1

Renewable Energy Engineering

Photovoltaic Technologies

Teaching Assistant
Eng. Ahmed Hendawy
Course Outline

#1st day: Basics

1. Solar Energy Fundamentals.
2. PV Markets and Applications.
3. PV System concepts (stand-alone, grid-tied, backup).
4. Basics of solar electricity (series, parallel connection, current, voltage)
5. PV cell technology and PV Module characteristics and their influence on yields, I-V-
characteristic curve.

#2nd day: System Design – Off-Grid

6. Components of PV systems, battery technology, charge controllers, inverters.
7. Planning and design of off-grid systems.
8. Case Study: Design of a PV system for a typical Egyptian household.

15. Commissioning, Maintenance

16. Live Installation
 3
#3rd day: System Design On-Grid
9. PV plant components and data sheets.
10. Yield analysis and optimization
11. Customer Consultation and site survey.
12. Planning and design of on-grid systems.

#4th day: Finance

13. Performance Analysis, Maintenance and Troubleshooting.
14. Pricing and quoting PV systems

#5th day: Final Exam

 2

INTRODUCTION
Energy Consumption 3

World Energy Consumption

The present global yearly primary energy consumption in round
figure is:

140000 TWh ( T for Tera )

Dividing by the number of hours in the year gives:

16000 GW
Finite Resources 4

1- Oil enough for 30 years

2- Natural gas enough for 60 years
3- Coal enough for 100 years
4- Nuclear enough for 85 years

5- Renewable Last for ever

The Environmental Impact of Energy Use
5

 All fossil fuels create carbon dioxide.

 Carbon dioxide increases in the earth atmosphere.

 Nitrogen oxides, Nox + Sulfur, SOx creates acid rain.

 Global warming is predicted as a result of carbon

dioxide concentration increases in the earth
atmosphere.
 6
The Kyoto Protocol

 Signed in 1997, the Kyoto Protocol aims at reducing

greenhouse gas emissions in the period 2008 to
2012 to 5.2 % below those in 1990.
Generation 7

Types of Electric Power Generation Stations

First, conventional power plants

1- Thermal Power Plant

(a) Fossil fuel ( Oil, Coal and Gas )
(b) Nuclear

2- Hydro- electric Power Plant

Thermal Power Plant 8
Fossil Fuel Power Plant
9
Hydro-electric Power Plant
10
 Generation
11
Second, Non-conventional power plants

1- Solar Energy Power Plants.

(a) Thermal solar power plant
(b) Photovoltaic power plant

2- Wind Energy Power Plant.

3- Geo-Thermal Power Plant.

4- Tidal and Waves Power Plant

5- Biomass Power Plant.

Geo-thermal Power
12

❖power generated using steam produced by

heat emanating from the molten core of the
earth.

❖Geothermal power is considered to

be sustainable because the heat extraction is
small compared with the Earth's heat
content. The emission intensity of existing
geothermal electric plants is on average
122 kg of CO2 per megawatt-hour (MHh) of
electricity, about one-eighth of a
conventional coal-fired plant.
Wind Energy 13
Wind energy form of energy conversion in which turbines convert the kinetic energy of wind into
mechanical or electric energy that can be used for power. Since wind does not require the use of
fossil fuels, it is considered a renewable energy resource

•The advantage of wind turbines

1.They are pollution free.
2.Using wind energy means that less fossil fuel (coal and
oil) needs to be burned to make electricity
•The disadvantages of wind turbines
1.spoil the look of the natural environment.
2.Wind turbines make noise.
Tidal Power
14

Tidal power, also called tidal energy, is a form of hydropower that converts
the energy of tides into useful forms of power - mainly electricity.

▪Advantages of Tidal Energy

1) It is an inexhaustible source of energy.
2) Tidal energy is environment friendly energy and doesn't
produce greenhouse gases.

▪Disadvantages of Tidal Energy

1) Cost of construction of tidal power plant is high.

2) There are very few ideal locations for construction
of plant and they too are localized to coastal
regions only.
Wave Power
15
Wave power is the transport of energy by ocean surface waves, and the capture
of that energy to do useful work.

•Advantages of Wave Power

1)Capable of high efficiency (60-80%) in ideal
conditions.
2)Renewable energy source obtained by wind via the
Sun’s heating of our atmosphere.

•Disadvantages of Wave Power

1)Improperly placed wave power plants can damage the marine
ecosystem.
2)Efficiency drops significantly in rough weather due to safety
mechanisms.
Hydro-elecrticity
16

Hydroelectricity is a form of electricity which is produced by water power. For eg:

DAMS…

Advantages:
1. Once a dam is constructed, electricity can be produced at
a constant rate.
2 . The lake's water can be used for irrigation purposes.

Disadvantages:
1. Dams are extremely expensive to build and
must be built to a very high standard.

2.The flooding of large areas of land means that

the natural environment is destroyed.
Biomass 17

Biomass - Biomass is the common name for organic

materials used as renewable energy sources such as; wood,
crops, and waste.
20
21
Solar Energy System 18

 It is a system that converts solar irradiation into electric

power.
 It is divided into two categories:

Photovoltaic Thermal Solar

system (PV) System

Flat Plate Parabolic Parabolic Power

Collector Trough Dish Tower
Concentrating Solar Power Systems (CSP) 19

 Converting sunlight indirectly to electricity.

 The sun is used as a source of heat to boil water stored in a

largest System receiver. The steam from the boiling water
rotates a turbine, which activates a generator that produces
electricity.

♦ There are three main types:

 Parabolic-trough.
 Flat plate collector.
 Power tower.
 Dish/engine.
Solar Dish / Engine Generator 20
The Parabolic Dish 24
 A parabolic dish system, or solar dish, as they are
sometimes known, is composed of a single structure
supporting a parabolic dish covered with mirrors that
reflect light on a solar receiver located at the focal point
of the dish, as shown in figure .

 On average, the dishes are between 8 and 10 m in

diameter, but in some cases they can be much larger,
for example, the world’s largest is the ‘Big Dish’ in
Australia which has an aperture of 400 m2.

