4 3 1 Trigonal pyramidal NH3, H3O+

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4 2 2 Bent H2O

5 5 - Trigonal bipyramidal PCl5, AsF5

5 4 1 See-Saw SF4

5 3 2 Bent T-shape ClF3 , BrF3

6 6 - Octahedral SF6

6 5 1 Square pyramidal BrF5

6 4 2 Square planar XeF4

Electron Bond Lone Geometry Examples

pairs pairs pairs

2 2 - Linear ; 1800 BeCl2,HgCl2

3 3 - Trigonal planar ; 1200 BF3

3 2 1 Bent SO2, O3

4 4 - Tetrahedral ; 109.50 CH4, NH4+ , SiCl4

4 3 1 Trigonal pyramidal NH3, H3O+

4 2 2 Bent H2O

5 5 - Trigonal bipyramidal ; 1200, 900 PCl5 , AsF5

5 4 1 See-Saw SF4

5 3 2 Bent T-shape ClF3 , BrF3

6 6 - Octahedral ; 900 SF6

6 5 1 Square pyramidal BrF5

6 4 2 Square planar XeF4

Note: How to find out the no. of electron pairs:

No.of ens pairs = Valence ens of central atom + surrounding atom +/- charge
2
Q. Discuss the shape of the following using the VSEPR model.
BeCl2, BeF2, BCl3, CH4, SiCl4, AsF5, H2S NH3 , PH3, XeF4, ClF3, SF4, H3O+, NH4+, SF6, PCl5, H2O,
BrF5
Q. Although geometries of NH3 and H2O molecules are distorted tetrahedral, bond
angle in water is less than that of ammonia. Discuss.
H2O has 2 lone pairs whereas NH3 has only 1 lone pair. In H2O, the repulsion of
lp- lp > lp- bp > bp- bp. Hence bond angle in H 2O is less than NH3
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Valence Bond Theory - Orbital Overlap Concept:

• According to orbital overlap concept, the covalent bond is formed by the overlapping
of atomic orbitals which results in the pairing of electrons with opposite spins.
Greater the overlap, the stronger is the bond formed between two atoms.
Types of Overlapping and Nature of Covalent Bonds
The covalent bond may be classified into two types depending upon the types of
overlapping:(i) Sigma(σ) bond, and (ii) pi(π) bond.
Sigma(σ) bond pi(π ) bond

1.σ bond is formed by the axial overlapping 1. π bond is formed by the lateral
of atomic orbitals.[end to end overlap] overlapping of atomic orbitals.[sidewise
overlapping]

2. It is a strong bond due to larger extent of 2.It is a weak bond due to lesser extent of
overlapping. overlapping

3. Both s and p orbitals are involved. 3. Only p orbitals are involved.

4. Free rotations of atoms about σ bond are 4. Free rotations of atoms about π bond are
possible. not possible.

5. σ bond can be present alone. 5.π bond is formed along with σ bond.

• s-s overlapping : This occurs by the overlap of two half filled s-orbitals along the
internuclear
axis.

• s-p overlapping: This occurs by the overlap of half filled s-orbitals of one
atom and half filled p-orbitals of another atom.

• p – p overlapping : This occurs by the overlap of two half filled p-orbitals of

the two atoms.

(ii) pi(π ) bond : It is formed by the lateral or sidewise overlapping of atomic

orbitals.

Hybridisation:
Hybridisation can be defined as the process of intermixing of atomic orbitals of slightly
different energies to form new orbitals of equivalent energies and shape. The new orbitals
formed are called hybrid orbitals.
Salient features of hybridisation:
1. The number of hybrid orbitals is equal to the number of the atomic orbitals that get
hybridised.
2. The hybridised orbitals are always equivalent in energy and shape.
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3. The hybrid orbitals form stable bonds than the pure atomic orbitals.
4. The hybrid orbitals are directional. Therefore, the type of hybridisation indicates the
geometry of the molecules.
Types of Hybridisation:
• sp or diagonal hybridisation:

It involves the mixing of one s and one p -orbital to form 2 sp-hybrid orbitals. Shape -
linear. Bond angle - 1800
BeCl2/ BeF2

Be – sp hybridized state, shape – linear, Bond angle - 1800

Ground state electronic configuration of Be is 1s2 2s2.
(II) sp2 hybridisation :

It involves the mixing of one s and two p-orbital to form 3 sp2 hybrid orbitals. Shape –
Trigonal planar. Bond angle - 1200
BCl3/ BF3 :
B - sp2 hybridised state. Shape – Trigonal planar. Bond angle - 1200
Ground state electronic configuration of boron atom is 1s 2 2s2 2p1.
Excited state electronic configuration –

