Vidyavardhini’s

College of Engineering & Technology

Vasai Road (W)

Department of Electronics and Telecommunication

Engineering

Laboratory Manual
(Faculty Copy)

Semester VI Class TE

Course Code ECL604

Course Name Skill Laboratory: Linux and Networking & Server Configuration
 Vidyavardhini’s College of Engineering
& Technology

Vision
To be a premier institution of technical education;
always aiming at becoming a valuable resource for
industry and society.

Mission
●To provide technologically inspiring environment
for learning.
●To promote creativity, innovation and professional
activities.
●To inculcate ethical and moral values.
●To cater personal, professional and societal needs
through quality education.

Department Vision:
 Vidyavardhini’s College of Engineering & Technology

Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

To contrive educational and research environments to serve industry and society needs in the
field of electronics and telecommunication engineering.

Department Mission:
● To enrich soft skills, ethical values, environmental and societal awareness.
● To develop technical proficiency through projects and laboratory work.
● To encourage students for lifelong learning through interaction with the outside
world.

Program Education Objectives (PEOs):

PEO1: The graduates will exhibit knowledge of mathematics, science, electronics, and
communication, and will be able to apply the same in diversified field.

PEO2: The graduates will develop a habit of continuous learning while working in
multidisciplinary environment.

PEO3: The graduates will grow as an individual with proficiency in technical skills, ethical
values, communication skills, teamwork and professionalism.

Program Specific Outcomes (PSOs):

At the end of the program engineering graduate will be able to

PSO1: To apply the knowledge of Electronics and Communication to analyse, design and
implement application specific problems with modern tools.

PSO2: Adapt emerging technologies with continuous learning in the field of electronics and
telecommunication engineering with appropriate solutions to real life problems.
Program Outcomes (POs):
Engineering Graduates will be able to:
● PO1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science,
engineering fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex
engineering problems.
● PO2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze
complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
● PO3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering
problems and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with
appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and
environmental considerations.
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● PO4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and

research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and
synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
● PO5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources,
and modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex
engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.
● PO6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge
to assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent
responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice.
● PO7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional
engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the
knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
● PO8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and
responsibilities and norms of the engineering practice.
● PO9. Individual and teamwork: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member
or leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
● PO10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities
with the engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to
comprehend and write effective reports and design documentation, make effective
presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.
● PO11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of
the engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a
member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
● PO12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for and have the preparation and ability to
engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological
change.

Sr. No. Content

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1. Syllabus

2. Course Objectives and Course Outcomes

3. Mapping of Experiments with Course Outcomes

4. Mapping of COs with POs and PSOs

5. List of Experiments
1. Linux installation process using any one following method: CD-ROM, Network
installation or Kickstart installation.

2. Explore the internal and external commands of Linux.

3. Explore System Calls in Linux.

4. Shell scripting to show various system configuration.

5.
6.

7..

8.

9.

Course Objectives
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1 Install Linux and implement standard Linux commands.

2 Study the basic theory of the Linux Operating System.

3 Implement the system administrative functionality.

4 To write shell script programs to solve problems.

5 Study basic commands of networking.

6 Develop implementation skills of different servers on Linux.

Course Outcomes
At the end of the course, students will be able to: Action verb Bloom
Level

ECL604.1 Demonstrate Installation of Linux using Debian, Demonstrate Apply

Ubuntu, and Kali Linux platforms and execute (Level 3)
standard Linux commands.
ECL604.2 Write Process management, scheduling, and Inter- Write Apply
process communication in Linux. (Level 3)
ECL604.3 Write shell script programs for common Write Apply
administrative tasks and managing user accounts. (Level 3)

ECL604.4 Write shell script programs for conditional and write Apply
looping statements in bash. (Level 3)

ECL604.5 Demonstrate the configuration of DHCP server, Demonstrate Apply

DNS server, and NFS file server. (Level 3)

ECL604.6 Demonstrate the configuration of the Mail server, Demonstrate Apply

Telnet server, FTP server, and Web server. (Level 3)

Mapping of Experiments with Lab Outcomes

Sr. Experiment Course Outcomes

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EC EC EC EC EC EC
L6 L L L L L
No
04. 60 60 60 604 604
1 4.2 4.3 4.4 .5 .6

1 Linux installation process using any one following method:

3 - - - - -
CD-ROM, Network installation or Kickstart installation.

2
Explore the internal and external commands of Linux. 3 - - - - -

3 Explore System Calls in Linux. - 3 - - - -

4 Shell scripting to show various system configuration. - - 3 - - -

5 Write a shell script to add user and password on Linux

- - 3 - - -
system.

6 Write a shell script program to check login details. - - 3 - - -

7 Write a shell script to find the factorial of a given integer. - - - 3 - -

8 Write a script that accepts the hostname and IP address as

- - - 3 - -
command line arguments and adds them to the /etc/hosts file.

9 Write an awk script to find the number of characters, words,

- - - 3 - -
lines in a file.

10 To setup and configure FTP server with VSFTPD on Ubuntu

- - - - - 3
20.04.

11
To setup and configure Linux Mail Server. - - - - - 3

12
Configuration of DNS server with domain name in Linux. - - - - 3 -

Enter correlation level 1, 2 or 3 as defined below

1: Slight (Low) 2: Moderate (Medium) 3: Substatial (High)

If there is no correlation put “—“.

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INDEX

Sr. DOP DOC Remark Sign

Experiment
No.

1 Linux installation process using any one

following method: CD-ROM, Network
installation or Kickstart installation.

2 Explore the internal and external commands of

Linux.
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Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

3 Explore System Calls in Linux.

4 Shell scripting to show various system

configuration

5 Write a shell script to add user and password on

Linux system.

6 Write a shell script program to check login

details.

7 Write a shell script to find the factorial of a

given integer.

8 Write a script that accepts the hostname and IP

address as command line arguments and adds
them to the /etc/hosts file.

9 Write an awk script to find the number of

characters, words, lines in a file.

10 To setup and configure FTP server with

VSFTPD on Ubuntu 20.04.

11 To setup and configure Linux Mail Server.

12 Configuration of DNS server with domain

name in Linux.
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Experiment No.: 1
Linux Installation
Aim: To install Linux using CD-ROM Network installation, or Kickstart
installation
Theory: Installation Steps of Ubuntu 20.04 LTS
Step:1 Download the ISO file using the following links
https://ubuntu.com/download/desktop
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Once the iso file has been downloaded, burn it into DVD or USB drive and make it
bootable. Save the file to a location of your choice

Step 2: Create Bootable USB

You will need a USB drive with 4GB or more. This process will delete all
data on the USB drive. Make sure to backup any existing data on the USB
drive.
Option 1: Create a Bootable USB Drive on Ubuntu
Use the Create startup disk tool:

1. Open a search dialog, and type create startup.

2. If it’s not installed, the Software Center will offer the option to install it –
choose the option for USB drive, then open the utility.
3. In the top pane, click Other, then browse and select the Ubuntu 20.04 .iso
file you downloaded.
4. In the bottom pane, select your USB drive.
5. Click Make startup disk.
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Bootable USB Drive on Windows

Option 2: Create
You’ll need to install a third-party utility called Rufus to create a USB
bootable drive.
1. Download the Rufus utility. Scroll down to the download section and click
the link to download the latest version of Rufus.

2. Run the file once downloaded.

3. A pop-up dialog opens. You will be prompted whether you want to check
for online updates. Select No.

4. The Rufus utility launches. Plug in the USB drive – you should see the
drive pop up in the device field.

● Set the USB as the device you wish to write to.

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● In the Boot Selection drop-down, click Disk or ISO Image.

● Click the Select button to the right.
● Browse and select the .iso Ubuntu file you downloaded earlier.

6. Click Start.

Step 3: Boot up Ubuntu from USB

1. Turn off your system. Make sure you remove all other USB devices, such
as printers, memory cards, etc.
2. Insert the Ubuntu USB drive into the system and turn on your machine.
There are two possible scenarios:

● The computer boots the USB drive automatically.

● You need to manually configure USB booting in the Boot
Menu or BIOS/UEFI.

3. To manually configure the boot order, tap the boot menu key about once or
twice per second as soon as the computer powers on.
The boot menu key may be different depending on your computer
manufacturer. Below is a list of common boot keys associated to a brand:

Asus F8 or Esc
Acer F12, F9 or Esc
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Compaq F9 or Esc
Dell F12
eMachines F12
Fujitsu F12
HP F9 or Esc
Lenovo F8, F10 or F12
Samsung F2, F12 or Esc
Toshiba F12

4. Once you see your boot menu, use the arrows to pick the Ubuntu media to
boot from. For a DVD, the entry will usually have DVD or Optical in the
name. USB is usually labeled USB.Your system should start loading the
Ubuntu live disc menu.

Step 4: Run Ubuntu

You can test Ubuntu 20.04 before you commit to installing it. The .iso
includes a live mode that only runs in memory.
Launch this mode by clicking Try Ubuntu.

Step 5: Install Ubuntu 20.04 LTS Desktop

To begin the installation, click Install Ubuntu.
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Choose Keyboard Layout

By default, the system will select English and English.
If you have a non-standard keyboard, you can select it in the list. Alternately,
click Detect Keyboard Layout and the system will automatically choose
your keyboard. If you need to test your keyboard, use the labeled field.
When you’re ready, click Continue.

