Lecture 2

Entropy
To allow us to apply the second law of thermodynamics to a process we will identify a property called
entropy.

2.1 ENTROPY
Consider the reversible Carnot engine operating on a cycle where:
𝑇 𝐻 is the constant temperature during the heat transfer QH
𝑇 𝐿 is the constant temperature during heat transfer QL, the integral is given by
∮ ∮
𝑄 𝑄𝐻 𝑄𝐿 𝑄 𝐻 𝑇𝐻 𝑄𝐻 𝑄𝐿 𝑄 𝑄𝐻 𝑄𝐿
= − , but, we have: = ⇒ = , then = − =0
𝑇 𝑇𝐻 𝑇𝐿 𝑄𝐿 𝑇𝐿 𝑇𝐻 𝑇𝐿 𝑇 𝑇𝐻 𝑇𝐿

∮
𝑄
=0
𝑇
We define this perfect differential be denoted by dS, where S represents a scalar function that depends only
on the state of the system and known as ENTROPY.
ENTROPY is a thermodynamic quantity representing the unavailability of a system’s thermal energy for
conversion into mechanical work, often interpreted as the degree of disorder or randomness in the system
∮ ∫ 2
𝑄 𝑄
𝑑𝑆 = |𝑟𝑒𝑣 , Δ𝑆 = 𝑆2 − 𝑆1 = | rev (𝑘 𝐽/𝐾)
𝑇 1 𝑇

where the subscript "rev" emphasizes the reversibility of the process.

★ the entropy change Δ𝑆 = 𝑆2 − 𝑆1 for a reversible process can be either positive or negative, depending on
whether energy is added to or extracted from the system during the heat transfer process.
★ For a reversible adiabatic process 𝑄 = 0, the entropy change is zero Δ𝑆 = 0 ⇒ 𝑆1 = 𝑆2 .

Figure 1: Carnot Cycle

∫2𝑄
∫4
For Carnot cycle: Δ𝑆 = 𝑆2 − 𝑆1 = |
1 𝑇 rev
= − 𝑄𝑇𝐿𝐿 , 𝑆4 − 𝑆3 = 𝑄
|
3 𝑇 rev
= 𝑄𝐻
𝑇𝐻

1
2-2
The entropy change for the reversible adiabatic pro-
cess from state 2 to state 3 (and state 1 to state 4) is
zero. The heat transfer during a reversible process
can be expressed in differential form:

𝛿𝑄 = 𝑇 𝑑𝑆

The area under the curve in the T-S diagram repre-

sents the heat transfer during any reversible process.
The first law of thermodynamics tells us (neglect the changes in kinetic and potential energies):

𝑄 − 𝑊 = Δ𝑈 𝑜𝑟 𝛿𝑄 − 𝛿𝑊 = 𝑑𝑈 ⇒ 𝑇 𝑑𝑆 − 𝑃𝑑𝑉 = 𝑑𝑈

𝑆 𝑈 𝑉
for specific quantities: 𝑇 𝑑𝑠 − 𝑃𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑢, where 𝑠 = (𝑘 𝐽/𝑘𝑔𝐾), 𝑢= , 𝑣=
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
To relate the entropy change to the enthalpy change:

ℎ = 𝑢 + 𝑃𝑣 ⇒ 𝑑ℎ = 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑃𝑑𝑣 + 𝑣𝑑𝑃, we have 𝑇 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑃𝑑𝑣 ⇒ 𝑇 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑ℎ − 𝑣𝑑𝑃

therefore:

First Tds Gibbs Eq. 𝑇 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑃𝑑𝑣, Second Tds Gibbs Eq. 𝑇 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑ℎ − 𝑣𝑑𝑃

The 𝑇 𝑑𝑠 relations are valid for both reversible and irreversible processes and for both
closed and open systems.
2.2 ISENTROPIC PROCESSES
Isentropic process is an idealized thermodynamic process that is both adiabatic and reversible. It is a process
during which the entropy remains constant.

Δ𝑆 = 0, 𝑠2 = 𝑠1

2.3 ENTROPY CHANGE OF PURE SUBSTANCES

Entropy is a property, and thus the value of entropy of a system is fixed once the state of the system is fixed.

2.4 ENTROPY CHANGE OF LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS

Liquids and solids can be approximated as incompressible substances since their specific volumes remain
nearly constant during a process.