 The Big Dish has 54 triangular mirror elements attached to

the dish-frame and produces steam at 500 °C, which
feeds a steam engine driven generator connected to the
Canberra grid.
Solar Power Tower 21
 The Central Tower System
23
 the central tower system is somewhat different as the solar collector field is
composed of several hundred individual, large sun tracking flat plane mirrors,
called heliostats.

 These heliostats track the path of the sun throughout the day and focus the rays on
the solar receiver.

 The solar receiver can be an area of a few metres square which is located on the
tower at a height of between 50 to 100 m according to the level of concentrated

radiation to be collected.
• In these systems, a working fluid, either air or molten salt are pumped
through the receiver where it is heated up to 550°C.
• The heated fluid can then be used to generate steam to produce electricity.
• Grid connection does not pose technical problems for CSP because in CSP
plants the electricity generation utilises standard components from the
power industries.
 The Parabolic Trough
22
 This is the form of a CSP system, where the solar collector
field is composed of rows of trough shaped solar collector
elements, usually mirrors, with an integral receiver tube.
This concept is pictured below

• The reflectors are parabolic in one dimension only and

form a long parabolic shaped trough of up to 150m in
length.
• The collectors are usually installed in rows and the total
solar field is composed of several parallel rows.
Distributed Generation 28

 Power systems have developed over the years to supply a varying

demand from centralized generation sourced from fossil and nuclear
fuels.

 Renewable energy sources are much smaller than the fossil fuelled,
they must connected to the distribution network.

 Such sources are known as distributed generation

 It is also known as embedded generation.

Renewable Energy Penetration
29

Penetration is the proportion of electrical energy or power being supplied

from renewable sources. It is usually expressed as a percentage.
Energy from renewable source (KWh)
Average penetration = ---------------------------------------------
Total energy delivered to load (KWh)

Power from renewable source (KW)

Instantaneous penetration = -------------------------------------------
Total power delivered to load (KW)
Solar Energy Technology 30

There are two main technologies for the conversion of sunlight into
electricity:

1- Photovoltaic (PV) cells: which utilizes semiconductor devices for

the direct conversion of the solar radiation into electrical energy.

2- Solar Thermal systems: Which utilizes the heat of the solar radiation
to produce steam which in turn is used to drive a turbo generator.
 What is Solar Electricity? 31

1. Photovoltaic Electricity (PV):

1. Sunlight hits the surface of the photovoltaic cell.

2. A material called a semi-conductor converts the light
into electricity
PV Markets and Applications.
World cumulative installed capacity 33

2009: 23 GW.
2010: 40.3 GW
2011: 70.5 GW.
2012: 100 GW
2013: 138.9 GW
Advantages of using PV system 34

1 Absence of moving parts.

2. They consume no fuel to operate on solar energy.

3. Maintenance cost is low as they are easy to operate.

4. They do not create pollution.

5. They have long effective life.

6. They have high power to weight ratio.

World PV market development
36

2015 Global PV regional installations per habitant

Middle East: 530 MW.

Africa: 422 MW
Asia: 37,344 MW
Europe: 81,488 MW
North America: 13,446 MW Latin
America: 281 MW
World PV market development
37
Africa Potential Of Solar Energy
World PV market development 38
Egypt potential of solar energy

• The average annual energy In Egypt is between

1900 – 2700 KWh/m²

• This analysis proof that the solar energy brought by

Egypt area may full-fill 20% from the world need
from energy !!
Renewable Energy Sources Classification
39

Renewable energy sources can be classified as:

Standalone system
OR
Grid-connected system
PV system applications and Concept
40
Stand-Alone Systems Applications

• It is a renewable energy source (with or without other back-up source or

storage) Supplies the load demand alone.

• Lighting: PV systems are currently used to provide lighting for billboards,

highway information signs, public-use facilities, parking lots, marinas,
homes.

• Communications: Radio, television, and phone signals over long distances

need to be amplified.
PV system applications and Concept
41
Utility Interactive Applications (Grid-Connected):
• It Is a renewable energy source feeds power to a large interconnected grid.

• offset electricity costs when the PV system is not large enough to satisfy all
the energy demands.

• Since a PV system can only generate electricity when the sun is shining, some
provision must be made to have electricity at night and during cloudy
weather.

• a properly designed PV system with battery storage can be used to provide

power during peak load periods, potentially leading to greater savings.
Principle Of Operation & Construction
42
• PV (photovoltaic) Solar Panels generate electricity by the Photovoltaic
Effect. Discovered in 1839 by 19yr old Edmund Becquerel. The photovoltaic
effect is the phenomenon that certain materials produce electric current when they
are exposed to light.

• For traditional PV solar panels a semiconductor PN junction

is manufactured in which two halves of one pure silicon
crystal are doped with two different dopants (e.g. arsenic,
gallium, aluminium, phosphorus). One half of the crystal is
left electron deficient (the p-type layer), and one half is left
with an excess of electrons (the n-type layer). The dopants in
the semiconductor lead to an electric field across the junction
between the two halves of the crystal with electrons able to
travel in one direction only - from the electron rich half to the
electron poor half.

• Where the two halves of the crystal meet, there is a depletion region, so called
because it is depleted of charge carriers (electrons and holes). The potential between
the two sides of around 0.6-0.7 volts in a silicon pn junction is created. This potential
barrier between the p and n-type sides of the crystal prevents further electrons and
Photovoltaic Cell Construction
43

 Photovoltaic cells are made of a semiconductor material.

 The most common semiconductor used is silicon.

 The two layers of silicon that constitute a silicon‐based PV cell are

modified (doped) to more likely:

1) loose electrons.

2) produce holes in the

molecular structure where

Electrons can reattach.

 Photovoltaic Cell Fundamentals
44
‐ the p‐n junction is the boundary in the semiconductor material
where the region of electron depletion neighbours the region of
electron surplus; right at the junction, the n‐type and p‐type do
mix (creating an electric field) and form something of a barrier,
making it harder and harder for electrons on the n-side

to cross over to the p-side.