Choose Starting Applications

● Normal Installation – This is the full Ubuntu Desktop experience, with

office software, games, and media players.
● Minimal Installation – Choose this to save disk space, especially if you
won’t be using media players or productivity software.

You’ll also be asked to confirm other options:

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● Download updates while installing Ubuntu – This does the work of

downloading large package files during the installation. Once the installation
finishes, the packages will be ready to apply as updates.
● Install third-party software for graphics and Wi-Fi hardware and
additional media formats – Some hardware, like graphics cards and wi-fi
cards, do not have open-source driver support. Also, some media formats,
such as .wmv, do not fall under the GPL license. If you need support for
these, you’ll need to agree to additional terms of use.

Disk Partitioning
Next, you’ll be presented with an Installation Type dialog. You can wipe the
hard drive clean prior to installing Ubuntu by clicking Erase disk and install
Ubuntu. If you go this route, skip ahead to the next step.
Advanced users may want to edit Advanced Features. Use this to specify
your own disk partitions or set other advanced options:

● Use LVM with the new Ubuntu installation: LVM stands for Logical
Volume Management. This is a tool for dynamically managing different
virtual drives on your system. It’s much like an enhanced version of
the gparted tool.
● Encrypt the new Ubuntu installation for security: This will encrypt the
drive’s contents. You’ll choose a security key, which will be required to
decrypt and use the drive.
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● Experimental: Erase disk and use ZFS: ZFS refers to Zettabyte File System,
but it has grown into a hybrid file system and volume manager. Since it’s
still being tested, avoid this setting on mission-critical production systems.

If you’d rather create your own hard drive partitions, click Something Else.
The next screen will allow you to create your own partition table and logical
drives. This lets you divide a physical hard drive into different partitions. The
operating system sees partitions as individual drives.
Click Continue to apply your changes to the drive partitions.
You’ll be asked to Write changes to disks? None of the options you’ve
selected are permanent until you click Continue on this screen.
Click Continue to proceed.
Select Time Zone
Once the system formats the disk partitions, the installer will ask Where are
you?
Type the nearest large city into the box, and the system will set your local
time zone.
Click Continue.
Create User Account
Next, you’ll need to configure a user account. Fill in the following fields:

● Name: Your actual name.

● Computer name: This is the hostname or network name.
● Username: The user account name you want to use.
● Password: Enter and confirm a strong password – the installer will
automatically evaluate your password strength.
● Log in automatically: This is not recommended for publicly
accessible servers.
● Require my password to log in: This is recommended for publicly
accessible servers.

Click Continue to install Ubuntu.

Once the installer finishes, remove the Ubuntu installation media. You’ll be
prompted to Restart Now.
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The system should boot into your fresh install of Ubuntu 20.04.

Conclusion:

Post 1) Comment on the installation of Linux OS based on various

Experiment parameters.
questions: 2) What are two types of Linux User Mode?

.
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Experiment No: 2

Aim: Explore the internal and external commands of Linux.

Objective: The Linux command is a utility of the Linux operating system.

All basic and advanced tasks can be done by
executing commands.

Theory: They are grouped into two categories:

● Internal Commands: Commands which are built into the
shell. For all the shell built-in commands, execution of the
same is fast in the sense that the shell doesn’t have to search
the given path for them in the PATH variable, and also no
process needs to be spawned to execute it. Examples: source,
cd, fg, etc.
● External Commands: Commands which aren’t built into the
shell. When an external command has to be executed, the shell
looks for its path given in the PATH variable, and also a new
process has to be spawned and the command gets executed.
They are usually located in /bin or /usr /bin. For example,
when you execute the “cat” command, which usually is at
/usr/bin, the executable /usr/bin/cat gets executed.
Examples: ls, cat, etc.
pwd It gives an absolute path to your current location i.e. current
working directory.
napster@napster-Veriton-Series:~$ pwd /home/napster
mkdir It creates a new directory/ folder
napster@napster-Veriton-Series:~$ mkdir TRIAL
cd It is used to change directory.
napster@napster-Veriton-Series:~$ cd TRIAL
cd.. To come back to previous directory.
cd \ Return to the root directory
touch To create new files.
napster@napster-Veriton-Series:~/TRIAL$ touch hello.txt
To verify hello.txt is created or not:
napster@napster-Veriton-Series:~/TRIAL$ ls
Hello.txt
Is It lists the contents of files and directories
napster@napster-Veriton-Series:~/TRIAL$ ls
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hello.txt TRIAL2

cat 1) It can also use to create new file with content as shown below.
cat> hello.txt
hello from Shamika
2) It can also use to append the data into existing file as shown
below.
cat>>hello.txt
3) It is used to concatenate files.
napster@napster-Veriton-Series:~/TRIAL$ cat hello.txt hi.txt
hello from Shamika
How are you?
Welcome to Os Lab.

b1@comp:~$ cat > a Apple

mango is also a fruit
^C
b1@comp:~$ cat >> APPENDING
a ^C
mv To rename a file from source to destination and To move file from
one location to other location.
napster@napster-Veriton-Series:~/TRIAL$ mv hi.txt how.txt
To verify the file is napster@napster-Veriton-Series:~/TRIAL$ ls
renamed or not. hello.txt how.txt
To move files from napster@napster-Veriton-Series:~/TRIAL$ mkdir TRIAL2
one location to napster@napster-Veriton-Series:~/TRIAL$ mv how.txt TRIAL2
another location napster@napster-Veriton-Series:~/TRIAL$ cd TRIAL2
napster@napster-Veriton-Series:~/TRIAL/TRIAL2$ LS
napster@napster-Veriton-Series:~/TRIAL/TRIAL2$ ls
How.txt
grep It searches all text files in the current directory for lines
containing “hello”
napster@napster-Veriton-Series:~/TRIAL$ grep hello *.txt
hello from Shamika
rm remove/delete files.
napster@napster-Veriton-Series:~/TRIAL/TRIAL2$ rm how.txt
date Print or set the system date and time, Display the current time in
the given FORMAT, or set the system date.
b1@comp:~$ date Fri Feb 16 15:43:44 IST 2018
time: Displays time of the system
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free: Shows the amount of RAM in use.

echo: Echoes output on the screen.
clear: Clears the screen.
exit: Exit from the terminal
man : (man command name) Gives description
gedit: To open text editor
ps Report a snapshot of the current processes. ps displays
information about a selection of the active processes.
b1@comp:~$ ps PID TTY TIME CMD
2227 pts/0 00:00:00 bash
2310 pts/0 00:00:00 ps
cal : Displays a calendar
b1@comp:~$ cal February 2018
Su Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
11 12 13 14 15 16 17
18 19 20 21 22 23 24
25 26 27 28
wc: print newline, word, and byte counts for each file, Print newline,
word, and byte counts for each FILE, and a total line if more than
one FILE is specified.
b1@comp:~$ wc a 6 11 57 a
chmod change file mode bits
chmod changes the file mode bits of each given file according to
mode, which can be
either a symbolic representation of changes to make or an octal
number
representing the bit pattern for the new mode bits.
b1@comp:~$ chmod -rw-rw-r-- 1 b1 b1 57 Feb 16 15:44 a
777 a
b1@comp:~$ ls -l a
chown change file owner and group
chown changes the user and/or group ownership of each given
file. If only an owner (a user name or numeric user ID) is given,
that user is made the owner of each given file, and the file's group
is not changed. If the owner is followed by a colon and a group
name (or numeric group ID), with no spaces between them, the
group ownership of the files is changed as well.
umask set file mode creation mask, umask() sets the calling process's
file mode creation mask (umask) to mask & 0777 (i.e., only the
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file permission bits of mask are used), and returns the previous
value of the mask.
b1@comp:~$ umask u=rwx,g=rwx,o=rx
-S
Conclusion:

Post Experiment 1. Comment on the basic difference between internal and external
questions: commands.
2. What are the scheduling techniques in Linux?

Experiment No. 3
Aim: Explore the system calls open, read, write, close, getuid, getgid, getegid,
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geteuid o Linux.

Objective: When a program in user mode requires access to RAM or a hardware

resource, it must ask the kernel to provide access to that resource. This
is done via a system call.

Theory:  getuid, geteuid - get user identity

 getgid, getegid - get group identity
● getuid() returns the real user ID of the calling process.
● geteuid() returns the e ffective user ID of the calling process.
● getgid() returns the real group ID of the calling process.
● getegid() returns the effective group ID of the calling process.
All four functions shall always be successful and no return value is
reserved to indicate an error.
Unix-like operating systems identify a user within the kernel by a value
called a user identifier, often abbreviated to user ID or UID. The UID,
along with the group identifier (GID) and other access control criteria,
is used to determine which system resources a user can access.

Effective user The effective UID (euid) of a process is used for most access checks. It
ID is also used as the owner of files created by that process. The effective
GID (egid) of a process also affects access control and may also affect
file creation, depending on the semantics of the specific kernel
implementation in use and possibly the mount options used.

Open: Used to Open the file for reading, writing, or both. Open() returns file
descriptor 3 because when main process is created, then fd 0, 1, 2 are
already taken by stdin, stdout, and stderr. So first unused file
descriptor is 3 in the file descriptor table.
int open(const char *pathname, int flags);

Parameters  Path : file path which you want to use.

