English

BUILDING VOCABULARY:
Vocabulary plays an important role in the art of communication. A reader cannot understand the message the
writer has written if he is not familiar with the words the writer has used in his piece of writing. Similarly, a rich
vocabulary empowers the speaker and writer to express their feeling precisely and vividly. To build our vocabulary we
should know the contextual usage, synonyms, antonyms, and idiomatic expressions in detail:

 CONTEXTUAL USAGE:
Understanding contextual usage is crucial because the meaning of a word or phrase can change
depending on the situation or environment in which it is used. Words may have multiple meanings, and their specific
meaning can be determined by the surrounding words, tone, and the overall context. Understanding the social and
cultural nuance attached to the word is also crucial.

Example:  “BANK”:
 Financial institution: “I need to go to the bank to withdraw some money.
 Side of a river: “We walked along the bank of the river.
Here, the bank in the first sentence is a place where financial transactions happen. In the
second sentence, it refers to the land beside a river.
Strategy Master:
 Practice identifying context in reading passages.
 Note how authors use words in varying scenarios.
 Use words in different sentences to explore their range of meaning.

 SYNONYMS:
The word having similar meaning but different intensity, formality or connotation are said to be synonyms.
Mastering synonyms allow one to avoid repetition in speech or writing and to add variety. It enriches the language.

Example:  “HAPPY” can be replaced by:

 CONTENT ( moderately happy, satisfied but not overly excited)
 CHEERFUL ( in a generally good mood, bright and positive)
 ECSTATIC ( extremely happy, almost overwhelmed with joy)
Strategy Master:
 Synonyms are not always interchangeable.
 Choosing right synonyms depends upon emotion, tone of conversation and the audience.
 Use these synonyms in varied sentences to understand subtle difference.

 ANTONYMS:
The word having the opposite meaning are said to be antonyms. Help in contrasting ideas and expressing
thoughts more dynamically. It sharpens the understanding the original words meaning.
Using antonyms is also a powerful tool in persuasive writing of speech, as it enables the writer and speaker to present
opposing ideas effectively. For instance, in a debate on freedom VS restriction, using antonyms to juxtapose (to
compare) can be create a compelling argument.

Example:  EXPAND – Contract

 COMBAT – Peace
 FRAGILE – Strong

Strategy Master:
  Antonyms may be formed in three ways:
 By adding a prefix like – un, non, dis etc.
 By adding a suffix like – less, full etc.
 By using a new word.

 IDOMATIC EXPRESSION:
Idioms are expressions which have a meaning that is not obvious from the individual words. They are deeply rooted
in culture and language. They are challenging for non-native speaker but valuable for achieving fluency.

Usage of idioms:
 They should be used judiciously.
 Overuse can confuse the reader or listener.
 Appropriate use of idioms can add color to a sentence.

Example:  PIECE OF CAKE – Very easy to do

 SPILL THE BEANS – Reveal the truth
 A BLESSING IN DISGUISE – Something good that initially seem to be bad

COMMUNICATIVE GRAMMAR:
Grammar is the backbone of effective communication. It is not only about following the rules but also about
making clear to the reader or listener. The key aspect of grammar, that are crucial in maintaining clarity and coherence
in both written and spoken language, includes Subject-verb-agreement, Verbs Tense, Fragments, Runs-ONS, Modifiers,
Articles, Word Classes etc. describe below:

 SUBJECT-VERB-AGREEMENT:
Subject-verb- agreements refers to the relationship between the subject and its verb, ensuring that they make in
numbers (singular or plural). Proper agreement helps avoid confusion and maintains grammatical consistency.

Rules:
 When subject is singular noun, the verb should also be singular
 When the subject is plural, the verb should be plural

Example:  The company (singular) is growing.

 The employees (plural) are growing.

 VERB TENSES:
Verb tenses indicate the time of action in a sentence. Using the correct tense helps in communication when
an action occurs- Past, Present, Future

Types of Tenses:
 PAST TENSE:
Past tense indicate actions that happened and finished in past
EXAMPLE:
o She visited Paris last year.
 PRESENT TENSE:
Present tense is used for habitual action, general truth, and present states.
EXAMPLE:
o The sun rises in the east.
  FUTURE TENSE:
Future tense is used to describe action that will happen in the future.
EXAMPLE:
o They will attend the conference tomorrow.