Methane, CH4:
C – sp3 hybridised state. Shape – Tetrahedral. Bond angle – 109.50
Ground state electronic configuration of boron atom is 1s 2 2s2 2p2.
Excited state electronic configuration: Ammonia, NH3
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Ammonia, NH3 :
N – sp3 hybridised state. Shape – Trigonal pyramidal. Bond angle – 1070
In NH3, Nitrogen has 3 bond pairs and 1 lone pair of e- . Due to the repulsion of lp – bp > bp-
bp, the bond angle is reduced to 107° from 109.5°. Geometry is pyramidal.
In NH3, the ground state electronic configuration of N is 1s2 2s22 px1 2 py1 2 pz1
Water, H2O :
O – sp3 hybridised state. Shape – Bent / V-shape / angular shape.
Bond angle – 104.50
In H2O, oxygen has 2 bond pairs and 2 lone pair of e- . Due to the repulsion of
lp - lp > lp – bp > bp - bp, the bond angle is reduced to 104.5° from 109.5°.
Geometry is bent.
InH2O,the ground state electronic configuration of Ois 1s2 2s22 px22py12 pz1
• Ethane, C2H6 Carbon -sp3 Hybridised state, Shape – Tetrahedral, Bond angle
– 109.50

Ethene, C2H4 Carbon –sp2 Hybridised state, Shape – Trigonal planar, Bond angle –
1200

Ethyne, C2H2
Carbon -sp Hybridised state, Shape – Linear, Bond angle – 1800

Hybridisation of Elements involving d Orbitals

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Formation of PCl5 (sp3d hybridisation):

Phosphorous - sp3d hybridized state. Shape - trigonal bipyramidal. Bond angle –
1200, 900
• Five sp3d hybrid orbitals of phosphorous overlaps with the half filled p- orbitals of
chlorine.
• All the P−Cl bonds in the molecule are not equivalent. Three bonds that are present
in one plane are called equatorial bonds and have an angle of 120° between them.
• The two axial bonds are at 90° with the equatorial bonds.

Q. PCl5 is very reactive. Give reason. (or)

Are all the bonds in PCl5 equivalent? Justify your answer.
Due to the repulsion of axial bond pairs and equatorial bond pairs, axial bonds
are slightly longer and weaker than the equatorial bonds; which makes
PCl5 molecule more reactive.
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(ii) Formation of SF6

(sp3d2 hybridisation ):

Sulphur - sp3d2 hybridized state. Shape - Octahedral. Bond angle – 900

Molecular Orbital Theory:[MOT]
The salient features of this theory are :
(i)The electrons in a molecule are present in the various molecular orbitals as the
electrons of atoms are present in the various atomic orbitals.
(ii)The atomic orbitals of comparable energies and proper symmetry
combine to form molecular orbitals.
(iii)While an electron in an atomic orbital is influenced by one nucleus, electrons in a
molecular orbital is influenced by two or more nuclei.
(iv)When two atomic orbitals combine, two molecular orbitals are formed- bonding
molecular orbital and antibonding molecular orbital.
(v) The bonding molecular orbital has lower energy and hence greater stability than
the
corresponding antibonding molecular orbital.
vii) The molecular orbitals are filled in accordance with the aufbau principle, Pauli’s
exclusion principle and the Hund’s rule.

Formation of Molecular Orbitals- Linear Combination of Atomic Orbitals

(LCAO)
Molecular orbitals are formed by the linear combination of atomic orbitals that can
take place by addition and by subtraction of atomic orbitals[wave function, ψ ’s]
ψMO = ψA + ψB
Bonding molecular orbital: The molecular orbital σ formed by the addition of
atomic orbitals.
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σ = ψA + ψB
Antibonding molecular orbital: The molecular orbital σ* formed by the subtraction
of atomic orbital. σ* = ψA – ψB

Q. Difference between bonding and antibonding molecular orbital

Bonding molecular orbital [BMO] • Antibonding molecular orbital
[ABMO]

1. It is formed by the addition of • 1. It is formed by the subtraction

atomic orbitals. of atomic orbitals.

2. BMO is of less energy and • 2. ABMO is of high energy and

highly stable because the less stable because the electron
electron density is located density is located away from the
between the two nuclei causing nuclei causing high repulsion of
less repulsion. the nuclei. There is a nodal plane.

