Laws of Forces of a force. 2.4, Representation of forces. Classification of forces. 2.6. Fore Free body diagrams. 2.8, Transmissibility of a force. 2.9. Particle, 2.10. Resultant force. 2.11. Component of a force. 2.12. Principle of resolved parts. 2.13, Laws of forces. 2.14. Resultant of several coplanar concurrent forces. 2.15. Equilibrium conditions for coplanar concurrent forces. 2.16. Lami's theorem—Highlights—Objective Type Questions—Exercises—Theoretical Questions—Unsolved Exampl 1. Force. 2.2. Units of force. 2. 2.1. FORCE Force is some thing which changes or tends to change the state of rest or of uniform motion of a body in a straight line. Force is the direet or indirect action of one body on another. The bodies may be in direct contact with each other causing direct motion or separated by distance but subjected to gravitational effects. There are different kinds of forces such as gravitational, frictional. magnetic, inertia or those cause by mass and acceleration. A static force is the one which is caused without relative acceleration of the bodies in question. ‘The force has a magnitude and direction, therefore, it is vector. While the directions of the force is measured in absolute terms of angle relative to a co-ordinate system, the magnitude is measured in different units depending on the situation. When a force acts on a body, the following effects may be produced in that body : (1) It may bring a change in the motion of the body t.., the motion may be accelerated or retarded : (ii) it m balance the forces already acting on the body thus bringing the body to a state of rest or of equitibriun and (iii) it may change the size or shape of the body t., the body may be twisted, bent, stretch compressed or otherwise distorted by the action of the force. 2.2. UNITS OF FORCE The two commonly used units of force are : 1. Absolute units 2. Gravitational units. Absolute units. Beeause the mass and acceleration are measured differently in different systems of units, so the units of force are also different in the various systems as given below : In the FPS. (Foot-Pound-Second) system the absolute unit of force is a poundal which is that much force as produces an acceleration of 1 fUsec? in a mass of one pound. In the C.GS. (Centimetre-Gram-Second) system the absolute unit of force is dyne which is that much force as produces an acceleration of 1 cnvsec? in a mass of one gram. In the M.KS. (Metre-Kilogram-Second) system the absolute unit of farce is a newton which is that much force as produces an acceleration of 1 m/sec? in a mass of the kilogram. Obviously, 1 newton = 10° dynes. ‘Scanned wih CamScannerich are used by engineers Gravitational units of force. Gravitational units are the units w! for all practical purposes. These units depend upon the weight of a body (i.e., the force with which the body is attracted towards the centre of the earth). Now the weight of a body of mass m (ie., the quantity of matter contained in a body). = mg, where g is the acceleration due to gravit So the gra ional units of force in the three systems of units i, F.P.S.,C.G.S. and MKS. are Pound weight, Gram weight and kilogram weight, ‘The relationship of units of force is given as under : 1 Tb wt. (or Ibf) = g poundal = 32.2 poundals (app.) 1 gm wt. (or gmf) = g dynes = 981 dynes (app.) 1 kg wt. (or kgf) = newtons = 9.81 newtons (app.) which means Gravitational unit of force =" times the corresponding absolute units of force. Usually, ky, wt (or kgf) is written simply as kg. 2.3. CHARACTERISTICS OF A FORCE The characteristics or elements of the force are the quantities by which a force i represented. These are : 1. Magnitude (i.¢., 50 N, 100 N, ete.) 2. Direction or line of action (angle relative to a co-ordinate system). 3, Sense or nature (push or pull). 4. Point of application. 2.4. REPRESENTATION OF FORCES Forces may be represented in the following two ways : 1. Vector representation 2. Bow's notation. Vector representation. A force can be represented eo graphically by a vector as shown in Figs. 1.2 and 1.3. eer Bow’s notation. It is a method of designating a force by writing two capital letters one on either side of the force a shown POM a in Fig. 2.1, where force P, (200 N) is represented by AB and force —— +> P, (100 N) by CD. Fig. 2.1 2.5. CLASSIFICATION OF FORCES: There are several ways in which forces can be classified. Some of the important classifications are given as under : 1. According to the effect produced by the force : (i) External force. When a force is applied external to a body it is called external force. (it) Internal force. The resistance to deformation, o change of shape, exerted by the material of a body is called an internal force. (iii) Active force. An active force is one which causes a body to move or change its shape. (iv) Passive foree. A force which prevents the motion, deformation ofa body is called a passive force. ‘Scanned wih CamScanner2. According to nature of the force + (® Action and reaction. Whenever there nre two bodies in contaet, each exerts a force on the other. Out of these forces one is called action and other is called reaction. Action and reaction are equal and opposite. Ui) Attraction and repulsion. These are actually non-contacting forces exerted by one body or another