 Use an absolute path begin with “/”, when you are not work
in the same directory of the file.
 Use relative path which is only file name with extension,
when you are working in the same directory of file.
 flags: How you like to use
 O_RDONLY: read only,
 O_WRONLY: write only,
 O_RDWR: read and write,
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 O_CREAT: create file if it doesn’t exist

Close: Tells the operating system you are done with a file descriptor and Close
the file which pointed by fd.
int close (int fd);
Parameter
 fd:file descriptor
Return
 on success.
 -1 on error.

read: Read data from one buffer to file descriptor, Read size bytes from the
file specified by fd into the memory location.
size_t read (int fd, void* buf, size_t cnt);
 Parameters
 fd: file descriptor
 buf: buffer to read data from
 cnt: length of buffer
 Returns: How many bytes were read
 return the Number of bytes read on success
 return 0 on reaching the end of the file
 return -1 on error
 return -1 on signal interrupt

Write: Write data from a file descriptor into the buffer, Writes the bytes stored
in buf to the file specified by fd. The file needs to be opened for write
operations
size_t write (int fd, void* buf, size_t cnt);
 Parameters
 fd: file descriptor
 buf: buffer to write data to
 cnt: length of buffer
 Returns: How many bytes were written
 return the Number of bytes written on success
 return 0 on reaching the end of the file
 return -1 on error
 return -1 on signal interrupt
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Conclusion:

Post 1. Comment on the kernel mode of the operating system.

Experiment 2. Explain the role of the system administrator
questions:

Code:

#include<stdio.h>
#include <unistd.h>
#include<string.h>
#include<fcntl.h>
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int main()
{
char data[64];
printf("getuid : %d \n",getuid());
printf("geteuid : %d \n",geteuid());
printf("getgid : %d \n",getgid());
printf("getegid : %d \n",getegid());
int fd = open("/home/shraddha/SYCALL.txt", O_CREAT | O_RDWR |
O_APPEND);
printf("fd : %d\n", fd);
int read1 = read(fd,data,64);
printf("%d\n",read1);
int w = write(fd,"smita",strlen("smita"));
close(fd);
}
Code for Open() System Call
d9@d9-desktop:~$ touch text.txt
d9@d9-desktop:~$ cat text.txt
d9@d9-desktop:~$ cat>text.txt
Hi this is my new document
How are you?
cat > text.txt
d9@d9-desktop:~$ nano new.c

#include<fcntl.h>
#include<sys/types.h>
#include<unistd.h>
#include<sys/stat.h>
int main()
{
int n, fd, fd1;
char buf[30];
fd=open("text.txt", O_RDONLY);
n=read(fd, buf, 20);
fd1=open("target", O_CREAT|O_WRONLY,0642);
write(fd1, buf, n);
}

d9@d9-desktop:~$ gcc new.c

d9@d9-desktop:~$ ./a.out
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d9@d9-desktop:~$ cat target

Hi this is my new dod9@d9-desktop:~$ nano new.c
d9@d9-desktop:~$ ^C
d9@d9-desktop:~$
d9@d9-desktop:~$ nano exp.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
#include<unistd.h>
int main(int argc, char *argv[])
{
printf("PID of exp.c= %d\n", getpid());
char *args[]={"Hello","C", "Programming", NULL};
execv("./hello",args);
printf("Back to exp.c");
return 0;
}

d9@d9-desktop:~$ nano hello.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<unistd.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
int main(int argc, char *argv[])
{
printf("We are in hello.c\n");
printf("PID of hello.c= %d\n", getpid());
return 0;
}
d9@d9-desktop:~$ gcc -o exp exp.c
d9@d9-desktop:~$ gcc -o hello hello.c
d9@d9-desktop:~$ ./exp

OUTPUT:

shraddha@shraddha-Inspiron:~$ gcc uid.c -o s

shraddha@shraddha-Inspiron:~$ ./u
getuid : 1000
geteuid : 1000
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getgid : 1000
getegid : 1000
fd : 3
0
shraddha@shraddha-Inspiron:~$ ./s
getuid : 0
geteuid : 0
getgid : 0
getegid : 0
fd : 3
10
PID of exp.c= 5445
We are in hello.c
PID of hello.c= 5445
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Experiment No. 4
Aim Write Shell Scripts to do the following:
1. Display the top 10 processes in descending order.
2. Display processes with the highest memory usage.
3. Display the current logged-in user and log name.
4. Display the current shell, home directory, OS type, OS version, release
number, kernel version, current path setting, and current working directory.

Theory The shell is the operating system's command-line interface (CLI) and
interpreter for the set of commands that are used to communicate with the
system. A shell script is usually created for command sequences in which a
user has a need to use repeatedly in order to save time.
Shell is a user program or its environment is provided for user interaction. It
is a command prompt within Linux where you can type commands. It is a
program that takes your commands from the keyboard and gives them to the
OS to perform. Shell is not part of system KERNAL but it uses system
KERNAL to execute programs, create files, etc. A Shell Script is a text file
that contains a sequence of commands for a UNIX-based OS. It is called a
Shell Script because it combines into a "Script" in a single file a sequence of
commands, that would otherwise have to be presented to the system from a
keyboard one at a time. A Shell Script is usually created for command
sequences for which a user has a repeated need. You initiate the sequence of
commands in Shell Script by simply entering the name of the Shell Script on
a command line.

Types of Shell Script

Sh: Simple Shell

Bash: Bourne Again Shell
Ksh: Korne Shell
Csh: C shell
Ssh: Secure Shell

To use a particular Shell type the Shell name at the command prompt. Eg:-
$csh - It will switch the current Shell to C Shell. To view the current Shell
that is being used, type echo $ SHELL at the command prompt.

Conclusion
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Post 1. Comment on the advantages of using shell scripting in Linux.

Experiment
questions:

Code #!/bin/bash
#Display current logged in user and logname.
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echo "Display current logged in user and logname."

echo "Hi,$USER! This is username."
echo "Hello, $LOGNAME! This is logname"; echo ""

#Display top 10 processes in descending order.

echo "Display top 10 processes in descending order"; echo ""
CPU1=$(top -b -n1 |tail -10)
echo "$CPU1"; echo ""

#Display processes with highest memory usage.

echo "Display processes with highest memory usage"; echo ""
CPU=$(top -b -n1 |head -10)
echo "$CPU"; echo ""

#Display Virtulmemory statistics.

echo "Display VirtulMemory statistics"; echo ""
vmstat= vmstat
echo "$vmstat"; echo ""

#Display current shell, home directory, operating system type, current

path setting
echo "Display current shell, home directory, operating system type, current
path setting"
ALL=$(uname -a); echo ""
echo "alternative for -a is: --all: #prints all information";
echo "$ALL"

S=$(uname -s); echo ""

echo "alternative for -s is: --kernel-name: #prints the kernel
name"
echo "$S"

R=$(uname -r); echo ""

echo "alternative for -r is: --kernel-release: #prints the kernel release"
echo "$R"

V=$(uname -v); echo ""

echo "alternative for -v is: --kernel-version: #prints the kernel version"
echo "$V"
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#Display the current working directory.

echo "Present working directory "
echo "$PWD";echo ""
#Display current shell
echo "Display current program shell"
echo $0 $SHELL "$$"
echo "$0: Name of currently running .sh file"
echo "$SHELL: Folder"
echo "$$: PID"

Output co-036@co036-desktop:~$ bash shellbasic.sh

Display current logged in user and logname.
Hi,co-036! This is username.
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Hello, co-036! This is logname

Display top 10 processes in descending order

3478 root 20 0 0 0 0 S 0.0 0:00.00 kworker/u8:2

4556 co-036 20 0 169556 29772 17000 S 1.5 0:04.60 gedit
4947 co-036 20 0 26172 2916 1924 S 0.1 0:00.03 oosplash
4965 co-036 20 0 284876 76880 50976 S 3.7 0:02.25 soffice.bin
4986 co-036 20 0 136692 18356 12204 S 0.9 0:00.22 gnome-
terminal
4995 co-036 20 0 2420 704 584 S 0.0 0:00.00 gnome-pty-helpe
4996 co-036 20 0 6924 3264 1656 S 0.2 0:00.04 bash
5044 co-036 20 0 5300 1324 1152 S 0.1 0:00.00 bash
5045 co-036 20 0 5300 544 368 S 0.0 0:00.00 bash
5047 co-036 20 0 4268 600 536 S 0.0 0:00.00 tail

Display processes with highest memory usage

top - 10:16:02 up 1:03, 2 users, load average: 0.31, 0.33, 0.27

Tasks: 162 total, 1 running, 161 sleeping, 0 stopped, 0 zombie
%Cpu(s): 5.3 us, 1.2 sy, 0.1 ni, 91.5 id, 1.9 wa, 0.0 hi, 0.0 si, 0.0 st
KiB Mem: 2052252 total, 1665232 used, 387020 free, 86024 buffers
KiB Swap: 2083836 total, 0 used, 2083836 free. 918836 cached
Mem

PID USER PR NI VIRT RES SHR S %MEM TIME+

COMMAND
5049 co-036 20 0 5424 1280 960 R 0.1 0:00.01 top
1 root 20 0 4448 2516 1444 S 0.1 0:01.40 init
2 root 20 0 0 0 0 S 0.0 0:00.00 kthreadd

Display virtual memory statistics

procs -----------memory---------- ---swap-- -----io---- -system-- ------cpu-----

r b swpd free buff cache si so bi bo in cs us sy id wa st
0 0 0 387088 86024 918836 0 0 81 41 337 643 5 1 92 2 0
Display current shell, home directory, operating system type, current path
setting
alternative for -a is: --all: #prints all information
Linux co036-desktop 3.13.0-24-generic #46-Ubuntu SMP Thu Apr 10
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19:08:14 UTC 2014 i686 i686 i686 GNU/Linux

alternative for -s is: --kernel-name: #prints the kernel name

Linux

alternative for -r is: --kernel-release: #prints the kernel release

3.13.0-24-generic

alternative for -v is: --kernel-version: #prints the kernel version

#46-Ubuntu SMP Thu Apr 10 19:08:14 UTC 2014
Present working directory
/home/co-036

Display current program shell

shellbasic.sh /bin/bash 5044
shellbasic.sh: Name of currently running .sh file
/bin/bash: Folder
5044: PID

:
 Vidyavardhini’s College of Engineering & Technology

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Aim: Write a shell script program to add a user with password.