 The Photovoltaic Cell
46

Sx
Tx I ph Rs
I0 IC
D Rsh VC


  e    VC + RS I C
I C = I ph − I 0 exp  (VC + RS IC ) − 1 −

  kTC    Rsh
 The Photovoltaic Cell
47

Sx I ph Rs
I0 IC
Tx
D VC


  e  
I C  I ph − I 0 exp  (VC + RS I C ) − 1

  kTC   

AkTC  I ph + I 0 − I C 
VC = ln   − RS I C
e  I0 
 The Photovoltaic Cell
45

Iph

Sx
Io
Tx

Iph: photocurrent, function of irradiation level and junction

temperature

Io: reverse saturation current of diode (0.0002 A).

I‐V Characteristics of A (Ideal) Solar Cell
48
 The maximum power Pmax produced by a solar cell is reached
when the product I‐V (current * voltage) is maximum.
 This can be shown graphically where the position of the maximum
power point represents the largest area of the rectangle shown.

V
 The Photovoltaic Cell
49

P-V
I-V Characteristic Characteristic
Isc

Im

CURRENT (A)
POWER (W) For a certain solar
insulation and
ambient
temperature

VOLTAGE (V) Vm Voc

Photovoltaic cells: IV curve: Fill factor: Specifications 49

• Fill Factor (%): The ratio of actual rated maximum power Pm to the theoretical (not actually
obtainable) maximum power (Isc x Voc ). This is a key parameter in evaluating the performance
of solar panels.
• Typical commercial solar panels have a fill factor > 0.70,

FF = Fill factor
Pmax Pmax = Maximum power out (W)
FF =
Voc I sc Voc = Open circuit Voltage(V)
Ics = Short circuit current (A)
Photovoltaic cells: IV curve: Fill factor:Specifications 50

FF = 0.75

FF = 0.45
Photovoltaic cells: IV curve: Fill factor: Specifications
52
Specifications

• The power generated by a single PV cell is very small.

Therefore single PV Cells with the same operating
characteristics are combined in series and parallel to
build up PV panels with more power.

• And panels are combined together to get much more

power.
Photovoltaic power
52
Photovoltaic cells: Arrays: Cells in parallel

A
Voltage from A to B = 0.5V
Current through A = B = 3A

B
A
Voltage fro A to B = 0.5V
Current through A = B = 6A

B
A
Voltage fro A to B = 0.5V
Current through A = B = 9A

B
Photovoltaic power 53
Photovoltaic cells: Arrays: Cells in parallel
Photovoltaic power 54
Photovoltaic cells: Arrays: Cells in series

A B Voltage from A to B = 0.5V

Current through A = B = 3A

A B Voltage fro A to B = 1.0V

Current through A = B = 3A

A B Voltage fro A to B = 1.5V

Current through A = B = 3A
Photovoltaic power
55
Photovoltaic cells: Arrays: Cells in series
 The Photovoltaic Cell
56

P (W )
I (A) Pm3
P-V Curves

Pm2
I sc 3
I-V Curves
Pm1
I sc2 Q3

I sc1
Q2
I m1
Q1

S1 < S 2 < S 3
0
0 Vm1 V01 V (V)
 Module: A group of PV cells connected in series and/or parallel 57
and
encapsulated in an environmentally protective laminate.
 Panel: A structural group of modules that is the basic building 58
block of a PV array.
 Array: A group of panels that comprises the complete direct current PV
59
generating unit.
Photovoltaic Components 54

 The basic building block of a PV system is the individual solar cell.

 Individual cells are assimilated into ‘strings’ which make up a
module; modules are then assembled in arrays.
 Modules are constructed by placing PV cells in series and parallel
arrangements
Photovoltaic power 61
Photovoltaic cells: Arrays

Cell Module Array

 The Photovoltaic Cell 53

5A
Series modules PVMod PVMod PVMod PVMod PVMod
25 V 25 V 25 V 25 V 25 V
5A
Series modules PVMod PVMod PVMod PVMod PVMod
25 V 25 V 25 V 25 V 25 V
5A
Series modules PVMod PVMod PVMod PVMod PVMod
25 V 25 V 25 V 25 V 25 V

15 A
125 V

Array = 1.875 kW
 63
Data Sheet of PV Modules (ASTRONERGY)
Specification Of Solar Modules
64
1. Maximum Power (Pm).
2. Open Circuit Voltage (Voc).
3. Short Circuit Current (Isc).
4. Voltage at max. Power (Vm).
5. Current at max. Power (Im).

dimensions weight
Pm(W) Voc(V) Isc(A) Vmp(V) Imp(A)
(mm) （KG）

100 22.53 5.81 18.40 5.44 1195*541*30 8.0

110 22.10 6.54 18.00 6.12 1150*670*30 9.5

125 21.60 7.43 18.00 6.95 1246*676*30 10.5

150 22.57 8.72 18.40 8.15 1486*676*35 12.0

185 44.10 5.44 36.35 5.09 1580*808*35 15.5

250 36.70 8.82 30.30 8.26 1650*990*40 20.0

300 43.70 8.79 36.50 8.23 1950*990*50 23.0

Definitions of PV Specifications
65
 Maximum Rated Power Pm (Watt): The maximum power output from a PV panel at STC
which is usually labeled on the panel nameplate.

 Maximum Power Voltage Vmp: The voltage where a panel outputs the maximum
power.

 Maximum Power Current Imp: The maximum amperage where a panel outputs the
maximum power.

 Open-Circuit Voltage Voc: The maximum voltage generated by a PV panel exposed

to sunlight with no load connected.

 Short-Circuit Current Isc: The maximum amperage generated by a PV panel exposed

to sunlight with the output terminals shorted.
Temperature Effect
66
 Temperature has an important effect on
the power output.

 The most significant is the temperature

dependence of the voltage which
decreases with increasing temperature.

 Pmax decreases, as T of cell increases.

 the voltage decrease of a silicon cell is

typically 2.3 mV per oC.

 the temperature variation of the current is

less pronounced (usually neglected in PV
design).
Why Voltage is decreased? 67

 Open circuit voltage

𝑛𝐾𝐵 𝑇 𝐽𝑃𝐻
 𝑉𝑜𝑐 = ln( + 1)
𝑞 𝐽0

Temperature
Notes 68

 Solar modules that have high 𝑽𝒐𝒄 is less affected by the temperature
than solar modules with low 𝑽𝒐𝒄
Temperature Coefficients 69

 It is the factor that indicate of changing other factors by changing an

ambient temperature.