without any visible medium transmission such as magnetic forces. (iii) Tension and thrust. When a body is dragged with a string the force communicated to the body by the string is called the fension while, if we push the body with a rod, the force exerted on the body is ealled a thrust 3. According to whether the force acts at a point or is distributed over a large area. (# Concentrated force. The force whose point of application is so small that it may be considered as a point is called a concentrated force. (i) Distributed force. A distributed force is one whose place of application is area. 4. According to whether the force acts at a distance or by contact. (i) Non-contacting forces or forces at a distance. Magnetic, electrical and gravit forces are examples of non-contacting forces or forces at a distance. (i) Contacting forces or forces by contact. The pressure of steam in a cylinder and that of the wheels of a locomotive on the supparting rails are examples of contacting forces. 26. FORCE SYSTEMS A force system is a collection of forces acting on a body in one or more planes. According to the relative positions of the lines of action of the forces, the forces may beclassified as follows 1. Coplanar concurrent collinear force system. It is the simplest force system and includes those forces whose vectors lie along the same straight line (refer Fig. 220. ®, », % P, Fig. 22 Fig. 23 2. Coplanar concurrent non-parallel force system. Forces whose lines of action pass through a common point are called concurrent forces. In this system lines of action of all the forces meet at a paint but have different directions in the same plane as shown in Fig. 23. 3. Coplanar non-concurrent parallel farce system. In this system, the lines of action of all the forces lie in the same plane and are parallel toeach other but may not have same direction as shown in Fig. 2.4 4. Coplanar non-concurrent non-parallel force system. Such a system exists where the lines of action ofall forces lie in the same plane but donot pass through a common point. Fig. 2.5, shows such a force system. ‘Scanned wih CamScannerFig. 24 Fig. 25 5. Non-coplanar concurrent force system. This system is evident where the lines of action of all forces do not lie in the same plane but do pass through a common point. An example of this force system is the forces in the legs of tripod support for camera (Fig. 2.6), Fig. 26 6. Non-coplanar non-concurrent force system. Where the lines of netion of all forces do not lie nthe same piane and do not pass through a commen poi system is present. |. a non-coplanar non-coneurrent 2.7. FREE BODY DIAGRAMS A body may consist of more than one element and supports. Each element or support ean be isolated from the rest of the system by incorporating the net effect of the remaining set of forces. This diagram of the isolated element or a portion of the body alony of the system on itis called a ffree-budy diagram’. Free-body diagrams are usef and deformations of the system. In case of a body in Fig. 2.7, we remove the supporting springs and replace it by the reactive force R equal to W in magnitude. The Fig, 2.7 (c) in which the body is completely isolated from its support and in which all forces acting on it are shown by vectors is called a free body diagram Let us consider another case of a beam shown in Fig. 2.8 (a). The beam is supported on a hinge at the left end and on a roller at the right end. The hinge offers vertical and horizontal reaction whereas the roller offers vertical reaction. The beam can be isolated from the supports by setting equivalent forces of the supports. Fig. 2.8 (6) illustrates the free body diagram of the beam in which 2, and R, are reactions of the hinge support and R, the reaction of the roller support. Similarly, the free body diagrams of hinge and roller supports are shown in Figs. 2.8 (c) and 2.8 (d) respectively. in solving the forces ‘Scanned wih CamScannerSuppo ‘Spring . . Re | B L Ak &) © {¢) Fig. 28 2.8, TRANSMISSIBILITY OF A FORCE ‘The principle of transmissibility of forces states that when a force acts upon a body, its effect is the same whatever point tn its line af action is taken ax the pont of the application provided that the point is connected with the reat of the body tn the same invariable manner. A force may be considered as acting at any point on its line of action sa long as the direction and magnitude are not changed. Suppose a body (Fig. 2.9) is to be moved by a horizontal force P applied by hooking a rope to some point on the body. The force P will have the same effect ifit is applied at 1, 2, 3 (Fig. 2.10) or any point on its line af action. This property of force is ealled transinissibility, Line ot acton BS aa Fig.29 ‘Scanned wih CamScanner2.9. PARTICLE A body whose dimensions are practically negligible is called a particle. In any problem of mechanics, when the applied forces have no tendency to rotate the body on which they act, the body may be considered as a particle. Forces acting on the particle are concurrent, the point through which they pass being the point representing the particle. 