3.BMO stabilizes the molecule. • 3.ABMO destabilizes the

molecule

Conditions for the Combination of Atomic Orbitals:

1.The combining atomic orbitals must have nearly the same energy.
2.The combining atomic orbitals must have the same symmetry about the
molecular
axis.
3.The combining atomic orbitals must overlap to the maximum extent.
Electronic Configuration of molecules
The distribution of electrons among various molecular orbitals.
[For elements with atomic no. 1- 7]
The increasing order of energies of various molecular orbitals for
Li2, Be2, B2, C2, N2, B2, C2, N2
σ1s < σ*1s < σ2s < σ*2s < (π 2px = π 2py) <σ2pz < (π *2px= π *2py) < σ*2pz
The increasing order of energies of various molecular orbitals
for O2 and F2 is given below:
σ1s < σ*1s < σ2s < σ*2s <σ2pz<(π 2px = π 2py)< (π *2px= π *2py)<σ*2pz

 Stability of Molecules: Nb = no. of electrons in bonding orbitals and

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Na = the no.of electrons antibonding orbitals, then

(i) the molecule is stable, if Nb >Na, and
(ii) the molecule is unstable, if Nb < Na.
 Bond order :(B.O.) is defined as one half the difference between the number of
electrons present in the bonding and the antibonding orbitals .

Bond order [B.O.] = Nb-Na

2
A positive bond order ( Nb > Na) means a stable molecule
A negative ((Nb < Na) or zero (Nb = Na) bond order means an unstable molecule.
 Nature of the bond:
Bond order = 1, 2 or 3 correspond to single, double or triple bonds respectively.
 Bond-length:
As bond order increases, bond length decreases, bond strength increases.
Magnetic nature:
 Diamagnetic , if all the molecular orbitals have paired electrons (repelled by
magnetic field)
 Paramagnetic, if the molecular orbitals have unpaired electrons [singly
occupied] (attracted by magnetic field).
Q. Write the electronic configuration and find the bond order and magnetic behavior
of following molecules:
1. Hydrogen molecule, (H2) : 1 + 1 = 2 electrons = (σ1s)2
Bond order = (Na – Nb) / 2 = (2 -0) / 2 = 1
Since no unpaired electron, it is diamagnetic.
2. Lithium molecule, (Li2 ): 5 + 5 = 10 electrons = (σ1s)2 (σ*1s)2 (σ2s)2
Bond order = 1/2 (4 – 2) = 1.
Diamagnetic, as no unpaired electron.
3 .Carbon molecule, (C2 ): 6 + 6 = 12 electrons =
=(σ1s)2 (σ*1s )2(σ2s )2(σ*2s )2( π2px2 = π2py2)
Bond order = 1/2 (8 – 4) = 2
Diamagnetic, as no unpaired electron.
Q. Why He2 , Be2 and Ne2 molecule does not exist?
• Helium molecule (He2 ): 2 + 2 =4 electrons = (σ1s)2 (σ*1s)2
Bond order = (2 – 2)/2 = 0
He2 molecule is therefore unstable and does not exist.
• Beryllium molecule(Be2): 4 + 4 =8 electrons =(σ1s)2 (σ*1s)2 (σ2s)2 (σ*2s)2
Bond order = (4 – 4)/2 = 0
Be2 molecule is therefore unstable and does not exist.

Q. Compare the relative stability of the following species and indicate their
magnetic properties;
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O2 ,O2+ ,O2- (superoxide), O22− (peroxide)

• Oxygen molecule (O2 ): 8 + 8 = 16 electrons
= (σ1s)2 (σ*1s )2(σ2s )2(σ*2s )2(σ2pz )2 (π2px2 ≡ π2py2)(π*2px1 ≡ π*2py1)
Bond order = 1/2[Nb−Na] = 1/2[10-6] = 2
Paramagnetic with 2 unpaired electrons.
• (O2 -): 8 + 8 +1= 17 electrons
= (σ1s)2 (σ*1s )2(σ2s )2(σ*2s )2(σ2pz )2 (π2px2 ≡ π2py2)(π*2px2 ≡ π*2py1)
Bond order = 1/2[Nb−Na] = 1/2[10-7] = 1.5
Paramagnetic with 1 unpaired electron.
• (O2 2-): 8 + 8 +2= 18 electrons
= (σ1s)2 (σ*1s )2(σ2s )2(σ*2s )2(σ2pz )2 (π2px2 ≡ π2py2)(π*2px2 ≡ π*2py2)
Bond order = 1/2[Nb−Na] = 1/2[10-8] = 1
Diamagnetic with no unpaired electrons.
• (O2 +): 8 + 8 -1= 15 electrons
= (σ1s)2 (σ*1s )2(σ2s )2(σ*2s )2(σ2pz )2 (π2px2 ≡ π2py2)π*2px1
Bond order = 1/2[Nb−Na] = 1/2[10-5] = 2.5
Paramagnetic with 1 unpaired electron.
Therefore, the order of stability : O2 + > O2 > O2 - > O2 2-
Hydrogen Bonding:
Hydrogen bond can be defined as the attractive force which binds hydrogen atom of
one molecule with the electronegative atom (F, O or N) of another molecule. Eg: HF
molecule
• Hydrogen bond is represented by a dotted line (− − −).
• Hydrogen bond and is weaker than the covalent bond, but stronger than vander
waals force.
Types of H-Bonds- 2 types.
(i) Intermolecular hydrogen bond (ii) Intramolecular hydrogen bond
(1) Intermolecular hydrogen bond :
Hydrogen bond between two different molecules
• Example: H-bond in HF, alcohol or H2O molecules, etc.
(2) Intramolecular hydrogen bond :
Hydrogen bond within the same molecule. Eample: o-nitrophenol
• Reason − when hydrogen atom is present in between 2 highly electronegative atoms
(F, O or N) within the same molecule
Q.What do you understand by bond pairs and lone pairs of electrons ?
Illustrate by giving one exmaple of each type
Bond pairs of electron- Electron pairs involved in bond formation.
Lone pairs of electron- Electron pairs that are not involved in bond formation.O has 2
bond pairs and 2 lone pairs of electrons.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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Questions :Chemical bonding and molecular structure :