 SENTENSE FRAGMENTS:
Sentence fragments are the incomplete sentence lacking subject, a verb or a complete thought. They can
disrupt the flow of writing and leave the reader confused.

Example:
 Running through the forest. ( the subject is missing)
 An old man on the bench. ( the verb is missing)
 Before the rain started. (though there is subject, verb but yet it can’t deliver complete thought)

Usage:
 They occur in speech.
 They are used in stylist writing like (“No way. Not happening. Impossible” , can be used in dialogue writing,
novelistic writing or poems for realistic effect)
 They should be avoided in formal writing.

 RUN-ONS:
Run-on sentences happen when two or more complete sentences (independent clause) are combined without
using proper punctuation or conjunctions.

Example:
 I’m exhausted I can’t study anymore.
 The sun set it was getting dark.

Find the RUN-ON sentence:

The best way to identify the run-on sentence is to check if there is more than one independent clause in the same
sentence without punctuation or a conjunction.

Fix The RUN-ONs:

 Make separate sentences.
 Add a coordinate conjunction. (and, or, but, etc.)
 Add a semicolon if the sentences are closely related.
 Add a subordinating conjunction. ( like because)

 Modifiers:
Modifiers are the words that add description to a sentence. Modifiers are also called DETERMINERS. They
always follow the certain rule described below:
 Determiners/Modifiers are the word like THE, A, MY, EITHER, EVERY etc.
 They come in the beginning of noun phrase but yet they are not adjectives.

Example:
 The moon
 This house
 Every week
Here, The, This, Every are Modifiers
 ARTICLES:
Articles are the words which generalize or specialize a noun.

Example:
 A cat is running in the street.
 The cat which you saw belonged to saleem.

Types of Articles:
 INDEFINITE ARTICLES: Indefinite particles do not point to any particular person. They include A, and AN.
 DEFINITE ARTICLES: Definite articles refer to a particular person or thing. It include THE.

 WORD-CLASSES:
Word classes are also said to be the part of speech, including noun, pronoun, verb, adjective, adverbs,
prepositions, conjunctions and interjection. They are described below:
 NOUN:
A noun is the word that represents a person, place, thing, idea or quantity.
o TYPES:
Proper Noun
Common Noun
Concrete Noun (that can be seen or touched)
Abstract Noun (that cannot be seen or touched)
Countable Noun
Uncountable Noun
Compound Noun ( For example, "blackboard" and "smartphone)
 PRONOUN:
Pronouns are the words that can replace noun.
o TYPES:
Personal Pronoun
Reflexive Pronoun (myself, herself)
Possessive Pronoun (mine, your, our)
Interrogative Pronoun (who, where, why)
Demonstrative Pronoun (this, that, these)

 ADJECTIVE:
Adjective are the words that describe or modify nouns.
o TYPES:
Descriptive Adjective
Quantitative Adjective
Demonstrative Adjective (this, that)
Possessive Adjective (my, their)
Interrogative Adjective (what, whose)
Distributive Adjective (each, every)
Comparative Adjective ( Bigger, more expensive)
Superlative Adjective ( Biggest, most expensive)

 ADVERB:
 Adverb is a word that modifies or describes a verb, adjective or another adverb.
o TYPES:
Adverb of manner (softly, quickly)
Adverb of time (soon, now)
Adverb of place (here, there)
Adverb of frequency (always, often)
Adverb of degree (very, too, quite)
Adverb of reason (because, therefore)

 PREPOSITION:
Preposition is a word that shows the relationship between a noun and other words in a sentence.
o TYPES:
Time
Place
Direction
Manner
Source

 CONJUNTION:
Conjunction is a word that connects words, phrase, clauses or sentences.
o TYPES:
Coordinating Conjunction (that links two independent clause)
Subordinating Conjunction (that links dependent clause)
Correlative Conjunction (pair of Conjunction that works equal like both……and etc.)

 INTERJECTION:
Interjection is a word or phrase that expresses a strong feeling or sudden emotion.
o TYPES:
Interjection of Greeting
Interjection of Joy
Interjection of sorrow
Interjection of surprise

WORD FORMATION:
Word Formation is the process through which new words are created in a language. This process can involve
various methods and mechanisms, and it plays crucial role in the evolution and enrichment of a language.
Understanding word formation help in comprehending how languages grow and adapt to new concepts, and
technologies, and the social changes. Some of the word formation processes are:

 Affixation:
Affixation is one of the most common methods of word formation and involves adding prefixes, suffixes, or
infixes to the base or root words to create a new one.