 This factor affect on Voltage , current and power

 It exist of datasheet under specified conditions.

How can we calculate the change in power? 70

 Based on the cell temperature, the output power dependence

on temperature is given by:

𝑑𝑃
 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑃𝑆𝑇𝐶 + 𝑥 (𝑇𝐶𝑒𝑙𝑙 − 25)
𝑑𝑇
Example 71

 For 250 W panel

 If 𝑷𝑺𝑻𝑪 = 250 W

𝒅𝑷
 = -2 W/ 0c
𝒅𝑻

 T = 30 0c

𝒅𝑷
 𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝑷𝑺𝑻𝑪 + 𝒙 (𝑻𝑪𝒆𝒍𝒍 − 𝟐𝟓)
𝒅𝑻

 𝐏𝐨𝐮𝐭 = 250 + (-2)(30-25) = 240 W

Other Laws from references 72

 𝑷𝒎𝒑𝒑 (T) = 𝑷𝒎𝒑𝒑 (25 0C) x [ 1+ 𝜸(𝑷𝒎𝒑𝒑 ) x (T-25)]

 𝑽𝒎𝒑𝒑 (T) = 𝑽𝒎𝒑𝒑 (25 0C) x [ 1+𝜷(𝑽𝒎𝒑𝒑 )x (T-25)]

 𝑰𝒎𝒑𝒑 (T) = 𝑰𝒎𝒑𝒑 (25 0C) x [ 1+𝜶(𝑰𝒎𝒑𝒑 )x (T-25)]

 𝑽𝒐𝒄 (T) = 𝑽𝒐𝒄 (25 0C) x [ 1+𝜷(𝑽𝒐𝒄 )x (T-25)]

 𝑰𝑺𝑪 (T) =𝑰𝑺𝑪 (25 0C) x [ 1+𝜶(𝑰𝑺𝑪 )x (T-25)]

Example
73
 For calculating change in power according to temperature:

 𝑷𝒎𝒑𝒑 (T) = 𝑷𝒎𝒑𝒑 (25 0C) x [ 1+ 𝜸 𝑷𝒎𝒑𝒑 x (T-25)]

 For 250 W panel:

 𝑷𝒎𝒑𝒑 (T) = 𝟐𝟓𝟎 x [ 1+ −. 𝟎𝟎𝟒𝟕 x (30-25)] =244 W

Definitions of PV Specifications
Temperature Coefficients 74
 Short-Circuit Current Temperature Coefficient α (%/°C): The change in panel short-circuit current
per degree Celsius at temperatures other than 25°C.

 For example, consider a series string of ten 8A (Isc) panels installed at a site with a record low of
15°C. Given a Isc temperature coefficient (0.04%/°C), the decrease in current will be 0.32A,
making for an overall maximum system current of 7.68A.

 Open-Circuit Voltage Temperature Coefficient β (%/°C) The change in panel open-circuit voltage
at temperatures other than 25°C. If given, It is most commonly used to calculate maximum
system voltage (per NEC Article 690.7) for system design and labeling purposes.

 For example, consider a series string of ten 43.6V (Voc) panels installed at a site with a record low
of -10°C. Given a Voc temperature coefficient of -160mV/°C, The voltage per panel will rise
5,600mV (= 160mV x (-10°C – 25°C)), making for an overall maximum system voltage of 492V (=
10 x (5.6V + 43.6V)), which is under the 600VDC limit for PV system equipment.
 75
 Maximum Power Temperature Coefficient δ(%/°C): The change in panel output power
for temperatures other than 25°C. It is used to calculate how much panel power will be
lost or gained due to temperature changes.

 In hot climates, cell temperatures can reach an excess of 70°C (158°F). Consider a
panel maximum power rating of 200W at STC, with a temperature coefficient of

 -0.5%/°C. At 70°C, the actual output of this panel would be approximately 155W. Panels
with lower power temperature coefficients will fare better in higher-temperature
conditions. Thin-film panels have relatively low temperature coefficients which reflects
better high-temperature performance.
Influence of The Temperature on Module Power Generation 76
Irradiance Effect
77
 Solar cell characteristics vary under different
levels of illumination.

 The light generated current (flowing of

electrons) is proportional to the flux of
photons with above‐band gap energy.

 By increasing the irradiance the power

increases, in the same proportion, generates
a proportionally higher current.

 Therefore the short circuit current is directly

proportional to the irradiance.

 the voltage variation is much smaller and is

usually neglected.
What are Standard Test Conditions (STC)?
78
 STC stands for “Standard Test Conditions” and are the industry standard for the conditions under which a solar
panel are tested. By using a fixed set of conditions, all solar panels can be more accurately compared and rated
against each other. There are three standard test conditions which are:

 1. Temperature of the cell 25°C. The temperature of the solar cell itself, not the temperature of the surrounding.

 2. Solar Irradiance 1000 Watts per square meter. This number refers to the amount of light energy falling on a
given area at a given time.

 3. Mass of the air 1.5. This number is somewhat misleading as it refers to the amount of light that has to pass
through Earth’s atmosphere before it can hit Earth’s surface, and has to do mostly with the angle of the sun
relative to a reference point on the earth. This number is minimized when the sun is directly above as the light
has to travel a minimum distance straight down, and increases as the sun goes farther from the reference point
and has to go at an angle to hit the same spot.
STC vs PTC
79
 STC stands for Standard Test Conditions. These are measured under lab conditions
of 1000W per sq meter of “sunlight” with a standard spectrum etc. It is a nominal
or name plate value. For instance, a Kyocera 180Watt panel is 180Watts (STC). An
array made from 10 of these panels is considered 1,800Watts (STC). When talking
about the array size, the STC number is always used. It is a handy way of
comparing arrays to each other, etc.

