Exercise 3 Determination of pH, and analysis of two soil samples for

carbonates, chlorides, nitrates, sulphates, organic matter

and base deficiency by rapid field test
Objectives
After performing this exercise you should be able to:

measure the soil pH,

analyse soil to demonstrate presence/absence of carbonates,

chlorides, nitrates, sulphates, organic matter and base deficiency using
simple tests, and

record the chemical characteristics of soil.

3.2 SOIL pH
Soil pH is the most important property of the soil. It is related to plant nutrition.
Soil pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion (H+) activity in the soil solution. It is
defined as the -log 10 of the hydrogen ion concentration. Soil pH gives the
concentration of hydrogen ions that can be easily exchanged. The pH exerts a
strong effect on solubility and availability of nutrient elements. It influences
nutrient uptake by plants. Soil pH between pH 6.0 and 6.5 indicates that most
plant nutrients are in their most available state. Soil pH affects nutrient
availability as the H+ ions take up space on the negative charges along the
soil surface displacing nutrients.

A pH less than 4 in soil indicates the presence of free acids obtained from the
oxidation of sulfides. At pH less than 5.5, high concentrations of H+, aluminum
and manganese in soil solution can reach toxic levels. A pH more than 5.5
suggests occurrence of ions such as aluminium and phosphorus. A pH of 7.8
to 8.2 indicates presence of calcium carbonate. Elements like nitrogen,
potassium, calcium, magnesium and sulfur are more available within soil at pH
6.5 to 8 while boron, copper, iron, manganese, nickel and zinc are more
readily available within soil pH 5 to 7.

Soil pH may also change due to alteration in carbon dioxide concentration, salt
concentration, hydrolysis and solubility of soil constituents.

3.2.1 Measurement of Soil pH

pH of the soil solution can be measured using pH paper or pH meter.

3.2.2 Materials Required

1. 5 g soil from two different sites

2. pH meter with appropriate electrode(s) or pH paper

3. Pipettes

4. Distilled or de-ionized water

5. 0.01 or 1.0 M CaCl2

6. Buffer solutions for calibrating the pH meter 17

BBYCL-134 Plant Ecology and Taxonomy
3.2.3 Procedure

1. Take 5 g of the soil sample in a test tube.

2. Add 5 ml distilled or deionized water to the soil sample.

3. Stir vigorously for 5 seconds and let stand for 10 minutes.

4. The pH of the soil suspension can be measured by either using a pH

paper or by using a calibrated pH meter.

When we use a standard strip of the pH paper, we compare the color reaction
with the standard chart.

When we use a pH meter, we must ensure that the electrodes are properly
dipped in the slurry. Carefully swirl the electrode and read the pH immediately.

Precaution- The electrode tips should be dipped in the slurry.

3.2.4 Observations and Results

Take the soil solution and record the observations of the pH values of the
given soil samples. Note the observations in the Table.

S. Soil A Soil B
No.

The soil pH indicates the type of soil. It indicates if the soil is acidic or
alkaline. The pH ranges from 0 to 14. The pH 7.0 indicates neutral soil (levels
of H+ and OH- are equal). A pH value below 7.0 indicates that soil is "acidic,"
and readings above 7.0 indicate "alkaline" soil conditions. Plants generally
require a slightly acidic soil, i.e., within a pH range of 6.2 to 6.8. Soil pH is very
important for nutrient availability to plants. At certain pH ranges sufficient
amounts of these nutrients be transformed into these ionic forms. When the
soil pH is outside the desirable range (6.2 to 6.8), the nutrients are bound
in the soil and are not in a form useful to plants.

The soil contains various nutrient ions such as chlorides, sulphates, nitrates,
and phosphates along with organic matter. All these constituents provide
nutrition to plant roots and are essential for maintenance of plant growth.

The chemical properties of soil can be determined by rapid spot tests. [The
rapid tests only determine presence or absence of different salts. They do not
measure (= calculate) the amount.]

