Summer Solutions © Mathematics Pre-Algebra

Pre-Algebra
Mathematics 3rd Edition

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Vocabulary
General
absolute value — the distance between a number, , and zero on a number line; written as | |.
Example: |5| = 5 reads, “The absolute value of 5 is 5.” |-7| = 7 reads, “The absolute value of -7 is 7.”
composite number — a number with more than 2 factors.
Example: 10 has factors of 1, 2, 5, and 10. Ten is a composite number.
exponent — tells the number of times that a base is multiplied by itself. An exponent is written to the
upper right of the base. Example: 53 = 5 x 5 x 5. The exponent is 3.

expression — a mathematical phrase written in symbols. Example: is an expression.

factors — are multiplied together to get a product. Example: 2 and 3 are factors of 6.
greatest common factor (GCF) — the highest factor that 2 numbers have in common.
Example: The factors of 6 are 1, 2, 3, and 6. The factors of 9 are 1, 3, and 9. The GCF of 6 and 9 is 3.
integers — the set of whole numbers, positive or negative, and zero.
least common multiple (LCM) — the smallest multiple that 2 numbers have in common.
Example: Multiples of 3 are 3, 6, 9, 12, 15… Multiples of 4 are 4, 8, 12, 16… The LCM of 3 and 4 is 12.
multiples — can be evenly divided by a number. Example: 5, 10, 15, and 20 are multiples of 5.
prime factorization — a number, written as a product of its prime factors.
Example: 140 can be written as 2 x 2 x 5 x 7 or 22 x 5 x 7.
prime number — a number with exactly 2 factors (the number itself and 1). 1 is not prime (it has only
1 factor). Example: 7 has factors of 1 and 7. Seven is a prime number.
square root — a number that when multiplied by itself gives you another number. The symbol for
square root is . Example: reads, “The square root of 49 is 7.”
term — the components of an expression, usually being added to or subtracted from each other.
Example: The expression 2 5 has two terms: 2 and 5. The expression 3 2
has only one term.

variable — a letter or symbol in an algebraic expression that represents a number.

Geometry
acute angle — an angle measuring less than 90°.

complementary angles — two angles whose measures add up to 90°.

congruent

obtuse angle — an angle measuring more than 90°.

right angle — an angle measuring exactly 90°.

similar

straight angle — an angle measuring exactly 180°.

supplementary angles — two angles whose measures add up to 180°.

surface area

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Vocabulary (continued)
Geometry — Circles
circumference — the distance around the outside of a circle.
diameter — the widest distance across a circle. The diameter always passes through the center.
radius — the distance from any point on the circle to the center. The radius is half of the diameter.

Geometry — Polygons

Number of Sides Name Number of Sides Name

3 triangle 7 heptagon

4 quadrilateral 8 octagon

5 pentagon 9 nonagon

6 hexagon 10 decagon

Geometry — Triangles
equilateral — a triangle in which all 3 sides have the same length.

isosceles — a triangle in which 2 sides have the same length.

scalene — a triangle in which no sides are the same length.

Measurement — Relationships
Volume Distance
3 teaspoons in a tablespoon 36 inches in a yard
2 cups in a pint 1,760 yards in a mile
2 pints in a quart 5,280 feet in a mile
4 quarts in a gallon 100 centimeters in a meter
Weight 1,000 millimeters in a meter
16 ounces in a pound Temperature
2,000 pounds in a ton 0°Celsius – freezing point
Time 100°Celsius – boiling point

10 years in a decade 32°Fahrenheit – freezing point

100 years in a century 212°Fahrenheit – boiling point

Ratio and Proportion

proportion — a statement that two ratios (or fractions) are equal. Example:

percent (%) — the ratio of any number to 100. Example: 14% means 14 out of 100 or
14 .
100

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Solved Examples
Absolute Value
The absolute value of a number is its distance from zero on a number line. It is always positive.
5 units

–10 –9 –8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

5 units
The absolute value of both -5 and +5 is 5, because both are 5 units away from zero. The symbol for the
absolute value of -5 is |-5|. Examples: |-3| = 3; |8| = 8.
Coordinate Graphing
A coordinate plane is formed by the intersection of a Quadrant II Quadrant I
5
horizontal number line, called the -axis, and a vertical
4
number line, called the -axis. The axes meet at the point 3
(0, 0), called the origin, and divide the coordinate plane into 2
four quadrants. 1 Origin (0, 0)

Points are represented by ordered pairs of –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5

–1
numbers, ( , –2
pair is the -coordinate; the second number is the –3
-coordinate. In the point (-4, 1), -4 is the –4
-coordinate, and 1 is the -coordinate. Quadrant III
–5
Quadrant IV

J
4

When graphing on a coordinate plane, always move on the

2
-axis
K (up or down).
–4 –2 0 2 4
The coordinates of point J are (1, 4).
L
–2 The coordinates of point K are (-3, 0).
The coordinates of point L are (3, -1).
–4

Decimals
Adding or subtracting decimals is very similar to adding or subtracting whole numbers. The main
difference is that decimal points need to be lined-up before beginning.
Examples: Find the sum of 3.14 and 1.2. Add 55.1, 6.472, and 18.33.

1. Line up the decimal points.

Add zeroes as needed.
2. Add (or subtract) the
decimals.
3. Add (or subtract) the
Examples: Subtract 3.7 from 9.3. Find the difference of 4.1 and 2.88.
whole numbers.
4. Bring the decimal point
straight down.

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Decimals (continued)
When multiplying a decimal by a whole number, the process is similar to multiplying whole numbers.
Examples: Multiply 3.42 by 4. Find the product of 2.3 and 2.

1. Line up the numbers on the right.

2 decimal places 1 decimal place
2. Multiply. Ignore the decimal point.
0 decimal places 0 decimal places
3. Place the decimal point in the
Place decimal point so product. The total number of Place decimal point so
there are 2 decimal there is 1 decimal place.
decimal places in the product must
places.
equal the total number of decimal
places in the factors.

The process for multiplying two decimal numbers is a lot like the process described above.
Examples: Multiply 0.4 by 0.6. Find the product of 2.67 and 0.3.

1 decimal place 2 decimal places

1 decimal place 1 decimal place
Place decimal point so Place decimal point so
there are 2 decimal there are 3 decimal
places. places.

Sometimes it is necessary to add zeroes in the product as placeholders in order to have the correct
number of decimal places.
Example: Multiply 0.03 by 0.4.
2 decimal places
1 decimal place A zero had to be added in front of the 12, so there would be 3
Place decimal point so decimal places in the product.
there are 3 decimal
places.

The process for dividing a decimal number by a whole number is similar to dividing whole numbers.
Examples: Divide 6.4 by 8. Find the quotient of 20.7 and 3.

)
1. Set up the problem for long division. )
2. Place the decimal point in the quotient directly
above the decimal point in the dividend.
3. Divide. Add zeros as placeholders if
necessary (examples below).

Examples: Divide 4.5 by 6. Find the quotient of 3.5 and 4.

) Add a zero(s). )
Bring zero down.
Keep dividing.

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Decimals (continued)
When dividing decimals, the remainder is not always zero. Sometimes, the division continues on and on,
and the remainder begins to repeat itself. This quotient is called a repeating decimal.
Examples: Divide 2 by 3. Divide 10 by 11.

) Add zeros as needed )

This pattern begins to repeat itself
(with the same remainder).

The process for dividing a decimal number by a decimal number is similar to other long division. The
main difference is that the decimal point has to be moved in both the dividend and the divisor the same
number of places to the right.
Example: Divide 1.8 by 0.3. Divide 0.385 by 0.05.

1. Change the divisor to a whole number by moving

the decimal point as many places to the right as
) possible. )
2. Move the decimal in the dividend the same number
of places to the right as the divisor.
3. Put the decimal point in the quotient directly
above the decimal point in the dividend. Divide.

Equations
An equation consists of two expressions separated by an equal sign: 2 + 3 = 5. More complicated

number the variable stands for.

A simple example is when 2 + = 5. Here, the variable, , stands for 3.
Sometimes an equation is not so simple. In these cases, there is a process for solving for the variable.
No matter how complicated the equation, the goal is to work with the equation until all the numbers are
on one side and the variable is alone on the other side. These equations will require only one step to
solve. To check the answer, put the value of back into the original equation.
Solving an equation with a variable on one side:
Example: Solve for . + 13 = 27
1. Look at the side of the equation that has the
13 27 variable on it. If there is a number added to or
13 13 subtracted from the variable, it must be removed.
14 .
2. To remove 13, add its opposite (-13) to both sides
Check: 14 + 13 = 27 correct! of the equation.
Example: Solve for . – 22 = -53
3. Add downward. plus nothing is . 13 plus -13 is
22 53 zero. 27 plus -13 is 14.
4. Once the variable is alone on one side of the
22 22
equation, the equation is solved. The bottom line
31 tells the value of . = 14.
Check: -31 -22 = -53 correct!

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Equations (continued)
In the next examples, a number is either multiplied or divided by the variable (not added or
subtracted).

Example: Solve for . 3 = 39

1. Look at the side of the equation that has the
3 39 variable on it. If there is a number multiplied
by or divided into the variable, it must be
3 39
3 3
by .
13
2. To remove 3, divide both sides by 3. Use
Check: 3(13) = 39
division because it is the opposite operation
39 = 39 correct!
from the one in the equation (multiplication).
Example: Solve for . 15 3. Follow the rules for multiplying or dividing
6 integers. 3 divided by 3 is . 39 divided
by 3 is thirteen.
6 15 6
6 4. Once the variable is alone on one side of the
90 equation, the equation is solved. The bottom
Check: 90 line tells the value of . = 13.
15
6
–15 = –15 correct!
The next set of examples also has a variable on only one side of the equation. These, however, are a bit
more complicated because they require two steps in order to get the variable alone.

Example: Solve for . 2 + 5 = 13

2 5 13 1. Look at the side of the equation that has the
5 5 variable on it. There is a number (2) multiplied
2 8 by the variable, and there is a number added
2 8 to it (5). Both of these must be removed.
Always begin with the addition/subtraction.
2 2
To remove the 5 add its opposite (-5) to both
4
sides.
Check: 2(4) + 5 = 13
2. To remove the 2, divide both sides by 2.
8 + 5 = 13
Divide, because it is the opposite operation
13 = 13 correct!
from the one in the equation (multiplication).
3. Follow the rules for multiplying or dividing
integers. 2 divided by 2 is . 8 divided by 2
Example: Solve for . is four.
3 7 32 4. Once the variable is alone on one side of the
7 7 equation, the equation is solved. The bottom
3 39 line tells the value of . = 4.
3 39
3 3
13
Check: 3(13) – 7 = 32
39 – 7 = 32
32 = 32 correct!

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Equations (continued)
These multi-step equations also have a variable on only one side. To get the variable alone, though,
requires several steps.

Example: Solve for . 3(2 3) 21

1. Look at the side of the equation that has the
2 3 21 variable on it. First, the expression (2 + 3) is
3
3 3 multiplied by 3; then there is a number (3) added
to 2 , and there is a number (2) multiplied by .
2 3 7
3 3 All of these must be removed. To remove the 3
outside the parentheses, divide both sides by 3.
2 4
Divide, because it is the opposite operation from
2 4
the one in the equation (multiplication).
2 2 2. To remove the 3 inside the parentheses, add its
2 opposite (-3) to both sides.
3. Remove the 2 by dividing both sides by 2.
Check: 3 2(2) 3 21 4. Follow the rules for multiplying or dividing
integers. 2 divided by 2 is . 4 divided by 2 is
3 4 3 21 two.
3 7 21 5. Once the variable is alone on one side of the
equation, the equation is solved. The bottom line
21 = 21 correct!
tells the value of . = 2.

When solving an equation with a variable on both sides, the goals are the same: to get the numbers on
one side of the equation and to get the variable alone on the other side.

Example: Solve for . 2 +4=6 –4

1.
2 4 6 4
step is to remove the “variable term” from one
2 2
of the sides by adding its opposite. To remove 2
4 4 4
from the left side, add -2 to both sides.
4 4
2. There are also numbers added (or subtracted) to
8 4 both sides. Next, remove the number added to
8 4 the variable side by adding its opposite. To
4 4 remove -4 from the right side, add +4 to both
2 sides.
3. The variable still has a number multiplied by it.
This number (4) must be removed by dividing both
Check: 2(2) + 4 = 6(2) – 4 sides by 4.
4 + 4 = 12 – 4 4. is 2.
8=8 correct!

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Equations (continued)
Example: Solve for . 5 – 3 = 8 + 9
5 3 8 9
8 8
3 3 9
Check: 5(–4) – 3 = 8(–4) + 9
3 3
–20 –3 = –32 + 9
–23 = -23 correct! 3 12
3 12
3 3
4

Exponents
An exponent is a small number to the upper right of another number (the base). Exponents are used to
show that the base is a repeated factor.

2
exponent
Example: 24 is read “two to the fourth power.” base
The base (2) is a factor multiple times.
The exponent (4) tells how many times the base is a factor.
24 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 = 16
Example: 93 is read “nine to the third power” and means 9 x 9 x 9 = 729.

Expressions

An expression is a number, a variable, or any combination of these, along with operation signs , , ,
and grouping symbols. An expression never includes an equal sign.
Five examples of expressions are 5, , ( + 5), (3 + 5), and (3 2
+ 5).
To evaluate an expression
Example: Evaluate 2 + 3 + 5 when = 2 and = 3.

1. To evaluate, put the

2(2) + 3(3) + 5 = ?
values of and into the
4 + 9 +5=? expression.
13 + 5 = 18 2. Use the rules for integers
The expression has a value of 18. to calculate the value of
the expression.

Example: Find the value of 2 when = 6 and = 4.

3
6(4)
2 ?
3
24
2 ?
3
8 2 10

The expression has a value of 10.

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Expressions (continued)
When evaluating a numerical expression containing multiple operations, use a set of rules called the
Order of Operations. The Order of Operations determines which operations, and in which order, they

The Order of Operations is as follows:

1. Parentheses
2. Exponents
3. Multiplication/Division (left to right in the order that they occur)
4. Addition/Subtraction (left to right in the order that they occur)
If parentheses are enclosed within other parentheses, work from the inside out.
To remember the order, use the mneumonic device “Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally.”
Use the following examples to help you understand how to use the Order of Operations.
Example: 2 + 6 5
To evaluate this expression, work through the steps using the Order of Operations.
1. Since there are no parentheses or exponents in the expression, skip steps 1 and 2.
2. According to step 3, do multiplication and division. 6 5 = 30
3. Next, step 4 says to do addition and subtraction. 2 + 30 = 32
The answer is 32.
Example: 42 6 3 4 16 2
1.
42 6 3 4 16 2 they occur).
7 3 4 16 2
2. Do addition and subtraction next (in the order
21 4 16 2
they occur).
21 4 8
25 8
17

Example: 42 6 3 4 16 2 1.

5(2 4) 15 (9 6) 2.
they occur).
5(6) 15 (3)
30 5 3. Do addition and subtraction next (in the order
35 they occur).

Example: 4 3 2 7 5 7

4 3 2 7 5 7 1. Brackets are treated as parentheses. Start from

4 3 2 12 7
4 3 24 7 2. Then work inside the brackets.
4 27 7
4 20
80

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Expressions (continued)
Some expressions can be made more simple. There are a few processes for simplifying an
expression. Deciding which process or processes to use depends on the expression itself. With
practice, recognizing which of the following processes to use will become easier.
The distributive property is used when one term is multiplied by (or divided into) an expression that
includes either addition or subtraction. ( ) or

Example: Simplify. 3(2x + 5)

1. Since the 3 is multiplied by the expression,
3 2 5 2 + 5, the 3 must be multiplied by both terms in
the expression.
3 2 3 5
6 15 2. Multiply 3 by 2 and then multiply 3 by + 5.

Example: Simplify. 2(7x – 3y + 4) 3. The result includes both of these: 6 + 15.

Notice that simplifying an expression does not
2 7 3 4 result in a single number answer, only a more
simple expression.
2 7 2 3 2 4
14 6 8
Like terms are those that contain the
same variable to the same power. 2 and -4 are like terms; 3 2 and 8 2 are like terms; 5 and are
like terms; 3 and 7 are like terms.
An expression sometimes begins with like terms. This process for simplifying expressions is called
combining like terms
like terms to each other, and write the results together to form a new expression.
Example: Simplify. 2 + 5 – 9 + 5 – 3 – 2
The like terms are 2 and +5 ,
+5 and –3 , and –9 and –2.
2 + +5 = +7 , +5 + –3 = +2
and –9 + –2 = –11.
The result is 7 + 2 – 11.

then to combine like terms.

Example: Simplify. 2 3 2 2 3 2 3 2
1. First, apply the distributive property
to each expression. Write the results
6 4 4 on top of each other, lining up the like
6 9 6 terms with each other. Pay attention to
12 13 10 the signs of the terms.

Example: Simplify. 4 3 5 4 2 3 3 2 2. Then, add each group of like terms.

Remember to follow the rules for
12 20 16 integers.
6 6 4
6 14 20

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Expressions (continued)
Simplifying these expressions
(algebraic fractions) is similar to simplifying numerical fractions. It involves cancelling out factors that
are common to both the numerator and the denominator.

Simplify. 12 1. Begin by looking at the numerals in both the

2 4

16 3 2 numerator and denominator (12 and 16). What is

2
the largest number that goes into both evenly?
3
Cancel this factor (4) out of both.
12 2 4

2. Look at the portion of both numerator and de-

16 3 2
nominator. What is the largest number of
4 2 can go into both of them? Cancel this factor ( )
out of both.
2 2 3
3. Do the same process with and then . Cancel out
2 2 2 2 the largest number of each ( and 2). Write the
3 2 numbers that remain in the numerator or
denominator for the answer.
4 2

Often a relationship is described using verbal (English) phrases. In order to work with the
translate it into an algebraic expression or equation. In most cases, word clues
will be helpful. Some examples of verbal phrases and their corresponding algebraic expressions or
equations are written below.

Verbal Phrase Algebraic Expression

Ten more than a number ................................................................................. + 10
........................................................................ +5
A number increased by seven ........................................................................ +7
Six less than a number..................................................................................... –6
A number decreased by nine .......................................................................... –9
The difference between a number and four .............................................. –4
The difference between four and a number .............................................. 4 –
Five times a number ............................................................................................ 5
Eight times a number, increased by one ..................................................... 8 + 1
The product of a number and six is twelve. ............................................6 = 12

The quotient of a number and 10 ...................................................................

10
.......................... –5
2
In most problems, the word “is” means to put in an equal sign. When working with fractions and
percents, the word “of” generally means multiply. Look at the example below.
One half of a number is
Think of it as ”one half times a number equals
1
When written as an algebraic equation, it is = 15.
2

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Expressions (continued)
greatest common factor (GCF) of an algebraic expression is needed.
Example: Find the GCF of 12 2 3
and 18 3 2
.

1. 12x2yz3 and 18xy3z2

The largest number that is a factor of both is 6.
The GCF of 12 and 18 is 6.
2. Now look at the -terms, which
Of 2
and , the smaller is .
contains fewer 2
and ,
has fewer. Of and 3
, the smaller is .
3. Now look at the Of 3
and , the smaller is
2 2
.
-terms, contains fewer. Of the -terms, The GCF is 6 2
.
2
has fewer.
4. The GCF contains all of these. 6 2

least common multiple (LCM) of an algebraic expression is called for.

Example: Find the LCM of 10 3 2 2
and 15 4

1. 10 3 2 2
and 15 4

The lowest number that both go into evenly is 30.

The LCM of 10 and 15 is 30. Of 3
and
2. Look at the -terms. Which has more , the larger is 3.
Comparing 3 and , 3 has more.
Of 2
and 4
, the larger is 4
.
3. Look at the
-terms, 4 contains more. Of the -terms, Of 2
and , the larger is 2
.
2
contains more. The LCM is 30 3 4 2
.
4. The LCM contains all of these. 30 3 4 2

Fractions
When adding fractions that have different denominators hey have a
common denominator. Then, add them.
Finding the least common denominator (LCD): The LCD of the fractions is the same as the least
common multiple of the denominators. Sometimes, the LCD will be the product of the denominators.
3 1
Example: Find the sum of and .
8 12
2 8, 12
2 4, 6 3 9
2 2, 3 8 24 1.
3 1, 3 1 2 2. The LCM of 8 and 12 is 24. This is also the LCD of
1, 1 12 24 these 2 fractions.
11 3. Find an equivalent fraction for each that has a
2 × 2 × 2 × 3 = 24 denominator of 24.
24
The LCM is 24.
4. When they have a common denominator, the
1 1 1 5 fractions can be added.
Example: Add and .
4 5 4 20
4 5 20 1 4
The LCM is 20. 5 20
9
20

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Fractions (continued)
When adding mixed numbers with unlike denominators, follow a process similar to the one used with
fractions. Put the answer in simplest form.
Example: Find the sum of 6 and 5 .
1. Find the LCD.
2. Find the missing numerators.
23 2 2 3. Add the whole numbers, then add the
1 11 12 fractions.
21 21 21
4. Make sure the answer is in
simplest form.
(improper)

When subtracting numbers with unlike denominators, follow a process similar to the one used when
adding fractions. Put the answer in simplest form.

Examples: Find the difference of and . Subtract from .

1. Find the LCD just as when adding fractions.

2. Find the missing numerators.
3. Subtract the numerators and keep the common
denominator.
4. Make sure the answer is in simplest form.

When subtracting mixed numbers with unlike denominators, follow a process similar to the one used
when adding mixed numbers. Put the answer in simplest form.

Example: Subtract 4 from 8 .

1. Find the LCD.

2. Find the missing numerators.
3. Subtract and simplify the answer.

Sometimes when subtracting mixed numbers regrouping is necessary. If the numerator of the top
fraction is smaller than the numerator of the bottom fraction, borrow from the whole number.

Example: Subtract 5 from 9 .

1. Find the LCD.

2. Find the missing numerators. Write equivalent
fractions.
3.
whole number as a mixed number using the common
denominator.
4. Add the two fractions to get an improper fraction.
5. Subtract the whole numbers and the fractions, and
simplify the answer.

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Fractions (continued)
More examples of subtracting mixed numbers with unlike denominators:

To multiply fractions, multiply the numerators together to get the numerator of the product. Then,
multiply the denominators together to get the denominator of the product. Make sure the answer is in
simplest form.

1. Multiply the numerators.

Examples: Multiply by . Multiply by .
2. Multiply the denominators.
3. Simplify your answer. 5 4 20 1
3 2 6 2
5 3 15 5 8 5 40 2

Sometimes cancelling works when multiplying fractions. Look at the examples again.

1. Are there any numbers in the

numerator and the denominator
that have common factors?
The 3s have a common As in the other example, the
2. If so, cross out the numbers,
factor — 3. Divide both of 5s can be cancelled.
divide both by that factor, and
them by 3. Since, 3 ÷ 3 = 1,
write the quotient. But here, the 4 and the 8 also
cross out the 3s, and write 1s
in their place. 3. Then, multiply the fractions have a common factor (4).
as described above, using
Now, multiply the fractions. and
the quotients instead of the
In the numerator, 1 × 2 = 2. original numbers. After cancelling both of
In the denominator, 5 × 1 = 5 . these, multiply the fractions.
The answer is .

REMEMBER: It is possible to cancel up and down or diagonally, but NEVER sideways!

When multiplying mixed numbers

Examples: Multiply 2 by 3 . 1. Change each mixed number Multiply 3 by 4.

to an improper fraction.
2. Cancel wherever possible.
3. Multiply the fractions.
4. Put the answer in simplest
form.

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Fractions (continued)
To divide fractions, take the reciprocal of the 2nd fraction, and then multiply that reciprocal
by the 1st fraction. Simplify the answer.

Examples: Divide by . 1. Keep the 1st fraction as it is. Divide by .

2. Write the reciprocal of the 2nd
fraction.
3. Change the sign to multiplication.
4. Cancel if possible and multiply.
5. Simplify the answer.

When dividing mixed numbers

Example: Divide 1 by 3 . 1. Change each mixed number to an

improper fraction.
2. Keep the 1st fraction as it is.
3. Write the reciprocal of the 2nd
fraction.
4. Change the sign to multiplication.
5. Cancel if possible and multiply.
6. Simplify the answer.

Geometry
area of a triangle

a parallelogram. is a triangle.

1 1
Area of triangle = (base height) or =
2 2
Examples: Find the area of the triangles below.
1. Find the length of the base. (8 cm)
3 cm 2 cm 2. Find the height. (It is 2 cm. The height
is always straight up and down—never
8 cm slanted.)
So, = 8 cm × 2 cm × = 8 cm2 3. Multiply them together and divide by 2 to
2
)
5 in.
3 in.
The base of this triangle is 4 inches long. Its
height is 3 inches. (Remember the height is
4 in. always straight up and down!)
So, = 4 in. × 3 in. × = 6 in.2

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Geometry
Finding the area of a parallelogram

Area of parallelogram = base height or =

Example: Find the area of the parallelogram below.

8 cm
1. Find the length of the base. (8 cm)
2. Find the height. (It is 2 cm. The height is
3 cm
2 cm always straight up and down—never slanted.)
3. )
2

So, = 8 cm 2 cm = 16 cm2
Finding the area of a trapezoid is a little different from other quadrilaterals. Trapezoids have 2 bases

that average by the height.

base1 base2
Area of trapezoid = height or =( 1 2
)
2 2
1

The bases are labeled 1

and 2
.
The height, , is the distance between the bases.

2
Example: Find the area of the trapezoid below.
1. Add the lengths of the two
bases. (22 cm) 14 cm
2. Divide the sum by 2. (11 cm)
10 cm
3. Multiply that result by the height
2
) 8 cm

To , a protractor is used.
The symbol for angle is . On the diagram, AOE
has a measure less than 90°, so it is acute.
With the center of the protractor on the vertex
of the angle (where the 2 rays meet), place
one ray ( OA ) on one of the “0” lines. Look at
the number that the other ray ( OE ) passes
through. Since the angle is acute, use the
lower set of numbers. Since OE is halfway
between the 40 and the 50, the measure of
AOE is 45°. (If it were an obtuse
angle, the higher set of numbers would be O
used.)
Look at NOH. It is an obtuse angle, so the higher set of numbers will be used. Notice that ON is on
the “0” line. OH passes through the 100 mark. The measure of NOH is 100°.

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Geometry (continued)
The circumference of a circle
circumference of a circle either its radius or its diameter must be known. The value of the constant,
pi (rounded to the nearest hundredth) must be known.
With this information, the circumference can be found by multiplying the diameter by pi.
Circumference = or =
Examples: Find the circumference of the circles below.

1. Find the length of the diameter. (12 m)

12 m
2. Multiply the diameter by . (12 m 3.14)
3. The product is the circumference. (37.68 m)

= 12 m 3.14 = 37.68 m
Sometimes the radius of a circle is given instead of the diameter. The radius of any circle is exactly
half of the diameter. If a circle has a radius of 3 feet, its diameter is 6 feet.

4 mm
1. Since the radius is 4 mm, the diameter must be 8 mm.
2. Multiply the diameter by . (8 mm × 3.14)
3. The product is the circumference. (25.12 mm)

= 8 mm 3.14 = 25.12 mm
area of a circle, the length of the radius is squared (multiplied by itself), and
then that answer is multiplied by the constant, pi ( ). = 3.14 (rounded to the nearest hundredth).

Area = × radius × radius or = 2

Examples: Find the area of the circles below.

9 mm
1. Find the length of the radius. (9 mm)
2. Multiply the radius by itself. (9 mm x 9 mm)
3. Multiply the product by pi. (81 mm 2 x 3.14)
= 9 mm x 9 mm x 3.14 = 254.34 mm2 4. The result is the area. (254.34 mm2)

Sometimes the diameter of a circle is given instead of the radius. Remember, the diameter of any
circle is exactly twice the radius. If a circle has a diameter of 6 feet, its radius is 3 feet.

1. Since the diameter is 14 m, the radius must be 7 m.

14 m 2. Square the radius. (7 m x 7 m)
3. Multiply that result by . (49 m2 × 3.14)
4. The product is the area. (153.86 m 2)

= (7 m)2 x 3.14 = 153.86 m2

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Geometry (continued)
surface area

surface area of a rectangular prism. A rectangular prism has

has only 3 dimensions: length, width, and height.

This prism has identical left and right sides (A and B), identical top and
bottom (C and D), and identical front and back (unlabeled).

1. Find the area of the front: x . (10 m x 5 m = 50 m2)

Since the back is identical, its area is the same.
C 2. Find the area of the top (C): x . (10 m x 2 m = 20 m2)
Since the bottom (D) is identical, its area is the same.
B A
5m 3. Find the area of side A: x . (2 m x 5 m = 10 m2)
Since side B is identical, its area is the same.
D
2m 4. Add up the areas of all 6 faces.
10 m (10 m2 + 10 m2 + 20 m2 + 20 m2 + 50 m2 + 50 m2 = 160 m2)

The formula is Surface Area = 2(length x width) + 2(length x height) + 2(width x height)
or =2 +2 +2

Ordering Integers
Integers include the counting numbers, their opposites (negative numbers), and zero.
negative positive

The negative numbers are to the left of zero. The positive numbers are to the right of zero.
When ordering integers, they are being arranged either from least to greatest or from greatest to
least. The further a number is to the right, the greater its value. For example, 9 is further to the right
than 2, so 9 is greater than 2.

In the same way, -1 is further to the right than -7, so -1 is greater than -7.

Examples: Order these integers from least to greatest. -10, 9, -25, 36, 0
Remember, the smallest number will be the one farthest to the left on the number line,
-25, then -10,
Answer: -25, -10, 0, 9, 36

Put these integers in order from greatest to least. -94, -6, -24, -70, -14

value (farthest to the left) will come last.

Answer: -6, -14, -24, -70, -94

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Integers (continued)
The rules for performing operations ( , , , ) on integers are very important and must be memorized.
The Addition Rules for Integers:
1. When the signs are the same, add the numbers and keep the sign.
33 33
19 19
52 52
2. When the signs are different, subtract the numbers and use the sign of the larger number.
33 55
19 27
14 28
The Subtraction Rule for Integers:
Change the sign of the second number and add (follow the Addition Rule for Integers above).

56 56 48 48
26 apply rule 26 apply rule
23 23
82 25
Notice that every subtraction problem becomes an addition problem, using this rule!
The Multiplication and Division Rule for Integers:
1. When the signs are the same, the answer is positive (+). + + +
7 3 21 7 3 21 – – +
+ – –
18 6 3 18 6 3
– + –
2. When the signs are different, the answer is negative (–). + + +
7 3 21 7 3 21 – – +
18 6 3 18 6 3 + – –
The chart to the right contains a helpful summary of this rule. – + –

Proportion
A proportion is a statement that two ratios are equal to each other. There are two ways to solve a
proportion when a number is missing.
1. One way to solve a 2. Another way to solve
proportion is already a proportion is by
familiar. Use the using cross-products.
equivalent fraction
method. To use Cross-Products:
1. Multiply downward on each
diagonal. 20 x 21 = 14 x
2. Make the product of each
diagonal equal to each other. 420 = 14
3. Solve for the missing variable. 420 = 14
14 14
= 40 30 =

So, . So, .

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Percent
When changing from a fraction to a percent, a decimal to a percent, or from a percent to either a
fraction or a decimal, it is very helpful to use an FDP chart (Fraction, Decimal, Percent).
To change a fraction to a percent and/or decimal
denominator. Once the equivalent fraction is found, it can easily be written as a decimal. To change that
decimal to a percent, move the decimal point 2 places to the right and add a % sign.
2
Example: Change to a percent, and then to a decimal.
5

1. Find an equivalent fraction x 20

with 100 in the denominator. F D P
2. From the equivalent
fraction above, the decimal
can easily be found. Say F D P
the name of the fraction: x 20
“forty hundredths.” Write 0.40 ? = 40
this as a decimal. 0.40
3. To change 0.40 to a F D P .
percent, move the decimal
two places to the right. 0.40 40% 0.4 0 = 40%
Add a % sign. 40%

When changing from a percent to a decimal or a fraction, the process is similar to the one used on
the page above. Begin with the percent. Write it as a fraction with a denominator of 100; reduce this
fraction. Return to the percent, move the decimal point 2 places to the left. This is the decimal.
Example: Write 45% as a fraction, and then as a decimal.

1. Begin with the percent. (45%) Write a fraction the 45

45%
denominator is 100, and the numerator is the “percent.” 100

45( 5) 9
2. This fraction must be reduced. The reduced fraction is .
100( 5) 20
3. Go back to the percent. Move the decimal point two places to 45% .45
the left to change it to a decimal.
Decimal point goes here.

When changing from a decimal to a percent or a fraction, again, the process is similar to the one used
above. Begin with the decimal. Move the decimal point 2 places to the right, and add a % sign. Return to
the decimal. Write it as a fraction and reduce.
Example: Write 0.12 as a percent, and then as a fraction.

1. Begin with the decimal. (0.12) Move the decimal point two 0.12 12%
places to the right to change it to a percent.
0.12 = twelve hundredths
2. Go back to the decimal, and write it as a fraction. Reduce this
fraction. 12 12( 4) 3
100 100( 4) 25

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Compound Probability
The probability of two or more independent events occurring together can be determined by
multiplying the individual probabilities together. The product is called the compound probability.

Probability of A & B = (Probability of A) x (Probability of B)

or P(A and B) = P(A) x P(B)

Example: What is the probability of rolling a 6 and then a 2 on two rolls of a die [ P(6 and 2) ]?

A)
and only one of them is a 6, the probability of getting a 6 is .

Since there are 6 numbers on a die and only one of

them is a 2, the probability of getting a 2 is .

So, P(6 and 2) = P(6) x P(2) =

There is a 1 to 36 chance of getting a 6 and then a 2 on two rolls of a die.

Example: What is the probability of getting a 4 and then a number greater than 2 on two spins of this
spinner [ P(4 and greater than 2) ]?

there are 4 numbers on the spinner and only one of

them is a 4, the probability of getting a 4 is .

than 2 [ P(greater than 2) ]. Since there are 4

numbers on the spinner and two of them are greater
than 2, the probability of getting a 2 is .

So, P(2 and greater than 2) = P(2) x P(greater than 2) = × = =

There is a 1 to 8 chance of getting a 4 and then a number greater than 2 on two spins of a
spinner.

Since there are only 2 sides on a coin and only one of

them is heads, the probability of getting heads is .

there are only 2 sides on a coin and only one of them is

tails. The probability of getting tails is also .

So, P(H,T,H) = P(H) x P(T) x P(H) = × × =

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Who Knows?
Degrees in a right angle? ................(90) Number with only 2 factors? .... (prime)
A straight angle? ............................. (180) Perimeter? .......................(add the sides)
Area? .............................. (length x width)
Angle greater than 90°? ......... (obtuse)
Volume? ......... (length x width x height)
Less than 90°? ..............................(acute)
Area of parallelogram?.............................
Sides in a quadrilateral? .....................(4) ............................................ (base x height)
Sides in an octagon?............................. (8)
Area of triangle? .......( base x height)
Sides in a hexagon? ..............................(6)
Sides in a pentagon? ........................... (5) Area of trapezoid? ....................................

Sides in a heptagon? ........................... (7) .................................( )

Surface area of a rectangular
Sides in a nonagon? ............................. (9)
prism? ........................2(lw) + 2(wh) + 2(lh)
Sides in a decagon? ........................... (10)
Area of a circle? ............................... 2
)
Inches in a yard? ............................... (36) Circumference of a circle? ..............
Yards in a mile? ............................. (1,760) Triangle with no sides equal? .................
........................................................ (scalene)
Feet in a mile? .............................. (5,280)
Triangle with 3 sides equal? ....................
Centimeters in a meter? ................ (100) .................................................. (equilateral)
Teaspoons in a tablespoon? ............... (3) Triangle with 2 sides equal? ...................
Ounces in a pound? .............................(16) ..................................................... (isosceles)

Pounds in a ton? .............................(2,000) Distance across the middle of a circle?

................................................... (diameter)
Cups in a pint? ....................................... (2)
Half of the diameter? ............... (radius)
Pints in a quart? ................................... (2)
Figures with the same size
Quarts in a gallon? ...............................(4) and shape? ............................. (congruent)
Millimeters in a meter? .............. (1,000) Figures with same shape,
different sizes? ..........................(similar)
Years in a century? ......................... (100)
Number occurring most often? .............
Years in a decade? ..............................(10) ............................................................ (mode)
Celsius freezing? ............................. (0°C) Middle number? .......................... (median)
Celsius boiling? .............................(100°C) Answer in addition? .........................(sum)
Fahrenheit freezing? ....................(32°F) Answer in division? ..................(quotient)
Answer in multiplication? ....... (product)
Fahrenheit boiling? ......................(212°F)
Answer in subtraction? ...... (difference)
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