Objective: Since Linux is a multi-user operating system, several people may be logged in
and actively working on a given machine at the same time. Security-wise, it is never a good
idea to allow users to share the credentials of the same account. In fact, best practices dictate
the use of as many user accounts as people needing access to the machine.
At the same time, it is to be expected that two or more users may need to share access to
certain system resources, such as directories and files. User and group management in Linux
allows us to accomplish both objectives.

Theory:

useradd create a new user or update default new user information , useradd is a
low level utility for adding users.

userdel delete a user account and related files

groupadd create a new group , The groupadd command creates a new group
account using the values specified on the command line plus the default
values from the system. The new group will be entered into the system
files as needed.
groupdel entries that refer to GROUP. The named group must exist
who show who is logged on , Print information about users who are currently
logged in.
whoami print effective userid
passwd change user password
The passwd command changes passwords for user accounts. A normal
user may only change the password for his/her own account, while the
superuser may change the password for any account. passwd also
changes the account or associated password validity period.
Linux shell script to add a user with a password
useradd -m -p EncryptedPasswordHere username
Where,
-m : The user’s home directory will be created if it does not exist.
-p EncryptedPasswordHere : The encrypted password, as returned by crypt().
username : Add this user to the Linux system,
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Step 1 – Create an encrypted password

You need to create an encrypted password using Perl crypt() as follows:

crypt($plain, $salt)

perl -e 'print crypt("Your-Clear-Text-Password-Here", "salt"),"\n"'

crypt() is a one-way hash function. The PLAINTEXT ($plain) and SALT are turned into a
short string, called a digest, which is returned. The same PLAINTEXT and SALT will always
return the same string, but there is no (known) way to get the original PLAINTEXT from the
hash. Small changes in the PLAINTEXT or SALT will result in large changes in the digest.

Let us try out perl example:

perl -e 'print crypt("2IL@ove19Pizza4_", "salt"),"\n"'

Sample output:
sa.KT9zrGYeg2
The Perl command will display the encrypted password (sa.KT9zrGYeg2) on screen. The
Perl crypt() function is a one way encryption method meaning, once a password has been
encrypted, it cannot be decrypted. The password string is taken from the user and encrypted
with the salt and displayed back on computer screen. We can store an encrypted password
using the following syntax:

password="1YelloDog@"
pass=$(perl -e 'print crypt($ARGV[0], "password")' $password)
echo "$pass"

Sample outputs

sa.KT9zrGYeg2
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Code:

b1@comp:~$ sudo useradd shr

[sudo] password for b1:

b1@comp:~$ sudo passwd shr

Enter new UNIX password:
Retype new UNIX password:
passwd: password updated successfully

b1@comp:~$ sudo groupadd shr1

b1@comp:~$ cat /etc/group | tail -2

shr:x:1001:
shr1:x:1002:

b1@comp:~$ compgen -u | tail -2

guest-dR7woG
shr

b1@comp:~$ compgen -g | tail -2

shr
shr1

b1@comp:~$ ls -l a
-rwxrwxrwx 1 b1 b1 72 Feb 16 16:09 a

b1@comp:~$ sudo chgrp shr1 a

b1@comp:~$ ls -l a
-rwxrwxrwx 1 b1 shr1 72 Feb 16 16:09 a

b1@comp:~$ sudo userdel shr

b1@comp:~$ sudo groupdel shr1

b1@comp:~$ compgen -u | tail -2

guest-KdgnnY
guest-dR7woG

b1@comp:~$ compgen -g | tail -2

guest-KdgnnY
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guest-dR7woG

b1@comp:~$ who
b1 :0 2018-02-16 15:37 (:0)
b1 pts/0 2018-02-16 16:16 (:0)

b1@comp:~$ whoami
b1

Shell script to add a user and password on Linux

#!/bin/bash
# Script to add a user to Linux system
# -------------------------------------------------------------------------
if [ $(id -u) -eq 0 ]; then
read -p "Enter username : " username
read -s -p "Enter password : " password
egrep "^$username" /etc/passwd >/dev/null
if [ $? -eq 0 ]; then
echo "$username exists!"
exit 1
else
pass=$(perl -e 'print crypt($ARGV[0], "password")' $password)
useradd -m -p $pass $username
[ $? -eq 0 ] && echo "User has been added to system!" || echo "Failed to
add a user!"
fi
else
echo "Only root may add a user to the system"
exit 2
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fi
Grant executable permissions
Executable permissions must be granted to the files to make them run or execute on the
system. We could also use “777” instead of “+x” in the chmod command. Also please run the
script as root to
chmod +x file_name.sh
Run the script
For root owners

./file_name.sh
Example 1:
./file_name.sh
For non-root owners

sudo ./file_name.sh

Example:

sudo ./file_name.sh

Delete a user

Syntax: deluser username

Example:

deluser Smita

Output:

Conclusion: Comment on the role of user and group management commands of Linux.
 Vidyavardhini’s College of Engineering & Technology

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Experiment No.6
Write a shell script program to check login details.
Date of Performance:
Date of Submission:

Aim: Shell script to print login details of a user.

Objective: Linux is a multi-user operating system, several people may be logged in and
actively working on a given machine at the same time. It is to be expected that two or more
users may need to share access to certain system resources, such as directories and files. We
can identify the number of users logged in, past users on the Linux system.
 Vidyavardhini’s College of Engineering & Technology

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Theory:

Every operating system provides a feature of multiple user accounts. Linux-based operating
systems have some commands or functionalities to check user accounts’ details and change
them. This ability is mainly used by the admin account user that is the root user, to provide
permissions and access to different users. The admin can also check how many users are
currently logged in, how many are logged out, and the login time. Here in this article, we
will explore all these ways and also write a shell script to complete these tasks efficiently.

Commands to get user-related information:

Id The id command is used to print the user and group information for the
specified USER.
-a ignore, for compatibility with other versions
-Z, --context print only the security context of the process
-g, --group print only the effective group ID
This id command has produced all the user identifiers, group identifiers,
and groups. If you want only a group identifier, use the below command.
groups This will print the group to which the specified user belongs. If no specific
username is given, it will search for the current users. Use the below
command for the current user.
getent This command displays entries from the databases.

Syntax: getent database [key ...]

-i, --no-idn disable IDN encoding

Example: getent -i ahosts --no-idn

The following example lists the entire contents of the protocols database.

getent protocols Fetch the list of user accounts on a Linux system (stored in a database
known as ‘passwd’). This will show all the user accounts, regardless of the
getent passwd
type of name service being used. The databases it usually searches in are:
getent -V ahosts, ahostsv4, ahostsv6, aliases, ethers (Ethernet addresses), group,
gshadow, hosts, netgroup, networks, passwd, protocols, rpc, services, and
shadow.
lslogins: To see all the usernames and user ids. This provides a list of several
features like UID, USER, LAST-LOGIN, etc.
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-a, --acc-expiration display info about passwords expiration

-c, --colon-separate display data in a format similar to /etc/pas
Users: This command will print the usernames of the logged-in to the current
host. This is the only user logged in currently.

who : To show who is logged-on. This lists the users with id and the time and
date of user login.
-a, --all same as –b, -d, --login, -p, -r, -t, -T, -u
w: w command shows the logged-on user accounts and also shows what they
are doing.
-h,
--no-header do not print header
-u,
--no-current ignore current process username
last or lastb: The commands last and lastb shows a listing of last logged in users
-<number> how many lines to show

-a, --hostlast display hostnames in the last column

-d, --dns translate the IP number back into a hostname

This provides all the login details of several users according to date and
time.last
lastlog: This will produce a report of all the recent login users. This can also create
a single-user report if specified.
-b, --before
print only lastlog records older than DAYS
DAYS
clear lastlog record of a user (usable on
-C, --clear
This tells about the latest log of the users.
Lastlog
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Shell Script Now we will create a shell script using some above-mentioned commands
to get user details. We are approaching the solution in a way that the user
is asked for input by given suggestions. That input will be then used to
check against the available cases, and then the matched case will be
allowed to run.
Open gedit file: Open any editor according to your preferences, we have used gedit editor
because of its simple user interface and the color combination present.
gedit user-accounts.sh
Code: Here in the userAccounts.sh we will write our code, and use switch cases
to compare the user input. We have used commands like lslogins, who,
groups, etc. which will help us to satisfy the user requirements. You can
find the use of these commands extended above. So, let us begin the script.