2.10. RESULTANT FORCE Arresultaat force is a single force which can replace two or more forces and produce the same effecton the body as the forces. Ibis fundamental principle of mechanics, demonstrated by experiment, that when a force acts on a body which is free to move, the motion of the body is in the direction of the force, und the distance travelled in a unit time depends on the magnitude of the force. Then, for ‘a system of concurrent forces acting on a body, the body will move in the direction of the resultant of {that system, and the distance travelled in a unit time will depend on the magnitude of the resuftant. 2.11, COMPONENT OF A FORCE As two forces acting simultaneously on a particle acting long directions inclined to each other can be replaced by a single force whieh produces the saine effeet ns the given force, similarly, single force can be replaced by two forces acting in direetions which will produce the same effect as the given force. ‘This breaking up of a force into two parts is called the resolution ofa force. The force which is broken into two parts is called the resofted force and the parts are called component forces or the resolute. Generally, a force is resolved inte the following two types of components : 1. Mutually perpendicular components 2. Non-perpendicuilar components. 1, Mutually perpendicular components. Let the force P toa be resolved is represented in magnitude and direction by oc in Fig. 2.11. Let P, is the component of force P in the direction oa making an angle « with the direction or of the force. Complete the rectangle oacb, Then the other component P, at right angle to P, will be represented by ob which is also equal to ac. From the right-angled triangle cae P, =02 = Peosa P,s0c=Psina. an Fig 212 2. Non-perpendicular components. Refer Fig. 2.12. Let oc represents the given fore P in magnitude and direction ta some scale. Draw oa and ob making angle cand fh with or. Through ¢ draw ca parallel to ob and cb parallel to oa to complete the parallelogram oacb. Then the vectors ea ‘and ob represent in magnitude and direction (to the same scale) the components P, and P, respectively. ‘Scanned wih CamScanner‘Now from the triangle oae, by applying sine rule, oa, ___we aint sin[180-(a+pP) sing A P P, A. P ” Sin fi” Galesp sina sin fh PP SatasD oe and Py=P (22) sinta+ 21: PRINCIPLE OF RESOLVED PARTS ‘The principle of resolved parts states : “The sum of the resolved parts of two forces acting at a point in any given direction ts equal to the resolved parts of their resultant in that direction, Refer Fig. 2.13, Let the two forces Pand @ be represented, by the sides o@ and ob of the parallelogram eacé and the resultant 2 of these two forces is given by the diagonal ce in magnitude and direction. Let ar is the given diteetion, Draw bf, ae, ed and ag perpendicular to ed. ‘ow from the two triangles olf and acg Which are same in all respects, we get Fig. 213 of = a= ed tal = 0 sed 2 oF +0, But ov of and od represent the resolved components or parts of the forces P, Q and R respectively in the direction of ar It may be noted that this principle holds good for any number of forces. 2.13. LAWS OF FORCES ‘The method of determi of the resultant of some forces acting simultaneously on a particle is called composition of forces. The various laws used for the composition of forces are given as under 1. Parallelogram law of forces 2. Triangle law of forces 3. Polygon law of forces. 1. Parallelogram law of forces. It states as under : “If to forces, acting simultanvously on a particle, be reprewented in magnitude and direction by the tuo adjacent sides of a parallelogram then their resultant may be represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the paratlefogram which passes through their point of intersection.” Refer Fig. 2.14. Let two forces P and @ acting simultaneously on a particle be represented in magnitude and direction by the adjacent sides oa and ob of a parallelogram oacb drawn from a point o, their resultant 2 will be represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal oc of the parallelogram. ‘The value of F can be determined either graphically or analytically as explained below : ‘Scanned wih CamScannerGraphical method. Draw vectors oa and ob to represent to some convenient scale the forces P and Q in magnitude and direction. Complete the parallelogram oacb by drawing ac parallel to ob and be parallel to oa. The twefor oc measured to the same seale will represent the resultant force R. Analytical method. As shown in Fig. 2.14, in the b © parallelogram oacb, from ¢ drop a perpendicular ¢d to oa at d when produced. Now from the geometry of the figure. ead = 0,00 = Q * ed = Qsin0 and ad = Q cos 0 From right-angled triangle, ode Fig 214 oc = Ylod)? + (ed® = loa adi toa « Re (PrQeesoF s1QainoF = (PPG cos? 0+ 2PQ c05 0+ Qala 0 = \PP + @ tein 0+ cos? 0) 2PQ e000 = (Pagano (sat 0 + cas? O# D 5 ne \Pe@etrgano 28) Let the resultant makes an angle u with P as shown in figure. od ‘Then tmab tt. see od = —@sind__ A2AY Case 1. If 0 = 0°, ie., when the forces P and @ act along the same straight line then equation (2.3) reduces to R=P+Q cos 0° = 1) Case 2. 1f0 = 90°, ic., when the forces P and Q act at right angles to each other, then RaVPe@e (Cz ¢08 90° = 0) Case 3. If 0 = 180°, i, the forces P and Q act along the same straight line but in opposite directions, then R=P-Q (2 ¢08 180" = — 1) ‘The resultant will act in the direction of the greater force. 