1. Explain the formation of a chemical bond.
2. Write Lewis dot symbols for atoms of the following elements :
Mg, Na, B, O, N, Br.
3. Write Lewis symbols for the following atoms and ions:
S and S2-; Al and Al3+; H and H-
4. Draw the Lewis structures for the following molecules and ions :
H2S, SiCl4, BeF2, CO32− , HCOOH, HNO3
5. Define octet rule. Write its significance and limitations.
6. Write the favorable factors for the formation of ionic bond.
7. Discuss the shape of the following molecules using the VSEPR model:
BeCl2, BCl3, SiCl4, AsF5, H2S, PH3
8. Although geometries of NH3 and H2O molecules are distorted
tetrahedral, bond angle in water is less than that of ammonia. Discuss.
9. How do you express the bond strength in terms of bond order ?
10. Define the bond length.
11. Write the resonance structures for SO3, NO2 and NO3− .
12. Although both CO2 and H2O are triatomic molecules, the shape of
H2O molecule is bent while that of CO2 is linear. Explain this on the
basis of dipole moment.
13. Define electronegativity. How does it differ from electron gain
enthalpy ?
14. Explain with the help of suitable example polar covalent bond.
15. Apart from tetrahedral geometry, another possible geometry for
CH4 is square planar with the four H atoms at the corners of the
square and the C atom at its centre. Explain why CH 2 is not square
planar ?
16. Explain why BeH2 molecule has a zero dipole moment although the
Be-H bonds are polar.
17. Which out of NH3 and NF3 has higher dipole moment and why ?
18. What is meant by hybridisation of atomic orbitals? Describe the
shapes of sp, sp2, sp3 hybrid orbitals.
19. Describe the change in hybridisation (if any) of the Al atom in the
following reaction. AlCl3 + Cl− → AlCl4−
20. Is there any change in the hybridisation of B and N atoms as a result
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of the following reaction ? BF3 + NH3 → F3B- NH3

21. Draw diagrams showing the formation of a double bond and a triple
bond between carbon atoms in C2H4 and C2H2 molecules.
22. What is the total number of sigma and pi bonds in the following
molecules . (a) C2H2 (b) C2H4
23. Considering x-axis as the internuclear axis which out of the
following will not form a sigma bond and why? (a) 1s and 1s (b) 1s
and 2px ; (c) 2py and 2py (d) 1s and 2s.
24. Which hybrid orbitals are used by carbon atoms in the following
molecules ?
(a) CH3-CH3; (b) CH3-CH=CH2; (c) CH3-CH2-OH;
(d) CH3-CHO (e) CH3COOH
25. What do you understand by bond pairs and lone pairs of electrons ?
Illustrate by giving one exmaple of each type.
26.Distinguish between a sigma and a pi bond.
27.Write the important conditions required for the linear combination of
atomic orbitals to form molecular orbitals.
28.Use molecular orbital theory to explain why the Be2 molecule does
not exist.
29.Compare the relative stability of the following species and indicate
their magnetic properties;
O2 ,O2+ ,O2- (superoxide), O22− (peroxide)
30.Describe the hybridisation in case of PCl5. Why are the axial bonds
longer as compared to equatorial bonds ?
31.Define hydrogen bond. Is it weaker or stronger than the
Van der Waals forces?
32.What is meant by the term bond order ? Calculate the bond order of :
N2, O2, O2+andO2-.

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