Prefixes:
Prefixes are the group of letters added to the beginning of words to alter their meaning.

Example:
 “Un”+ ”happy”=”unhappy”
  “Re”+ “do”= “redo”

Suffixes:
Suffixes are the words added to the end of words to modify its meaning or change its grammatical meaning.

Example:
 “Teach”+ “er”= “teacher”
 “Beauty”+ “ful”= “beautiful”

Infixes:
Infixes are the type of affixes that are added within the word, rather at the beginning or the end. Infixes are less
common in English compared to the prefixes and suffixes but can be found in some languages or as part of informal
speech.

Example:
 “Abso-bloody-lutely”
 “Un-bloody-believable”

 Compounding:
Compounding is a word-formation that combines two or more independent words to create a single new word.
There are three main types of compounding:

Open Compounds:
Open compounds are written as separate word but function as a single concepts.

Example:
 “Post office”
 “Full moon”

Hyphenated Compounds:
Hyphenated compounds are written as separate words between the components.

Example:
 “Mother-in-law”
 “Well-being”

Closed Compounds:
Closed compounds are written as single word without spaces or hyphens.

Example:
 “Notebook”
 “Sunflower”

 Clipping:
Clipping shortens a longer word to create a more casual or informal version of it. Mostly used in informal
language when speaker prefers shorter and accessible terms. There are different types of clipping:

Front Clipping:
In front clipping the beginning of a word is omitted.

Example:
  “Telephone” becomes “phone”

Back Clipping:
In back clipping the end of a word is omitted.

Example:
 “Advertisement” becomes “ad”
 “Mathematics” becomes “math”

Middle Clipping:
Middle clipping, though less common, removes the parts of word from the front and back.

Example:
 “Refrigerator” becomes “fridge”

 Back-Formation:
Back formation is a process where a new word is formation by removing an affix from an existing word, usually
creating a new verb.

Example:
 “Editor” becomes “edit”
 “Donation” becomes “donate”

SENTENCE STRUCTURE:
Sentence structure is a fundamental aspect of English grammar, enabling writers and speakers to communicate
their ideas clearly and effectively. The arrangement of words, clause, and phrases within sentences not only determines
the clarity of the message but also adds variety and depth to writing. Sentences can be categorized into four main types:

 Simple Sentences:
Simple sentence is the most basic type of sentence structure. It consist a single independent clause, which
contain a subject and a predicate. An independent clause expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a
sentence. Simple sentences are straightforward and direct, making them easy to understand.
Although simple sentences are limited in complexity, they can be effective in creating emphasis or providing
concise information.

Example:
 The cat slept.
 Sarah enjoys reading.
 The sun rises in the east.

Key Characteristics:
 Single Independent Clause
 No Dependent Clauses
 Direct Expression

 Compound Sentences:
Compound Sentence consist of two or more independent clauses joined together by coordinating conjunction
(like and, but, or), semicolons, or conjunctive adverb (however, therefore). Each independent clause in a compound
sentence could stand alone as a separate sentence, but they are linked to show a relationship between ideas.
 Compound sentences are useful for connecting related ideas and showing the relationship between them.
They add variety to writing and prevent it from becoming monotonous. However, overuse of compound sentences
can result in lengthy statements, so they should be balanced with other sentence types.

Example:
 I want to go for a walk, but it started raining
 The students finished their project, and they presented it to the class

Key Characteristics:
 Multiple Independent Clause
 Coordinating Conjunctions
 Equal Emphasis (each clause is of equal weight and importance)

 Complex Sentences:
Complex sentence is made up of one independent and at least one dependent clause. Complex sentences add
depth to writing by providing additional information and showing how ideas are interconnected. They are
particularly effective in academic and formal writing.

Example:
 Although it was raining, we decided to go hiking.
 The book that I borrowed from the library is fascinating.

Key Characteristics:
 Combination of Independent And Dependent Clause
 Subordinating Conjunctions (because, although, if, when, since)
 Emphasis on relationships (shows as cause-and-effect, contrast, or condition)

 Compound-Complex Sentences:
Compound-complex sentence is the most sophisticated type of sentence structure. It combines elements of
both compound and complex sentences. It contain at least two independent clauses and one or more dependent
clauses. This clause allows for a high degree of complicity and variety in expression.