 PTC stands for PVUSA Test Condition. This is much closer to real world conditions.
The PTC value is used by California to figure your rebate. A Kyocera 180W panel is
156W (PTC)

 Some blogs and websites are defining PTC as “Performance Test Conditions” but
this is simply wrong. I have also seen “Pacific Test Conditions” or some such thing.
Don’t believe everything you read.
Nominal Operating Cell Temperature (NOCT):
80
The temperature of each panel at :

irradiance of 800 W/m2

ambient air temperature of 20°C

wind speed is 1 m/s

NOCT is a very critical parameter that is required by various performance, qualification and energy
rating standards/methods. It can be used with the maximum power temperature coefficient to get a
better real-world estimate of power loss due to temperature increase.

The cell temperature of open-rack panels , however, is governed by several external factors such as
ambient temperature, irradiance level, wind speed, wind direction, and tilt-angle of the panel in an
array. The difference in cell temperature and ambient temperature is dependent on sunlight’s
intensity (W/m2). For example, if a particular panel has an NOCT of 40°C and a maximum power
temperature coefficient of -0.5%/°C, power losses on temperature can be estimated at about
7.5%(=0.5% x (40°C – 25°C)).
Electrical Performance

*STC: 1000W/m2, 25°C, AM 1.5

*NOCT: 800W/m2, 20°C, AM 1.5
Is the intended degree heat is the degree of cell or heat the 82
surrounding air ?

 NOCT Model

(𝑁𝑂𝐶𝑇−20)
 𝑇𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 = 𝑇𝑎𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 + 𝐺
800 𝑤/𝑚2
How can we increase the production of power from PV 83
system?

 1- Fill Factor
 2- Temperature Effect.
 3- Irradiance Effect.
 4- installation angle of Solar Panel.
 5- MPPT System.
installation angle of Solar Panel 84

 We have two expressions:

 1- Tilt Angle ‫الميل‬
 2- Orientation ‫االتجاه‬
Tilt angle 85

 the angle between the plane of the collector (or aperture) and
the horizontal. Denoted by the symbol beta with no
subscript 𝜷.
Orientation (Zimuth Angle) 86

 Zimuth Angle: the planar rotation East or West that an

aperture will have. Denoted by the symbol Alfa with no
subscript 𝜶.
What is a solar tracker?
87
 A solar tracker is a device that tracks the sun as it moves on its path through the sky during
the day, exposing your PV cells to an increased amount of sunlight and hence producing
more electricity. This is because PV cells work best when they are directly facing the sun.
 What types of solar trackers are there? 88
 There are two main types of solar trackers, single-axis and two-axis.
 Single-axis
 Single-axis solar trackers follow the sun from sunrise to sunset as it moves in the sky
through the day from east to west. They are called a single-axis trackers as the
mechanism only rotates in one plane around a single axis.
 advantages
1. they are less complicated,
2. less expensive.
Horizontal type single-axis trackers 89

 Single-axis horizontal trackers are also structurally more

rigid and stable, and hence less likely to be damaged
during storms.
 Dual-axis 90
 Dual-axis, or two-axis, trackers follow the sun
completely. The two axes of rotation allow the tracker to
position the solar cells directly perpendicular to the sun’s
ray all the time.

 As they are able to adjust for the sun’s height as well

east to west rotation dual-axis trackers fully adjust for
seasons as well as adjusting to face the sun as it sits low
in the horizon at sunrise and sunset, and high in the sky
in the middle of the day.
Disadvantages of solar trackers 91

 An added upfront cost to your solar installation.

 Generally require some maintenance.

 Moving parts and added complexity come with the

usual pitfalls of risk of breakdown.

 Structurally less rigid then permanent mounts and hence

can be vulnerable to storm damage.
Comparison of solar tracker and static solar 92
panel performance
Fixed Tracking 93
Components Of PV Systems 94
Array Mounting Racks

• In general, a tilt angle rules of thumb have proven themselves in

Egypt with a tilt angle of 30°:
• Taking into consideration optimum area exploitation: distance d =
2-3 x W module width.
 95

 x- modules length
α-solar radiation angle
ω-modules angle

Read more: http://www.mysolarpannels.com/optimum-angle-for-solar-

panels/#ixzz3j4uQqE1e
Types Of Silicon Solar Cells 96
Poly-crystalline Mono‐crystalline Amorphous
Solar Photovoltaic Panels
97

Monocrystalline PV Solar Panel

 Made from a single crystal of silicon. They are
effectively a slice from a crystal.

 They are the most efficient and most expensive

panels currently available.

 They are also rigid and must be mounted in a

rigid frame to protect them.
Solar Photovoltaic Panels
98

Polycrystalline PV Solar Panel

 They are effectively a slice cut from a block of
silicon, consisting of a large number of crystals.

 Characterized by its shattered glass look

because of the manufacturing process of using
multiple silicon crystals.

 They are the most commonly seen solar panels.

 A little less efficient than monocrystalline panels,

but also less expensive.
Solar Photovoltaic Panels
99
Thin Film PV Solar Panel
 They are manufactured by placing a thin film of amorphous (non
crystalline) silicon onto a wide choice of surfaces.
 These panels can be thin and flexible which is why they are
commonly referred to as "Thin Film" solar panels.

 They are cheaper and are not affected by shading.

 Drawbacks are low efficiency, loss of wattage per sq. m. installed

and heat retention.
 Cell material
Module Surface area
needed for 1 Advantages Disadvantages 100
efficiency
kWp

- most efficient PV - most expensive

Monocrystalline modules - waste of silicon
15-18 % 7-9 m² - easily available on the
silicon in the production
market process
- highly standardised

- less energy and time

needed for production than - slightly less
for monocrystalline cells efficient than
Polycrystalline
13-16 % 8-9 m² (= lower costs) monocrystalline
silicon
- easily available on the silicon modules
market
- highly standardised

- higher temperatures and - more space for

shading have lower impact the same
Thin film:
6-8 % 13-20 m² on performance output
Amorphus silicon
- less silicon needed for needed
(a-Si)
production
Components of PV systems 101
Mechanical Data
Solar Panel Diode 102
Most Popular Companies 103
Components of PV systems 104