Code:

#!/bin/bash
#here we are going to develop a script for various options on user accounts
echo -e "\n
[ 1 ] for listing all the user accounts name \n
[ 2 ] for counting the number of logged-in user accounts \n
[ 3 ] for listing the names of currently logged-in users\n
[ 4 ] for checking the groups to which the current user belong \n"
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#Now take user input

read userInput

#Now we will use switch cases for various input operations

case $userInput in
1)
#syntax lslogins <option[=output field]>
lslogins -o USER
;;
2)
#syntax who <option> <user optional>
#grep used to filter
who --count | grep users
;;
3)
#-q option is to count the number of users and print the logged-in users.
# instead of -q, --count can also be used.
# -v is used to exclude any pattern
who -q | grep -v users
;;
4)
#syntax groups <option> [USERNAME]
groups
;;
*)
echo -e "Please Enter Correct Input \n"
;;
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esac

Grant executable permissions

Executable permissions must be granted to the files to make them run or execute on the
system. We could also use “777” instead of “+x” in the chmod command. Also please run the
script as root to
chmod +x userAccounts.sh
Run the script
sudo ./userAccounts.sh
Example 1:
sodu ./userAccounts.sh

Output:

Conclusion:

Experiment No.7
 Vidyavardhini’s College of Engineering & Technology

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Write a shell script program to calculate factorial of a given

number
Date of Performance:
Date of Submission:

Aim: Shell script to calculate factorial of a given number.

 Vidyavardhini’s College of Engineering & Technology

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Objective: Linux bash shell is an interpreter. Shell program provides access to an operating
system's components. The shell gives users (or other programs) a way to get "inside" the
system; the shell defines the boundary between inside and outside. Here we can calculate a
factorial of a given number using three methods.

1. Using recursive function

2. Using for loop
3. Using a do-while loop

Theory:

The factorial of a number is the function that multiplies the number by every natural number
below it. Symbolically, factorials can be represented as "!". So, n factorial is the product of
the first n natural numbers and is represented as n!

Here we are going to calculate the factorial of a number. The Factorial of a non-negative
integer is the multiplication of all integers smaller than or equal to n.
For example factorial of 5 is 5*4*3*2*1 which is 120.

Method 1: Using Recursion

Factorial can be calculated using the following recursive formula.

Implementation of factorial:
#!/bin/bash

# Recursive factorial function

factorial()

product=$1

# Defining a function to calculate factorial using recursion

if((product <= 2)); then

echo $product

else

f=$((product -1))

# Recursive call
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f=$(factorial $f)

f=$((f*product))

echo $f

fi

# main program

# reading the input from user

echo "Enter the number:"

read num

# defining a special case for 0! = 1

if((num == 0)); then

echo 1

else

#calling the function

factorial $num

fi

Output:

Method 2: Using for loop

Approach:
● Get a number
● Use for loop to compute the factorial by using the below formula
● fact(n) = n * n-1 * n-2 * …
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● Display the result.

Below is the Implementation using for loop:

# shell script for factorial of a number
# factorial using for loop
echo "Enter a number"
# Read the number
read num
fact=1
for((i=2;i<=num;i++))
{
fact=$((fact * i))
}
echo $fact

Output:

Method 3: using do-while loop

● Get a number
● Use do-while loop to compute the factorial by using the below formula
● fact(n) = n * n-1 * n-2 * .. 1
● Display the result.

Implementation using a while loop.

 Vidyavardhini’s College of Engineering & Technology

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# shell script for factorial of a number

# factorial using while loop
echo "Enter a number"
# Read the number
read num
fact=1
# -gt is used for '>' Greater than sign
while [ $num -gt 1 ]
do
fact=$((fact * num))
num=$((num - 1))
done
# Printing the value of the factorial
echo $fact

Output:
Conclusion: Comment on shell script program for calculating a factorial of a given number.
Vidyavardhini’s College of Engineering & Technology

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Experiment No.8
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Aim Shell Script that accepts the hostname and IP address as command line
arguments and adds them to the /etc/hosts file.

Theory 1. ifconfig

The command ifconfig stands for interface configurator. This command

enables us to initialize an interface, assign IP address, and enable or disable
an interface. It displays the route and network interface. You can view IP
address, MAC address, and MTU (Maximum Transmission Unit) with the
ifconfig command. A newer version of ifconfig is ip command. ifconfig
command works for all the versions.

Syntax: ifconfig

Examples:

smita_patil@cloudshell:~ (alien-bricolage-340809)$ ifconfig

smita_patil@cloudshell:~ (alien-bricolage-340809)$ /usr/sbin/ifconfig -a

2. Get details of a specific interface

To find IP address of all three differently, use the command

1. ifconfig eth0
2. ifconfig lo
3. ifconfig wlan0
3) host Command
Linux host command displays domain name for given IP address or vice-
versa. It also performs DNS lookups related to the DNS query. The host
command's default behavior displays a summary of its command-line
arguments and supported options.
Syntax:

The host command supports various command-line arguments and options.

The basic syntax for the host command is as follows:

1. host <name>

where,
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name: The name can be a domain name or an IP address (IPv4 or IPv6). It

will lookup for the given name.

Example:

1) smita_patil@cloudshell:~ (alien-bricolage-340809)$ host

www.google.co.in

# Display host name

Output:

www.google.co.in has address 142.251.10.94

www.google.co.in has IPv6 address 2404:6800:4003:c0f::5e

2) smita_patil@cloudshell:~ (alien-bricolage-340809)$ host -t ns

www.vcet.edu.in

# Display domain name

Output:

www.vcet.edu.in is an alias for vcet.edu.in.

vcet.edu.in name server ns1.bluehost.com.

vcet.edu.in name server ns2.bluehost.com.

Conclusion

Post 1. How does the script handle the situation where the hostname or IP address
experiment is already present in the /etc/hosts file?
quiz
2. What permissions are required to modify the /etc/hosts file, and how can
the script ensure it has the necessary permissions to make changes?

Code Sample Script:

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#!/bin/bash
read -p "Enter host: " hostname
read -p "Enter IP address of the host: " ip
sed -i.bkp "$ a $hostname $ip" /etc/hosts

Check the host file:

[root@nglinux ~]# tail /etc/hosts
127.0.0.1 localhost localhost.localdomain localhost4 localhost4.localdomain4
nglinux
::1 localhost localhost.localdomain localhost6 localhost6.localdomain6
testhost1 192.168.1.2

Output [root@nglinux ~]# chmod +x sample1.sh

[root@nglinux ~]# ./sample1.sh
Enter host: testhost1
Enter IP address of the host: 192.168.1.2

Code #!/bin/sh
# PATH TO YOUR HOSTS FILE
ETC_HOSTS=/etc/hosts
# DEFAULT IP FOR HOSTNAME
IP="127.0.0.1"
# Hostname to add/remove.
HOSTNAME=$1
function removehost()
{
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if [ -n "$(grep $HOSTNAME /etc/hosts)" ]

then
echo "$HOSTNAME Found in your
$ETC_HOSTS, Removing now...";
sudo sed -i ".bak" "/$HOSTNAME/d"
$ETC_HOSTS
else
echo "$HOSTNAME was not found in your
$ETC_HOSTS";
fi
}
function addhost()
{
HOSTNAME=$1
HOSTS_LINE="$IP\t$HOSTNAME"
if [ -n "$(grep $HOSTNAME /etc/hosts)" ]
then
echo "$HOSTNAME already exists : $
(grep $HOSTNAME $ETC_HOSTS)"
else
echo "Adding $HOSTNAME to your
$ETC_HOSTS"; sudo -- sh -c -e "echo
'$HOSTS_LINE' >> /etc/hosts";
if [ -n "$(grep $HOSTNAME
/etc/hosts)" ]
then
echo "$HOSTNAME was added
successfully \n $(grep $HOSTNAME
/etc/hosts)";
else
echo "Failed to Add
$HOSTNAME, Try again!";
fi
fi
}
 Vidyavardhini’s College of Engineering & Technology

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Output
 Vidyavardhini’s College of Engineering & Technology

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Output:

[root@nglinux ~]# chmod +x sample1.sh

[root@nglinux ~]# ./sample1.sh

Enter host: testhost1

Enter IP address of the host: 192.168.1.2

Check the host file:

[root@nglinux ~]# tail /etc/hosts

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127.0.0.1 localhost localhost.localdomain localhost4 localhost4.localdomain4 nglinux

::1 localhost localhost.localdomain localhost6 localhost6.localdomain6

testhost1 192.168.1.2

Final Script:

#!/bin/sh

# PATH TO YOUR HOSTS FILE

ETC_HOSTS=/etc/hosts

# DEFAULT IP FOR HOSTNAME

IP="127.0.0.1"

# Hostname to add/remove.

HOSTNAME=$1

function removehost()

if [ -n "$(grep $HOSTNAME /etc/hosts)" ]

then

echo "$HOSTNAME Found in your $ETC_HOSTS, Removing

now...";

sudo sed -i ".bak" "/$HOSTNAME/d" $ETC_HOSTS

else

echo "$HOSTNAME was not found in your $ETC_HOSTS";

fi

function addhost()

HOSTNAME=$1
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HOSTS_LINE="$IP\t$HOSTNAME"

if [ -n "$(grep $HOSTNAME /etc/hosts)" ]

then

echo "$HOSTNAME already exists: $(grep

$HOSTNAME $ETC_HOSTS)"

else

echo "Adding $HOSTNAME to your $ETC_HOSTS";

sudo -- sh -c -e "echo '$HOSTS_LINE' >> /etc/hosts";

if [ -n "$(grep $HOSTNAME /etc/hosts)" ]

then

echo "$HOSTNAME was added successfully \n

$(grep $HOSTNAME /etc/hosts)";

else

echo "Failed to Add $HOSTNAME, Try

again!";

fi

fi

OUTPUT:

Conclusion:

Experiment No.9

Aim Write awk script to find the number of characters, words, and lines in a file.
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Theory Awk is a scripting language used for manipulating data and generating
reports. The awk command programming language requires no compiling and
allows the user to use variables, numeric functions, string functions, and
logical operators.
Awk is a utility that enables a programmer to write tiny but effective
programs in the form of statements that define text patterns that are to be
searched for in each line of a document and the action that is to be taken when
a match is found within a line. Awk is mostly used for pattern scanning and
processing. It searches one or more files to see if they contain lines that match
the specified patterns and then performs the associated actions.
Awk is abbreviated from the names of the developers – Aho, Weinberger, and
Kernighan.
WHAT CAN WE DO WITH AWK?
1. AWK Operations:
(a) Scans a file line by line
(b) Splits each input line into fields
(c) Compares input line/fields to pattern
(d) Performs action(s) on matched lines
2. Useful For:
(a) Transform data files
(b) Produce formatted reports
3. Programming Constructs:
(a) Format output lines
(b) Arithmetic and string operations
(c) Conditionals and loops
Syntax:
awk options 'selection _criteria {action }' input-file > output-file
Options:
-f program-file : Reads the AWK program source from the file
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program-file, instead of from the

first command line argument.
-F fs : Use fs for the input field separator
Examples:
Consider the following text file as the input file for all cases below:
smita_patil@cloudshell:~ (alien-bricolage-340809)$ cat>newdata.txt
LinuxLab Practical Termwork 50
DBMS Theory Oral 25
Datastructure Theory Oral 25
Maths Tutorial termwork 25
CS Oral Practical 25
^Z

Procedure 1. Default behavior of Awk: By default Awk prints every line of data from the
specified file.
$ awk '{print}' newdata.txt
smita_patil@cloudshell:~ (alien-bricolage-340809)$ awk '{print}' newdata.txt
Output:
LinuxLab Practical Termwork 50
DBMS Theory Oral 25
Datastructure Theory Oral 25
Maths Tutorial termwork 25
CS Oral Practical 25
2. Print the lines which match the given pattern.
$ awk '/oral/ {print}' newdata.txt
smita_patil@cloudshell:~ (alien-bricolage-340809)$ awk '/Theory/ {print}'
newdata.txt
Output:
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DBMS Theory Oral 25

Datastructure Theory Oral 25
3. Splitting a Line Into Fields: For each record i.e. line, the awk command
splits the record delimited by whitespace character by default and stores it in
the $n variables. If the line has 4 words, it will be stored in $1, $2, $3 and $4
respectively. Also, $0 represents the whole line.
$ awk '{print $1,$4}' newdata.txt
smita_patil@cloudshell:~ (alien-bricolage-340809)$ awk '{print $1,$4}'
newdata.txt
Output:
LinuxLab 50
DBMS 25
Datastructure 25
Maths 25
CS 25

Conclusion

Post 1.How can you use AWK to extract specific columns from a text file or log
experimen file based on a delimiter
t quiz 2.Explain how AWK supports pattern matching. How would you use it to
filter lines containing a specific word or pattern from a file?

Code BEGIN{print "record.\t characters \t words"}

#BODY section
{
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len=length($0)
total_len =total_len+len
print(NR,":\t",len,":\t",NF,$0)
words =NF
}
END{
print("\n total")
print("characters :\t" total_len)
print("lines :\t" NR)
}

Output smita_patil@cloudshell:~ (alien-bricolage-340809)$ awk -f countwords.awk

sample.sh
record. characters words
1: 11: 1 #!/bin/bash
2: 32: 6 read -p "Enter host: " hostname
3: 43: 10 read -p "Enter IP address of the host: " ip
4: 46: 8 sudo sed -i.bkp "$ a $hostname $ip" /etc/hosts
5: 0: 0

Total characters: 132

lines: 5
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Experiment No.10

Aim To setup and configure FTP Server with VSFTPD on Ubuntu 20.04

Theory FTP, or File Transfer Protocol, is a standard network protocol used for
transferring files between a client and a server over the internet or other
networks. It enables users to upload or download files, making it essential for
tasks such as website management and data exchange. FTP typically requires
authentication through a username and password, although some servers allow
anonymous access. It operates in two modes: active mode, where the client
listens for the server to connect, and passive mode, where the client connects
to the server, often used in firewalled environments. File transfers can be done
in binary mode for non-text files or ASCII mode for text files. Common
commands include get and put for downloading and uploading files, ls or dir
for listing directory contents, and cd for navigating server directories.
However, FTP is not secure as it transmits data, including credentials, in plain
text. For enhanced security, alternatives like FTPS, which uses SSL/TLS
encryption, or SFTP, which leverages SSH, are recommended. These secure
protocols ensure that file transfers are protected against unauthorized access.
FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is a standard network protocol used to transfer
files to and from a remote network. There are several open-source FTP servers
available for Linux. The most known and widely used are PureFTPd,
ProFTPD, and vsftpd. We’ll be installing vsftpd (Very Secure FTP Daemon), a
stable, secure, and fast FTP server. Although FTP is a very popular protocol,
for more secure and faster data transfers, we can use SCP or SFTP.

Procedure
Installing vsftpd on Ubuntu 20.04

The vsftpd package is available in the Ubuntu repositories. To install it,

execute the following commands:

$ sudo apt update

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$sudo apt install vsftpd

The ftp service will automatically start once the installation process is
complete. To verify it, print the service status:

2. To launch the service and enable it at startup, run the commands:

sudo systemctl start vsftpd

sudo systemctl enable vsftpd

Step 3: Backup Configuration Files

Before making any changes, make sure to back up your configuration files.

1. Create a backup copy of the default configuration file by entering the

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following:

sudo cp /etc/vsftpd.conf /etc/vsftpd.conf_default

Step 4: Create FTP User

Create a new FTP user with the following commands:

sudo useradd -m testuser

sudo passwd testuser

The system should ask you to create a password for the new testuser account.

Step 5: Configure Firewall to Allow FTP Traffic

If you are using UFW that comes standard with Ubuntu, it will block FTP
traffic by default. Enter the following commands to open Ports 20 and 21 for
FTP traffic:

sudo ufw allow 20/tcp

sudo ufw allow 21/tcp

Step 6: Connect to Ubuntu FTP Server

Connect to the FTP server with the following command:

sudo ftp ubuntu-ftp

Replace ubuntu-ftp with the name of your system (taken from the command
line).

Log in using the testuser account and password you just set. You should now
be successfully logged in to your FTP server.

Configuring and Securing Ubuntu vsftpd Server

Change Default Directory

By default, the FTP server uses the /srv/ftp directory as the default directory.
You can change this by creating a new directory and changing the FTP user
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home directory.

To change the FTP home directory, enter the following:

sudo mkdir /srv/ftp/new_location

sudo usermod -d /srv/ftp/new_location ftp

Restart the vsftpd service to apply the changes:

sudo systemctl restart vsftpd.service

Now, you can put any files you want to share via FTP into the /srv/ftp folder
(if you left it as the default), or the /srv/ftp/new_location/ directory (if you
changed it).

Authenticate FTP Users

If you want to let authenticated users upload files, edit the vsftpd.conf file by
entering the following:

sudo nano /etc/vsftpd.conf

Find the entry labeled write_enable=NO, and change the value to “YES.”

Save the file, exit, then restart the FTP service with the following:

sudo systemctl restart vsftpd.service

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This allows the user to make changes inside their home directory.

Securing FTP
Numerous exploits take advantage of unsecured FTP servers. In response,
there are several configuration options in vsftpd.conf that can help secure your
FTP server.

Limit User Access

One method is to limit users to their home directory. Open vsftpd.conf in an
editor and uncomment the following command:

chroot_local_user=YES

This is an example of the file in nano:

Create a User List File

To create a list file, edit /etc/vsftpd.chroot_list, and add one user per line.

Instruct your FTP server to limit this list of users to their own home directories
by editing vsftpd.conf:

chroot_local_user=YES

chroot_list_file=/etc/vsftpd.chroot_list

The image illustrates the edits that were made:

Restart the vsftpd service:

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sudo systemctl restart vsftpd.service

By default, the list of blocked users from FTP access is stored in /etc/ftpusers.
To add blocked users, edit this file and add one user per line.

Encrypt Traffic With FTPS

Another method to secure your FTP server is to encrypt the traffic. This is
done by using FTPS – File Transfer Protocol over SSL (Secure Socket Layer).

For this to work, users need to be set up with a shell account on the FTP
server. This will add a layer of secure encryption to your FTP traffic.

1. Start by creating a new certificate with openssl. To do so, run the command:

sudo openssl req -x509 -nodes -days 365 -newkey rsa:2048 -keyout
/etc/ssl/private/vsftpd.pem -out /etc/ssl/private/vsftpd.pem

2. Provide the required information when prompted or keep the default

configuration by pressing Enter.