Example:
 While I was reading, my friend called, and we decided to meet for coffee.
 The professor explained the topic, but the students, who were not paying attention, did not understand it.

Key Characteristics:
 Multiple Independent and Dependent Clauses
 Use of both Coordinating and Subordinating
 High Complexity and Nuance

SOUND PRODUCTION AND PRONUNCIATION:

(Not important just read it from pdf)

COMPREHENSION AND ANALYSIS:

(Just read it from pdf)
UNDERSTANDING PURPOSE, AUDIENCE AND
CONTEXT:
 Understanding Purpose:
The purpose of communication refers to the reason behind a message. It acts as a guiding principle that informs
the content, style, and delivery of the message. Purpose can vary widely, including informing, persuading, entertaining,
or motivating an audience.

Types of purpose:
Following are the types of purpose:

Informative:
The aim is to provide information or knowledge. FOR EXAMPLE: a news article aims to inform reader about current
events.

Persuasive:
The purpose seeks to influence the audience’s beliefs or actions. An advertisement is an EXAMPLE, trying to
persuade consumers to buy a product.

Entertainment:
Some messages are designed to amuse or engage the audience, such as movies or novels.

Importance:
Recognizing the purpose of communication helps in crafting messages that are focused and effective. For instance, a
teacher who aims to inform students about topic must present clear facts and figures.

 Identifying the audience:

The audience refers to the individuals or groups who receive and interpret a message. Understanding the
audience is essential as it shapes how a message should be tailored to ensure resonates and engages effectively.

Types of audience:
Following are the types of audience:

Primary Audience:
The main group, for whom, the message is intended. FOR EXAMPLE: A report aimed at a company’s board of
directors.

Secondary Audience:
Individuals, who may not be the primary focus, but will still receive the message. An EXAMPLE could be employees
reading a report meant for upper management.

General Audience:
Some messages are designed to amuse or engage the audience, such as movies or novels. FOR EXAMPLE: General
public reading on online articles.

Importance:
Recognizing the purpose of communication helps in crafting messages that are focused and effective. For instance, a
teacher who aims to inform students about topic must present clear facts and figures.
 Context in Communication:
Context refers to the circumstances or environment in which communication takes place. It is the circumstances
forming a background of an event idea or statement, in such a way as to enable readers to understand the narrative or a
literacy piece.

Types of context:
Following are the types of context:

Physical Context:
The actual location where communication occurs. FOR EXAMPLE: A conference room may dictate a formal tone,
while a café may foster a more relaxed atmosphere.

Cultural Context:
Cultural backgrounds and norms of the audience and the communicator can influence interpretation. FOR
EXAMPLE: Humor may be appreciated in some cultures bur may not be well received in others.

Social Context:
The relationships between the parties involved affect communication. FOR EXAMPLE: A message from a boss to an
employee will differ in tone and style compared to that between friends..

Importance:
Context helps ensure that your message is understood correctly by your audience. Without context, your message
can be misinterpreted, leading to confusion or even offense. By considering the context, communication can adjust the
delivery to ensure clarity and appropriateness.

CONTEXTUAL INTERPRETATION:
Contextual interpretation plays a pivotal role in how individual understand and respond to communication. It
involves the process of analyzing various elements such as tone, biases, stereotypes, assumption, Inferences that
influences interpretation.

 Tones:
Tones refers to the emotional quality or attitude expressed in communication, it can convey a wide range of
emotions, from enthusiasm and sincerity to sarcasm and anger.

Types of tones:
Following are the types of tones:

Formal Tones:
A formal writing tone is common in academic or professional contexts. They are used in professional settings,
characterized by proper language and structure.

Informal Tones:
An informal tone is the opposite of a formal tone. Informal tone in writing is conversational and expressive, similar
to the talk among friends.

Neutral Tones:
A neural tone is factual tone that does not convey the author’s feelings. It avoids emotional language, focusing
solely on facts, often used in reports
Importance:
The tones in contextual writing are crucial because they set the emotional atmosphere of message. They right
tone ensure clarity and strengthens tshe connection between the writer and the reader.

 Biases:
Biases refer to a preconceived notion that affects one’s judgment and interpretation. Biases can be conscious or
unconscious and can be stem from personal experiences, cultural backgrounds, and societal influences.

