Computer

Science Notes
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 Chapter 1: Data
Representation
Computers store data as binary as they use switches and logic gates,
there are only 2 states (e.g. on/off, 0/1) Data processed using logic
gates, stored in registers

NUMBER SYSTEMS

Binary System
• Base of 2

• Only 0 or 1, on or off ...

• Units increase by power of 2

• Used in computers because:

◦ Computer uses logic circuits

◦ Only work in 2 states

Uses of binary in computer systems

• Data

• ASCII/Unicode

• Part of image

• Sound

• Instruction

• Store information in registers of control systems

• Error detection in parity bit

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Converting denary (base 10)
to binary (base 2)

Converting 30 to binary
Step 1: Write down the binary placeholders.

32 16 8 4 2 1

Step 2: Find the largest placeholder that is less than or equal to the
denary number. Write a 1 underneath this placeholder.

32 16 8 4 2 1

Step 3: Subtract placeholder from the original number

30-16 = 14

Step 4: Repeat this process with the result until you’re left with 0

32 16 8 4 2 1

1 1

14-8 = 6

32 16 8 4 2 1

1 1 1

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6-4 = 2

Converting binary (base 2) to

denary (base 10)

Converting 100101 to denary

Step 1: Write the placeholders over your binary number (start on the
right):

32 16 8 4 2 1

1 0 0 1 0 1

Step 2: List all the placeholders with 1 underneath:

• 32

• 4

• 1

Step 3: Add up your list

32+4+1 = 37

Converting denary (base 10)

to binary (base 2) - continued
32 16 8 4 2 1

1 1 1 1

2-2 = 0
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Step 5: Fill in the remaining placeholders with 0s

32 16 8 4 2 1

0 1 1 1 1 0

Therefore 30 in base 2 is 011110

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Denary
• Base of 10

• Values 0 to 9

• Units increase by power of 10

Hexadecimal
• Base 16

• Values 0 to 9, A, B, C, D, E, F

Benefits of hex
• Easier to read

• Easier to identify errors

• Take up less screen space

• Take up less storage in memory

• Less chances of making error

Uses of hex
• MAC address

• URL

• Assembly language

• Error codes

• IP addresses

• Locations in memory

• Memory dumps

• HTML colour codes

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Calculations:
• Addition of binary numbers
◦ Overflow error: value generated is larger than can be stored in
the register, register has a predetermined number of bits and
there are too many bits for it

• Logical shifts
◦ To left = double

◦ To right = halve

• Complement of two
◦ Left-most digit = negative

TEXT, SOUND, IMAGES

Text converted to binary to be processed by computer character set
used, example below, each character has unique binary value

• ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) - total

128 characters (7-bit character set)
◦ Extended ASCII – 8-bit (256 characters)

◦ Disadvantage: limited characters (only western languages)

• Unicode
◦ Universal standard covering all languages (incl. Emoji)

◦ More efficient than ASCII

◦ 8-bit or 16-bit or 32-bit (unambiguous, in either, still same

character)

◦ Reserve part of code for private use, enable user to assign codes
for own characters/symbols (e.g. Chinese, Japanese...)

◦ Disadvantage: require more bits per character than ASCII

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Sound storage
• Sound wave sampled for sound to be converted to binary, then
processed by computer

• Sound is analogue, converted to digital using ADC (analogue to

digital converter)

• Sample rate: number of samples taken in a second 1Hz = 1 sample per

second

• Sample resolution (/bit depth): number of bits per sample

Larger sampling resolution:

• Benefits:
◦ Larger dynamic range

◦ Better sound quality

◦ Less sound distortion

• Drawbacks:
◦ Larger file size

◦ Take longer to transmit/download

◦ Require greater processing power

Image storage
• Image: series of pixels converted to binary, then processed by a
computer Bitmap images: made up of pixels Vector images: store
mathematics required to draw shapes (used for simpler images)

• Pixel: the smallest component of an image

• Resolution: number of pixels in the image

• Colour depth: number of bits used to represent each colour stored as

binary – calculate number of colours 2^n (n = number of bits
required per pixel) usually 2^24 (over 16 million colours)

• Metadata: set of data that give information about other data stored
with image – define width, height, colour depth, colour palette

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• Increased resolution + colour depth = increased file size + quality
Drawbacks: increased file size, transmission time

DATA MEASUREMENTS
• 1 bit = basic unit of computing memory (binary digit), either 0 or 1

• 1 byte = 8 bits

• 1 nibble = 4 bits

Denary values (SI system)

*optional
• 1 kilobyte (KB) = 1000 bytes

• 1 megabyte (MB) = 10^6 bytes

• 1 gigabyte (GB) = 10^9 bytes

• 1 terabyte (TB) = 10^12 bytes

• 1 petabyte (PB) = 10^15 bytes

• 1 exabyte (EB) = 10^18 bytes

Binary values (IEC [international

electrotechnical commission]
system)
• 1 kibibyte (KiB) = 2^10 bytes = 1024

• 1 mebibyte (MiB) = 2^20 bytes

• 1 gibibyte (GiB) = 2^30 bytes

• 1 tebibyte (TiB) = 2^40 bytes

• 1 pebibyte (PiB) = 2^50 bytes

• 1 exbibyte (EiB) = 2^60 bytes

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File size calculations
Image size (bit) = resolution (pixel) × colour depth (bit)
Sound size (bit) = sample rate (Hz) × sample resolution (bit) × sample
length (s)

DATA COMPRESSION
Compression reduces file size
Reason:

• Less bandwidth required for transmission

• Less storage space required

• Shorter transmission time

• Reduce costs (cloud storage)

Lossless
Reduces file size without permanent loss of data (Original uncompressed
file can be reconstructed)

Run-length encoding (RLE)

• Compression algorithm

• Reduces size of identical data

◦ (repeated patterns identified + replaced with a value + indexed)

• Repeated string, 2 values:

◦ 1st value: number of identical items in the run

◦ 2nd value: code of the data item

• Only effective if many repeated units

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Lossy
Reduces file size by permanently removing data (removes redundant data)

• Image: reduce resolution/colour depth

• Sound
◦ Reduce sampling rate + resolution

◦ Remove sound that cannot be heard by human ear

◦ Use of perceptual music shaping

MPEG-3 and MPEG-4

MP3 (sound)
Reduces file size by 90%

• Remove sounds outside of human ear range

• 2 sounds played at once, louder sound kept, softer sound removed

(perceptual music shaping)

MP4: like MP3 but multimedia

JPEG (image)
Human eyes don’t differentiate colours well Separate pixels from
brightness, separate into 8 × 8 pixel blocks, discard information
(doesn’t noticeable affect quality)

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 CHAPTER 2: DATA
TRANSMISSION

DATA PACKETS
Data broken down into packets for transmission
Data packet structure:

• Header:
◦ IP address of source device

◦ IP address of destination device

◦ Sequence number of packet (to correctly reassemble)

◦ Packet size in bytes (ensure all data has been received)

• Payload: actual data being sent (around 64KiB)

• Trailer:
◦ Method to identify end of packet

◦ Error checking method

Packet switching:
• Data broken down into packets

• Each packet can take a different route

• A router controls the route a packet takes

◦ shortest available route

• Packets may arrive out of order

• Once last packet arrived, packets reordered

• If a packet is missing, it is requested again

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Benefits:
• No need to tie up a single communication line

• Can overcome busy/faulty lines by rerouting

• Easy to expand package usage

• High data transmission rate is possible

Drawbacks:
• Packets can be lost, need resending

• More prone to error with real-time streaming

• Delay at destination as packages are reordered

Classification of data
transmission:
Direction of transmission:
• Simplex: unidirectional e.g. microphone to computer, webcam to
computer, computer to printer

• Half-duplex: both ways, not simultaneously e.g. walkie-talkie

• Duplex: both ways, simultaneously e.g. telephone call, broadband

connections, video conferencing

Method of transmission:
Serial Parallel

one bit at a tie, using a single multiple bits sent at the same
wire time, using multiple wires

Slower transmission Faster transmission

Bits remain synchronised (in Data becomes unsynchronised/out of

order), reduces data errors order over long distance

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Serial Parallel

Preferred for long distance Preferred when speed in needed

Less expensive bc fewer hardware More expesive bc more hardware

requirements requirements

Easier to program input/output

operations

UNIVERSAL SERIAL BUS (USB)

• Serial transmission

• Use in computers: for sending data externally (between devices)

What happens when connecting an

USB device to a computer:
• Computer detects device due to small change in voltage

• Computer loaders driver to communicate with device

• If new device, computer prompts user to download new driver (some

computers do it automatically)

Benefits of USB port

• Automatically detects the hardware and load drivers

• Plug only goes in one way = can’t connect incorrectly

• Supports different data transmission speeds

• Has become the industry standard/universally used

• Backwards compatible (with earlier versions of USB ports)

• Don’t need external power source (cable supplies +5V)

• USB protocol notifies transmitter to re-transmit data if any error

detected (=error-free data transmission)

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Drawbacks:
• Standard USB max. 5m, need USB hub to extend further

• Very early USB standards not supported by all computers

• Still slow transfer rate compared to ethernet

METHODS OF ERROR DETECTION

How errors can occur during data

transmission:
• Interference (e.g. electrical interference in cables) - data
corruption and loss

• Problems during data switching – data loss, unauthorised access

• Data skewing – data corruption

How data can be accidentally

damaged
• Hardware failure

• Software failure

• Power failure/surge

• Fire

• Flood

• Natural disaster

Prevention
• Use verification methods before deleting files

• Keep data in a fireproof box

• Do not drink liquids near a computer

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 • Use surge protection

• Correct shutdown procedures

• Access rights

• Back data up

Parity checks
• A parity bit is transmitted with each byte of data

• Can be odd parity or even parity (agreed beforehand)

◦ Even parity: counts the number of 1s to check if they are even

◦ Odd parity: counts the number of 1s to check if they are odd

• Each byte is checked after transmission to see if it matches the

parity used.