𝑑𝑢 𝑃𝑑𝑣
𝑇 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑃𝑑𝑣 ⇒ 𝑑𝑠 = +
𝑇 𝑇

For liquid and solid 𝑑𝑣 ≈ 0, 𝐶 𝑝 = 𝐶𝑣 = 𝐶 ⇒ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝐶𝑑𝑇

0
𝑑𝑢 𝑃𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑇
𝑇 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑃𝑑𝑣 ⇒ 𝑑𝑠 = + =𝐶
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇

𝑇2
𝑠2 − 𝑠1 = 𝐶 ln
𝑇1
For isentropic process:
𝑇2
𝑠2 − 𝑠1 = 0 = 𝐶 ln ⇒ 𝑇2 = 𝑇1
𝑇1
2.5 ENTROPY FOR IDEAL GAS

2.5.1 ENTROPY FOR IDEAL GAS OF CONSTANT SPECIFIC HEAT

𝑑𝑢 𝑃𝑑𝑣 𝑃 𝑅
𝑇 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑃𝑑𝑣 ⇒ 𝑑𝑠 = + but 𝑑𝑢 = 𝐶𝑣 𝑑𝑇, =
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑣
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑣
∴ 𝑑𝑠 = 𝐶𝑣 +𝑅
𝑇 𝑣
Integrate from state 1 to state 2, assuming constant specific heat:

𝑇2 𝑣2
𝑠2 − 𝑠1 = 𝐶𝑣 ln + 𝑅 ln
𝑇1 𝑣1

𝑑ℎ 𝑣𝑑𝑃 𝑣 𝑅
Similarly, 𝑇 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑ℎ − 𝑣𝑑𝑃 ⇒ 𝑑𝑠 = − but 𝑑ℎ = 𝐶 𝑝 𝑑𝑇, =
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑃

Integrate from state 1 to state 2, assuming constant specific heat:

𝑇2 𝑃2
𝑠2 − 𝑠1 = 𝐶 𝑝 ln − 𝑅 ln
𝑇1 𝑃1

This relationships hold for any process, reversible or irreversible, for ideal gas of constant specific heats.

Example 2.5.1 Air is contained in an insulated, rigid volume at 20°C and 200 kPa. A paddle wheel, inserted
in the volume, does 720 kJ of work on the air. If the volume is 2 m3 , calculate the entropy increase assuming
constant specific heats.
𝑃𝑉 200(2)
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇 ⇒ 𝑚= 𝑅𝑇 = 0.287(293) = 4.76 𝑘𝑔
𝑄 − 𝑊 = Δ𝑈 = 𝑚𝐶𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) ⇒ − 𝑊 = 4.76(0.717) (𝑇2 − 293) 𝑇2 = 504 𝐾
Note the baddle work done on the system (-ve) and 𝑈 = 𝑚𝐶𝑣𝑇
504
Δ𝑆 = 𝑚𝐶𝑣 ln 𝑇𝑇12 = 4.67(0.717) ln 293 = 1.851 𝑘 𝐽/𝐾

2.5.2 ENTROPY FOR IDEAL GAS OF VARIABLE SPECIFIC HEAT

We choose absolute zero as the reference tempera-

ture and define a function s° as
∫ 𝑇 ∫ 2
𝑜 𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇
𝑠 = 𝐶 𝑝 (𝑇) or 𝑠2𝑜 −𝑠1𝑜 = 𝐶 𝑝 (𝑇)
0 𝑇 1 𝑇

𝑃2
𝑠2 − 𝑠1 = 𝑠2𝑜 − 𝑠1𝑜 − 𝑅 ln
𝑃1
Go to table A-17, at T1 get 𝑠1𝑜 and at T2 get 𝑠2𝑜 .
2.5.3 ISENTROPIC PROCESS OF IDEAL GASES Δ𝑆 = 𝑆2 − 𝑆1 = 0
For ideal gases of constant specific heats:
𝑅 𝑅
𝑠2 − 𝑠1 = 𝐶𝑣 ln 𝑇𝑇12 + 𝑅 ln 𝑣𝑣12 = 0 ⇒ ln 𝑇𝑇21 = − 𝐶𝑅𝑣 ln 𝑣𝑣21 ⇒ ln 𝑇𝑇21 = ln 𝑣𝑣21 𝐶𝑣 , ⇒ 𝑇2
𝑇1 = 𝑣1
𝑣2
𝐶𝑣