2. Triangle law of forces. It states as under : “If two forces acting siraultaneously on a boxy are represented in magnitude and direction by the tico sides of triangle taken in order then their resultant may be represented in magnitude and direction by the third side taken in opposite order.” Let P and Q be the two coplanar concurrent forces. The resultant force R in this case can be obtained with the help of the triangle Law of forces both graphically and analytically as given below : ‘Scanned wih CamScannerGraphical method. Refer Fig. 2.15. Draw vectorsca and ae torepresent the forces P and Qto some convenient scale in magnitude and direction. Join ac which will represent the resultant force Rin magnitude and direction to the same scale. Analytical method. From the geometry of triangle oae 19). eon = a, Zeca = 0-0, Zeao = 180"-0 a ac. oe sin(-a)” sing ~ sin 80-0) PO ee sin@®-a) sina sin (180°-6) or a a AB) anO-@ sina sind 8. Polygon law of forces. It states as under “Ifa number of coplanar concurrent forces, acting simultanvously on a beely are represented in ‘magnitudeand direction by the sides ofa polygon taken in order, then their resultant may be represented. in magnitude and direction by the closing side of a polygon, taken in the opposite order. e, 8 B (a) Fig 216 ting simultaneously on a particle be represented in magnitude Uthe forces P,, P,P and P, ‘a polygon respectively, their resultant is represented and direction by the sides oa, ab, be and ed by the closing side do in the opposite direction as shown in Fig, 2.16 (b). ‘The law is actually an extension of triangle law of forces. This is so because ob is the resultant of oa and ab and therefore oc which is resultant of ob and bc is also the resultant of oa. ab and be. Similarly, ad is the resultant of ec and ed and therefore of ob, be and cd and finally of oa, ab, be and ed. 2.14. RESULTANT OF SEVERAL COPLANAR CONCURRENT FORCES ‘To determine the resultant of a number of coplanar concurrent forces any of the following two ‘methods may be used : 1. Graphical method (Polygon law of forces) 2, Analytical method (Principle of resolved parts) ‘Scanned wih CamScanner0 © ‘Space ciagram Vester diagram Fig. 217 Resultant by graphical method. Fig. 2.17(a) shows the forces P,P, and P, simultancously acting at a particle O. Draw a vector ab equal to force P, to some suitable seale and parallel to (he line of action of Py. From ‘b' draw vector be to represent force P, in magnitude and direction. Now from °° draw vector ed equal and parallel to force Py Join ad which gives the required resultant in magnitude and direction, the direction being a tod as shown in the vector diagram. Resultant by analytical method. Refer Fig. 2.18. Fig. 218 ‘The resolved parts in the direction OX and OY of P, are P, cos 0, and P, sin 0,, respectively, P, are P,c08 0, and P, sin 0, respectively and P, and P, cos 0, and P, sin 0, respectively. Ifthe resultant R makes an angle 0 with OX then by the principle of resolved parts : Rcos 0 = P, cos 0, +P, cos, + P, £08 0, - oid and Resin 0 =P, sino, + P, sin 0, + P, sin 0, =v ‘Scanned wih CamScannerNow, by squaring and adding eqns. (i) and (i), we get -A2.6) AT) It may be noted that while solving problems proper care must be taken about the signs (+ve or -ve) of the resolved parts. Following sign conventions may he kept in view : Vertical components Upward direction 7 Positive (+) Downward direction 1 Negative (-) Horizontal components : From left to right’ —+ Positive (+) Directions : From right to left <— Negative (-) ‘Scanned wih CamScanner2.15. EQUILIBRIUM CONDITIONS FOR COPLANAR CONCURRENT FORCES: ‘When several forces act on a particle, the particle is said to be in equilibrium if there is no unbalanced forces acting on it, 4, the resultant of all the forces acting on the particle is zero. Analytical and graphical conditions of equilibrium of coplanar concurrent forces are given as under Analytical conditions 1. The algebraic sum of components of all the forces in any direction which may be taken as horizontal, in their plane must be zero. Mathematically, SH = 0. 2. The algebraic sum of components of all the forces in a direction perpendicular to the first. direction, which may be taken ss vertical, in their plane, must be zero. Mathematieally, $V = 0. Graphical conditions. The force polygon, i., force or vector dingram must elase. 2.16. LAMPS THEOREM It states as under : *If three coplanar forces acting on a point in a body keep it in equilibrium, then each force is proportional to the sine of the angle between the other two forces.” Fig. 228 Fig. 229 Fig. 2.28 shows three forces P, Q and R acting at a point O. Let the angle between P and Q be y, between @ and R be «and between R and P be f. Ifthese forces are in equilibrium then according, to Lams theorem : eB ag1O wR A289 sina sinf siny Proof. Let us first consider the two forces P and Q which are represented by the two sides oa and ob of a parallelogram oadb as shown in Fig. 2.29. Then the resultant of these two forces will be given by od (the diagonal of the parallelogram) in magnitude and direction. This means od should be ‘equal to 2 in magnitude but opposite in direction to or as P, Q and R are in equilibrium. 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