3. Next, open your vsftpd.conf file in an editor and change the line

ssl_enable=NO to ssl_enable=YES:

ssl_enable=YES

4. Then, add the following lines:

rsa_cert_file=/etc/ssl/private/vsftpd.pem

rsa_private_key_file=/etc/ssl/private/vsftpd.pem

allow_anon_ssl=NO

force_local_data_ssl=YES

force_local_logins_ssl=YES

ssl_tlsv1=YES

ssl_sslv2=NO

ssl_sslv3=NO
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require_ssl_reuse=NO

ssl_ciphers=HIGH

pasv_min_port=40000

pasv_max_port=50000

5. Save the changes and exit the file.

6. Finally, restart the service to apply the changes:

sudo systemctl restart vsftpd.service

Conclusion

Post
Experimen 1. How does FTP handle file transfer modes, and why is it important to choose
t quiz between ASCII and binary modes appropriately?

2.What security risks are associated with using standard FTP, and how do
secure alternatives like SFTP or FTPS mitigate these risks?
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Experiment No.11

Aim To set up and configure the Linux Mail Server.

Theory: Linux Email Server Components

There are three components to a mail service on a Linux email server:

● Mail user agent (MUA) is the GUI, the part that lets you write and
send emails, like Thunderbird or Outlook.
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● Mail transport agent (MTA) is the bit that moves the mail (as the
name suggests). MTAs like Sendmail and Postfix are the parts that
waft your communications from place to place through the ether.
● Mail delivery agent (MDA) is the component that sends out messages
sent to you on your local machine, so they get to the appropriate user
mailbox. Postfix-maildrop and Procmail are examples.

POP3 and IMAP Protocol Basics

We now know how a SMTP Linux mail server sends and receives emails, but
what about other user needs, like when they want local copies of emails to
view off-line? mbox file format isn’t supported; it’s used by many mail user
agents such as mailx and mutt. Due to security concerns, some mail servers
restrict access to the shared mail spool directories. Another class of protocols
—called mail access protocols—was introduced to deal with such situations.
The commonest ones are POP and IMAP – Post Office Protocol and Internet
Message Access Protocol. POP’s underlying methodology is very simple: a
central Linux mail server is online 24/7 for reception and storage of all user
emails. When an email is sent, the email client relays it through the central
Linux mail server using SMTP. Be aware that the SMTP server and POP
server can easily be on the same system, and that this is a common thing to
do. IMAP was developed because previously you couldn’t keep a master
copy of a user’s email on the server. With IMAP, your Linux email server
supports three kinds of access:

1. online mode is like having direct access to the Linux email server file
system.
2. offline mode feels like POP, where the client only connects to the
network to get their mail, and the server won’t keep a copy.
3. disconnected mode lets users keep cached copies of their emails and
the server keeps one too.
There are a few different implementations for IMAP and POP, with the most
prevalent being dovecot server, which offers both.POP3, POP3S, IMAP, and
IMAPS listen on ports 110, 995, 143, and 993 respectively.

Procedure Setup Linux Email Server

In order to configure a Linux mail server, you’ll first need to check if Postfix
is already installed. It’s the default mail server on the lion’s share of Linux
distributions these days, which is good because server admins like it a lot.
Here’s how to check if it’s already on the system:
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$ rpm -qa | grep postfix

If not, this is how you install it on Red Hat distributions:

$ dnf -y install postfix

Next, run it and activate it on system start-up:

$ systemctl start postfix

$ systemctl activate postfix

For distributions based on Debian, like Ubuntu, you’d install them like this:

$ apt-get -y install postfix

As you configure Linux mail server you will receive a prompt to choose how
you want to configure your Postfix mail server.

You’ll be presented with these choices:

● No configuration
● Internet site
● Internet with smarthost
● Satellite system and Local only
Let’s go with the No configuration option for our Linux email server.

Configure Linux Mail Server

After installing the Postfix mail server, you will need to set it up, and most of
the files you’ll need for this can be found inside the /etc/postfix/ directory.
You can find the main configuration for Postfix Linux mail server in the
/etc/postfix/main.cf file. This file contains numerous options like:

myhostname
Use this one to specify the hostname of the mail server, which is where
postfix will obtain its emails. The hostnames will look something like
mail.mydomain.com, smtp.mydomain.com. You incorporate the hostname
this way:

myhostname = mail.mydomain.com

exampledomain.com
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This option is the mail domain that you will be servicing, like mydomain.com

The syntax looks like this:

mydomaindomain.com = mydomain.com

myorigin
All emails sent from this mail server will look as though they came from the
one that you specify in this option. You can set this to $exampledomain.com.

myorigin = $exampledomain.com

Use any value that you want for this option but put a dollar sign in front of it
like this: $exampledomain.com.

mydestination
This option shows you which domains the Postfix server uses for incoming
emails to your Linux email server. You can assign values like this:

mydestination = $myhostname, localhost.$exampledomain.com,

$exampledomain.com, mail.$exampledomain.com, www.
$exampledomain.com

mail_spool_directory

A Postfix Linux mail server can use two modes of delivery:

● straight to someone’s mailbox.

● to a central spool directory, which means the mail will sit in
/var/spool/mail with a file for every user.
mail_spool_directory = /var/spool/mail

mynetworks
This will let you arrange which servers can relay through your Postfix server.
It should only take local addresses like local mail scripts on your server. If
this isn’t the case, then spammers can piggyback on your Linux mail server.
That means your lovely shiny server will be doing the heavy lifting for some
bad guys and it will also end up getting banned. Here’s the syntax for this
option:

mynetworks = 127.0.0.0/8, 192.168.1.0/24

smtpd_banner
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This one determines what message is sent after the client connects
successfully. Consider changing the banner so it doesn’t give away any
potentially compromising information about your server.

inet_protocols

This option designates which IP protocol version is used for server

connections.

inet_protocols = ipv4

When you change any of files used to configure Linux mail server for
Postfix, you must reload the service, with this directive:

$ systemctl reload postfix

Of course, we all get distracted and typing things in can often result in
mistakes, but you can track down any misspellings that might compromise
your Linux mail server using this command:

$ postfix check

Checking the Mail Queue

Things like network failure (and many other reasons) can mean that the mail
queue on your Linux email server can end up getting full, but you can check
the Postfix mail queue with this command:

$ mailq

If that reveals that its full then you can flush the queue using this command:

$ postfix flush

Look at it again and you should see that your Linux email server queue is
clear.

Test Linux Mail Server

Once your configuration is done you need to test your Linux mail server. The
first thing to do is use a local mail user agent such as mailx or mail which is a
symlink to mailx. Send your first test to someone on the Linux mail server
and if that works then send the next one to somewhere external.

$ echo "This is the body of the message" | mailx -s "Here we have a Subject"
-r "for instance <small example@mydomain.com>" -a /path/to/attachment
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someone@mydomain.com

Then check if your Linux email server can pick up external mail. If you run
into any snags, have a peek at the logs. The Red Hat log file can be found
in /var/log/maillog and for Debian versions in /var/log/mail.log, or wherever
else the rsyslogd configuration specifies. I would suggest you review the
Linux syslog server for an in-depth clarification on logs and how to set up
rsyslogd. If you run into any more difficulties, take a look at your DNS
settings and use Linux network commands to check your MX records.

Fight Spam with SpamAssassin

Nobody likes spam, and SpamAssassin is probably the best free, open source
spam fighting ninja that you could hope to have in your corner. Installing it is
as simple as doing this:

$ dnf -y install spamassassin

Then you just start the service and activate it at start-up:

$ systemctl start spamassassin

$ systemctl activate spamassassin

Once you’ve done that, you can see how it’s configured in the
/etc/mail/spamassassin/local.cf file. SpamAssassin runs a number of scripts to
test how spammy an email is. The higher the score that the scripts deliver, the
more chances there are that it’s spam.

In the configuration file, if the parameter required_hits is 6, this tells you that
SpamAssassin will consider an email to be spam if it scores 6 or more.

The report_safe command will have values of 0, 1, or 2. A 0 tells you that

email marked as spam is sent without modification, and only the headers will
label it as spam. A 1 or a 2 means that a new report message will be created
by SpamAssassin and delivered to the recipient. A value of 1 indicates that
the spam message is coded as content message/rfc822, and if it’s a 2, that
means the message has been coded as text or plain content. Text or plain is
less dangerous because some mail clients execute message/rfc822, which is
not good if they contain any kind of malware. The next thing to do is
integrate it into Postfix, and the easiest way to do that is with procmail.

We’ll make a file called/etc/procmailrc, and add this to it:

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:0 hbfw | /usr/bin/spamc

Then we’ll edit the Postfix configuration file /etc/postfix/main.cf and alter the
mailbox_command, thus:

mailbox_command = /usr/bin/procmail

Last but not least, restart Postfix and SpamAssassin services:

$ systemctl restart postfix

$ systemctl restart spamassassin

Unfortunately, SpamAssassin can’t catch everything, and spam messages can

still sneak through to fill up the mailboxes on your Linux email server. But
never fear because you can filter messages before they even get to the Postfix
server with Realtime Blackhole Lists (RBLs). Open the Postfix server
configuration at /etc/postfix/main.cf and change smtpd_recipient_restrictions
option by adding the following options like this:

strict_rfc821_envelopes = yes

relay_domains_reject_code = 554

unknown_address_reject_code = 554

unknown_client_reject_code = 554

unknown_hostname_reject_code = 554

unknown_local_recipient_reject_code = 554

unknown_relay_recipient_reject_code = 554

unverified_recipient_reject_code = 554

smtpd_recipient_restrictions =

reject_invalid_hostname,

reject_unknown_recipient_domain,

reject_unauth_pipelining,
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permit_mynetworks,

permit_sasl_authenticated,

reject_unauth_destination,

reject_rbl_client dsn.rfc-ignorant.org,

reject_rbl_client dul.dnsbl.sorbs.net,

reject_rbl_client list.dsbl.org,

reject_rbl_client sbl-xbl.spamhaus.org,

reject_rbl_client bl.spamcop.net,

reject_rbl_client dnsbl.sorbs.net,

permit

Now, restart your postfix Linux mail server:

$ systemctl restart postfix

The above RBLs are the most common ones found, but there are plenty more
on the web for you to track down and try.