Types of biases:
Following are the types of biases:

Cognitive Bias:
Involves systematic error in thinking that affect decisions and judgments. EXAMPLE includes confirmation bias,
where individual favor information that confirms their existing beliefs.

Cultural Bias:
Arises when individual interprets information through the lens of their cultural norms and values, potentially leading
to misunderstandings when interacting with different cultures.

Media Bias:
This type of bias occurs when media outlets present information in a way that favors a particular perspective or
agenda, influencing perception.

Importance:
To promote effective communication, individuals must be aware of their biases and strive to minimize their
influence. This can be achieved through self-reflection, and seeking diverse perspectives.

 Stereotypes and Assumptions:

Stereotypes are generalized beliefs or perception about a group of people, often oversimplified and not
accurate.

Types of stereotypes:
Following are the types of stereotypes:

Radical and Ethnic Stereotypes:

These are the stereotypes based on race which can lead to harmful generalizations.

Gender Stereotypes:
These are the preconceived notions about the characteristics and roles of different genders

Occupational Stereotypes:
These are the assumptions about individual based on their profession, such as belief that artists are not practical or
that doctor lacks creativity.

Impacts:
Stereotypes can distort interpretation and lead to miscommunication. They create hindrance in progress toward
equality leading unfair treatment and lack of opportunities in workspace.

Assumptions in interpretation:
 Assumptions are the beliefs taken for granted without evidence. They can lead to misunderstandings and
misinterpretations. Effective communicator should strive to clarify assumptions and seek confirmation before drawing
conclusions.

 Inferences:
Inferences are the conclusions drawn from evidence or reasoning rather than explicit statements. They are a
natural part of communication but can lead to incorrect interpretations based on insufficient information.

Types of inferences:
Following are the types of inferences:

Logical Inferences:
These are drawn from logical reasoning based on the information presented (someone late due to traffic)

Emotional Inferences:
Emotional inferences arise from interpreting emotions conveyed through tone, body language or context.

Importance:
Clarifying inferences is vital for effective communication. Misinterpretation occurs when individuals draw conclusion
without fully understanding the context.

READING STRATEGIES:
Reading is an essential skill that plays a crucial role in learning and communication. However, effective reading
undergoes beyond simply decoding words in a page. It requires various strategies to enhance comprehension. These
strategies are:

 Skimming:
Skimming is the technique used to quickly identify the main ideas and overall structure of a text without focusing
on every word

Purpose of skimming:
The primary purpose of skimming is to grasp the essential concept quickly, making it an ideal approach for:

Previewing Tasks:
Before reading a chapter or articles, skimming helps the reader to familiarize themselves with the content.

Deciding Relevance:
When faced multiple sources, skimming allows reader to determine which materials are worth a closer look.

Reinforcing Memory:
After a detailed overview, skimming can serve as a review method to refresh the ideas.

Method of skimming:
To skim effectively, reader should:
 Focus to heading and subheadings
 Read the Introduction and Conclusion
 Look for keywords and phrases (ITALIC WORDS FOR CONSIFERATION)
 Avoid getting caught in details

Limitations:
 While skimming is a valuable technique, it has limitations. It may lead to missing critical arguments, or important
details necessary for a comprehensive understanding.

 Scanning:
Scanning is a reading technique employed to locate the specific information within the text quickly

Purpose of scanning:
The main purpose of scanning:

Quick Reference:
Scanning is often used when looking for specific information, such as when reference book or searching for answers
in an exam.

Efficient Information Retrieval:

In researches or data collection, scanning helps identifying relevant information without reading whole text

Method of scanning:
To scan effectively, reader should:
 Know what to look for
 Use visual cues (LOOK FOR BULLET POINTS, LISTS AND HEADING)
 Move eye rapidly across the page

Limitations:
While scanning is an efficient way to locate information, it requires familiarity with the material. If a reader lacks
background knowledge, they may struggle to identify relevant details

 SQ4R Method:
SQ4R stands for Survey, Question, Read, Recite, Review, and reflect.