2 Array mounting racks

Azimuth angles for different compass

headings

Heading Azimuth Angle

N 0°

E 90°

S 180°

W 270°
Components of PV systems
105

Charge Controller :

Charging Levels :
 Bulk charging
 Absorption charging
 Float charging
 Components of PV systems 106

Battery Bank:
Battery types :
 Deep-Cycle Flooded Lead-Acid Batteries (FLA)
 Deep-Cycle Valve-Regulated Lead-Acid Batteries
(VRLA)
 Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM) Batteries
 Gel Batteries
Components Of PV Systems
• Charge controller types:

1. Maximum Power Point Tracking

Technology (MPPT)
2. Pulse-Width Modulation Technology
(PWM)
Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) Controller

• For a typical 12 V nominal panel, the voltage

associated with the MPP is somewhere around 17 V.
• The maximum power voltage of 17 V doesn’t always
equate directly to the required voltage needed to
charge a battery bank, though, Depending on the
technology and the charge set-point, the voltage
necessary for charging a 12 V nominal battery bank
can range anywhere from 13 V to 15 V. Therefore, a PV
module can produce more voltage than a battery
bank can fully use.
• MPPT controllers take the power from a PV array at the MPP,
regardless of the required battery voltage, and deliver that
same amount of power to the battery bank because they’re
able to reduce the voltage from the array to the battery’s
required level. And because power is the multiply by the
voltage and current, if the voltage is decreased, the current is
increased in order to keep the same power level.
• MPPT controllers boost current into the battery bank in
relation to the current received from the array.
 Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM) Controller

• However, unlike MPPT controllers, PWM controllers

can only use the voltage from the array that equals
the voltage required by the batteries.
• (For example, if the battery bank needs 14 V to
charge and the array can supply 17 V, the controller
can only accept the 14 V.)
• This characteristic inherently reduces the overall power
available from the PV array because the battery-charging
voltage rarely matches the array’s maximum power voltage.
• Because the battery bank dictates the voltage, the amount
of current sent into the battery from the array is also limited
(so the current value from the array that’s associated with
the battery-charging voltage is different from the maximum
power point current).
Technical Specifications of Solar Charger 110
Components of PV systems 111
Photovoltaic systems: Storage

 Why?
 Power is unavailable at night and may be unreliable from
hour-to-hour
 Peak loads may be larger than panel power
 Reliability  cost trade-off
 Usually Deep cycle lead acid batteries
 Cycle efficiency 75-85%
 In development
 Flywheels
 Fuel cells
 Super capacitors
Components of PV systems 112
113
Components of PV systems 114

1.Deep-Cycle Flooded Lead-Acid Batteries

(FLA) (+++):
• Lower cost than deep-cycle VRLA batteries.
• Longer deep cycle life than deep-cycle VRLA
batteries.
• Can be maintained simply by addition of distilled
water.
• High discharge rate capability.
• Perform better in hot climates. (>90 degrees F)
• More available worldwide.
• Perform better then deep-cycle VRLA batteries
when regularly in a partial state of charge.
• Long, proven history of use.
Components of PV systems 115

1.Deep-Cycle Flooded Lead-Acid Batteries (FLA) (---):

•Periodic maintenance by adding distilled water is
required.
•Can only be used in an upright position.
•Produce gas (oxygen and hydrogen) when charged.
•May emit acid spray if overcharged abusively.
•Require ventilation.
•Higher self-discharge rate than deep-cycle VRLA batteries.
•Cannot be shipped by air.
•Cannot be used in the immediate vicinity of electrical equipment
or anything highly flammable.
 Components of PV systems 116

2 Deep-Cycle Valve-Regulated Lead-Acid Batteries (VRLA):

Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM) Batteries

(+++):
•Less expensive than deep-cycle Gel batteries.
•Wider temperature range than deep-cycle Gel or FLA
batteries.
•Slowest self-discharge rate of FLA, Gel batteries.
•Best shock/vibration resistance of FLA, Gel batteries.
•Best for high power applications of FLA, Gel batteries.
Components of PV systems 117

Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM) Batteries

(---):
• don’t perform as well as deep-
cycle FLA or Gel batteries for
systems that require regular deep
discharge. (I.e. 80% DOD)
• Do not perform as well as deep-
cycle Gel batteries in low power
applications.
Components of PV systems 118

2 Deep-Cycle Valve-Regulated Lead-

Acid Batteries (VRLA):

Gel Batteries

(+++):
• Perform better than deep-cycle
AGM batteries for systems that
require regular deep discharge.
(I.e. 80% DOD)
• Perform better than deep-
cycle AGM batteries for
low power applications.
• Here are some disadvantages
of using deep- cycle Gel
batteries:
Components of PV systems
119

Gel Batteries

(---):
• More expensive than deep-cycle FLA or AGM batteries.
• Do not perform as well as deep-cycle FLA or AGM
• batteries in cold temperatures. (<40 degrees F)
• Do not perform as well as deep-cycle FLA or AGM batteries
when they regularly reach a shallow depth of discharge.
(I.e. 20% DOD)
• Higher self-discharge rate than deep-cycle AGM
batteries.
Components Of PV Systems

Solar Cables
Components of PV systems
• Inverter 121
Two inverter types in any PV system:

✓Stand-alone inverters (for use in stand-alone, battery-based PV systems) are

all battery-based.

✓Utility-interactive inverters are classified into two subcategories:

• Grid-direct (for use in grid-direct PV systems)
• Battery-based (for use in utility-interactive, battery-based PV systems)
Components of PV systems
122

PV Inverters - The Heart of every PV Plant

Utility-interactive inverters

Microinverters

String inverters

inverters that attach strings of PV

modules for power outputs ranging
from 1 kW to 15 kW.
Micro Inverters
123
 The inverters are available from 50 up to 500 W.
 micro-inverter is an inverter designed to operate with a single PV module
 They allow you to control the panels output individually .
 They offer Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) for each single module.
 Reduce the losses in efficiency in a variety of challenging conditions.
 Easy to set up.
 Improved installation ‫ امكانية التوسع‬and fire safety.
 It is less affected by partial shading for PV module.
 Its disadvantage that High maintenance cost.
String Inverters
124
It is divided into two sub-categories:
1- Single Phase String Inverter. (For Residential Application only)
2- Three Phase String Inverter.. (For Residential and Commercial Applications)

Advantages:
• Ease of use and installation, monitoring
and control.
• With their 98% peak efficiency.
• Wide input voltage range.
• Flexible installations and powerful output.
• Robust enclosure, with IP65 rating suitable
for outdoor installation.
• Advanced grid support functions.
Single Phase String Inverter
125

 These inverters are available from 1 up to 6 KW.