Including the parity bit, the number of 1s is even in the data, so the
data is correct

Even parity

The number of 1s is odd, but the parity is even, so the data is

incorrect

Issues with parity checks:

• Error can’t be located

• When 2 bits interchange, that won’t change parity value

• If there are multiple errors in the same byte/column, still produce

the same parity bit, error will not be detected

A method that resolves the previous issues is the parity

block

Checksum
• Before transmission, checksum value of data is calculated from the
block of data (using agreed algorithm)

• Value is transmitted with data

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 • Value is recalculated after transmission and compared with sent
value

• If value same = no error; if values different = request to resend

data

CRC
Echo check
• Copy of data is sent back to sender

• Data is compared to see if it matches

• If it doesn’t match = error detected = resend data

Not very reliable as it isn’t known during which stage of transmission

the error occurred in

Check digit
A validation method to identify errors in data entry (caused my
mistyping/mis-scanning) e.g. international standard book numbers (ISBN)
ISBN-13, modulo-11, barcodes...

• Digit is calculated from data

• Digit is added to the remaining data

• Digit is recalculated with the added data

• The digits are compared

• If the digits different = error

Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ):

Often used by mobile phone networks to guarantee data integrity

• Timer is started when sending device transmits a data packet to

receiver

• Receiving device checks the data packet for errors

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 • Once the receiving device knows the packet is error free it sends an
acknowledgement back to the sending device …
◦ … and the next packet is sent

• If the sending device does not receive an acknowledgement before the

timer ends …
◦ … a timeout occurs

◦ … the data packet is resent …

◦ … until acknowledgement received // until max number of attempts

reached

ENCRYPTION
To prevent data being intercepted by an unauthorised party
(confidentiality, integrity, authentication, privacy, compliance with
law)
Hackers may do it to:

• Financial gain

• Challenge/protest

• Steal and use data

Data is altered into a form that is unreadable for anyone for whom data
is not intended (doesn’t prevent interception, but makes it senseless
for eavesdroppers)

Plaintext: original message before it is put through an encryption

algorithm
Ciphertext: encrypted data, resulted from putting plaintext through
encryption algorithm.

• Encryption key is used

• Encryption algorithm is used

• Encryption key / algorithm is applied to plain text

◦ Convert it into cypher text

• Same key is used to encrypt and decrypt the text

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Symmetric encryption
• Same encryption key used to encrypt and decrypt message

• Ways to send key:

◦ Verbally in person

◦ Standard postage mail

◦ Algorithm sharing non-key information

Modern computers use 256-bit binary encryption keys, 2^256 possible

combinations however, as quantum computers are being developed, this
may not be enough

Issues:

• Encryption key is same for both sender and recipient, hard to keep
secure

Asymmetric encryption
• Uses both public and private keys to ensure data is secure
◦ Public key: type of encryption key known to all users

◦ Private key: type of encryption key known to a single user

• Process:
◦ A uses public key to encrypt their message

◦ A sends message over network

◦ B decrypts message using secret key

• Only one private key, only known to the owner

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 CHAPTER 3: HARDWARE

Central processing unit (CPU)

Processor instructions and data that are input into the computer so
that result can be output

Microprocessor:
type of integrated circuit on a single chip

Integrated circuit:
usually chip made from a semi-conductor material, carries out the same
tasks as a larger circuit made from individual components

Von Neumann architecture:

• Concept of a CPU

• Processor can access memory directly

• Computer memories can store programs and data

• Stored programs were made up of instructions that can be executed in

sequential order

CPU components:
• Control unit
◦ Reads instructions from memory

◦ Ensures synchronisation of data flow and programs by sending

control signals along control bus

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• System clock
◦ Produce timing signals on control bus

◦ Ensure all functions synchronised

• Arithmetic and logic unit

◦ Carries out all arithmetic and logical operations
▪ (+, -, AND, OR...)

▪ Multiplication and division using shifting operators

• Registers
◦ High speed areas of memory within CPU

◦ Memory address register (MAR): stores address of memory location

current being read/written

◦ Memory data register (MDR): stores data that has been read/is
being written into

◦ Current instruction register (CIR): stores current instruction

being decoded and executed

◦ Accumulator (ACC): stores numerical values at any part of given

operation

◦ PC (program counter): stores address of next instruction

• System buses
◦ Transfer data + control signal between components

◦ Parallel data transmission (8 to 64-bits)

◦ Address bus (addresses), data bus (data), control bus (control

signals)

Fetch-decode-execute cycle
(FDE cycle)
• PC contains address of next instruction to fetch

• Address in PC copied to MAR via address bus

• Instruction of memory location (in MAR) copied and placed into MDR

• Instruction copied from MDR into CIR

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 • PC value increment by 1, pointing to next instruction to fetch

• Address of instruction placed in MAR

• Instruction decoded and executed, sending control signals via

control bus to different components

Cores, cache, clock

Clock
• System clock defines clock cycle
◦ Synchronise all computer operations

◦ Transmitted via control bus

• Increased clock speed (GHz) = increased CPU processing speed

◦ (more processes per second)

• Overclocking: changing clock speed of system clock (in BIOS) to

value higher than recommended setting
◦ Leads to overheating + crashing

Bus width
• Increased bus width = increased processing speed of CPU
◦ 16 bits = 2^16 memory locations

Caches
Store frequently used instructions and data

Larger cache = better CPU performance

Cores
• Each core is an independently operating unit (with CU and ALU)

• Communicate with each other using channels

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 • More cores = better CPU performance
◦ Dual-core = 2 cores; quad-core = 4 cores

Instruction set
• Instructions: set of operation that need to be decoded in sequence
◦ Each operation made up of:
▪ Opcode: identifies what operation needs to be done

▪ Operand: identifies data that is to be used

• Instruction set: list of all commands that can be processed by a CPU

commands are machine code

Embedded systems
Combination of hardware + software used to perform a dedicated functionc

Can be programmable or non-programmable

Can be based on:

• Microcontroller

◦ CPU w/ RAM + ROM + peripherals on a single chip

• Microprocessor
◦ Integrated circuit only w/ CPU

• System on chip
◦ May contain microcontroller as part

◦ CPU + memory + input/output ports + secondary storage on single

chip

General make-up of embedded

system
Input data: manual or automatic (by sensor)
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Benefits:
• Small

• Relatively low cost

• Simple interface + no need for OS

because dedicated to one task

• Consume little power

• Can be controlled remotely

• Fast reaction to changing input

• Reliable because of mass production

Drawbacks:
• Difficult to upgrade to take advantage of new tech

• Troubleshooting requires specialist

• Simple interface may be more confusing

• Open to hackers + malware

• Wasteful as it’s difficult to upgrade and fix so thrown away

◦ Pollution

Examples of usage:
• Domestic appliances
◦ Selection via keypads

• Cars
◦ In-car entertainment

◦ Global positioning system (GPS)

◦ Anti-lock braking system (ABS)

◦ Airbags

◦ Fuel injection system

◦ Exhaust emissions

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 ◦ Vehicle security

◦ Traction control

• Security systems
◦ Security code set in RAM

◦ SSD stores set values to compare sensor data to

• Lighting systems
◦ Using sensors and actuators

• Vending machines

• Set-top box
◦ Recording and playback of television programmes

General purpose computers perform many different functions

e.g. personal computer, laptop

Stored program concept: data and instructions stored in same memory,

can only be fetched one at a time

Primary memory
Directly accessed by CPU

RAM
• Random access memory
◦ Aka immediate access store (IAS)

• Stores programs + data currently in use

• Made up of addresses + contents

◦ All memory locations are unique

• Volatile memory

• Can read and write to

• Cache is high speed RAM

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• Increased size = increased computer operational speed
◦ As CPU doesn’t have to overwrite old data with new data

◦ Typically, 1-256 GiB

2 types of RAM
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
• Consists of number of capacitor (holds bits of info) and transistor
(allow chip control circuitry to read/change capacitor value)

• Need to be constantly refreshed (every 15ms)

• Less expensive to manufacture than SRAM

• Higher memory capacity than SRAM

• Consumer less power than SRAM

• Main primary memory = DRAM

Static RAM (SRAM)

• Use flip flops (electronic circuit w/ only 2 stable conditions) to
hold each bit of memory

• Doesn’t need constant refreshing

• Faster data access time than DRAM

• CPU memory cache = SRAM

ROM
• Read only memory

• Non-volatile

• Read only

• Stores BIOS + other data for start-up routine

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Secondary storage (off-line
storage)
• Not directly accessed by CPU

• Need for permanent data storage

• Longer data access time

• Non-volatile

Magnetic storage
• Uses platters
◦ Divided into tracks and sectors

◦ Platters of aluminium/glass/ceramic, coated with magnetisable

material

◦ Platter is spun

• Read and written using electromagnets

◦ Read/write head

◦ Magnetic field control magnetic dots of data

◦ Magnetic field determine binary value

• 7000 spins per second

• Head floats fraction of a mm above surface

• Must move in/out to find blocks of data

latency: time needed to find data block

• Can have multiple platters

◦ Both sides used

◦ Each surface has its own head

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 • After lots of use, data fragmentation
◦ when a file is stored in non-contiguous sectors on a hard drive,
causing it to take longer to open and decrease overall
performance

• e.g. Hard disk drive (HDD)

Solid-state storage
• Control movement of electrons within NAND or NOR gates
◦ Using transistors

• Data is flashed onto chips

• Data stored as 0s/1s in millions of tiny transistors

• Transistors at junction in NAND matrix:

◦ A floating gate

◦ A control gate

◦ Current flow to control gate and then to floating gate to be stored

◦ When voltage applied, electrons attracted to it

◦ Coated in dielectric material – traps electron in floating gate –

control bit value

• Uses EEPROM technology

• AKA flash memory

• e.g. USB flash drive, SD card

SSD in comparison to HDD

Benefits Drawbacks

Reliable (no moving parts) Bad longevity (SSD endurance)

Limited number of write cycles =

Lightweight
unrecoverable data loss

Less power consumption No way to recover data if damage

Runs cooler

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 Benefits Drawbacks

Thinner

Faster data access

No need to “get up to speed”

before data access

Optical storage
• Laser shone at disk

• A head moves laser across disk surface

• Laser burns pits into surface

• Laser reads pits and lands on surface

• Reflected light from laser shining on disk captured by sensor

• Data stored in spiral track

• Surface coated in special light alloy/light-sensitive dye

Disk type

Blu-ray Blu-ray
DVD (dual
Disk type CD (single (double
layer)
layer) layer)

Laser colour Red Red Blue Blue

Laser
wavelength 780 650 405 405
(nm)

Single 1.2mm Two 0.6mm Single 1.2mm Two 0.6

Disk
polycarbonate polycarbonate polycarbonate polycarbonate
construction
layer layers layers layers

Track pitch
(d b/w 1.60 0.74 0.30 0.30
tracks) (µm)

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 Blu-ray Blu-ray
DVD (dual
Disk type CD (single (double
layer)
layer) layer)

Shorter
wavelength =
Better Faster data
Other better
capacity than transfer rate
details storage
CD than DVD
capacity than
DVD

Built-in encryption

Virtual memory
• Memory management system making use of secondary storage and
software to enable computer to compensate for shortage of actual
physical RAM

• Pages of data transferred between RAM and virtual memory when needed

• Memory mapping: keep track of data locations

◦ Paging: used by memory management to store and retrieve data

◦ Page: fixed length contiguous block of data used in virtual memory

systems

Benefits
• Can execute programs larger than physical RAM

• Cheaper than buying physical RAM

Drawbacks
• Disk thrashing: problem in HDD caused by excessive swapping in and
out of data – high rate of head movements during virtual memory
operations
◦ Reach thrash point: execution of program halts as system is too
busy moving data in and out of memory and not executing program
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Cloud storage
Collection of servers that store data

In remote location

Accessed using internet connection

3 types:
• Public cloud: client and provider are different companies

• Private cloud: dedicated system behind firewall, client and provider

are same

• Hybrid: combination of public and private, most sensitive data

stored on private cloud

Data redundancy: same data stored on more than one server in case of
maintenance

Benefits:
• Accessible anytime anywhere with internet connection

• Allow remote back-up for data recovery if failure

• Offer almost unlimited storage capacity

• No need to carry external storage device

Drawbacks:
• Less secure

• Lose access if no internet connection

• Reliant on third party to maintain hardware

• Ongoing costs

• Risk of company shutdown = all data lost

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Network hardware
Network interface card (NIC): hardware component (circuit board/chip)
required to allow device connection to a network (e.g. internet)

NIC contains MAC address, given during manufacture

Media access control address (MAC)

• Unique number that identifies a device connected to a network

• Hexadecimal

• Contain manufacturer code + serial code

• Assigned by manufacturer

• 6 pairs of digits (48 bits)

• Static

• Used to identify sender and recipient devices when sending data

packets

2 types:
• Universally administered MAC address (UAA) - set at manufacturing
stage

• Locally administered MAC address (LAA) - altered by user

Internet protocol address (IP

address)
• Location of a device on the internet

• Unique for given internet session

• May not be unique to each device

• Supplied when device connects to internet

• Allocated by network (ISP) using Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol

(DHCP)
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 • Used in routing

Can be:

• Static
◦ Permanent

◦ Each device is fully traceable

◦ Faster upload and download speed

◦ More expensive – device must be constantly running for

information to be always available

• Dynamic
◦ Change every time device connects to network

◦ More privacy

◦ Sometimes an issue

e.g. using Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP)

Can be:

• IPv4
◦ 32-bit address (A.B.C.D)

◦ Letters can be values from 1 to 255

◦ e.g. 215.180.1.80

• IPv6
◦ 128-bit address

◦ 8 groups of four hex digits

◦ e.g. A8FB:7A88:FFF0:0FFF:3D21:2085:66FB:F0FA

◦ Remove risk of IP address collision

◦ More efficient packet switching

◦ Built-in authentication checks

Routers
• Sends data to a specific destination on a network
◦ Convert data from network A to another format that B understands

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 ◦ Inspects packets sent to it from another network/device

◦ Router sends packets to a switch

◦ Directs packet to correct device on network

• Can assign IP addresses

◦ Same for every device connected to the same router

• Can connect a local area network (LAN) to the internet/wide area

network (WAN)

Input devices

Barcode readers
• Barcodes: series of dark/light lines of varying thickness
representing data digitally (0-9 or binary e.g. 1010110)

• Must be scanned using laser/LED light source

◦ Reflected light read by photoelectric cells

• Data stored on file in database

◦ Barcode = key field identifying product record to retrieve details

The provided text follows. This is a continuation of the context text

provided. Ensure you do not include the context text in your output:

• No data redundancy = no guarding against bad printing/damage

Advantages to business Advantages to customer

• Easier and faster to check price • Faster checkout

• No need to price each item onto

• Reduced charging errors
shelves

• Automatic stock control • Itemised bill

• Can check customer shopping habits • Cost savings passed onto

link barcode to loyalty cards customer

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Advantages to business Advantages to customer

• Better track of
• Better, up-to-date sales information
expiration = fresher food

Quick response (QR) codes

• Matrix of dark/light squares representing data

• Can be read & interpreted with smartphone camera + QR app

• 3 large squares at corner used to align QR code when scanning

• Can be used for advertising – frame QR code

• Process:
◦ Camera pointed at QR code

◦ Stored app processes image

◦ Browser automatically reads data generated by app decodes any web

addresses embedded

◦ Weblinks sent to device

Disadvantage compared to
Advantage compared to barcodes
barcodes

• Hold more info (up to 7089 digits) • Multiple formats available

• Fewer errors

• Built-in error-checking system

• Easier to read – no special scanners

• Easy to transmit through text

messages/images

• Can encrypt

• Can advertise (frame QR codes)

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 Disadvantage compared to
Advantage compared to barcodes
barcodes

• Can transmit malicious code

(attagging)

Digital camera
• Microprocessors automatically control functions e.g. shutter speed,
focus, aperture size, flash, “red eye” removal, etc.

• Also used in car bumpers, drones, endoscopes

• Light passes through lens onto light sensitive cell

◦ W/ millions of tiny sensors (each represent a pixel)

◦ Image captured on photodiodes (charge couple devices (CCD))

◦ CCD convert light to electricity

• Converted to pixels
◦ Form electronic matrix of image

• Pass through ADC to convert to digital

• Stored in memory

Keyboards
• Can be:
◦ Virtual

◦ Physical

• Each character has ASCII value

• Membrane/circuit board at key base

• When a key pressed, circuit completed

• CPU determine which key pressed

• CPU refers too index file to identify key pressed

• Finds corresponding ASCII value

036
�
Microphones
• Convert sound into electric current

• Diaphragm in microphone vibrates

• Copper coil + cone attached to diaphragm create current (cut

magnetic field) as coil vibrates

• Converted to digital data

Optical mouse
• Move cursor, example of pointing device

• Use tiny cameras + red LED light

• Red light reflected by surface

• Light picked up by complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS)

• CMOS generate electric pulses

• Sent to digital signal processor (DSP)

• Works out coordinates of mouse

◦ Based on changing image pattern

Advantages of optical over

mechanical
• No moving parts = more reliable

• Can't trap dirt

• No need for special software

Advantages of wired (USB) over

wireless
• No signal loss

037
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• Cheaper

• Fewer environmental issues

Scanners

2D
• Scan documents

• Computers with optical character recognition (OCR) allow conversion

to text file format

• Cover raised, place document on glass panel, close cover

• Bright light illuminate document

◦ e.g. xenon lamp, LED

• Scanner head moves across document until full page scanned

• Image produced, sent to lens using mirrors

• Lens focuses image

• Focused image falls onto CCD

• Software produces digital image from electronic form

3D
• Scan 3D images

• X, y, z coordinates

• Can be used in computer aided design (CAD)

• Can be sent to 3D printer

• e.g. computer tomographic (CT) scanners

◦ Builds image of solid through series of thin slices
▪ These 2D slices make up representation of 3D object

◦ Types:
▪ CT scanners – X-rays

▪ MRI (magnetic resonance images) - radio frequencies

038
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 ▪ SPECT (single photon emission computer tomography) - gamma
rays

Touchscreens
Type Description

• Protective: glass Conductive: transparent electrode

• When finger touches screen, change electrostatic field of
Capacitive conductive layer
• Microcontroller calculates coordinates (from decrease
in capacitance)

2 types
• Surface capacitive:
◦ Sensors at screen corner (small voltage applied create electric
field)

◦ Work with bare fingers/stylus

• Projective capacitive:
◦ Conductive layer = X-Y matrix pattern, forms 3D electrostatic
field

◦ sWork with bare fingers/stylus/thin or cotton gloves

◦ Allow multitouch

◦ Better image clarity (in all lighting)

◦ Durable

◦ Scratch resistant

• Only work with bare fingers/ • Sensitive to electromagnetic

stylus radiation

039
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Infrared
• Glass screen with array of sensors + IFR transmitters

• Where IFR beam broken by finger, signal not received by sensor,

microprocessor calculate coordinate

• Allow multi-touch facilities

• Durable

• Operability not affected by scratched/cracked screen

• Sensitive to water/moisture

• Possibility of accidental activation

• Sensitive to light interference

Resistive
• Two layers of electrically resistive material with voltage applied
across them

• Upper layer + lower layer: polyethylene (+ resistive coating

between) + inert gas in b/w

• Screen made up of multiple layers

• User pushes layers together

• Creates circuit

• Cause current to flow

• Allow coordinates of touch to be calculated

• Cheap to buy

• Can use with gloves

• Doesn't shatter easily

• Low power consumption

• Poor visibility

• Lower resolution

• Not sensitive to touch

• Prone to scratches

040
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This section of the course has been simplified for exams taking place
from 2023 onwards. In the past students needed to know how each device
physically worked. You now only need to know:

• What each device does and why it does it

• When it is used

INPUT DEVICES

QR scanner
• Can represent over 7000 digits
whereas barcode can only
represent up to 30
•
Often link to a website where more info can be found
•
Also used to advertise products, share contact details, provide
promotional codes, train tickets and event tickets

Barcode scanner
How it can be used in a shop:

Digital Camera
A digital camera works by capturing light and converting it into a
digital image Light enters the camera through the lens, it reaches an
image sensor where it is split into millions of pixels (small squares).
Each pixel measures light intensity which is converted into binary and
represents a colour. Digital cameras are integrated into smartphones ,
used in security systems and by professional photographers to create
high quality digital images An advantage of digital cameras is they
show a preview of the image They also instantly create an image which
can then be easily duplicated and transmitted via bluetooth or WiFi
Software can be used to edit digital photos, for example applying
041
� a
filter or retouching a photo
Keyboard
When the user presses a key on a keyboard, the key pushes the switch on
the circuit board. This completes a circuit. Signals are sent to the
computer that uses the data to calculate which key was pressed. Unique
character code transmitted Connected by USB or wirelessly to computers
and are built into laptops

Optical Mouse
An optical mouse shines a red light from a Light-Emitting Diode//LED
underneath the mouse. The light reflects back from a surface through a
lens in the mouse and is converted to a value. This value is
transmitted to the computer. The computer then determines the direction
and speed of the movement

• Used to control cursor in a GUI

• Reliable b/c no moving parts

• Simple to use

042
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Microphone
Converts sound waves into electrical signals that can be processed byc
computer

Can capture andy real world sound and convert it into digital datacwhich
can be stored, duplicated or modified

Microphone has diaphragm which vibrates in response to sound waves

These vibrations converted into electrical signals by coil of a wirec

attached to back of diaphragm

Changes in signal are recorded by microprocessor using ADC

Microphones used to record music, telephone calls, communicate online

Touch Screens

Resistive
Advantages:
• Cheap to manufacture

• Can be activated w/ nearly every object

• Low power consumption

• Waterproof

• Does not easily shatter

• Resistance to surface contaminants

043
040
Disadvantages:
• Doesn’t normally support multitouch

• Screen visibility can be poor in sunlight

• Longevity issues

• Not very sensitive to touch

• Prone to scratches

Used for cash machines, information kiosks, medical equipment

Capacitive
Made up of a protective layer, a transparent conductive layer and a
glass substrate

Touching screen changes electrostatic field of conductive layer

Advantages:
• Good visibility in sunlight

• Very durable surface

• Allows multi touch

• Excellent image quality

• Unlimited touch life

• Scale well

Disadvantages:
• Sensitive to interference from light, water, snow

• Screen will shatter on impact

• Cannot use when wearing gloves

Uses: Large scale commercial displays, information kiosks, medical

equipment

044
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Infrared
LEDs shine infrared light across a screen forming a matrix

When the screen is touched the beams are interrupted

Advantages:
• Excellent image quality

• High precision

• Durable

• Allows for multiple touches at the same time

• Can use stylus/finger/glove

Disadvantages:
• Sensitive to dirt/dust

• Expensive to manufacture

• Screen will shatter on impact

• Requires a bare finger or stylus for activation

Uses: tablets, laptops, smartphones

2D Scanner
Used to create digital versions of documents or photographs

Reading passports at airport

3D Scanner
Objects recreated digitally

Can be modified using specialist software

045
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Can be used to create 3D models to use w/ CAD (computer aided design)
software

Dentistry, product development, medical

OUTPUT DEVICES
Projectors

DLP
Advantages:
• Higher contrast ratios

• Smooth video

• Higher reliability

• Smaller and lighter

• Better suited to dusty atmosphere

Disadvantages:
• Image suffers from “shadows” when showing a moving image

• Dont have grey components in the image

• Colour definition isn’t as good as LCD

LCD
LCD projectors use three
mirror filters to separate
an image into red, green and blue wavelengths.

The three images are then combined to produce the full colour image
which is passed through the lens on to the wall/screen

046
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Uses millions of micro mirrors to reflect light through a lens

Advantages:
• Gives a sharper image

• Better colour saturation and intensity

• Use less power

• Generate less heat

• Quieter running

• Image appears brighter

• Doesn’t give rainbow effect DLP gives

Disadvantages:
• Not as good contrast ratios

• Limited life

• Panels degrade over time

Printers

Laser
Very fast when making multiple copies of a doc

Useful for high volume jobs

Low running cost per page

Often used in business and schools

Inkjet
High quality hard copies of digital images or documents

047
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Actuators
Used in conjunction with a motor to translate energy into real world
movement of a physical object

Have been made specifically for a particular function

E.g. turning a wheel, opening/closing a door, controlling a conveyor

belt, operating machinery, moving robotic arms, vibrating a machine,
starting or stopping a pump, opening or closing a valve

Often used with sensors

Input of sensor checked against stored value and if input meets the
value or range actuator is used to provide movement of a physical
object

3D Printers
Allow for precision and can be used in medicine to create prosthetics
and blood vessels

Models can be transmitted digitally and then models printed out all
across the world

Screens

LCD
Used for TVs, monitors, tablets and phones

Low power consumption and run at cool temp

Do not suffer image burn or flicker issues

Provide bright images

048
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Cheaper to produce than LED

LED
Advantages:
• Better image quality

• Longer life span

• Can be used to create very large screens

• Football matches and music festivals

• Very little power consumption so can be switched on for many hours a

day

OLED
Much thinner and lighter than LCD

Use organic light emitting diodes (OLED)

Use organic carbon compound to create semiconductors

No form of back lighting required

Very thin, flexible screens

Speakers
Used to take digital sounds or recordings and output them as sound
waves which can be heard by humans

Digital data is changed into an electric current using a DAC

It is then passed through an amplifier to create current large enough to

drive a speaker

Speaker converts current into a sound wave

049
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Typical uses include listening to music, listening to video sound,
telephone calls and alarms

050
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 CHAPTER 4: SOFTWARE

Types of software
Application software: provides services that user requires

e.g. Spreadsheet, games software, internet browser, database, word

processor

Features:
• Perform various applications (apps) on computer

• Allow user to perform specific tasks using computer resources

• May be single program (e.g. notepad) or suit of programs (e.g.

Microsoft office)

• User can execute software when they require

Examples with details:

• Word processors: manipulate text document
◦ Create, edit, save, manipulate text

◦ Copy + paste functions

◦ Spell checkers/thesaurus

◦ Import images into structured page format

◦ Translation

• Spreadsheets: organise/manipulate numerical data on grid of lettered

column + numbered rows
◦ Formula for calculations

◦ Produce graphs

◦ Model and “what if” calculations

051
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 • Databases: organise/manipulate/analyse data, made up of table,
tables have rows (records) + column (fields)
◦ Queries on database data + produce report

◦ Add, delete, modify data

• Apps: short for applications, software running on phones/tablets,

many examples
◦ Video/music streaming

◦ GPS (global positioning system)

◦ Camera facility

• Graphics manipulation software: change images (bitmap editor:

changes pixels; vector editor: changes lines/curves)

• Video editing software: manipulate videos

◦ Rearrange, add, remove sections of video/audio clips

◦ Apply colour correction, filter, other video enhancements

◦ Create transitions between clips in video

• Photo editing software: manipulate digital photographs

◦ e.g. change brightness/contrast/saturation ... etc

◦ Complex manipulation (e.g. change facial features)

• Control and measuring software: allow computer to interface with

sensors
◦ Measure physical quantities in real world

◦ Control applications by comparing sensor data with stored data +

send out signals to alter process parameters

System software:
provides services that computer requires, including operating system
and utility software

e.g. OS, utility software, device drivers

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Features:
• Control and manage operation of computer hardware

• Provide platform for other software to run

• To allow hardware and software to run without problems

• Provide HCI (human computer interface)

• Control allocation/usage of hardware resources

Examples with details:

• Compilers: translates program in high-level language into machine
code (understood by computer)
◦ Original program = source code; after compilation = object code

◦ Once compiled, don’t to repeat, can run again

• Linkers: combines many object files together into single program when
run
◦ Different pieces of code = modules (decomposition)

• Device drivers: enables hardware devices to communicate with

computer operating system

• Operating systems (OS): software running in the background of

computer, manage basic functions + user-friendly

• Utilities: software to carry out specific tasks on computer, to help

manage/maintain/controll computer resources

Utilities programs
Most computer system software include:

• Anti-virus

• Defragmentation software

• Disk contents analysis + repair

• File compression + management

• Back-up software
053
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• Security

• Screensavers

Anti-virus/anti-malware
software
• Defend against malware attacks

• Run constantly in background + keep up-to-date

• Features:
◦ Check files before running/loading

◦ Compare possible virus to database of known viruses

◦ Heuristic checking (checking software for behaviour indicating a

virus)

◦ Quarantines possibly infected files:

▪ Allow automatic deletion/

▪ Allow user to decide deletion (false positive = user knows

program isn’t infected, drawback of antivirus)

◦ Weekly full check (dormant viruses)

Defragmentation software
(disk defragmenter)
• Organises files to be stored in contiguous sectors, reduce HDD head
movement (not used with SSD) + faster reading

Back-up software
• Allows schedule for file back-up

• Only carry out back-up if files changed

054
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• For total security, 3 file versions:
◦ Current version (on internal SSD/HDD)

◦ Locally back-up version (portable SSD)

◦ Remote back-up version (cloud storage)

Security software
• Manage access control + user accounts (IDs + passwords)

• Links to other utility software (anti-malware...)

• Protect network interfaces (firewalls)

• Encryption and decryption to protect data

• Oversee software updates (e.g. legitimate source? ...)

Screensavers
• Supply moving and still images on monitor screen after period of
inactivity

• Originally to protect older CRT (cathode ray tube) monitors

◦ suffers phosphor burn if same screen image remains for some time

• Not needed with LCD and OLED screens, now used as security system
◦ 5 minutes of inactivity, loading of screensaver

◦ Automatic logout + screen saver displays that computer is locked

◦ Some activate background tasks when computer is idle

▪ virus scans, distributed computing applications

Device drivers
• Communicate with OS and translate data into format understood by
hardware peripheral devices

• All USB device drivers contain a descriptor (collection of info abt

device) - includes vendor id (VID), product id (PID), unique serial
number
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Operating System (OS)
9 functions:

• Managing files

• Managing memory

• Managing peripherals and drivers

• Managing multitasking

• Managing user accounts

• Handling interrupts

• Providing an interface

• Providing a platform for running applications

• Providing system security

Managing files
• File naming conventions
◦ (filename.extension - e.g. name.docx)

• Performing specific tasks

◦ (create/open/close/delete/rename/copy/move)

• Maintain directory structures

• Ensure access control mechanisms maintained

◦ (access levels/password protection)

• Ensure memory allocation for file

◦ Read it from secondary storage, load into memory

Managing memory
• Manage RAM
◦ Allow data movement between RAM and HDD/SSD

• Keep track of memory locations

056
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• Memory protection – two competing applications cannot use same
memory location at same time
◦ Else: data loss, incorrect application functioning, security
issues, crash

Managing peripherals and drivers

• Communicate with external devices w/ drivers
◦ Translates data into understandable format for device

• Ensure hardware resources have priority = used + released as

required

• Manage devices by controlling queues + buffers

e.g. printer management when printing document

◦ Printer driver loaded into memory

◦ Data sent to printer buffer (prepare for printing)

◦ If printer busy, sent to printer queue then to printer buffer

◦ Sends various control commands to printer during printing process

◦ Receives and handles error messages + interrupts

Managing multitasking
• Allow computer to carry out >1 task at a time
◦ Resources allocated to a process for specific time limit

◦ Process can be interrupted while running

◦ Process given priority (and allocated resources accordingly)

Managing user accounts

• Allow more than 1 user to log onto the system

• User data stored in separate parts of memory

• Account protected by username and password

◦ Sometimes overseen by administrator + access levels

057
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Providing an interface
Human Computer Interface (HCI) as Command Line Interface (CLI) or
Graphical User Interface (GUI)

Interface Advantages Disadvantages

• Users need to learn

• Direct communication with
number of commands to
computer
carry out basic operation
• Not restricted to pre-
• Commands need to be typed
determined options
CLI in – takes time and can
• Possible to alter
make errors
computer configuration
• Commands need to be in
settings
correct format/spelling/
• Uses little memory
etc

• Users don’t need to learn

any commands • Uses a lot more computer
memory
• User-friendly

• Use of a pointing device • Limited to icons on

GUI
(mouse) or touchscreen screen

(post-WIMP) • Need OS, takes up memory

and storage
WIMP : windows icons menu
and pointing device

Users:

• CLI: Programmer/analyst/technician – need to develop new software/

locate and remove errors/ initiate memory dumps/etc

• GUI: user without good knowledge on computers – use for gaming/

editing images/ run software/etc

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Providing system security
Ensure data integrity, confidentiality and availability

• Automatic system updates

• Ensure anti-virus software up to date

• Communicating with firewall

• Access levels, ensure data privacy

• Maintain access rights for all users

• Ability to recover lost data

Running applications
• Applications are run on OS

• OS runs on firmware

• Firmware runs on hardware

Firmware: program that provides low level control for devices

BIOS (basic input/output system)

• Boots up system – show computer where OS stored

(downwards abt BIOS not needed)

• Stored in EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable ROM)

◦ Flash memory chip

• BIOS settings stored in CMOS chip

◦ Complementary Metal Oxide Semi-Conductor

◦ Powered up all time by rechargeable battery on motherboard

◦ If battery removed, factory settings

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Interrupts
Interrupts
• Signal sent from a device/software to the microprocessor,
temporarily stopping its task to service interrupt

• Causes:
◦ Timing signal

◦ Input/output process

◦ Hardware fault

◦ User interaction

◦ Software errors

Example: division by 0, two processes trying to access same memory

at same time

Hardware interrupts e.g. pressing key on keyboard, moving mouse

• Purpose:
◦ Attend to certain tasks

◦ Ensure vital tasks dealt with immediately

◦ Enable multitasking

Process:

◦ Signal sent from device/software

◦ Interrupt tells processor that attention required

▪ Causes current process to pause

◦ Level of interrupt priority established

◦ CPU services interrupt

▪ Using ISR (interrupt service routine)

◦ After servicing, previous process continues

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Buffer
◦ Memory area that stores data temporarily

◦ Prevent slower processes affecting CPU performance + allow for

multitasking

Example: data transfer from device to computer

◦ Buffer filled with data from the device’s memory

◦ CPU continues with other tasks in meanwhile

◦ Data transferred from buffer to computer memory

◦ Buffer empty, interrupt signal sent from buffer to CPU

◦ CPU suspends current task, establish interrupt priority

◦ Instruct device to start filling buffer again.

Languages
Computer program: list of instructions that enable a computer to
perform a specific task

High-level languages
◦ Use English-like statements

◦ Need to be converted to machine code

▪ Using a translator

◦ Is portable

◦ One line of code can perform multiple commands

Low-level languages
◦ Close to machine code

◦ May use mnemonics

◦ Need assembler to translate

◦ One line of code = single instruction

061
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◦ Machine dependent

◦ Have access to memory locations

Forms of low-level language

Machine code
◦ Written in binary

◦ Can be executed directly

Assembly language
◦ Uses mnemonics

◦ Needs assembler to translate into machine code

◦ Reasons for use:

▪ Use special hardware

▪ Use special machine-dependant instructions

▪ Write code that doesn’t take much space in primary memory

▪ Write code that performs task very quickly

Advantages Disadvantages

◦ Easy to understand +
debug + maintain

◦ Quicker to write
◦ Larger programs
◦ Portable
◦ Take longer to
High-level ◦ Can use IDE
execute
languages ◦ Greater range of
◦ Cannot use special
languages
hardware
◦ Don’t need knowledge of
manipulating memory
locations

062
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 Advantages Disadvantages

◦ Directly manipulate
hardware

◦ No requirement for ◦ Difficult to

program to be portable understand

◦ Memory efficient ◦ Error prone

Low-level
languages ◦ No need for compiler/ ◦ Need to manipulate
interpreter memory locations

◦ Quicker to execute ◦ Machine dependant

◦ Can use specialised

hardware

Translators
Utility program translating instructions into binary

3 types: compiler, interpreter, assembler

Compilers:
◦ Translate high-level into machine code all at once (before
execution)

◦ Produces executable machine code file

◦ One high-level statement can be translated into several machine

code instructions

◦ Once compiled, ran without compiler

◦ If error detected:
▪ Creates error report after trying to compile
▪ Display all errors in code

▪ Require correction before execution

◦ Distributed for general use (translate final program)

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 Interpreters:
◦ Execute high-level program line-by-line

◦ No executable file produced

◦ One high-level statement may require several machine code

instructions

◦ Need interpreter to run

Assemblers:
• Translate low-level assembly program into machine code

• Produce executable machine code file

• One low-level statement translated to one machine code instruction

• Programs ran without assembler

• Distributed for general use

• If error detected in a statement:

• Stops execution

• Output error message

• Used during program development

Advantages Disadvantages

• Easier to debug + test

+ edit during • Cannot run without
Interpreter development interpreter
• Take longer to execute

064
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Advantages Disadvantages

• Stored ready for use

• Can execute without

compiler • Take longer to write +
Compiler • Take up less space in test + debug during
memory after execution development

• Take less time to

execute

Integrated development
environment (IDE)
Suite of software development tools used by programmers to aid writing
+ development of programs

Features:
• Code editor
◦ Allow editing program without separate text editor

• Translator
◦ Compiler/integrator

◦ Allow execution within IDE

• Run-time environment + debugger

◦ Run program that is under development

◦ Allow programmer to step through program line-by-line (single

stepping)

◦ Allow setting breakpoints

◦ Report window shows content of variables and expressions – to

check for logic errors

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• Error diagnostics
◦ Find errors as code is typed

• Auto-completion
◦ Context-sensitive prompts with text completion for variable
names/ reserved words

• Auto-correction
◦ Alerts to errors + provide corrections

• Auto-documenter
◦ Explain function and purpose of key words

• Prettyprinting
◦ Colour codes words and lay program out clearly

066
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 CHAPTER 5: THE INTERNET
AND ITS USES
Internet = INTERconnected NETwork

WWW = World Wide Web = webpages

Internet World Wide Web (WWW)

Worldwide collection of
Collection of multimedia web pages
interconnected networks and
and other information on websites
devices

Allows online chatting (text,

Accessed by web browsers
audio, video)

Located using uniform resource

User can send and receive emails
locator (URL)

Uses transmission protocols (TCP) Use internet to access information

and internet protocols (IP) from the web servers

HTTP(S) protocols written using

hypertext mark-up language (HTML)

Internet Service Provider (ISP): company that provides a user with a

connection to the Internet

Uniform Resource Locators

(URLs)
Text-based version of a web address

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Protocol://websiteaddress/path/filename

• Protocol: http/https

• Website address:
◦ Domain host: www

◦ Domain name: websitename

◦ Domain type: .com/.org/.net/.gov ...

◦ (sometimes) country code: .uk/.de/.cy ...

• Path: webpage root directory, often omitted

• File name: item displayed on the webpage

Hypertext Transfer Protocol

(HTTP)
Main protocol (set of rules) that governs the transmission of data
using the Internet

HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer

Protocol Secure)
• Secure version of HTTP

• Uses TLS/SSL

• Uses encryption

Web browsers
• Software that allows users to access and display web pages on their
device screens

• Interprets HTML document and present the translation

• Interprets embedded scripting (e.g. JavaScript)

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 • Identifies protocols (e.g., https, SSL ...)

• Provides functions:
◦ Stores history

◦ Stores favourites

◦ Stores data in cache

◦ Allows multiple tabs

◦ Allows homepage

◦ Check security

◦ Downloading file from web

◦ Store cookies

◦ ...

Domain Name Server/System

(DNS)
System for finding IP addresses for a domain name given in URL

so that users don’t need to memorise IP addresses to a website

Converts URL into an IP address that computer can understand

Involves multiple servers

contains database of URLs with matching IP addresses

(only example, not mark scheme answer)

Example of how DNS locates and

retrieves web pages:
• User enters URL in web browser

• Web browser requests for IP address of the URL from DNS server (1)

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 • DNS server (1) can’t find matching IP address for the URL, sends
request to DNS server (2)

• DNS server (2) finds matching IP address, sends it to DNS server (1)

• DNS server (1) adds it to its database, sends it to the user’s

computer

• Computer communicates with web server, and receives HTML files to

structure and display content

How a web browser uses URL to

access a web page:
• Web browser sends URL to DNS
◦ Using HTTP/HTTPS

• DNS stores and index of URL and matching IP addresses

• DNS searches for URL to obtain IP address

• IP address sent to web browser if found

◦ (DNS server sends request to other servers for IP)

• If URL not found, DNS returns error

• Web browser sends request to IP of web server

• Web server sends web page to web browser

• Web browser interprets HTML to display web page

Cookies
Text file (stored by web browser) that contains data about a user’sc
browsing habits/details/preferences

Sent by web server to browser on computer

Small look-up table, with pairs of values (key, data) e.g. (surname,c
Jones)

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Uses:

• Saving personal details

• Tracking user preferences

• Holding items in an online shopping cart

• Storing login details

• ...

How it enhances user experience:

• Store preferences

• Store account details

• Store recent history/purchases

• Store pages visited (advertising)

• Store shopping basket

How it can store information and

automatically enter it when
needed:
• Web server sends cookie file to user’s browser

• User details stored in encrypted text file

• Cookie file is stored by browser on user’s hard drive

• When user revisits website, web server requests for cookie file

• Browser sends cookie file to webserver

2 types of cookies:
Session cookies:
• Stored in RAM

• Doesn't collect other details from user’s computer

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 • Deleted once browser closed

• e.g. virtual shopping basket

Persistent (permanent) cookies:

• Stored on hard drive on user’s computer
◦ until expiry date reached or is deleted

• Remains in operation even after browser is closed

• Uses:
◦ Store login details

◦ Save user’s items in virtual shopping basket

◦ Track internet habits, history and bookmarked pages

◦ Targeted advertising

◦ Store preferences

◦ Memory, allow website to recognise users when they visit it

◦ Automatically change language on web pages

◦ Online financial transactions

Concerns:
• Users don’t know what information is stored
◦ Feel like privacy is affected

• Build profile about user

◦ Lead to identity theft

• Sensitive information in cookies can be intercepted in transmission

• Computer can be hacked and obtain data from cookies

◦ Stolen payment information and used by third party

*non-ms

DIGITAL CURRENCY
• Currency that only exists electronically
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 • Money exists as data on a computer system but can be transferred
into physical cash

• Relies on central banking system

• Exchange rates determined by 2 sole bodies: central banks and

government

• Issues: centralisation = difficult to maintain confidentiality and

security

CRYPTOCURRENCY
• Decentralised = solution to the issues of centralised digital
currency

• Use cryptography to track transactions

• No state control, rule set by the cryptocurrency community

• All transactions publicly available (can track transactions and

money available in system)

• Works in a blockchain networks = more secure

Blockchain
A digital ledger, a time-stamped series of records that cannot bec
altered

Decentralised database

Many interconnected computers but they are not connected to a centralc

server

All transaction data is stored on all computers in the blockchainc

network

Every computer gets a copy of new transaction

Data cannot be changed without consent of all network members

prevents hacking as hacker would have to hack all

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A new block is created, consisting of:

• Data: name of sender/recipient, amount of money...

• Hash value: unique value generated by algorithm (usually SHA 256),

includes time stamp, acts like a fingerprint

• Previous block’s hash value

1st block without previous block hash value is the genesis block

Any change to any block means all blocks after it will have to be
changed

Any incorrect block will not be added to the blockchain

Areas of use of blockchain:

• Cryptocurrency exchanges

• Smart contracts

• Research (esp. pharmaceutical companies)

• Politics

• Education

Proof-of-work (AKA mining):

• Algorithm used in blockchain networks to confirm a transaction to
produce new blocks to add to the chain

• Miners earn rewards for being the first one to solve the encryption

• Requires lot of computing effort

• Takes at least 10 minutes

• Needs to be verified by other computers on the network

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CYBERSECURITY

List of cyber security threats:

• Brute force attacks

• Data interception

• DDoS

• Hacking

• Malware (6)

• Pharming

• Phishing

• Social engineering

Brute force attacks

Trial and error to guess a password, combinations entered repeatedly,
until correct password is found, can be carried out automatically by
software

• Checking if password is one of the most common ones

• If not, program generates word list (text file containing words that
can be used)

Prevention:

Longer and more varied password

takes a very long time to find correct combination

Data interception
Stealing data by tapping into a wired/wireless communication link

Can use a packet sniffer (examines data packets sent over a network,c
sends intercepted data abck to hacker)

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(Wi-Fi) can use wardriving (AKA Access Point Mapping)

can be done outside the building victim is in, using the Wi-Fi signal

Solution:

• Wired equivalency privacy (WEP) encryption protocol

• Firewall

• Complex router password

Distributed Denial of Service

(DDoS) attacks
Preventing users from accessing part of a network (e.g. internet server
– email, websites, online services) by flood it with large amounts of
useless spam traffic

Attack originates from many different computers

=hard to block attack + find source

Process:

• Many requests sent from a computer

• Requests sent to web server

• Web server becomes flooded with traffic

• Web server cannot handle the requests

• Website can no longer be accessed

Prevention:

• Up-to-date malware checker

• Firewall

• Email filters

Signs of DDoS attack:

• Slow network performance

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 • Inability to access certain websites

• Large amounts of spam emails

Hacking
Illegal access to a computer system without the owner’s consent or
knowledge, possibly also amending/stealing/deleting data

Prevention:

• Firewalls

• Frequently changed passwords

• Anti-hacking software/intrusion-detection software

• Encryption of data
◦ (only makes data meaningless, but it still can be stolen)

Ethical hacking: companies authorising paid hackers to check out

security measures and test robustness of computer systems to attacks

MALWARE
Virus
Program that replicates itself, designed to amend/delete/copy data or
files on a user’s computer or fill up disk space, often causing computer
to crash/run slowly

Need active host program on target computer

Prevention:

• Use anti-virus software

• Don't download software/data from unknown sources

• Don't open emails from unknown sources

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Worms
Program that replicates itself on a network, without user input. It
takes up bandwidth, damage/deletes/corrupts data or files

Prevention:

• Use anti-virus software

• Don't download software/data from unknown sources

• Don't open emails from unknown sources

Trojan horse
Program that is disguised as an authentic software, when installed, the
other malware it contains is also installed

Needs user input

Works with other malware, and can open backdoor to attackers

Prevention:

• Anti-malware software

• Don't download software/data from unknown sources

• Don't open emails from unknown sources

Spyware:
Software that monitors a user’s activities on their computer and
sending information back to attacker. The collected data is analysed to
obtain sensitive data.

(e.g. web browsing to capture personal data like bank account details
...)

Prevention:

• Anti-spyware software

• Don't download software/data from unknown sources

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 • Don't open emails from unknown sources

Adware:
Software that displays unwanted adverts on a user’s computer

Some may contain another malware/link to viruses

Reduces device performance

Redirects users to fake websites

Hard to remove as hard for anti-malware software to determine if it is

harmful

Prevention:

• Don't download software/data from unknown sources

• Don't open emails from unknown sources

Ransomware
Program that stops a user accessing their computer/data by encrypting
it. The user must pay a fee to decrypt it.

• Don't download software/data from unknown sources

• Don't open emails from unknown sources

• Backing up files

PHISHING
Attacker sends out legitimate-looking email in the hopes of gathering
personal and financial information from the recipient. A link is
attached taking user to fake website, containing personal data.

Prevention:

• Don't open emails from unknown sources

• Check for mistakes

• Some firewalls can detect fake websites

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 • Awareness of new scams

• Ensure websites are https

• Up-to-date browser

Spear phishing: phishing targeting a specific person

PHARMING
Malicious code installed on a user's computer or on a web server, it
redirects user to a fake website without the user’s knowledge, to
obtain personal data

Done using DNS cache poisoning (changes IP address of the real website
address to the fake one)

Prevention:

• Do not open emails from unknown

• sourcescAnti-virus software

• Check spelling of website

• addresscEnsure websites are

https

SOCIAL ENGINEERING
Attacker creates social situation leading to victim dropping their
guard, manipulating people into breaking their normal security
procedures

Types:

• Instant messaging – malicious links embedded into instant messages

• Scareware – e.g. fake anti-virus that looks real, through pop-up

messages claiming user’s computer is infected and needs to download
its anti-virus software

• Phishing – tricking users through genuineness of email and opens

link

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• Baiting – leave infected memory stick somewhere for victim to find and
open (thus unknowingly downloading malware)

• Phone calls – fake situation, persuading user to do as the attacker

asks (e.g. download special software giving them access to the
computer)

Exploits human emotions:

• Fear

• Curiosity

• Empathy and trust

Typical stages:
1. Victim identified (gathering info + decide method)

2. Victim targeted to gain control

3. Attack executed

4. Calibri (Textkörper) Remove all traces of attack once executed

Protection against security

threats

Access levels
Having different levels of access to data for different people,
depending on the user’s level of security

e.g. rights to read/write/modify/delete certain pieces of data

Usually through username and password

4 access levels (usually decided using privacy settings):

• Public access

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 • Friends

• Custom

• Data owner

ANTI-MALWARE

Anti-virus (CH4)
Anti-spyware:
Software that detects and removes spyware programs that are installed
illegally on a user’s computer system, preventing data from being
relayed to a third-party

Based on these methods:

• Rules – looks for typical features associated to spyware

• File structures – looks for typical file structures associated to

spyware

Features of an anti-spyware:
• Detect + remove installed spyware

• Prevent download of spyware

• Encrypt files (data more secure if spied on)

• Encrypt keyboard

• Block access to user’s webcam + microphone

• Scan for signs that user’s personal info was stolen and warns user

AUTHENTICATION
Ability of a user to prove who they are

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3 common factors used:

• Smth you know (e.g. password)

• Smth you have (e.g. mobile phone)

• Smth unique to you (e.g. biometrics)

Passwords + usernames
Ways to ensure password is protected:

• Run anti-spyware software

• Change passwords on regular basis

• Not easy to crack

• Strong passwords have at least:

◦ 1 capital letter

◦ 1 numerical value

◦ 1 symbol

• (there are also weak passwords)

BIOMETRICS
Relies on unique characteristics of human beings (biological data)

Examples:

• Fingerprint scans

• Retina scans

• Face recognition

• Voice recognition

Fingerprint scans
• Image of fingerprints compared to previously scanned fingerprints
stored in database

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 • Compare pattern of ridges and valleys

Retina scans
• Use infrared light to scan unique pattern of blood vessels in retina

• Requires person to sit still for 10-15 seconds while scanning

Technique Benefits Drawbacks

• Easy to use
• One of the most
• Some people regard it as very
developed
intrusive and infringement of
biometric
civil liberties (related to
Fingerprint techniques
criminal identification)
scans • Smaller storage
• Mistakes if skin is dirty/
requirement for
damaged
data
• Expensive to install
• Unique
• Cannot be lost

• High accuracy
• Very intrusive
• Unique
Retina scans • Slow and unpleasant process
• Impossible to
• Expensive to install
replicate

• Non-intrusive
Face • Affected by changes in
• Inexpensive
recognition environment and accessories
• Fast

• Non-intrusive • Voice can easily be recorded

Voice
• Inexpensive • Low accuracy
recognition
• Fast • Illness can affect voice

TWO-STEP VERIFICATION
Extra data sent to (other) device, making it difficult for hacker toc
obtain data, has to be entered into the same system (two methods ofc
verification)

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AUTOMATIC SOFTWARE UPDATES
Software on devices kept up to date, contains patches to update
software security/performance

Drawback: disrupts user using the software

CHECK SPELLING + TONE OF

COMMUNICATION + URL
• Company email address

• Incorrect grammar/spelling + rushed tone

• Misspelt domain name (typo squatting – very similar to real domain

name)

• Mismatched link

• Https link not http

FIREWALLS
Hardware/software that sits between user’s computer and external
network.

User decides whether to allow communication with external source.

Tasks:
• Monitors traffic to/from a user’s computer and network

• Check that traffic meets given set of rules

• Blocks traffic that doesn’t meet criteria

• Can block access to specified IP addresses

• Warns of attempted unauthorised access to system

• Logs all incoming/outgoing traffic

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 • Can help prevent viruses/hackers gaining access

Circumstances in which firewall

can’t prevent harmful traffic:
• Individuals on internal networks using their own hardware

• Employee misconduct/carelessness

• Users on stand-alone computers can choose to disable firewall

PROXY SERVERS
Hardware/software that act as intermediate between user and web server

Features:
• Prevent direct access to web server

• Set criteria for traffic

• Filters traffic

◦ That doesn’t meet criteria

▪ Can send warning message to user

• Can block requests from certain IP addresses

• Keeps user’s IP address secret

• Direct invalid traffic away

• Help prevent DDoS attack (hits proxy instead)

PRIVACY SETTINGS
Limit who can access and see a user’s personal profile

Different examples:

• “Do not track”, stop websites collecting/using browsing data

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 • Check if payment methods have been saved on websites

• Safer browsing (browser alerts when encountering potentially

dangerous website)

• Web browser privacy options

• Website advertising opt-outs

• App permissions

SECURE SOCKET LAYERS (SSL)

A type of protocol (set of rules used by computers to communicate with
each other across a network), allows data to be sent and received
securely over internet

(new version = Transport Layer Security [TLS])

1. Web browser attempts to connect wo website secured by SSL

2. Browser request server to identify itself

3. Server sends browser a copy of its SSL digital certificate

4. Browser authenticates certificate, if authentic, browser sends

message back to server

5. Encrypted data shared securely between browser and server

(using asymmetric encryption)

Https = http + SSL

(has lock symbol)

Examples of usage:
• Online banking

• Online shopping

• Sending software to restricted list of users

• Send/receiving emails

• Using cloud storage facilities

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 • Intranets/extranets

• Voice over Internet Protocols (VoIP) when video/audio chatting over

internet

• Instant messaging

• Social networking sites

TLS
2 layers: handshake, record

Describe the purpose of theG

handshake layer.

HTML:
HTML structure and presentation
for a web page:
Structure and presentation are defined using (mark-up) tags

Structure and presentation dictate the appearance of the website

Structure is used for layout

Example of structure

Presentation is used for formatting / style

Example of formatting

Separate file / CSS can be used for presentation content

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 CHAPTER 6: AUTOMATED
AND EMERGING
TECHNOLOGIES
Automated system: combination of hardware and software designed and
programmed to work automatically without human intervention

Advantages:
• Faster than human intervention

• Safer if system is hazardous

• System more likely to be kept under optimum conditions

• More energy efficient = less expensive in the long run

• Increase overall productivity

• More consistent results

Disadvantages:
• Expensive to set up

• Possibility for conditions not considered during development to

occur

• Fear of cyberattacks

• Need enhanced maintenance to operate = expensive

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Examples

Industrial
Nuclear power station

• Sensors: temperature, pressure, flow level, radiation level

• Actuator function: operate water/gas pump, valves, automatic

shutdown of process

• At centre, distributed control system (DCS) - very powerful computer

◦ Whole process monitored in a control room

◦ Supervisor can override the computer system

Paracetamol manufacture

• Sensors: temperature, pH, infrared, pressure

• Actuator function: operate heating elements, valves to add

ingredients, recognise tablet presence + measure hardness

• Same as nuclear

Transport
Adaptive cruise control

• Sensors: infrared laser (measure distance using reflection), camera

• Actuator function: operate brakes, accelerator, steering box

• Can be part of autonomous system

◦ Uses LiDaR (Light Detection and Ranging)

• Dirty sensors/cameras cause malfunction

Self-parking cars

• Sensors: infrared laser, camera

• Actuator function: operate brakes, accelerators, steering wheel

• Doesn't save money

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 • Dirty sensors/cameras cause malfunction

Weather
Weather stations

• Sensors: thermometer, anemometer, hygrometer (humidity), barometer,

level sensor, light sensor

• Actuator function: e.g. measuring rainfall (tip bucket collecting

rainwater through level sensor)

• To collect data 24/7, even through bad conditions

Gaming
Gaming and simulations

• Sensors: accelerometer, proximity

• Actuator function: microprocessor uses sensor data to control

movements in simulation

• Makes gaming and simulations more realistic

Lighting
Lighting systems

• Sensors: light, infrared

• Actuator function: operate display or lights

• Reduce energy consumption + increase bulb life

Robotics
Branch of CS that incorporates the design, construction, operation of
robots

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Examples:

• Factory equipment:
◦ Welding

◦ Spray painting

◦ Laser cutting (high precision, little waste)

◦ Bottling and canning

◦ Warehouse logistics

• Domestic robots:
◦ Autonomous floor sweepers

◦ Lawn mowers

◦ Window cleaning

◦ Home entertainment

• Drones:
◦ Reconnaissance (e.g. aerial photography)

◦ Parcel delivery

◦ Flying in dangerous areas

Characteristics (physical robots):

• Mechanical structure/framework
◦ Motors, hydraulic pipes, actuators, circuit boards

• Electrical components
◦ e.g. sensors, microprocessors, actuators (end-effectors)

◦ Degree of movement (wheels, cogs, pistons, gears)

◦ Ability to sense surroundings (sensors, cameras)

• Programmable
◦ e.g. controller

Physical robot types

• Independent robots
◦ Autonomous

◦ Can replace human activity totally

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• Dependent robots
◦ Human interfacing with robot

◦ Supplement, does not replace

Advantages:
• Can work in hazardous conditions

• Can work 24/7, except maintenance breaks

• Less expensive in long run

• More productive than humans

• Consistent results

• Free humans to do other tasks

Disadvantages:
• Deskilling of humans

• Cannot deal with non-standard task

• Expensive to set up

• Require frequent maintenance

• Vulnerable to cybersecurity activity

Roles
• Industry
◦ Welding + painting

◦ Microchips, vehicles, bottling/canning

• Transport
◦ Autonomous vehicles

• Agriculture
◦ Harvesting, weed control, phenotyping, seed planting, fertiliser
spraying, automatic fruit picking
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 • Medicine
◦ Surgical procedures, monitoring patients, disinfecting, taking
blood samples, prosthetic limbs

• Domestic robots
◦ Autonomous vacuum cleaners, autonomous grass cutters, personal
assistants

• Entertainment
◦ Theme parks, film industry

Artificial intelligence (AI)

Branch of CS dealing with simulation of intelligent behaviours by
computers (cognitive functions)

3 categories of AI:

• Narrow AI: superior to human in one specific task

• General AI: similar not superior in doing one specific task

• Strong AI: superior to human in many tasks

Characteristics:

• Collects data

• Stores rules for using the data

• Ability to reason
◦ Reasoning: ability to draw reasoned conclusions based on given
data

◦ Deductive reasoning: number of correct facts build up to form set

of rules that can be applied to other problems

• Uses machine learning

◦ Adapting what it does

◦ e.g. from previous mistakes, to not repeat it

◦ By changing its own rules

◦ By changing its own data

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 ◦ By being trained

• Makes one or more predictions (to make decision)

• Analyse patterns

2 types of AI:

• Expert system

• Machine learning

Expert system
AI developed to mimic human knowledge and experience using knowledge
and inference to solve problems analyses responses to a series of
questions

• User interface: expert system interacts with user

◦ Dialogue boxes, command prompts

• Explanation system: informs user how system arrived at conclusions

• Inference engine: main processing element

◦ Examines knowledge base for information matching queries

◦ Gathers data by asking user series of questions

◦ Uses inference rules in rules base

• Rules base: set of inference rules

◦ Rules used by inference engine to draw conclusions using logical
thinking

• Knowledge base: repository of facts, all knowledge about a given

subject
◦ Collection of objects and attributes

Application examples:

• Oil and mineral prospecting

• Patient illness diagnosis

• Fault diagnostics in mechanical/electrical equipment

• Tax and financial calculations

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 • Strategy games

• Logistics

• Identification of plants, animals, chemical compounds

Advantages:
• High level of expertise, very accurate

• Consistent results

• Can store a lot of information

• Traceable logical solutions

• Can have multiple expertise

• Fast response time

• Unbiased reporting

• Gives probability of solution being correct

• Non-experts can be trained to use

Disadvantages:
• Expensive + maintenance expensive and time-consuming

• Cold responses, may not be appropriate in certain circumstances

• Only as good as knowledge base

• User sometimes make dangerous assumption that system is completely

correct

• Need to train user to use correctly

How to set up expert system:

1. Information gathered from expert/other sources

◦ Knowledge base created

◦ Populated knowledge base

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2. Rule base created
◦ Made up of series of inference rules for inference engine to draw
conclusions

3. Inference engine set up

4. User interface developed

5. Once system set up, need to be fully tested

◦ Run system with known outcomes

◦ Results compared and made any changes to system

Machine learning
• When program can automatically adapt its own processes and/or data
◦ Based on previous experiences (analyses successful/unsuccessful
results)

• Machines making decisions/solving problems without being programmed

to do so
◦ Can edit own data

◦ Can adapt

◦ Can be trained

• Fast and accurate

◦ Powerful processing capabilities – can manage and analyse
considerable volumes of complex data

Examples:

• Search engines
◦ Web crawlers to train algorithm to list all “hits” on first page

◦ Improve ability to select relevant websites

• Categorising emails as spam

◦ Emails cleaned by removing stop words (the, and, a...)

◦ Certain keywords and phrases used to detect if spam

• Collaborative filtering
◦ Recognising user’s purchase history

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 ◦ Compare new customer to other customers with similar shopping
habits

◦ Recommend products accordingly

• Detecting fraudulent activity

◦ Use web scraping: information about customer’s shopping habits to
predict credit/debit card activity

◦ Identify unusual spending patterns

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