𝑅
but 𝑅 = 𝐶 𝑝 − 𝐶𝑣 ⇒ 𝐶𝑣 = 𝛾−1
𝑇2  𝑣1  𝛾−1
=
𝑇1 𝑣2
𝑅 𝑅
𝑠2 − 𝑠1 = 𝐶 𝑝 ln 𝑇𝑇12 − 𝑅 ln 𝑃𝑃21 = 0 ⇒ ln 𝑇𝑇21 = 𝑅
𝐶𝑝 ln 𝑃𝑃12 ⇒ ln 𝑇𝑇21 = ln 𝑃𝑃21 𝐶 𝑝 , ⇒ 𝑇2
𝑇1 = 𝑃2
𝑃1
𝐶𝑝

𝑅 1 𝛾−1
but 𝑅 = 𝐶 𝑝 − 𝐶𝑣 ⇒ 𝐶𝑝 =1− 𝛾 = 𝛾
𝛾−1
𝑇2  𝑃2  𝛾
=
𝑇1 𝑃1
𝛾 𝛾
Also, we have: 𝑃1 𝑣1 = 𝑃2 𝑣2

𝑃 2  𝑣1  𝛾
=
𝑃1 𝑣2
All together:
𝛾−1  𝑣  𝛾−1
𝑇2  𝑃2  𝛾 1
= =
𝑇1 𝑃1 𝑣2
For ideal gases of variable specific heats :
𝑠𝑜
𝑠2𝑜 −𝑠1𝑜 𝑠2𝑜 −𝑠1𝑜 exp 2
𝑃2 𝑃2 𝑃2 𝑃2
𝑠2 − 𝑠1 = 𝑠2𝑜 − 𝑠1𝑜 − 𝑅 ln 𝑃1 =0 ⇒ ln 𝑃1 = 𝑅 ⇒ 𝑃1 = exp 𝑅 ⇒ 𝑃1 = 𝑅
𝑠𝑜
exp 1
 𝑜 𝑅
𝑠
Relative Pressure is: 𝑃𝑟 = exp 𝑅

𝑃2 𝑃𝑟 2
=
𝑃1 𝑃𝑟 1
Now, we have from ideal gas equation 𝑃𝑣 = 𝑅𝑇
𝑃 1 𝑣1 𝑃2 𝑣2 𝑣2 𝑇2 𝑃1 𝑇2 𝑃𝑟 1 𝑇2 /𝑃𝑟 2
𝑇1 = 𝑇2 ⇒ 𝑣1 = 𝑇1 𝑃2 = 𝑇1 𝑃𝑟 2 = 𝑇1 /𝑃𝑟 1
𝑇
The Relative Specific Volume defined as: 𝑣𝑟 = 𝑃𝑟

𝑣2 𝑣𝑟 2
=
𝑣1 𝑣𝑟 1
2.6 REVERSIBLE STEADY-FLOW WORK
𝑞 − 𝑤 = Δℎ + 𝑘.𝑒 + 𝑝.𝑒 ⇒ 𝛿𝑞 − 𝛿𝑤 = 𝑑ℎ + 𝑑𝑘.𝑒 + 𝑑𝑝.𝑒 [𝛿𝑞 = 𝑇 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑ℎ − 𝑣𝑑𝑃]

𝑑ℎ − 𝑣𝑑𝑃 − 𝛿𝑤 = 𝑑ℎ + 𝑑𝑘.𝑒 + 𝑑𝑝.𝑒 ⇒ 𝛿𝑤 = 𝑣𝑑𝑃 + 𝑑𝑘.𝑒 + 𝑑𝑝.𝑒

∫ 2
𝑤rev = 𝑣𝑑𝑃 + Δ𝑘.𝑒 + Δ𝑝.𝑒, or 𝑤rev = 𝑣(𝑃2 − 𝑃1 ) + Δ𝑘.𝑒 + Δ𝑝.𝑒
1

For potential flow, no work: 𝑣(𝑃2 − 𝑃1 ) + 𝑉2 −𝑉1

2 + 𝑔(𝑧 2 − 𝑧 1 ) = 0 Bernoulli equation: Steady flow of a
liquid through a device that involves no work interactions.
When kinetic and potential energies are negligible Δ𝑘.𝑒 ≈ Δ𝑝.𝑒 ≈ 0:

∫ 2
𝑤rev = 𝑣𝑑𝑃, or 𝑤rev = 𝑣(𝑃2 − 𝑃1 )
1

2.6.1 MINIMIZING THE COMPRESSOR WORK

∫2
When kinetic and potential energies are negligible, the reversible work is 𝑤rev = 1
𝑣𝑑𝑃.
h  𝛾−1 i
𝛾𝑅(𝑇2 −𝑇1 ) 𝛾𝑅𝑇1 𝛾
~ Isentropic (𝑃𝑣 =constant):
𝛾 𝑤comp,in = 𝛾−1 = 𝛾−1 𝑃𝑃21 −1
h  𝑛−1 i
𝑛𝑅(𝑇2 −𝑇1 ) 𝑛𝑅𝑇1 𝑃2 𝑛
~ Polytropic (𝑃𝑣 =constant):
𝑛 𝑤comp,in = 𝑛−1 = 𝑛−1 𝑃1 −1
 
~ Isothermal (𝑃𝑉 =constant): 𝑤comp,in = 𝑅𝑇1 ln 𝑃𝑃21
The adiabatic compression (𝑃𝑣 𝛾 =constant) requires the maximum work and the isothermal compression (T
= constant) requires the minimum. Why?

2.6.2 MULTISTAGE COMPRESSION WITH INTERCOOLING

The gas is compressed in stages and cooled between each stage by passing it through a heat exchanger called
h  𝑛−1 i h  𝑛−1 i
𝑃𝑥 𝑛 𝑛
an intercooler. 𝑛𝑅𝑇
𝑤comp,in = 𝑤comp1,in + 𝑤comp2,in = 𝑛−1 𝑃1 − 1 + 𝑛−1 𝑃𝑃2𝑥
𝑛𝑅𝑇
−1
To minimize compression work during two-stage compression, the pressure ratio across each stage of the
compressor must be the same.

𝑃𝑥 𝑃2
𝑃𝑥 = (𝑃2 × 𝑃1 ) 1/2 𝑜𝑟 =
𝑃1 𝑃𝑥

Example 2.6.1 Air is compressed steadily by a reversible compressor from an inlet state of 100 kPa and
300 K to an exit pressure of 900 kPa. Determine the compressor work per unit mass for (a) isentropic
compression with 𝜆 = 1.4, (b) polytropic compression with n = 1.3, (c) isothermal compression, and (d)
ideal two-stage compression with intercooling with a polytropic exponent of 1.3.
h  𝛾−1 i h  1.4−1 i
𝑃2 𝛾 1.4(0.287) (300) 900 1.4
(𝑎) Isentropic compression (𝛾 = 1.4): 𝑤comp,in = 𝛾𝑅𝑇
𝛾−1
1
𝑃1 − 1 = 1.4−1 100 − 1 =
263.2 𝑘 𝐽/𝑘𝑔
h  𝑛−1 i h  1.3−1 i
𝑛𝑅𝑇1 𝑃2 𝑛 1.3(0.287) (300) 900 1.3
(𝑏) Polytropic compression (𝑛 = 1.3): 𝑤comp,in = 𝑛−1 𝑃1 −1 = 1.3−1 100 −1 =
246.4 𝑘 𝐽/𝑘𝑔    
𝑃2 900
(𝑐) Isothermal compression: 𝑤comp,in = 𝑅𝑇1 ln 𝑃1 = 0.287(300) ln 100 = 189.2 𝑘 𝐽/𝑘𝑔
√ √︁
(𝑑) Ideal two-stage compression with intercooling (n = 1.3):𝑃𝑥 = 𝑃2 𝑃1 = 900(100) = 300 𝑘 𝑃𝑎
h   𝑛−1 i h  1.3−1 i
𝑃𝑥 𝑛 1.30.287(300) 300 1.3
𝑤comp,in = 2 𝑛𝑅𝑇
𝑛−1
1
𝑃1 − 1 = 2 1.3−1 100 − 1 = 215.3 𝑘 𝐽/𝑘𝑔

2.7 ISENTROPIC EFFICIENCIES OF STEADY-FLOW DEVICES

The isentropic process involves no irreversibilities and serves as the ideal process for adiabatic devices.

 Isentropic Efficiency of Turbines:is defined as the ratio of the actual work output of the turbine to the work
output that would be achieved if the process between the inlet state and the exit pressure were isentropic.

Actual Turbine Work 𝑤𝑎 ℎ1 − ℎ2𝑎

𝜂𝑇 = = =
Ideal Turbine Work (isentropic work) 𝑤𝑠 ℎ1 − ℎ2𝑠

Example 2.7.1 Steam enters an adiabatic turbine steadily at 3 MPa and 400°C and leaves at 50 kPa and
100°C. If the power output of the turbine is 2 MW, determine (a) the isentropic efficiency of the turbine and
(b) the mass flow rate of the steam flowing through the turbine.
The enthalpies at various states are:

𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒1 𝑃1 = 3 𝑀 𝑃𝑎 𝑇1 = 400 𝑜 𝐶 ℎ1 = 3231.7 𝑘 𝐽/𝑘𝑔 𝑠1 = 6.9235 𝑘 𝐽/𝑘𝑔𝐾

𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 2𝑎 𝑃2𝑎 = 50 𝑘 𝑃𝑎 𝑇2𝑎 = 100 𝑜𝐶 ℎ2𝑎 = 2682.4 𝑘 𝐽/𝑘𝑔
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 2𝑠 𝑃2𝑠 = 3 𝑀 𝑃𝑎 𝑠2𝑠 = 𝑠1 𝑠 𝑓 = 1.0912 𝑘 𝐽/𝑘𝑔𝐾 𝑠𝑔 = 7.5931 𝑘 𝐽/𝑘𝑔𝐾

Since 𝑠 𝑓 < 𝑠2𝑠 < 𝑠𝑔 , thus we need to find quality of state 2s:
𝑠2𝑠 −𝑠 𝑓 6.9235−1.0912
𝑥 2𝑠 = 𝑠𝑓 𝑔 = 6.5019 = 0.897
ℎ2𝑠 = ℎ 𝑓 + 𝑥 2𝑠 ℎ 𝑓 𝑔 = 340.54 + 0.897(23047) = 2407.9 𝑘 𝐽/𝑘𝑔
ℎ1 −ℎ2𝑎 3231.7−2682.4
𝜂𝑇 = ℎ1 −ℎ2𝑠 = 3231.7−2407.9 = 0.667
(a) The mass flow rate of steam through this turbine is determined from the energy balance for steady-flow
systems:
For steady state: 𝐸¤𝑖𝑛 = 𝐸¤ 𝑜𝑢𝑡 , 𝑚¤ 1 ℎ1 = 𝑊𝑎,𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑚¤ 2 ℎ2𝑎 ⇒ ¤ 1 − ℎ2𝑎 )
𝑤𝑎,𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑚(ℎ
2(1000)
𝑚¤ = 3231.7−2682.4 = 3.64 𝑘𝑔/𝑠

 Isentropic Efficiency of Compressor:is defined as the ratio of the work input required to raise the pressure
of a gas to a specified value in an isentropic manner to the actual work input.
 Ideal (isentropic) Compressor Work 𝑤𝑠 ℎ2𝑠 − ℎ1
𝜂𝐶 = = =
Actual Compressor Work 𝑤𝑎 ℎ2𝑎 − ℎ1

Example 2.7.2 Air is compressed by an adiabatic compressor from 100 kPa and 12°C to a pressure of 800
kPa at a steady rate of 0.2 kg/s. If the isentropic efficiency of the compressor is 80 percent, determine (a)
the exit temperature of air and (b) the required power input to the compressor.
The enthalpies at various states are:
State 1 ℎ1 = 285.14𝑘 𝐽/𝑘𝑔 𝑃𝑟 1 = 1.1584  
𝑃2
𝑃1 = 𝑃𝑟 2
𝑃𝑟 1 ⇒ 𝑃𝑟 2 = 𝑃𝑟 1 𝑃𝑃21 = 1.1584 800
100 = 9.2672
𝑃𝑟 2 = 9.2672 −→ ℎ2𝑠 = 517.05 𝑘 𝐽/𝑘𝑔
ℎ2𝑠 −ℎ1 517.05−285.14
𝜂𝐶 = ℎ2𝑎 −ℎ1 ⇒ 0.8 = ℎ2𝑎 −285.14 ⇒ ℎ2𝑎 = 575.03𝑘 𝐽/𝑘𝑔 ⇒ 𝑇2𝑎 = 569.5 𝐾
(b) The required power input to the compressor is determined from the energy balance for steady-flow
devices
For steady state: 𝐸¤𝑖𝑛 = 𝐸¤ 𝑜𝑢𝑡 , 𝑚¤ 1 ℎ1 = 𝑊𝑎,𝑖𝑛 + 𝑚¤ 2 ℎ2𝑎 ⇒ ¤ 2𝑎 − ℎ1 )
𝑤𝑎,𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚(ℎ
𝑤𝑎,𝑖𝑛 = 0.2(575.03 − 285.14) = 58 𝑘𝑊

 Isentropic Efficiency of Pump:

𝑤𝑠 𝑣(𝑃2 − 𝑃1 )
𝜂𝑃 = =
𝑤𝑎 ℎ2𝑎 − ℎ1

 Isentropic Efficiency of Nozzle:is defined as the ratio of the actual kinetic energy of the fluid at the nozzle
exit to the kinetic energy value at the exit of an isentropic nozzle for the same inlet state and exit pressure.

Actual KE at nozzle exit 𝑉2

𝜂𝑁 = = 2𝑎
2
Isentropic KE at nozzle exit 𝑉2𝑠

If the inlet velocity of the fluid is small relative to the exit velocity, the energy balance is:

2
𝑉2𝑎 ℎ1 − ℎ2𝑎
ℎ1 = ℎ2𝑎 + ⇒ 𝜂𝑁 =
2 ℎ1 − ℎ2𝑠

Example 2.7.3 Air at 200 kPa and 950 K enters an adiabatic nozzle at low velocity and is discharged at
a pressure of 110 kPa. If the isentropic efficiency of the nozzle is 92 percent, determine (a) the maximum
possible exit velocity, (b) the exit temperature, and (c) the actual exit velocity of the air. Assume constant
specific heats for air.
From Table A–2b to be 𝐶 𝑝 = 1.11𝑘 𝐽/𝑘𝑔𝐾 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛾 = 1.349
  (𝛾−1)/𝛾   (𝛾−1)/𝛾   (0.349)/1.349
𝑇2𝑠 𝑃2𝑠 𝑃2𝑠 110
𝑇1 = 𝑃1 ⇒ 𝑇2𝑠 = 𝑇1 𝑃1 ⇒ 𝑇2𝑠 = 950 200 = 814 𝐾
determine the isentropic exit velocity of the air from the energy balance for this isentropic steady-flow
process:
𝑉2 𝑉2 √︁ √︁
𝑒¤𝑖𝑛 = 𝑒¤𝑜𝑢𝑡 ⇒ ℎ1 + 21 = ℎ2𝑠 + 22𝑠 ⇒ 𝑉2𝑠 = 2(ℎ1 − ℎ2𝑠 ) = 2𝐶 𝑝 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2𝑠 )
√︁
𝑉2𝑠 = 2(1.11(1000)) (950 − 814) = 549 𝑚/𝑠
(b)The actual exit temperature of the air is higher than the isentropic exit temperature evaluated above and
is determined from:
ℎ1 −ℎ2𝑎 𝐶 𝑝 (𝑇1 −𝑇2𝑎 ) 950−𝑇2𝑎
𝜂𝑁 = ℎ1 −ℎ2𝑠 = 𝐶 𝑝 (𝑇1 −𝑇2𝑠 ) ⇒ 0.92 = 950−814 ⇒ 𝑇2𝑎 = 825
(c)The actual exit velocity of √︃
air can be determined from the definition of isentropic efficiency of a nozzle:
2
𝑉2𝑎 √︁
𝜂𝑁 = 𝑉 2 ⇒ 𝑉2𝑎 = 𝜂 𝑁 (𝑉2𝑠 2 ) = 0.92(549) = 527 𝑚/𝑠
2𝑠

2.8 ENTROPY BALANCE

Entropy balance: The entropy change of a system during a process is equal to the net entropy transfer
through the system boundary and the entropy generated within the system.
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Total Entropy Total Entropy Total Entropy Change in The Total
− + =
Entering the system Leaving the system Generated in the system Entropy of the system

𝑆in − 𝑆out + 𝑆gen = Δ𝑆system

2.8.1 ENTROPY CHANGE OF A SYSTEM Δ𝑆system
Entropy Change =Entropy at final State -Entropy at Initial State.

Δ𝑆system = 𝑆final − 𝑆intial

2.8.2 MECHANISM OF ENTROPY TRANSFER 𝑆in and 𝑆out

~Heat Transfer: Heat transfer is always accompa-
nied by entropy transfer in the amount of Q/T, where
T is the boundary temperature. Entropy transfer by
heat transfer:

𝑄
𝑆 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 = T is constant
𝑇

∫ 2
𝛿𝑄 ∑︁ 𝑄 𝑘
𝑆 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 = 
1 𝑇 𝑘
𝑇𝑘

~Entropy transfer by work: No entropy accompa-

nies work as it crosses the system boundary. But
entropy may be generated within the system as work
is dissipated into a less useful form of energy:

𝑆 𝑤𝑜𝑟 𝑘 = 0

~Entropy transfer by mass flow: Mass contains en-

tropy as well as energy, and thus mass flow into or
out of a system is always accompanied by energy and entropy transfer. Entropy transfer by mass:

𝑆 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝑚𝑠

2.8.3 ENTROPY GENERATION 𝑆gen

𝑆in − 𝑆out + 𝑆gen = Δ𝑆system

Net of entropy transfer by heat and mass Entropy generation Change in Entropy
𝑆¤in − 𝑆¤out + 𝑆¤gen = Δ𝑆¤system
𝑠in − 𝑠out + 𝑠gen = Δ𝑠system

2.9 ENTROPY BALANCE FOR CLOSED SYSTEMS

The entropy change of a closed system during a process is equal to the sum of the net entropy transferred
through the system boundary by heat transfer and the entropy generated within the system boundaries.

∑︁ 𝑄 𝑘
Δ𝑆 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = 𝑆2 − 𝑆1 = + 𝑆gen , Δ𝑆system = 𝑆2 − 𝑆1 = 𝑚(𝑠2 − 𝑠1 )
𝑘
𝑇𝑘

Adiabatic system Q=0 Δ𝑆adiabatic system = 𝑆2 − 𝑆1 = 𝑆gen

𝑄 surr
Adiabatic system+surrounding Δ𝑆adiabatic system + Δ𝑆surrounding = 𝑆gen , Δ𝑆surrounding =
𝑇surr
2.10 ENTROPY BALANCE FOR OPEN SYSTEMS (CONTROL
VOLUME)

The entropy of a control volume changes as a result of mass flow as well as heat transfer.
The rate of entropy change within the control volume (open system) during a process is equal to the sum
of the rate of entropy transfer through the control volume boundary by heat transfer, the net rate of entropy
transfer into the control volume by mass flow, and the rate of entropy generation within the boundaries of
the control volume as a result of irreversibilities.
∑︁ 𝑄 𝑘 ∑︁ ∑︁
(𝑆2 − 𝑆1 )𝐶𝑉 = + 𝑚 𝑖 𝑠𝑖 − 𝑚 𝑒 𝑠 𝑒 + 𝑆gen
𝑇𝑘

𝑑𝑆𝐶𝑉 ∑︁ 𝑄¤ 𝑘 ∑︁ ∑︁
= + 𝑚¤ 𝑖 𝑠𝑖 − 𝑚¤ 𝑒 𝑠 𝑒 + 𝑆gen
𝑑𝑡 𝑇𝑘

∑︁ ∑︁ ∑︁ 𝑄¤ 𝑘
Steady flow: 𝑆gen = 𝑚¤ 𝑒 𝑠 𝑒 − 𝑚¤ 𝑖 𝑠𝑖 −
𝑇𝑘

∑︁ 𝑄¤ 𝑘
Steady flow single stream: 𝑆gen = 𝑚¤ 𝑒 (𝑠 𝑒 − 𝑠𝑖 ) −
𝑇𝑘

Steady flow single stream, adiabatic: 𝑆gen = 𝑚¤ 𝑒 (𝑠 𝑒 − 𝑠𝑖 )