Dovecot Installation
Dovecot is preinstalled on the majority of Linux distributions, and there’s no
problem putting it in Red Hat too:

$ dnf -y install dovecot

For Debian, a pair of packages provide the IMAP and POP3 functionality.
Here’s how to install them:

$ apt-get -y install dovecot-imapd dovecot-pop3d

You will be prompted to create self-signed certificates for using IMAP and
POP3 over SSL/TLS. Select yes and type in the hostname of your system
when asked to do so.

Then you can run the service and activate it at start-up like this:
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$ systemctl start dovecot

$ systemctl activate dovecot

Configure Dovecot
The main configuration file for Dovecot is /etc/dovecot/dovecot.conf file.

Some varieties of Linux keep the configuration in the/etc/dovecot/conf.d/

directory and then have the include directive include the settings in the files.

Here are a few of the parameters used to configure dovecot:

protocols: the ones you want to support.

protocols = imap pop3 lmtp

lmtp stands for local mail transfer protocol.

listen: IP addresses to listen on.

listen = *, ::

The asterisk means all ipv4 interfaces and :: means all ipv6 interfaces

userdb: user database to authenticate users.

userdb { driver = pam }

passdb: password database two authenticate users.

passdb { driver = passwd }

mail_location: this entry is in the /etc/dovecot/conf.d/10-mail.conf file, and

it’s written like this:

mail_location = mbox:~/mail:INBOX=/var/mail/%u

Secure Dovecot
Dovecot features generic SSL certificates and key files used with
/etc/dovecot/conf.d/10-ssl.conf

ssl_cert = </etc/pki/dovecot/certs/dovecot.pem

ssl_key = </etc/pki/dovecot/private/dovecot.pem
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If you try to connect to a dovecot server and certificates haven’t been signed,
then you’ll get a warning, but if you go to a certificate authority you can buy
one, so no worries there.

Alternatively, you can point to them using Let’s Encrypt certificates:

ssl_cert = </etc/letsencrypt/live/yourdomain.com/fullchain.pem

ssl_key = </etc/letsencrypt/live/yourdomain.com/privkey.pem

You’ll need to open dovecot server ports in your iptables firewall by adding
iptables rules for ports 110, 995, 143, 993, 25.

Do that and save the rules.

Or if you have a firewall then do this:

$ firewall-cmd --permanent --add-port=110/tcp --add-port=995/tcp

$ firewall-cmd --permanent --add-port=143/tcp --add-port=993/tcp

$ firewall-cmd --reload

Finally, for troubleshooting, check through the log files /var/log/messages,

/var/log/maillog, and /var/log/mail.log files.

Linux mail server (and particularly Postfix) is one of the simplest systems
you can work with.

Conclusion

Post
experiment
quiz
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Experiment Configuration of DNS server with domain name in Linux

No.12

Theory: The Domain Name System (DNS) is used to resolve (translate) hostnames to internet
protocol (IP) addresses and vice versa. A DNS server, also known as a nameserver, maps IP
addresses to hostnames or domain names.
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How DNS works?

When a client requests information from a nameserver, it usually connects to port 53, and
then the nameserver resolves the name requested.

Sending a request from the DNS client to the DNS server is called a lookup request.
Getting a response from the DNS server to the DNS client is called a lookup response. The
system on which the DNS service is configured is called a DNS server. The system that
accesses the DNS server is called a DNS client.

Where does DNS get IP addresses?

You might wonder how DNS gets the IP of the corresponding hostname or domain name.
How does DNS search among different IP addresses and associate your domain name
correctly? Who stores those mappings between domain names and IP addresses?

The DNS workflow illustrates how communication happens within DNS and how it resolves
the addresses.

1. When the client searches for the domain www.example.com, the request will initially
go to the internet service provider's (ISP) resolver. It will respond to the user's request
to resolve a domain name.
2. If the IP address is not found on the resolver, the request is forwarded to a root DNS
server and later to the top-level domain (TLD) servers.
3. TLD servers store information for top-level domains, such as .com or .net.
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1. Requests are forwarded to the nameservers, which know detailed information about
domains and IP addresses.
2. Nameservers respond to the ISP's resolver, and then the resolver responds to the client
with the requested IP.
3. When the resolver doesn't know the IP, it stores the IP and its domain in a cache to
service future queries.

Forward and reverse lookups

The forward lookup zone uses the domain name to search for IP addresses, whereas the
reverse lookup zone uses IP addresses to search for the domain name.
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Procedure Install and configure DNS

BIND is a nameserver service responsible for performing domain-name-to-IP conversion on
Linux-based DNS servers.

[root@servera ~] # yum install bind

The BIND package provides the named service. It reads the configuration from the
/etc/named and /etc/named.conf files. Once this package is installed, you can start
configuring DNS.

Configure the /etc/named.conf file

First, add or edit the two values in the options field. One is the DNS server address, and the
other is the allow-query to any.

[root@servera ~] # vim /etc/named.conf

listen-on port 53 { 127.0.0.1; 192.168.25.132; };
allow-query { localhost; any; };
Here are the values from the above file:

● 192.168.25.132 – DNS server address

● any – matches every IP address

Define the forward and reverse zones

Define the forward and reverse zones in the /etc/named.conf or /etc/named.rfc1912.zones
(you can define zones in either of those files). In this example, I am appending zone
definition details to the /etc/named.rfc1912.zones file.

[root@servera ~] # vim /etc/named.rfc1912.zones

zone "example.com" IN { type master;
file "example.forward.zone";
allow-update { none; };
};
zone "25.168.192.in-addr.arpa" IN {
type master;
file "example.reverse.zone";
allow-update { none; };
};

Create forward and reverse zone files

You must also create forward and reverse zone files in the /var/named directory.
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Note: By default, the named.conf file includes the /var/named directory for checking zone
files. Sample zone files named. localhost and named. loopback are created during the
installation of the BIND package.

[root@servera ~] # vim /var/named/example.forward.zone

[root@servera ~] # vim /var/named/example.reverse.zone

Add the nameserver IP to /etc/resolv.conf

First, you must disable DNS processing by NetworkManager because it dynamically updates
the /etc/resolv.conf file with DNS settings from its active connection profiles. To disable this
and allow manual editing of /etc/resolv.conf, you must create a file (For example, 90-dns-
none.conf), as root in the /etc/NetworkManager/conf.d/ directory that contains the following:

[main]
dns=none
Save the file and reload (restart) NetworkManager.

# systemctl reload NetworkManager

After you reload NetworkManager, it won't update /etc/resolv.conf. Now, you can manually
add the nameserver's IP address to the /etc/resolv.conf file.

[root@servera ~] # vim /etc/resolv.conf

# Generated by NetworkManager
search localdomain example.com
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nameserver 192.168.25.132
[ Be prepared in case something goes wrong. Read An introduction to DNS
troubleshooting. ]

Start/restart and enable the named service

If the named service is not running or is disabled, then start and enable it. If it is already
active (running) and you made all these configurations, you need to restart the service to
make changes.

[root@servera ~] # systemctl status named.service

[root@servera ~] # systemctl start named.service
[root@servera ~] # systemctl enable named.service
[root@servera ~] # systemctl restart named.service

Verify the DNS name resolution

You have installed the BIND package, configured named files, created lookup zones, and
restarted the service to make configurations take effect. Now use the nslookup and dig
commands to check whether DNS is working properly and verify whether you are getting the
intended results.

● nslookup is a program to query internet domain name servers.

● dig is a tool for interrogating DNS servers. It performs DNS lookups and displays the
answers that are returned from the nameserver.

Query with nslookup

[root@servera ~] # nslookup servera.example.com
Server: 192.168.25.132
Address: 192.168.25.132#53
Name: servera.example.com
Address: 192.168.25.132
[root@servera ~] # nslookup 192.168.25.132
132.25.168.192.in-addr.arpa name = servera.example.com.

Query with dig

Here is a forward lookup, where DNS responds with 192.168.11.132 as an IP for
servera.example.com:

[root@servera ~] # dig servera.example.com

...output truncated...
;; ANSWER SECTION:
 Vidyavardhini’s College of Engineering & Technology

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servera.example.com. 86400 IN A 192.168.25.132

;; AUTHORITY SECTION:
example.com. 86400 IN NS servera.example.com.

...output truncated...

This example displays a reverse lookup, where the DNS server responds with
servera.example.com as the domain name for 192.168.25.132:

[root@servera ~] # dig -x 192.168.25.132

...output truncated...

;; ANSWER SECTION:
132.25.168.192.in-addr.arpa. 86400 IN PTR servera.example.com.

;; AUTHORITY SECTION:
25.168.192.in-addr.arpa. 86400 IN NS servera.example.com.

;; ADDITIONAL SECTION:
servera.example.com. 86400 IN A 192.168.25.132

...output truncated...
Conclusion

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