Three Phase String Inverter

• These inverters are available from 6 up to 33 KW.

126
PV Plant Components
127
PV Inverters - The Heart of every PV Plant
Utility-interactive inverters are classified into two subcategories:

Central Inverter
with larger commercial projects, central inverters range in size from 15 kW
to 1 MW.
128
129
 130
Central Inverters (3-φ)

 The inverters are available from 100 up to 1500 kW.

 central inverters are aimed at system integrators and end users who require high
performance solar inverters for utility-scale PV power plants.
 central inverters offer high efficiency, reliability and easy-to-maintain industrial
design in compact package.
 Full grid support functionality.
 Fast and easy installation.
 Complete range of industrial-type data communication options, including remote
monitoring.
Inverters: features

The inverter main features are:

• Maximum Input Voltage:
• The PV generator voltage must be under the inverter
maximum input voltage
• MPPT Voltage:
• It is the range where the inverter is able to get the
Maximum Power Point from the PV generator I‐V profile.
• The PV generator voltage must be within this range in
the different conditions and weather during the whole
year.
Inverters: Features

Other important parameters are:

• Inverter efficiency:
•As it is shown in the graphic, the inverter has a different efficiency depending on the load. Usually, the
manufacturers give the maximum efficiency and the european efficiency, which is the weighting of the
different efficiencies when the load is: 5%, 10%, 30%...100%
• Inverter temperature range:
•This is really important, as in some places the temperature can reach over 40º, and extra cooling
might be considered.
133
Components of PV systems 134
Cabling ,Circuit breakers & Combiner box
Protections
The protections to be installed are:

DC side AC side

AC AC
DC DC Miniature Circuit
Fuses Miniature Circuit Differential
Breaker (MCB)
Breaker (MCB)

Example: ABB S800PV (Specifications)

•S800PV-S High Performance MCB
• Versions: 2P, 3P & 4P
• Current: Up to 80 A
• Voltage: 800 Vdc with 2P & 1200Vcc with 3P & 4P

•S800PV-M Switch-Disconnector

• Versions: 2P, 3P & 4P

• Current: Up to 125 A
Source: ABB
• Voltage: 800Vcc with 2P & 1200Vcc with 3P & 4P
Overvoltage protections

To protect the installation against overvoltage we

must install high energy varistors close to the
element that we want to protect
The main aim of this device is to detect an
overvoltage within a certain period of time and
then divert it to the ground
The device may be destroyed depending on the
power to be diverted to the ground

Type 150 275 320 385

According to standard IEC – 61643 – 1
Maximum voltage (AC/DC) Uc(L‐N/N‐PE) 150/200V 275/350V 320/420V 385/500V
Nominal discharge current (8/20) In (L‐N/N‐PE) 20/20 kA
Maximum discharge current (8/20) Imax(L‐N/N‐PE) 40/40 kA
Protection Level Up (L‐N) Up < 0.9 kV < 1.5 kV < 1.5 kV < 1.9 kV
(N‐PE) < 2 kV
Tracking current If (L‐N/N‐PE) > 100 A RMS
Response time tA (L‐N/N‐PE) < 25 ns / 100 ns
Overvoltage Device Connection
137
 138

Planning And Design Of Off-grid

Systems
Planning and design of off-grid systems 139

Determine the demands of power consumption (W)

Planning and design of off-grid systems 140

Calculate total Watt-hours (Wh) per day for each appliance used.
Planning and design of off-grid systems 141

Calculate total Watt-hours (Wh) per day for each appliance used.
Planning and design of off-grid systems 142

Determining System Voltage

 System voltages are generally 12, 24 or 48 Volts and the actual voltage is
determined by the requirements of the system. In larger systems 120V or
240V DC could be used, but these are not the typical household systems.

 As a general rule, the recommended system voltage increases as the

total load increases. For small daily loads up to 1KWh, a 12V system
voltage can be used. For intermediate daily loads up to 4KWh, 24V is
used and for larger loads 48V is used.
Planning and design of off-grid systems 143

• Calculate total Watt-hours (Wh) per day needed from the PV modules.
Multiply the total appliances Watt-hours (Wh) per day x1.2 (the energy lost in the system) to
get the total Watt-hours per day which must be provided by the panels.

• Sizing the PV modules (Wp)

1.Calculate the total Watt-peak rating needed for PV modules:

Divide the total Watt-hours per day needed from the PV modules by 5:PSH

2.Calculate the number of PV panels for the system:

Divide the previous answer by the rated output Watt-peak of the PV modules
Planning and design of off-grid systems 144
Planning and design of off-grid systems 145

Sizing pure sine wave PV inverter (230V/50Hz from 12/24/48V)

inverter must have the same nominal voltage as your battery

(12/24/48V).

The inverter size should be 25-30% bigger than total watts (W)
of total appliances.
Planning and design of off-grid systems
146

Sizing the battery (Ah)

1.Calculate total Watt-hours per day used by appliances.

2.Divide the total Watt-hours per day used by 0.85 for battery loss.

3.Divide the answer obtained in item 2 by 0.8 for depth of discharge.

4.Divide the answer obtained in item 3 by the nominal battery voltage.

5.Multiply the answer obtained in item (4) with days of autonomy (the
number of days that you need the system to operate when there is no
power produced by PV panels) to get the required Ampere-hour
capacity of deep-cycle battery.

Battery Capacity (Ah) = Total Watt-hours per day used by appliances x

Days of autonomy / (0.85 x 0.8 x nominal battery voltage)
Planning and design of off-grid systems 147
Sizing the charge controller (A)
• the sizing of solar charge controller is to take the short circuit current
(Isc) of the PV module, and multiply it by x 1.25
• Select the solar charge controller to match the voltage of PV system
and batteries.
PV Plant Components
148
Plant Design
The DC system comprises the following:

•Array(s) of PV modules.
•Inverters.
•DC cabling (module, string and main cable).
•DC connectors (plugs and sockets).
•Junction boxes/combiners.
•Disconnects/switches.
•Protection devices.
•Earthing.

The AC system includes:

•AC cabling.
•Switchgear.
•Transformers.
•Substation.
•Earthing and surge protection.
PV plant components
149
Plant Design
PV Plant Components 150

Plant Design

• Sizing the nominal power of the PV generator.

• Available area: Estimate of 10 m2 of required area per installed kWp.
• Cost of the installed PV.
• Pv System Site Survey.
PV Plant Components 151

Customer Consultation and site survey.

•Roof area, taking orientation into account;

•Usable area for the PV system;
•Chimneys, antennae and satellite dishes;
•Buildings situated close by (approximate distance and height);
•Trees (approximate distance and height
•Overhead cables (electricity and telephone) if these could
shade the PV system;
•Other shading: building projections, dormer windows, etc.
PV plant components
152
Energy Yield Prediction

Location and Station Identification

Requested Location Egypt
Weather Data Source (INTL) CAIRO, EGYPT 232 mi
Latitude 30.13° N
Longitude 31.4° E
PV System Specifications (Residential)
DC System Size 1 kW
Module Type Standard
Array Type Fixed (open rack)
Array Tilt 30°
Array Azimuth 180°
System Losses 14%
Inverter Efficiency 96%
DC to AC Size Ratio 1.1
PV plant components
153
Energy Yield Prediction

Month Solar Radiation AC Energy

( kWh / m2 / day ) (kWh )
January 3.93 98
February 5.03 112
March 5.57 135
April 6.18 140
May 6.60 152
June 6.87 151
July 6.86 155
August 6.68 151
September 6.65 147
October 5.08 118
November 4.35 102
December 4.13 101
Annual 5.66 1,562
 154
• Design PV system for Residential Load (Home)
• Solar PV system sizing

Appliances Working Hours No. Power (W) Total Wattage (W) WH/day
(Hrs/day)

Lamps 5 10 20 200 1000

T.V 5 1 150 150 750
Receiver 5 1 50 50 250
Fans 5 3 60 180 900
Total 655 3800

Total appliance use = 3800 Wh/day

Total Wp of PV panel capacity needed = (Total WH/panel generation
factor)
• Panel Generation Factor For Egypt = 6 Hours In Summer And Winter. 155

• Total Wp of PV panel capacity needed = (3800/6) = 633.33 Watt.

• Select Wp of PV panel capacity = (12 V) 250 Wp & 150 Wp.

• Number of PV panels needed = 2 x 250 Wp & 1 x 150 Wp.

3 Modules

2 Modules x 250 Wp 1 Modules x 150 Wp

• Battery sizing
156
• Total appliances use = 3800
• Nominal battery voltage = 12 V

• Battery Capacity (Ah) = Total Watt-hours per day used by appliances x Days of autonomy
(0.85 x DOD x nominal battery voltage)

• Battery capacity (Ah) = 3800 x 1

(0.85 x 0.8 x 12)

• Where; DOD is the Depth of Discharge which is inversely proportional to life time of battery.

• Total Ampere-hours required 465.68 Ah

3 Batteries
≈ 500 Ah

2 Batteries x 200 Ah 1 Battery x 100 Ah

• Inverter sizing 157

 Total Watt of all appliances = 655 W

 For safety, the inverter should be considered 20-30% bigger size.

 Inverter Size = 655 x 1.2 = 786 W

 The inverter size should be about 800 W or greater.

• Price List 158

 For PV Module : 1 W = 7.5 LE.

 As in Example : 650 Wp ( 2x250 Wp + 1x150 Wp) = 4875 LE.
 For DCG Batteries : 500 Ah ( 2x200Ah + 1x100 Ah) = 7280+1820 = 9100 LE.
 For Inverter 800 W = 950 LE.
 For Charger Controller 8 A = 450 LE.

 Total Price with Back-up Batteries = 4875+9100+950+450 = 15375 LE.

 Total Price without Back-up Batteries = 4875+950+450 = 6275 LE.

• Connection
159
Example 160

• Design PV system for a Hotel (LED Lighting)

• Solar PV system sizing
• Hotel consists of 500 Luminaires (LED Lighting)
• Each Luminaire consume a power of 20 W .
• Working Hours per day = 10 Hours
Appliances Working Hours No. Power (W) Total Wattage (W) WH/day
(Hrs/day)

LED 10 500 20 1000 10000

Luminaires

Total 1000 10000

• Total appliance use = 10000 Wh/day

• Total Wp of PV panel capacity needed = (Total WH/panel generation
factor)
 161
• Panel Generation Factor For Egypt = 6 Hours In Summer And Winter.

• Total Wp of PV panel capacity needed = (10000/6) = 1666.67 Watt.

• Select Wp of PV panel capacity = (30 V) 300 Wp & 150 Wp.
• Number of PV panels needed = 5 x 250 Wp & 1 x 150 Wp.

6 Modules

5 Modules x 300 Wp 1 Modules x 150 Wp

• Battery sizing 162
• Total appliances use = 10000
• Nominal battery voltage = 24 V

• Battery Capacity (Ah) = Total Watt-hours per day used by appliances x Days of autonomy
(0.85 x DOD x nominal battery voltage)

• Battery capacity (Ah) = 10000 x 1

(0.85 x 0.8 x 24)

• Where; DOD is the Depth of Discharge which is inversely proportional to life time of battery.

• Total Ampere-hours required 612.75 Ah

4 Batteries
≈ 650 Ah

3 Batteries x 200 Ah 1 Battery x 50 Ah

 163
• Inverter sizing

 Total Watt of all appliances = 1000 W

 For safety, the inverter should be considered 20-30% bigger size.

 Inverter Size = 1000 x 1.2 = 1200 W

 The inverter size should be about 1500 W or greater.

Connection 164