Purpose:
It is comprehensive reading strategy designed to enhance comprehension

Components:
 Survey (TO GET OVERVIEW OF STRUCTURE AND MAIN IDEAS)
 Question (FORMULATE QUESTION TO GUIDE THE READING PROCESS)
 Read
 Recite (AFTER READING SUMMARIZE IN YOUR OWN WORDS)
 Review
 Reflect ( THINK CRITICALLY ABOUT TEXT)
Benefits:
It encourages active engagement with material leading to improve comprehension

Limitations:
While SQ4R is a valuable effective, it can be time consuming. It may not be practical for shorter text. Therefore,
reader should access the context to determine whether this method is appropriate.
 Critical Reading:
Critical reading involves analyzing and evaluating the content of text to understand its deeper meaning.

Purpose:
The main purpose of critical thinking includes:
 DEVELOPING ANALYTICAL SKILLS: Readers learn to access the strength of arguments.
 FOSTERING INDEPENDENT THINKING: Critical thinking encourages readers to form their own opinions.
 ENHANCEING UNDERSTANDING: By engaging with the text, critical thinking give a deeper understanding.

Ways of Critical Thinking:

To engage in critical thinking, reader should:
 ASK QUESTION
 IDENTIFIY BIASES
 EVALUATE EVIDENCE
 MAKE CONNECTIONS

Limitations:
While critical thinking is essential for developing analytical skills, it can be challenging and time-consuming.
Some readers may encounter difficulties to maintain objectivity. Therefore, it is crucial to practice critical thinking
consistently to refine these skills.

ACTIVE LISTENING:
Active listening is crucial in communication skills that involve fully engaging with a speaker to understand their
message. It is the technique that not only involves hearing the words spoken but also understanding, interpreting and
responding to the message.

Components:
Active listening compromises several key components.

 Attention
 Feedback (Providing verbal or non-verbal cues to such as nodding or summarizing)
 Empathy (understanding speakers emotions and perspective)
 Retention (Remembering key points from the conversation for future reference)
 Over-Coming Listening Barriers:
Despite the importance of active listening, several barriers can occur. Understanding these barriers is essential for
developing strategies to overcome them.

EXTERNAL BARRIERS:
External barriers are environmental factors that disrupt the conversation. Some common external barriers include:
 Noise (BACKGROUND SOUNDS)
 Physical Distractions (VISUALI STIMULI SUCH AS MOVEMENT)
 Technology Interruptions (NOTIFICATIONS FROM PHONE)

INTERNAL BARRIERS:
Internal barriers arise from listeners thoughts, feeling or attitudes. Some common internal barriers are:
  PRECONCEPTION (having preconceived notions about the speaker can lead to selective listening)
 EMOTIONAL STATE ( stress, anger, and anxiety can impact a listeners ability to focus)
 LACK OF EMPATHY ( focusing on responding rather than understanding)

STRATEGIES TO OVERCOME:
To overcome the barriers, individual can adopt several strategies:
 Minimize Distraction
 Practice mindfulness (FOCUS ON PRESENT AVOIDING EMOTIONS)

 Focused Listening:
Focused listening is a specific aspect of active listening that emphasizes directing full attention to the speaker. It
requires the listener to engage deeply with the message being conveyed.

Techniques:
Some techniques can enhance focused listening:
 Maintain Eye Contact
 Use Affirmative Nods (NODDING OCCASIONALLY )
 Avoid Interrupting
 Ask Clarifying Questions

Benefits:
Focused listening yields numerous benefits, including:
 IMPROVED COMPREHENSION (Listener can grasp complex ideas by full concentration)
 ENHANCE RELATIONSHIPS ( foster trust as speaker feel valued)
 CONFLICT RESOLUTION ( focusing allows to understand different perspectives, paving way for constructive
dialogues in conflicts)

PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION:
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 Skimming:
Skimming is the technique used to quickly identify the main ideas and overall structure of a text without focusing
on every word

Purpose of skimming:
The primary purpose of skimming is to grasp the essential concept quickly, making it an ideal approach for:

Previewing Tasks:
Before reading a chapter or articles, skimming helps the reader to familiarize themselves with the content.

Deciding Relevance:
When faced multiple sources, skimming allows reader to determine which materials are worth a closer look.

Reinforcing Memory:
After a detailed overview, skimming can serve as a review method to refresh the ideas.

Method of skimming:
To skim effectively, reader should:
 Focus to heading and subheadings
  Read the Introduction and Conclusion
 Look for keywords and phrases (ITALIC WORDS FOR CONSIFERATION)
 Avoid getting caught in details

Limitations: