CH 6604 MATERIAL TECHNOLOGY

UNIT-I INTRODUCTION

Material Technology
Materials have always been important to the advance of civilization: entire eras are named after
them. After evolving from the Stone Age through the Bronze and Iron Ages, now in the modern
era we have vast numbers of tailored materials to make use of. We are really living in the
Materials Age.

The field of Materials Science and Technology deals with all classes of materials from a unified
viewpoint and with an emphasis on the connections between the underlying structure and the
processing, properties, and performance of the material. A materials scientist studies how
materials react/behave when subjected to different conditions (such as mechanical loads,
temperature and pressure) and understands that all materials can be approached from a common
set of principles.

Materials and Processing

Materials are everywhere! The book we are using is made from a variety of materials. The glass
in the windows, the aluminum frame, the ceramic dinnerware, the metal silverware and jewelry,
automobiles, and everywhere we look we see products made from materials. Most products are
made from many different kinds of materials to satisfy the needs of the product.

The way materials are processed is often important. People in the Iron Age discovered this when
they learned that soft iron could be heated and then quickly cooled to make a material hard
enough to plow the earth; and the same strategy is used today to make high-strength aluminum
alloys for jet aircraft. Today we demand more from our materials than mechanical strength, of
course--electrical, optical, and magnetic properties, for example, are crucial for many
applications. As a result, modern materials science focuses on ceramics, polymers, and
semiconductors, as well as on materials, such as metals and glasses, that have a long history of
use. In these and other areas of science and technology, materials scientists are indeed key
participants.

Classification of Materials
Materials are classified into number of groups for ease of their characterization as follows:

1. Metals
2. Polymers
3. Ceramics
4. Electronic and Magnetic Materials
5. Composites
6. Biomaterials

1. Metals

Metallic materials that are made of "metallic elements". These elements, when combined,
usually have electrons that are non-localized and as a consequence have generic types of
properties. Metals usually are good conductors of heat and electricity.

e.g gold, silver, aluminum etc

Metals are very strong and capable of being formed into complicated shapes. They have
been used for millennia to make tools, weapons, girders, and consumer goods. Metals have
been used for more than a century in electrical components from light bulbs to computer
chips.

Modern research in metals is directed toward improving their performance and using them in
ways no one could have imagined just a few years ago. For example, the development of
"Superalloy" turbine blades has made modern jet transportation possible. These blades
operate in environments where temperatures can approach 3,000 oF, but blades capable of
withstanding even higher temperatures are needed in order to fly farther and faster.

Another important application of metals research is in integrated electronic circuits. In

current work, for example, copper is being used to create the tiny wires--less than one-
thousandth the diameter of a human hair--that connect different electronic components and
are subjected to extremely high electric current densities and mechanical stresses. Continued
research will make it possible to keep up the trend toward ever more powerful computers.

2. Polymers

Plastics (or polymers) are generally organic compounds based upon carbon and hydrogen.
They are very large molecular structures. Usually they are of low density and are not stable at
high temperatures. Polymers have an immense range of properties; some have fibers strong
enough to stop a bullet and some are soft and stretchable like rubber bands. Familiar products
made of polymers include paints and protective coatings, the clothes and shoes we wear, and
 most of the materials in the electronic devices we use. Even the food we eat is polymeric,
since natural polymers make up most of what constitutes animals and plants. Polymers
usually consist of hundreds, perhaps thousands, of covalently bonded units (called
monomers) to form string-like macromolecules. These can be used as strings or they can be
"stitched" together into a network, as in vulcanized rubber in automobile tires. Size is
important: short strings might make up materials with properties like wax, while longer
strings might constitute materials such as the ultrahigh-molecular-weight polyethylene,
stronger than steel that is used to make bullet-proof vests.

3. Ceramics
Ceramics are generally compounds between metallic and nonmetallic elements and
include such compounds as oxides, nitrides, and carbides. Typically they are insulating and
resistant to high temperatures and harsh environments. They are inorganic, nonmetallic
materials that can be crystalline or amorphous (glassy). Though used since ancient times (the
first ceramics were made by firing earthy materials, especially clay, at least as early as
24,000 B.C.), ceramics in forms both familiar and new remain essential materials. Modern
ceramics include structural clay products such as bricks, sewer pipes, and tiles; white-wares,
refractories; glasses (including fibers for communication – optical fibers); abrasives; and
cements. Advanced ceramics are structural materials used for engine components and other
parts subject to a lot of wear; for cutting tools; and for bio-ceramics such as bone and tooth
replacements. Advanced ceramics are also used in capacitors, resistors, insulators, piezo-
electrics, magnets, superconductors, and electrolytes. Coatings are used to protect engine
components and other parts from fast wear and/or corrosion. Still other advanced ceramics
are used for making filters, membranes, catalysts, and--crucial for the automobile industry--
catalyst supports.
4. Electronic and Magnetic Materials

Rapid development in microelectronics are sometimes described as the Silicon Age. Without
the development of high-purity silicon and silicon-based integrated circuits, there would be
no information superhighway as we know it. But if the speed and density of integrated
circuits continue to increase rapidly, we will be confronted eventually with a fundamental
limit of silicon-based technology; according to some predictions, this could happen as early
as the year 2010.

Therefore, new electronic and magnetic materials and new paradigms for devices
incorporating these materials have been the subjects of enormous research activity. Only a
decade ago, the development of a new type of device for reading magnetic media enabled the
rate of growth of magnetic media density to increase dramatically. This new device, called a
magnetoresistive (MR) read-head, is now commonly found in computer hard drives. It is based
on the fact that certain magnetic materials exhibit different electronic properties depending on
the direction in which they are magnetized by an external magnetic field.
5. Composites

Many of modern technologies require materials with unusual properties, which can’t be
met by conventional materials like metals, polymers and ceramics. This led to the
development of composite materials. Composites consist of more than one material type.
Fiberglass, a combination of glass and a polymer, is an example. Concrete and plywood are
other familiar composites. Many new combinations include ceramic fibers in metal or
polymer matrix. Wood is best example for natural composite.

6. Biomaterials

These are employed in components implanted into the human body as substitution to the
damaged and diseased body parts. For example, hip joint. Materials used as biomaterials
include Stainless steel, Co-28Cr-6Mo, Ti-6Al-4V, ultra high molecular weight polyethelene,
high purity dense Al-oxide, etc.

General Criteria of selection of materials

The interactions between design, product and materials selection

Main Concepts of Materials Selection

General Criteria

Materials selection is a technical activity that bridges a number of engineering areas, viz.,
design, cost, materials and processes, but can also be related to non-technical issues, such as
marketing and techno-economic forecast.

The selection of a material for a specific application is a thorough, lengthy and expensive
process. Almost always more than one material is suited to an application, and the final
selection is a compromise that brings some advantages as well as disadvantages.
 Material of a product with its technical properties should fulfill the functional
requirements for an intended use and with its sensorial properties, it should appeal to the
senses of its user. Therefore, product designers are responsible for selecting appropriate
materials for their products by taking these technical and sensorial characteristics of materials
into consideration.

When a designer selects a material, he must consider fulfilling the three basic
requirements: (1) service requirements, (2) fabrication requirements and (3) economic
requirements. First, service requirements are supreme. The material must stand up to service
demands, which commonly include dimensional stability, corrosion resistance, adequate
strength, hardness, toughness and heat resistance. Second,the fabrication requirements. The
material must also be possible to shape and join to other materials. Finally, the objective of
a designer is to minimize overall cost of the product and manufacturing. For example, a more
expensive free-machining metal may be substituted for a standard metal, since the savings in
machining cost may overweigh the increased cost of the more expensive metal.

Objectives and strategies

Materials Selection activities can be carried out having multiple objectives in sight, each
characterised by a different approach requiring its particular strategy. The following list, by
no means complete, gives some examples:

• Cost Reduction: options can include change of construction materials, viz. polymers
replacing steel in the automotive industry.

• Meeting New Service Conditions: change of pressure and temperature in a chemical reactor
- upgrading of existing materials.

• Weight Reduction: this is a universal objective for everything which is mobile.

• Materials vs. Process: there are cases in which materials substitution must be carried out in
order to allow the adoption of a more suitable fabrication process.

• New Materials: complete redesign of the product or device may be necessary in order to
fully exploit the new material properties.

• Materials and Aesthetic Design: apparently this is a subjective area, difficult even to qualify
and as such better left to non-technical papers. However, it can be mentioned that a new
product or the exploitation of new shape possibilities sometimes depends on choosing the
right material and the most adequate shaping process. A good illustration of the relationship
between materials and aesthetics is given by the domestic appliances, whose design evolution
during the last fifty years has been quite remarkable.
 General properties to be considered

Technical properties of materials (density, conductivity, strength. . .)

Manufacturing of materials (easy to manufacture with existing manufacturing facilities. . .)

Economic properties of materials (cost for material and production, availability. . .)

Ecological properties of materials (recyclability, sustainability. . .)

Sensorial properties of materials (color, texture, smell. . .)

Intangible properties of materials (emotions, meanings, effects

Material selection sources

_ Books

_ Magazines

_ Materials suppliers/catalogues

_ Fairs/seminars

_ CD/DVD/VCD (materials selection databases)

_ Internet

_ Advisors

The order of the required data of a materials selection source for industrial designers
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

1. Mechanical properties
2 .Electrical properties
3 .Thermal properties
4 .Chemical properties
5 .Magnetic properties
6 .Optical properties
7 .Acoustical properties
8 .Radiological properties
9 .Environmental properties
10. Atomic properties
11 .Manufacturing properties
12 .Sensorial properties

1. Mechanical Properties

Strength, hardness, toughness, elasticity, plasticity, brittleness, and ductility and malleability
are mechanical properties used as measurements of how metals behave under a load. These
properties are described in terms of the types of force or stress that the metal must withstand
and how these are resisted

 Strength

 Strength is the property that enables a metal to resist deformation under load. The
ultimate strength is the maximum strain a material can withstand. Tensile strength is a
measurement of the resistance to being pulled apart when placed in a tension load.

 Fatigue strength is the ability of material to resist various kinds of rapidly changing
stresses and is expressed by the magnitude of alternating stress for a specified number of
cycles.

 Impact strength is the ability of a metal to resist suddenly applied loads and is measured
in foot-pounds of force.

Hardness

 Hardness is the property of a material to resist permanent indentation. Because there are
several methods of measuring hardness, the hardness of a material is always specified in
terms of the particular test that was used to measure this property. Rockwell, Vickers, or
Brinell are some of the methods of testing. Of these tests, Rockwell is the one most
 frequently used. The basic principle used in the Rockwell testis that a hard material can
penetrate a softer one. We then measure the amount of penetration and compare it to a
scale. For ferrous metals, which are usually harder than nonferrous metals, a diamond tip
is used and the hardness is indicated by a

 Rockwell "C" number. On nonferrous metals, that are softer, a metal ball is used and the
hardness is indicated by a Rockwell "B" number. To get an idea of the property of
hardness, compare lead and steel. Lead can be scratched with a pointed wooden stick but
steel cannot because it is harder than lead.

Toughness

 Toughness is the property that enables a material to withstand shock and to be deformed
without rupturing. Toughness may be considered as a combination of strength and
plasticity. Table 1-2 shows the order of some of the more common materials for
toughness as well as other properties.

Elasticity

 When a material has a load applied to it, the load causes the material to deform. Elasticity
is the ability of a material to return to its original shape after the load is removed.
Theoretically, the elastic limit of a material is the limit to which a material can be loaded
and still recover its original shape after the load is removed.

Plasticity

 Plasticity is the ability of a material to deform permanently without breaking or rupturing.

This property is the opposite of strength. By careful alloying of metals, the combination
of plasticity and strength is used to manufacture large structural members. For example,
should a member of a bridge structure become overloaded, plasticity allows the
overloaded member to flow allowing the distribution of the load to other parts of the
bridge structure.

Brittleness

 Brittleness is the opposite of the property of plasticity. A brittle metal is one that breaks
or shatters before it deforms. White cast iron and glass are good examples of brittle
material. Generally, brittle metals are high in compressive strength but low in tensile
strength. As an example, you would not choose cast iron for fabricating support beams in
a bridge.

Ductility and Malleability

 Ductility is the property that enables a material to stretch, bend, or twist without cracking
or breaking. This property makes it possible for a material to be drawn out into a thin
 wire. In comparison, malleability is the property that enables a material to deform by
compressive forces without developing defects. A malleable material is one that can be
stamped, hammered, forged, pressed, or rolled into thin sheets.

Mechanical Properties of Metals/Alloys

2. Electrical properties

Electrical conductivity
Permittivity
Dielectric constant
Dielectric strength
Piezoelectric constants
Seebeck coefficient

1. Electrical conductivity or specific conductance is a measure of a material's ability to

conduct an electric current. When an electrical potential difference is placed across a conductor,
its movable charges flow, giving rise to an electric current. The conductivity σ is defined as the
ratio of the current density J to the electric field strength E:
It is also possible to have materials in which the conductivity is anisotropic, in which case σ is a
3×3 matrix (or more technically a rank-2 tensor), which is generally symmetric.

Conductivity is the reciprocal (inverse) of electrical resistivity, ρ, and has the SI units of siemens
per metre (S·m-1) and CGSE units of inverse second (s–1):

Electrical conductivity is commonly represented by the Greek letter σ, but κ (esp. in electrical
engineering) or γ are also occasionally used.

An EC meter is normally used to measure conductivity in a solution.

Temperature dependence

Electrical conductivity is strongly dependent on temperature. In metals, electrical conductivity

decreases with increasing temperature, whereas in semiconductors, electrical conductivity
increases with increasing temperature. Over a limited temperature range, the electrical
conductivity can be approximated as being directly proportional to temperature. To compare
electrical conductivity measurements at different temperatures, they must be standardized to a
common temperature. This dependence is often expressed as a slope in the conductivity-vs-
temperature graph, which can be written as:

_____________________________________________________________________________
S.VELMURUGAN, ASST.PROF/CHEMICAL,APEC

where

σT′ is the electrical conductivity at a common temperature, T′

σT is the electrical conductivity at a measured temperature, T

α is the temperature compensation slope of the material,

T is the measured absolute temperature,

T′ is the common temperature.

The temperature compensation slope for most naturally occurring waters is about 2 %/°C,
however it can range between (1 to 3) %/°C. This slope is influenced by the geochemistry, and
can be easily determined in a laboratory.
At extremely low temperatures (not far from absolute zero), a few materials have been found to
exhibit very high electrical conductivity in a phenomenon called superconductivity.

Material Electrical Notes

Conductivity
(S·m-1)
Silver 63.0 × 106 Best electrical conductor of any known metal
Copper 59.6 × 106 Commonly used in electrical wire applications due to very
good conductivity and price compared to silver.
Annealed 58.0 × 106 Referred to as 100% IACS or International Annealed Copper
Copper Standard. The unit for expressing the conductivity of
nonmagnetic materials by testing using the eddy-current
method. Generally used for temper and alloy verification of
aluminium.
Gold 45.2 × 106 Gold is commonly used in electrical contacts because it does
not easily corrode.
Aluminium 37.8 × 106 Commonly used for high voltage electricity distribution
cables[citation needed]
Sea water 4.8 Corresponds to an average salinity of 35 g/kg at 20 °C.[1]
Drinking 0.0005 to 0.05 This value range is typical of high quality drinking water and
water not an indicator of water quality
Deionized 5.5 × 10-6 Conductivity is lowest with monoatomic gases present;
water changes to 1.2 × 10-4 upon complete de-gassing, or to 7.5 × 10-5
upon equilibration to the atmosphere due to dissolved CO2 [2]
JetA-1 50 to 450 × 10-
12
Kerosene
n-hexane 100 × 10-12
Air 0.3 to 0.8 × 10-
14
 0.0108 106/cm Dysprosium Dy 66

0.0112 106/cm Europium Eu 63

0.0115 106/cm Cerium Ce 58

Periodic Table of Elements
0.0117 106/cm Erbium Er 68
Sorted by Electrical Conductivity
0.0124 106/cm Holmium Ho 67
Name Sym #
0.0126 106/cm Lanthanum La 57
-24 6
5.0E 10 /cm Sulfur S 16
Praseodymiu
0.0148 106/cm Pr 59
1.0E-17 106/cm Phosphorus P 15 m

8.0E-16 106/cm Iodine I 53 0.015 106/cm Thulium Tm 69

1.0E-12 106/cm Boron B 5 0.0157 106/cm Neodymium Nd 60

1.0E-12 106/cm Selenium Se 34 0.0166 106/cm Yttrium Y 39

2.52E-12 106/cm Silicon Si 14 0.0177 106/cm Scandium Sc 21

1.45E-8 106/cm Germanium Ge 32 0.0185 106/cm Lutetium Lu 71

2.0E-6 106/cm Tellurium Te 52 0.0219 106/cm Polonium Po 84

0.00061 106/cm Carbon C 6 0.022 106/cm Americium Am 95

0.00666 106/cm Plutonium Pu 94 0.0234 106/cm Titanium Ti 22

0.00695 106/cm Manganese Mn 25 0.0236 106/cm Zirconium Zr 40

0.00736 106/cm Gadolinium Gd 64 0.0288 106/cm Antimony Sb 51

0.00822 106/cm Neptunium Np 93 0.03 106/cm Francium Fr 87

0.00867 106/cm Bismuth Bi 83 0.03 106/cm Barium Ba 56

0.00889 106/cm Terbium Tb 65 0.0312 106/cm Hafnium Hf 72

0.00956 106/cm Samarium Sm 62 0.0345 106/cm Arsenic As 33

0.0104 106/cm Mercury Hg 80 0.0351 106/cm Ytterbium Yb 70

0.038 106/cm Uranium U 92 0.109 106/cm Osmium Os 76

0.0481 106/cm Lead Pb 82 0.116 106/cm Indium In 49

0.0489 106/cm Cesium Cs 55 0.137 106/cm Ruthenium Ru 44

0.0489 106/cm Vanadium V 23 0.138 106/cm Cadmium Cd 48

0.0529 106/cm Protactinium Pa 91 0.139 106/cm Potassium K 19

0.0542 106/cm Rhenium Re 75 0.143 106/cm Nickel Ni 28

0.0617 106/cm Thallium Tl 81 0.166 106/cm Zinc Zn 30

0.0653 106/cm Thorium Th 90 0.172 106/cm Cobalt Co 27

0.067 106/cm Technetium Tc 43 0.187 106/cm Molybdenum Mo 42

0.0678 106/cm Gallium Ga 31 0.189 106/cm Tungsten W 74

0.0693 106/cm Niobium Nb 41 0.197 106/cm Iridium Ir 77

0.0761 106/cm Tantalum Ta 73 0.21 106/cm Sodium Na 11

0.0762 106/cm Strontium Sr 38 0.211 106/cm Rhodium Rh 45

0.0774 106/cm Chromium Cr 24 0.226 106/cm Magnesium Mg 12

0.0779 106/cm Rubidium Rb 37 0.298 106/cm Calcium Ca 20

0.0917 106/cm Tin Sn 50 0.313 106/cm Beryllium Be 4

0.095 106/cm Palladium Pd 46 0.377 106/cm Aluminum Al 13

0.0966 106/cm Platinum Pt 78 0.452 106/cm Gold Au 79

0.0993 106/cm Iron Fe 26 0.596 106/cm Copper Cu 29

0.108 106/cm Lithium Li 3 0.63 106/cm Silver Ag 47

Dielectric strength
Dielectric is an electrical insulator that may be polarized by an applied electric field. When a
dielectric is placed in an electric field, electric charges do not flow through the material, as in a
conductor, but only slightly shift from their average equilibrium positions causing dielectric
polarization. Because of dielectric polarization, positive charges are displaced along the field
and negative charges shift in the opposite direction. This creates an internal electric field that
partly compensates the external field inside the dielectric. [1] If a dielectric is composed of weakly
bonded molecules, those molecules not only become polarized, but also reorient so that their
symmetry axis aligns to the field.[2]

Although the term "insulator" refers to a low degree of electrical conduction, the term
"dielectric" is typically used to describe materials with a high polarizability. The latter is
expressed by a number called the dielectric constant. A common, yet notable example of a
dielectric is the electrically insulating material between the metallic plates of a capacitor. The
polarization of the dielectric by the applied electric field increases the capacitor's capacitance.[2]

The study of dielectric properties is concerned with the storage and dissipation of electric and
magnetic energy in materials.[3] It is important to explain various phenomena in electronics,
optics, and solid-state physics.

The term "dielectric" was coined by William Whewell (from "dia-electric") in response to a
request from Michael Faraday.

Dielectric strength has the following meanings:

 Of an insulating material, the maximum electric field strength that it can withstand
intrinsically without breaking down, i.e., without experiencing failure of its insulating
properties.
 For a given configuration of dielectric material and electrodes, the minimum electric field
that produces breakdown.
 the maximum electric stress the dielectric material can withstand without breakdown
The theoretical dielectric strength of a material is an intrinsic property of the bulk material and is
dependent on the configuration of the material or the electrodes with which the field is applied.
At breakdown, the electric field frees bound electrons. If the applied electric field is sufficiently
high, free electrons may become accelerated to velocities that can liberate additional electrons
during collisions with neutral atoms or molecules in a process called avalanche breakdown.
Breakdown occurs quite abruptly (typically in nanoseconds)., resulting in the formation of an

electrically conductive path and a disruptive discharge through the material. For solid materials,
a breakdown event severely degrades, or even destroys, its insulating capability.
Factors affecting dielectric strength

 it increases with the increase in thickness of the specimen. (Directly proportional)

 it decreases with the increase in operating temperature. (Inversely proportional)

 it decreases with the increase in frequency. (Inversely proportional)

 it decreases with the increase in humidity. (Inversely proportional)

Substance Dielectric Strength (MV/m)

Helium[1] 0.15

Air[2] 3.0 (depends on pressure) [3]

Alumina[1] 13.4

Window glass[1] 9.8 - 13.8

Silicone oil, Mineral oil[1] [4] 10 - 15

Benzene[1] 16

Polystyrene[1] 19.7

Polyethylene [5] 18.9 - 21.7

Neoprene rubber[1] 15.7 - 27.6

Ultra pure Water[6] 30

High Vacuum (field emission limited) [7] 20 - 40 (depends on electrode shape)

Fused silica [8] 25 - 40

Waxed paper [9] 40 - 60

PTFE (Teflon)[10] 60

Mica [11] 20 - 70

Thin films of SiO2 in ICs [1] > 1000

Permittivity
In electromagnetism, permittivity is the measure of how much resistance is encountered when
forming an electric field in a vacuum. In other words, permittivity is a measure of how an
electric field affects, and is affected by, a dielectric medium. Permittivity is determined by the
ability of a material to polarize in response to the field, and thereby reduce the total electric field
inside the material. Thus, permittivity relates to a material's ability to transmit (or "permit") an
electric field.

And it is directly related to electric susceptibility, which is a measure of how easily a dielectric
polarizes in response to an electric field.

In SI units, permittivity ε is measured in farads per meter (F/m); electric susceptibility χ is

dimensionless. They are related to each other through

where εr is the relative permittivity of the material, and ε0 = 8.85… × 10−12 F/m is the vacuum
permittivity

Ferro-electricity and Piezoelectricity

Two peculiar phenomena related to electric dipoles are ferro-electricity and piezo-electricity.
Ferro-electricity is defined as the spontaneous alignment of electric dipoles by their mutual
interaction in the absence of an applied electric field. This arises from the fact that the local field
increases in proportion to the polarization. Thus, ferro-electric materials must possess permanent
dipoles. Ex.: BaTiO3, Rochelle salt .4HO), potassium dihydrogen phosphate
(KH(NaKC4H4O622PO4), potassium niobate (KNbO3). These materials have extremely high
dielectric constants at relatively low applied field frequencies. Thus, capacitors made from ferro-
electric materials are smaller than capacitors made of other dielectric materials.

Piezo-electricity, or pressure electricity, is defined as polarization induced by the application of

external force. Hence, by reversing the direction of external force, direction of the field can be
reversed i.e. the application of an external electric field alters the net dipole length and causes a
dimensional change. This property is characteristic of materials having complicated structures
with a low degree of symmetry. Thus, piezo-electric materials can be used as transducers –
devices that convert mechanical stress into electrical energy and vice versa. Application for these
materials includes microphones, ultrasonic generators, sonar detectors, and mechanical strain
gauges. Ex.: Barium titanate, lead titanate, lead zirconate (PbZrO 3), ammoinium dihydrogen
phosphate (NH4H2PO4), and quartz.

Thermal Properties
 Selection of materials for use at elevated temperatures and/or temperature changes require an
engineer to know and understand their thermal properties. Physical property of a solid body
related to application of heat energy is defined as a thermal property.

Heat capacity

Many engineering solids when exposed to heat experiences an increase in temperature i.e. it
absorbs heat energy. This property of a material i.e. material’s ability to absorb heat energy is
called its heat capacity, C. It is defined as the energy required to change a material’s temperature
by one degree. Mathematically, it is expressed as:

J/mol-K or Cal/mol-K

where dQ is the energy required to produce a temperature change equal to dT.

 Heat capacity is not an intrinsic property i.e. total heat a material can absorb depends on
its volume / mass. Hence another parameter called specific heat, c, it defined as heat
capacity per unit mass (J/kg-K, Cal/kg-K). The specific heat is a measure of the amount of
energy required to change the temperature of a given mass of material. Specific heat is
measured by calorimetry techniques and is usually reported both as C V, the specific heat
measured at constant pressure, or CP, the specific heat measured at constant pressure.

Thermal expansion

After heat absorption, vibrating atoms behaves as though they have larger atomic radius, which
leads to increase in materials dimensions. The phenomenon is called thermal expansion. It is
quantified in terms of thermal expansion coefficient. Linear coefficient of

thermal expansion (α) defined as the change in the dimensions of the material per unit length,
and is expressed as:

where T0 and Tf are the initial and final temperatures (in K), l0 and lf are the initial and final
dimensions of the material and ε is the strain. α has units as (°C)-1. For most metals α is the range
of 5-25x10-6, for ceramics 0.5-15x10-6, and for polymers 50-400x10-6.
 A volume coefficient of thermal expansion, αv (=3α) is used to describe the volume change with
temperature.

An instrument known as dilatometer is used to measure the thermal expansion coefficient. It is

also possible to trace thermal expansion using XRD.

 Thermal expansion coefficient

 The thermal expansion coefficient is the amount a material will change in dimension with
a change in temperature. It is the amount of strain due to thermal expansion per degree
Kelvin expressed in units of K-1. For isotropic materials " is the same in all directions,
anisotropic materials have separate "s reported for each direction which is different.

Thermal conductivity

The ability of a material to transport heat energy from high temperature region to low
temperature region is defined as thermal conductivity. Similar to diffusion coefficient, thermal
conductivity is a microstructure sensitive property. The heat energy, Q, transported across a
plane of area A in presence of a temperature gradient ΔT/Δl is given by

where k is the thermal conductivity of the material. It has units as W/m.K. Metals have k values
in the range 20-400, ceramics 2-50, while polymers have in order of 0.3.

Thermal stresses

Apart from thermal shock, another instance of problem exists with thermal expansion of a
material where there is no scope of dimensional changes. Thus due to temperature changes,
material may experience thermal stresses (σthermal).

S.VELMURUGAN, ASST.PROF/CHEMICAL,APEC

where E – elastic modulus of the material. Thermal stresses in a constrained body will be of
compressive nature if it is heated, and vice versa.
Another source for thermal stresses is thermal gradient within the body when a solid body is
heated or cooled. It is because temperature distribution will depend on its size and shape. These
thermal stresses may be established as a result of temperature gradients across a body, which are
frequently caused by rapid heating or cooling

 Thermal diffusivity

 The thermal diffusivity is a measure of the transient heat flow through a material.

 Melting point

 The melting point is the temperature at which a material goes from the solid to the liquid
state at one atmosphere. The melting temperature is not usually a design criteria but it
offers important clues to other material properties.

 Glass transition temp

 The glass transition temperature, or Tg is an important property of polymers. The glass

transition temperature is a temperature range which marks a change in mechanical
behavior. Above the glass transition temperature a polymer will behave like a ductile solid
or highly viscous liquid. Below Tg the material will behave as a brittle solid. Depending on
the desired properties materials may be used both above and below their glass transition
temperature.

 Thermal shock resistance

 Thermal shock resistance is a measure of how large a change in temperature a material can
withstand without damage. Thermal shock resistance is very important to most high
temperature designs. Measurements of thermal shock resistance are highly subjective
because if is extremely process dependent. Thermal shock resistance is a complicated
function of heat transfer, geometry and material properties. The temperature range and the
shape of the part play a key role in the material's ability to withstand thermal shock. Tests
must be carefully designed to mimic anticipated service conditions to accurately asses the
thermal shock resistance of a material.

 Creep resistance

 Creep is slow, temperature aided, time dependent deformation. Creep is typically a factor
in materials above one third of their absolute melting temperature or two thirds of their
glass transition temperature. Creep resistance is an important material property in high
temperature design, but it is difficult to quantify with a single value. Creep response is a
 function of many material and external variables, including stress and temperature. Often
other environmental factors such as oxidation or corrosion play a role in the fracture
process.

 Creep is plotted as strain vs. time. A typical creep curve shows three basic regimes.
During stage I, the primary or transient stage, the curve begins at the initial strain, with a
relatively high slope or strain rate which decreased throughout stage I until a steady state
is reached. Stage II, the steady state stage, is generally the longest stage and represents
most of the response. The strain rate again begins to increase in stage III and rupture at t R
generally follows quickly.

 Different applications call for different creep responses. In situations where long life is
desired minimum creep rate is the most important material consideration. Testing through
stage II should be sufficient for determining minimum creep rate. Is not necessary to
proceed all the way to rupture. For this type of test the longer the test the more accurate
the creep rate will be. Unfortunately practicality limits most creep tests to times shorter
than would be desirable for high accuracy.

 For short lived applications such as rocket nozzles the time to failure may be the only
consideration. The main issue is whether or not the component fails, not the amount of
deformation it may undergo. For this application creep tests may be run to completion but
without recording any data but the time to rupture. In this case temperatures may be
elevated above expected conditions to provide a margin of safety.

 The main objective of a creep test is to study the effects of temperature and stress on the
minimum creep rate and the time to rupture. Creep testing is usually run by placing a
sample under a constant load at a fixed temperature. The data provided from a complete
creep test at a specific temperature, T, and stress includes three creep constants: the
dimensionless creep exponent, n, the activation energy Q, and A, a kinetic factor.

Chemical properties

 pH

 Hygroscopy

 Surface energy

 Surface tension

 Reactivity

 Corrosion resistance

pH
  Acidic and basic are two extremes that describe a chemical property chemicals. Mixing
acids and bases can cancel out or neutralize their extreme effects. A substance that is
neither acidic nor basic is neutral.
 The pH scale measures how acidic or basic a substance is. The pH scale ranges from 0 to
14. A pH of 7 is neutral. A pH less than 7 is acidic. A pH greater than 7 is basic.
 The pH scale is logarithmic and as a result, each whole pH value below 7 is ten times
more acidic than the next higher value. For example, pH 4 is ten times more acidic than
pH 5 and 100 times (10 times 10) more acidic than pH 6. The same holds true for pH
values above 7, each of which is ten times more alkaline (another way to say basic) than
the next lower whole value. For example, pH 10 is ten times more alkaline than pH 9 and
100 times (10 times 10) more alkaline than pH 8

According to chemistry,

pH is a measure of the acidity or basicity of a solution. It approximates but is not equal to

p[H], the negative logarithm (base 10) of the molar concentration of dissolved hydronium ions
(H3O+); a low pH indicates a high concentration of hydronium ions, while a high pH indicates a
low concentration. Crudely, this negative of the logarithm matches the number of places behind
the decimal point, so for example 0.1 molar hydrochloric acid should be near pH 1 and 0.0001
molar HCl should be near pH 4 (the base 10 logarithms of 0.1 and 0.0001 being -1, and -4,
respectively). Pure water is neutral, and can be considered either a very weak acid or a very weak
base (center of the 0 to 14 pH scale), giving it a pH of 7 (at 25 °C (77 °F)), or 0.0000001 M H+.[1]
For an aqueous solution to have a higher pH, a base must be dissolved in it, which binds away
many of these rare hydrogen ions. Hydrogen ions in water can be written simply as H + or as
hydronium (H3O+) or higher species (e.g. H9O4+) to account for solvation, but all describe the
same entity.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

S.VELMURUGAN, ASST.PROF/CHEMICAL,APEC

Mathematically

pH is defined as minus the decimal logarithm of the hydrogen ion activity in a solution.[12] By
virtue of its logarithmic nature, pH is a dimensionless quantity.

where aH is the (dimensionless) activity of hydrogen ions.

Hygroscopy
  Hygroscopy is the ability of a substance to attract water molecules from the surrounding
environment through either absorption or adsorption.
 Describing a substance that can take up water from the atmosphere.
 Readily absorbing water, as when table salt becomes damp. Materials such as calcium
chloride and silica gel absorb water so readily that they are used as drying agents.

Surface energy
Surface energy quantifies the disruption of intermolecular bonds that occurs when a surface is created.
In the physics of solids, surfaces must be intrinsically less energetically favorable than the bulk of a
material, otherwise there would be a driving force for surfaces to be created, removing the bulk of the
material (see sublimation). The surface energy may therefore be defined as the excess energy at the
surface of a material compared to the bulk.

 For a liquid, the surface tension (force per unit length) and the surface energy density are
identical. Water has a surface energy density of 0.072 J/m2 and a surface tension of 0.072
N/m.

Surface tension
Surface tension is a property of the surface of a liquid caused by cohesion of like molecules,
which is responsible for many of the behaviours of liquids. Since the molecules on the surface of
the liquid are not surrounded by like molecules on all sides, they are more attracted to their
neighbors on the surface. This is what causes the surface portion of liquid to be attracted to
another surface, such as that of another portion of liquid (as in connecting bits of water or as in a
drop of mercury that forms a cohesive ball). Applying Newtonian physics to the forces that arise
due to surface tension accurately predicts many liquid behaviors.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

S.VELMURUGAN, ASST.PROF/CHEMICAL,APEC

Surface tension is defined as the ratio of the surface force F to the length d along which the force
acts: gamma = F / d

Surface tension has the dimension of force per unit length, or of energy per unit area. The two
are equivalent—but when referring to energy per unit of area, people use the term surface energy
—which is a more general term in the sense that it applies also to solids and not just liquids.

In materials science, surface tension is used for either surface stress or surface free energy.

Surfactants
Surface tension is visible in other common phenomena, especially when surfactants are used to
decrease it:

 Soap bubbles have very large surface areas with very little mass. Bubbles in pure water
are unstable. The addition of surfactants, however, can have a stabilizing effect on the
bubbles (Marangoni effect).

 Emulsions are a type of solution in which surface tension plays a role. Tiny fragments of
oil suspended in pure water will spontaneously assemble themselves into much larger
masses. But the presence of a surfactant provides a decrease in surface tension, which
permits stability of minute droplets of oil in the bulk of water or vice versa

Reactivity
Reactivity then refers to the rate at which a chemical substance tends to undergo a chemical
reaction in time. In pure compounds, reactivity is regulated by the physical properties of the
sample. For instance, grinding a sample to a higher specific surface area increases its reactivity.
In impure compounds, the reactivity is also affected by the inclusion of contaminants. In
crystalline compounds, the crystalline form can also affect reactivity. However in all cases,
reactivity is primarily due to the sub-atomic properties of the compound.

The rate of any given reaction,

Reactants → Products

is governed by the rate law: Rate = k * [A]

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

S.VELMURUGAN, ASST.PROF/CHEMICAL,APEC

where the rate is the change in the molar concentration in one second in the rate-determining step
of the reaction (the slowest step), [A] is the product of the molar concentration of all the
reactants raised to the correct order, known as the reaction order, and k is the reaction constant,
which is constant for one given set of circumstances (generally temperature and pressure) and
independent of concentration. The greater the reactivity of a compound the higher the value of k
and the higher the rate. For instance, if,
A+B → C+D

Then: Rate = k * [A]n * [B]m

where n is the reaction order of A, m is the reaction order of B, n+m is the reaction order of the
full reaction, and k is the reaction constant.

Corrosion resistance
Corrosion is the disintegration of an engineered material into its constituent atoms due to
chemical reactions with its surroundings. In the most common use of the word, this means
electrochemical oxidation of metals in reaction with an oxidant such as oxygen. Formation of an
oxide of iron due to oxidation of the iron atoms in solid solution is a well-known example of
electrochemical corrosion, commonly known as rusting. This type of damage typically produces
oxide(s) and/or salt(s) of the original metal. Corrosion can also refer to other materials than
metals, such as ceramics or polymers, although in this context, the term degradation is more
common.

In other words, corrosion is the wearing away of metals due to a chemical reaction

Corrosion resistance is ability of a substance to withstand corrosion.

The materials most resistant to corrosion are those for which corrosion is thermodynamically
unfavorable. Any corrosion products of gold or platinum tend to decompose spontaneously into
pure metal, which is why these elements can be found in metallic form on Earth, and is a large
part of their intrinsic value. More common "base" metals can only be protected by more
temporary means.

Some metals have naturally slow reaction kinetics, even though their corrosion is
thermodynamically favorable. These include such metals as zinc, magnesium, and cadmium.
While corrosion of these metals is continuous and ongoing, it happens at an acceptably slow rate.
An extreme example is graphite, which releases large amounts of energy upon oxidation, but has
such slow kinetics that it is effectively immune to electrochemical corrosion under normal
conditions.
S.VELMURUGAN, ASST.PROF/CHEMICAL,APEC

Corrosion Resistance 1)Good 2) Be Careful 3) Not Useable

Metal

Cas 302 and Cobal

Fluid Carbo 316 416
t 304 Bronz Durime Mone Hastelo Hastelo Titaniu t base
n Stainles Stainles
Iro Stainles e t l yB yC m alloy
Steel s Steel s Steel
n s Steel 6
Acetaldehyde 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 na 1 na na 1

Acetic acid, air

3 3 2 2 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 3
free

Acetic acid,
3 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3
aerated

Acetic acid,
3 3 1 1 2 2 2 na 1 1 1 3
vapors

Acetone 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Acetylene 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 na 1 1

Alcohols 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Aluminum
3 3 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 na 3
Sulfate

Ammonia 1 1 1 1 3 1 3 1 1 1 1 1

Ammonium
3 3 2 2 2 1 2 1 1 1 2 3
chloride

Ammonium
1 3 1 1 3 1 3 1 1 1 1 3
Nitrate

Ammonium
4 3 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 2
Phosphate

Ammonium
3 3 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 3
Sulfate

Ammonium
3 3 1 1 3 1 3 na 1 1 1 2
Sulfite

Aniline 3 3 1 1 3 1 2 1 1 1 1 3

Asphalt 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 na 1 1

Beer 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 2

Benzene
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(benzol)
Benzoic acid 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Boric acid 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2

Butane 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Calcium
Chloride 2 2 3 2 3 1 1 1 1 1 na 3
(alkaline)

Calcium
3 3 2 2 2 1 2 3 1 1 na 3
hypochlorite

Carbolic acid 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Carbon dioxide,
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
dry

Carbon dioxide,
3 3 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
wet

Carbon disulfide 1 1 1 1 3 1 2 1 1 1 1 2

Carbon
2 2 2 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 na 3
tetrachloride

Carbonic acid 3 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1

Chlorine gas 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 3 2 3

Chlorine gas,
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 1 2 3
wet

Chlorine, liquid 3 3 3 3 2 2 3 3 1 3 2 3

Chromic acid 3 3 3 2 3 3 1 3 1 1 2 3

Citric acid 3 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2

Coke oven gas 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1

Copper sulfate 3 3 2 2 2 1 3 na 1 1 na 1

Cottonseed oil 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Creosote 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 1
Ethane 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Ether 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Ethyl chloride 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2

Ethylene 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Ethylene glycol 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 na na na 1 1

Ferric chloride 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 1 2 3

Formaldehyde 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Formic acid 3 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 3 2 3

Freon wet 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 na

Freon dry 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 na

Furfural 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2

Gasoline 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Glucose 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Hydrochloric
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 2 1/2 2 3
acid, aerated

Hydrochloric
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 2 1/2 2 3
acid, air free

Hydrofluoric
2 3 3 2 3 2 3 1 1 3 2 3
acid, aerated

Hydrofluoric
1 3 3 2 3 2 1 1 1 3 na 3
acid, air free

Hydrogen 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Hydrogen
1 1 1 3 1 3 2 2 1 na 2
peroxide

Hydrogen
3 3 1 1 3 2 3 1 1 1 1 3
sulfide, liquid

Magnesium 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Hydroxide

Mercury 1 1 1 1 3 1 2 1 1 1 1 1

Methanol 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Methyl ethyl
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
ketone

Milk 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3

Natural gas 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Nitric acid 3 3 1 2 3 1 3 3 2 1 3 3

Oleic acid 3 3 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Oxalic acid 3 3 2 2 2 1 2 1 1 2 2 2

Oxygen 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Petroleum oils 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Phosphoric acid,
3 3 1 1 3 1 3 1 1 2 1 3
aerated

Phosphoric acid,
3 3 1 1 3 1 2 1 1 2 1 3
air free

Phosphoric acid
3 3 2 2 3 1 3 1 2 3 3
vapors

Picric acid 3 3 1 1 3 1 3 1 1 na na 2

Potassium
2 2 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 na 3
chloride

Potassium
2 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 na 2
hydroxide

Propane 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Rosin 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Silver Nitrate 3 3 1 1 3 1 3 1 1 1 2 2

Sodium acetate 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Sodium
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2
carbonate

Sodium chloride 3 3 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2

Sodium
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
chromate

Sodium
1 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 2
hydroxide

Sodium
3 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 1 1 na 3
hypochloride

Sodium
3 3 1 1 3 1 3 1 1 1 na 2
thiosulfate

Stannous
2 2 3 1 3 1 2 1 1 1 na 3
chloride

Stearic acid 1 3 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 2 2

Sulfate liquor 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 1

Sulfur 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Sulfur dioxide,
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2
dry

Sulfur trioxide,
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2
dry

Sulfuric acid,
3 3 3 3 3 1 3 1 1 2 2 3
aerated

Sulfuric acid, air

3 3 3 3 2 1 2 1 1 2 2 3
free

Sulfurous acid 3 3 2 2 2 1 3 1 1 1 2 3

Tar 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Trichloroethyle
2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2
ne
 Turpentine 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1

Vinegar 3 3 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 na 1 3

Water, steam
boiler feeding 2 3 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 2
system

Water, distilled 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2

Water, sea 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3

Whiskey 3 3 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 3

Wine 3 3 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 3

Zinc chloride 3 3 3 3 3 1 3 1 1 1 2 3

Zinc sulfate 3 3 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 2

 na - data not available

Magnetic properties
Magnetic properties play an important role in daily life. Magnetic materials are used in electric
motors, generators, transformers. Modern-day devices use data storage technology that is based
on magnetic particles. Magnetic materials are used in devices like telephones, televisions,
supercomputers, etc. they are also used in medical technology, for example DNA sequencing.

 Permeability
  Hysteresis

 Curie Point

Permeability

Permeability in the SI

permeability
Quantity name
alias absolute permeability

Quantity symbol μ

Unit name henrys per metre

Unit symbols H m-1

Base units kg m s-2 A-2

Duality with the Electric World

In electromagnetism, permeability is the measure of the ability of a material to support the

formation of a magnetic field within itself. In other words, it is the degree of magnetization that a
material obtains in response to an applied magnetic field. Magnetic permeability is typically
represented by the Greek letter μ. The term was coined in September, 1885 by Oliver Heaviside.
The reciprocal of magnetic permeability is magnetic reluctivity.

In SI units, permeability is measured in the henry per metre (H m-1), or newton per ampere
squared (N A-2). The permeability constant (μ0), also known as the magnetic constant or the
permeability of free space, is a measure of the amount of resistance encountered when forming a
magnetic field in a classical vacuum. The magnetic constant has the exact (defined) [1] value µ0 =
4π×10−7 ≈ 1.2566370614...×10−6 H·m-1 or N·A-2).

Hysteresis
Hysteresis phenomena occur in magnetic and ferromagnetic materials, as well as in the elastic,
electric, and magnetic behavior of materials, in which a lag occurs between the application and
the removal of a force or field and its subsequent effect. Electric hysteresis occurs when applying
a varying electric field, and elastic hysteresis occurs in response to a varying force. The term
"hysteresis" is sometimes used in other fields, such as economics or biology; where it describes a
memory, or lagging effect, in which the order of previous events can influence the order of
subsequent events.[citation needed]

When a ferromagnetic material is magnetized in one direction, it will not relax back to zero
magnetization when the imposed magnetizing field is removed. It must be driven back to zero by
a field in the opposite direction. If an alternating magnetic field is applied to the material, its
magnetization will trace out a loop called a hysteresis loop. The lack of retraceability of the
magnetization curve is the property called hysteresis and it is related to the existence of magnetic
domains in the material. Once the magnetic domains are reoriented, it takes some energy to turn
them back again. This property of ferrromagnetic materials is useful as a magnetic "memory".
Some compositions of ferromagnetic materials will retain an imposed magnetization indefinitely
and are useful as "permanent magnets". The magnetic memory aspects of iron and chromium
oxides make them useful in audio tape recording and for the magnetic storage of data on
computer disks

Curie Point or Curie Temperature,

The temperature at which certain magnetic materials undergo a sharp change in their magnetic
properties. In the case of rocks and minerals, remanent magnetism appears below the Curie point
—about 570° C (1,060° F) for the common magnetic mineral magnetite. This temperature is
named for the French physicist Pierre Curie, who in 1895 discovered the laws that relate some
magnetic properties to change in temperature.

Below the Curie temperature the magnetic moments are aligned parallel within magnetic
domains in ferromagnetic materials and anti-parallel in antiferromagnetic materials. As the
temperature is increased towards the Curie point, the alignment (magnetization) within each
domain decreases. Above the Curie temperature, the material is paramagnetic so that magnetic
moments are in a completely disordered state.

Below the Curie point—for example, 770° C (1,418° F) for iron—atoms that behave as tiny
magnets spontaneously align themselves in certain magnetic materials.

Given below are various Curie Temperatures for different substances.

Iron (Fe) 768°C.

Cobalt (Co) 1150°C.

Nickel (Ni) 360°C.

Iron Oxide (Fe2O3) 622°C.

Manufacturing properties
 Machining speeds and feeds

 Machinability rating

 Hardness

 Extruding temperature and pressure

 Castability

Machinability

The term machinability refers to the ease with which a metal can be machined to an
acceptable surface finish.[1] Materials with good machinability require little power to cut,
can be cut quickly, easily obtain a good finish, and do not wear the tooling much; such
materials are said to be free machining. The factors that typically improve a material's
performance often degrade its machinability. Therefore, to manufacture components
economically, engineers are challenged to find ways to improve machinability without
harming performance.

 Machinability can be difficult to predict because machining has so many variables. Two
sets of factors are the condition of work materials and the physical properties of work
materials. [2]
 The condition of the work material includes eight factors: microstructure, grain size, heat
treatment, chemical composition, fabrication, hardness, yield strength, and tensile
strength.[3]
 Physical properties are those of the individual material groups, such as the modulus of
elasticity, thermal conductivity, thermal expansion, and work hardening.[4]
 Other important factors are operating conditions, cutting tool material and geometry, and
the machining process parameters.[5]

Machinability rating

The machinability rating of a material attempts to quantify the machinability of various

materials. It is expressed as a percentage or a normalized value. The American Iron and Steel
Institute (AISI) determined machinability ratings for a wide variety of materials by running
turning tests at 180 surface feet per minute (sfpm).[10] It then arbitrarily assigned 160 Brinell
B1112 steel a machinability rating of 100%.[10] The machinability rating is determined by
measuring the weighed averages of the normal cutting speed, surface finish, and tool life for each
material.[10] Note that a material with a machinability rating less than 100% would be more
difficult to machine than B1112 and material with a value more than 100% easier.

Machinability ratings can be used in conjunction with the Taylor tool life equation, VTn = C, in
order to determine cutting speeds or tool life. It is known that B1112 has a tool life of 60 minutes
at a cutting speed of 100 sfpm. If a material has a machinability rating of 70%, it can be
determined, with the above knowns, that in order to maintain the same tool life (60 minutes) the
cutting speed must be 70 sfpm (assuming the same tooling is used).[1]

Castability

Castability is the ease of forming a casting. Castability can be thought of as how easy is it to cast
a quality part. A very castable part design is easily developed, incurs minimal tooling costs,
requires minimal energy, and has few rejections. Cast ability implies ease of producing a casting,
minimizing cost, defects and lead-time. This is facilitated by high compatibility between product
requirements and process capabilities. In this chapter, we review major design factors that
influence castability and some methods for castability analysis. Cast metals are characterized by
their casting properties such as pouring temperature, fluidity, volumetric shrinkage during
solidification and slag/dross formation tendency. These influence the casting quality in terms of
dimensional stability and internal integrity.

Machining speeds and feeds

The phrase speeds and feeds (or feeds and speeds) refers to two separate velocities in machine
tool practice, cutting speed and feed rate. They are often considered as a pair because of their
combined effect on the cutting process. Each, however, can also be considered and analyzed in
its own right.

Cutting speed is the speed difference between the cutting tool and the surface of the workpiece it
is operating on. It is expressed in units of distance along the workpiece surface per time,
typically surface feet per minute (sfm) or meter per minute (m/min). Feed rate is the relative
velocity between cutter on the workpiece. The units depend on the motion of the tool/workpiece;
in rotating systems (e.g. turning and boring) the units are inches per revolution (ipr) or
millimeters per revolution; in linear systems (e.g. milling) the units are typically inches per
minute (ipm) or millimeters per minute.

If variables such as cutter geometry and the rigidity of the machine tool and its tooling setup
could be ideally maximized (and reduced to negligible constants), then only a lack of power (that
is, kilowatts or horsepower) available to the spindle would prevent the use of the maximum
possible speeds and feeds for any given workpiece material and cutter material. Of course, in
reality those other variables are dynamic and not negligible; but there is still a correlation
between power available and feeds and speeds employed. In practice, lack of rigidity is more
often the limiting constraint.
Cutting speed may be defined as the rate (or speed) that the material moves past the cutting edge
of the tool , irrespective of the machining operation used — the surface speed. A cutting speed
for mild steel, of 100 ft/min (or approx 30 meters/min) is the same whether it is the speed of the
(stationary) cutter passing over the (moving) workpiece, such as in a turning operation, or the
speed of the (rotating) cutter moving past a (stationary) workpiece, such as in a milling
operation. What will affect the value of this surface speed for mild steel, is the cutting
conditions:

For a given material there will be an optimum cutting speed for a certain set of machining
conditions, and from this speed the spindle speed (RPM) can be calculated. Factors affecting the
calculation of cutting speed are:

 The material being machined (steel, brass, tool steel, plastic, wood) (see table below)

 The material the cutter is made from (Carbon steel, high speed steel (HSS), carbide,
ceramics)

 The economical life of the cutter (the cost to regrind or purchase new, compared to the
quantity of parts produced)

Cutting speeds are calculated on the assumption that optimum cutting conditions exist, these
include:

 Metal removal rate (finishing cuts that remove a small amount of material may be run at
increased speeds)

 Full and constant flow of cutting fluid (adequate cooling and chip flushing)

 Rigidity of the machine and tooling setup (reduction in vibration or chatter)

 Continuity of cut (as compared to an interrupted cut, such as machining square section
material in a lathe)

 Condition of material (mill scale, hard spots due to white cast iron forming in castings)

The cutting speed is given as a set of constants that are available from the material manufacturer
or supplier, the most common materials are available in reference books, or charts but will
always be subject to adjustment depending on the cutting conditions. The following table gives
the cutting speeds for a selection of common materials under one set of conditions. The
conditions are a tool life of 1 hour, dry cutting (no coolant) and at medium feeds so they may
appear to be incorrect depending on circumstances. These cutting speeds may change if, for
instance, adequate coolant is available or an improved grade of HSS is used (such as one that
includes cobalt).
Cutting speeds for various materials using a plain high speed steel cutter
Material type Meters per min Surface feet per min (SFM)
(MPM)
Steel (tough) 15–18 50–60
Mild steel 30–38 100–125
Cast iron (medium) 18–24 60–80
Alloy steels (1320–9262) – 65–120[1]
Carbon steels (C1008-C1095) – 70–130[2]
Free cutting steels (B1111-B1113 & – 115–225[2]
C1108-C1213)
Stainless steels (300 & 400 series) – 75–130[3]
Bronzes 24–45 80–150
Leaded steel (Leadloy 12L14) – 300[4]
Aluminium 75–105 250–350
Brass – 600+ (Use the maximum
spindle speed)[5]

Feed rate is the velocity at which the cutter is fed, that is, advanced against the
workpiece. It is expressed in units of distance per revolution for turning and boring
(typically inches per revolution [ipr] or millimeters per revolution). It can be expressed
thus for milling also, but it is often expressed in units of distance per time for milling
(typically inches per minute [ipm] or millimeters per minute), with considerations of how
many teeth (or flutes) the cutter has then determining what that means for each tooth.

Feedrate is dependent on the:

 Type of tool (a small drill or a large drill, high speed or carbide, a boxtool or recess, a
thin form tool or wide form tool, a slide knurl or a turret straddle knurl).
 Surface finish desired.
 Power available at the spindle (to prevent stalling of the cutter or workpiece).
 Rigidity of the machine and tooling setup (ability to withstand vibration or chatter).
 Strength of the workpiece (high feed rates will collapse thin wall tubing)
 Characteristics of the material being cut, chip flow depends on material type and feed
rate. The ideal chip shape is small and breaks free early, carrying heat away from the tool
and work.
 Threads per inch (TPI) for taps, die heads and threading tools.

When deciding what feed rate to use for a certain cutting operation, the calculation is
fairly straightforward for single-point cutting tools, because all of the cutting work is
done at one point (done by "one tooth", as it were). With a milling machine or jointer,
where multi-tipped/multi-fluted cutting tools are involved, then the desirable feed rate
becomes dependent on the number of teeth on the cutter, as well as the desired amount of
 material per tooth to cut (expressed as chip load). The greater the number of cutting
edges, the higher the feed rate permissible: for a cutting edge to work efficiently it must
remove sufficient material to cut rather than rub; it also must do its fair share of work.

The ratio of the spindle speed and the feed rate controls how aggressive the cut is, and the
nature of the swarf formed.

Formula to determine feed rate

This formula can be used to figure out the feed rate that the cutter travels into or around
the work. This would apply to cutters on a milling machine, drill press and a number of
other machine tools. This is not to be used on the lathe for turning operations, as the feed
rate on a lathe is given as inches per revolution.

 FR = the calculated feed rate in inches per minute or mm per minute.

 RPM = is the calculated speed for the cutter.
 T = Number of teeth on the cutter.
 CL = The chip load or feed per tooth. This is the size of chip that each tooth of the cutter
takes

Processing of metals and alloys

 Metals are fabricated by different means to achieve metals and alloys
of desired characteristics. There been many kinds of fabrication
techniques, and for a particular metal use of these depend on
properties of metal, product shape-size-properties, cost, etc. Metal
fabrication techniques are mainly four kinds: Casting - to give a shape
by pouring in liquid metal into a mold that holds the required shape,
and letting harden the metal without external pressure; Forming – to
give shape in solid state by applying pressure; Machining – in which
material is removed in order to give it the required shape; and Joining –
where different parts are joined by various means. One of the most
important miscellaneous techniques is powder metallurgy.

Metal casting

Metal casting process begins by creating a mold, which is the ‘reverse’ shape of the part
we need. The mold is made from a refractory material, for example, sand. The metal is
heated in an oven until it melts, and the molten metal is poured into the mould cavity.
The liquid takes the shape of cavity, which is the shape of the part. It is cooled until it
solidifies. Finally, the solidified metal part is removed from the mould.
 A large number of metal components in designs we use every day are made by casting.
The reasons for this include:
(a) Casting can produce very complex geometry parts with internal cavities and hollow
sections.
(b) It can be used to make small (few hundred grams) to very large size parts (thousands
of kilograms)
(c) It is economical, with very little wastage: the extra metal in each casting is re-melted
and re-used
(d) Cast metal is isotropic – it has the same physical/mechanical properties along any
direction.
Common examples: door handles, locks, the outer casing or housing for motors, pumps,
etc., wheels of many cars. Casting is also heavily used in the toy industry to make parts,
e.g. toy cars, planes, and so on.

This technique is employed when (a) product is large and/or

complicated shape (b) particular material is low in ductility. This is also
employed as it is usually economical compared with other techniques.
Different casting techniques include: sand, die, investment, continuous
casting

 Sand casting: The common casting method where sand is used as

casting material. Sand casting uses natural or synthetic sand (lake
sand) which is mostly a refractory material called silica (SiO2). The
sand grains must be small enough so that it can be packed densely;
however, the grains must be large enough to allow gasses formed
during the metal pouring to escape through the pores. Larger sized
molds use green sand (mixture of sand, clay and some water). Sand
can be re-used, and excess metal poured is cut-off and re-used also. A
two piece mold (cope and drag) is formed by compact packing of sand
around a pattern of required shape. An addition gating is provided for
proper distribution of liquid metal.
 Die casting:

 Die casting is a very commonly used type of permanent mold casting

process. It is used for producing many components of home appliances
(e.g rice cookers, stoves, fans, washing and drying machines, fridges),
motors, toys and hand-tools . Surface finish and tolerance of die cast
parts is so good that there is almost no post-processing required. Die
casting molds are expensive, and require significant lead time to
fabricate; they are commonly called dies. There are two common types
of die casting: hot- and cold-chamber die casting. Here metal is forced
into mold by external pressure at high velocities. Usually a permanent
two-piece mold made of steel is used. In this technique rapid cooling
rates are achieved, thus inexpensive.

 Investment casting: In this pattern is made of wax. Then fluid slurry

of casting material is poured over which eventually hardens and holds
the required shape. Subsequently, pattern material is heated to leave
behind the cavity. This technique is employed when high dimensional
accuracy, reproduction of fine details, and an excellent finish are
required. For example: jewelry, dental crowns, and gas turbine blades
jet engine impellers.
 Continuous casting: After refining metals are usually in molten state,
which are later solidified into ingots for further processing like forming.
In continuous casting, solidification and primary forming process are
combined, where refined metal is cast directly into a continuous strand
which is cooled by water jets. This technique is highly automated and
more efficient. Uniform composition through-out the casting is
achievable when compared with ingot-cast products.

Metal forming
In these techniques, a metallic piece is subjected to external
pressures (in excess of yield strength of the material) to induce
deformation, thus material acquires a desired shape. These are
basically two types – one that performed at relatively low
temperatures, cold working; ad the other performed at high
temperatures, hot working. Hot working is responsible mainly for
substantial change in cross section without material getting
strengthened, while during cold working, fine details are achieved
along with material getting strengthened. Most common forming
techniques are: forging, rolling, extrusion, and drawing.
There are three temperature ranges-cold, warm, and hot working:

Temperature range for different metal forming

operations. TA is the ambient (room) temperature,
and Tm is the work metal melting temperature
Cold working is metal forming performed at room temperature.
Advantages: better accuracy, better surface finish, high strength and
hardness of the part, no heating is required.
Disadvantages: higher forces and power, limitations to the amount of
forming, additional
annealing for some material is required, and some material are not
capable of
cold working.
Warm working is metal forming at temperatures above the room
temperature but bel-low therecrystallization one.
 Advantages: lower forces and power, more complex part shapes, no
annealing is required.
Disadvantages: some investment in furnaces is needed.
Hot working involves deformation of preheated material at
temperatures above the re-crystallization temperature.
Advantages: big amount of forming is possible, lower forces and power
are required, forming of materials with low ductility, no work hardening
and therefore, no additional
annealing is required.
Disadvantages: lower accuracy and surface finish, higher production
cost, and shorter tool life.

 Different forming processes.

 Forging: This involves deforming a single piece of metal, usually, by
successive blows or continuous squeezing. In open die forging, two
dies having same shape is employed, usually, over large work-pieces;
while in closed die forging, there may be more than two pieces of die
put together having finished shape. Forged products have outstanding
grain structures and very good mechanical properties. Typical products
include: crane hooks, wrenches, crank shafts, connecting rods.

 Rolling: Most widely used forming technique because of high

production rate and close dimensional control of final product. It
involves passing a piece of metal between two rotating rolls.
 Deformation is terms of reduction in thickness resulting from applied
compressive forces. This technique is typically employed to produce
sheets, strips, foil, I-beams, rails, etc.

 Extrusion: In this technique a piece of material is forced though a die

orifice by a compressive force. Final product emerging from die will
have the desired shape and reduced cross sectional area, and will
constant cross-section over very long lengths. Two
varieties of extrusion are direct extrusion and indirect extrusion, where
distinction limits to movement of tool and final product and
consequent changes in required force. Typical extrusion products are:
rods, (seamless) tubes, complicated shapes for domestic purpose.

 Drawing: It is pulling of material though die orifice using tensile

forces. Again a reduction in cross-section results with corresponding
change in length. Drawing die entrance is at angle against to extrusion
die which is usually rectangular. Typical drawing strand includes
number of dies in a series sequence. Rods, wire, and tubes are
commonly produced using drawing technique
 Machining

 This technique employs removable of metal from selected areas of the

workpiece to give final shape to the product. This is in direct contrast
with metal forming where metal is moved and volume is conserved.
Machining usually is employed to produce shapes with high
dimensional tolerance, good surface finish, and often with complex
geometry. And another important note is that when number of product
pieces required is small, machining is preferred over forming as special
tool cost will be less

Joining
 There been many joining techniques, especially for metallic materials.
These include: welding, brazing, soldering, and riveting. In these
techniques, two pieces are joined together either by adhesive/cohesive
bonding and/or mechanical locking. Welding, brazing, and soldering
involve melting of either parent metal or external metallic liquid (filler
material) which upon cooling provides cohesive bonds. In riveting,
pieces are put together by mechanical locking. These techniques are
employed to join two pieces of same metal with complicated shapes, or
of different metals because of difficulty in fabricating them using one
of the previous methods. This may be employed when on-part
fabrication is expensive or inconvenient.

Powder metallurgy
 In this technique, metal powders or mixture of metal powers at desired
relative amounts are compacted into the desired shape, followed by
sintering in controlled atmosphere to produce a denser product. It is
makes it possible to produce a virtually non-porous product where
diffusional processes controls the efficiency of the process. It is
suitable, especially, for metals with low ductility/high melting points.
Other advantage include: close dimensional tolerance of complicated
shapes. Usually products are less dense than wrought products
because of porosity. However, it is advantageous as pores can retain
oil for self-lubrication of bushes, and high damping capacity.