3.3 DETERMINATION OF CARBONATES

The presence of carbonates in the soil can be easily measured using Rapid
spot test. This method measures the levels of various ions qualitatively i.e., it
just indicates the presence of a particular ion.
18
Exercise 3 Determination of pH, and analysis of two soil samples for
carbonates, chlorides, nitrates, sulphates, organic matter
and base deficiency by rapid field test
3.3.1 Materials Required
Soil sample

White cavity tile

Hydrochloric acid

3.3.2 Procedure
1. A pinch of soil is taken on a white cavity tile.

2. The dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl) is added to it.

3. The acid reacts with carbonates present in the soil and carbon dioxide
gas escapes in the atmosphere showing effervescence.

4. The degree of effervescence has been divided into categories 1-4

depending upon the intensity.

3.3.3 Observations and Results

Perform the test for the soil samples provided and record the observations.

S. No. Soil A Soil B

Compare the results obtained with that given in the reference table. It is noted
that more the effervescence more is the level of carbonates present in the soil
sample.
Soil type Effervescence (CO2) Category

Non-calcareous Less number of bubbles of CO2 1

formed
(less than 0.5%)

Slightly Less number of bubbles of CO2 2

calcareous formed

(0.5-2%)

Calcareous More number of bubbles of CO2 3

formed
(5-10%)

Very calcareous More number of bubbles of CO2 4

formed
(more than 10%)

3.4 DETERMINATION OF NITRATES

The presence of carbonates in the soil can be easily measured using Rapid
spot test. This method measures the levels of various ions qualitatively i.e. it
just indicates the presence of a particular ion. 19
BBYCL-134 Plant Ecology and Taxonomy
3.4.1 Materials Required
Soil sample

White cavity tile

Diphenylamine

Concentrated sulphuric acid

3.4.2 Procedure
1. Take a pinch of soil in white cavity tile.

2. Add few drops of 0.02% diphenylamine in concentrated sulphuric acid

(H2SO4).

3. The solution gives blue color which indicates presence of nitrates.

4. The depth of blue color is proportional to the quantity of nitrate present.

5. The nitrate content is expressed in scale of 1-4 depending upon the

intensity of blue color.

Phenol disulfonic acid method (PDA)

The nitrate content can also be measured calorimetrically using this method
(Harper, 1924).

3.4.3 Materials Required

1. Soil

2. Beakers (100ml)

3. Calcium sulfate

4. De-ionized water

5. CuSO4

6. Ag2SO4

7. NH4OH

3.4.4 Procedure
1. Weigh out 10 g of soil (dried and sieved) and transfer to a labelled 100-
ml beaker. Add 0.1 g of calcium sulfate. Add 20 ml of de-ionized water.
Mix the contents thoroughly with a glass rod. Shake for 1 min.

2. The extraction can also be done using 0.02 N CuSO4 solution.

3. Ag2SO4 (0.007 N) is added to prevent chloride interference.

4. The samples are evaporated using hot a plate.

5. A neutral or slightly alkaline medium is maintained during sample

evaporation. Temperature is controlled such that loss of residue is
20 avoided.
Exercise 3 Determination of pH, and analysis of two soil samples for
carbonates, chlorides, nitrates, sulphates, organic matter
and base deficiency by rapid field test
6. The yellow color develops after adding 7 N NH4OH.

7. The intensity of the color is measured by using a spectrophotometer at a

wavelength of 415 nm.

3.4.5 Observations and Results

Perform the test for the soil samples provided and record the observations.

S. No. Soil A Soil B

The colorimetric methods provide a rapid and highly sensitive means to

determine the presence of nitrate anion. Color formation appears quickly
(<60 s) and results of test can be interpreted within no time. More intense the
color more is the amount of nitrate present.

3.5 DETERMINATION OF CHLORIDES

It can be measured by colorimteric method.

3.5.1 Materials Required

1. Spatula

2. Spectrophotometer

3. Shaker

4. 50 mL Erlenmeyer flasks, filter funnels or tubes

3.5.2 Reagents
1. Extracting Solution (0.01M) – Weigh 4.72 g of Ca(NO3)2•4H2O. Add to
a 2 L volumetric flask. Adjust the volume with distilled water.

2. Saturated Mercury (II) Thiocyanate [Hg(SCN)2] Solution (0.075%) –

Add approximately 0.75g Hg(SCN)2 to 1 l of distilled water and stir
overnight. Filter through Whatman Filter Paper No. 42. The saturated
solution can be stored for long period of time.

3. Ferric Nitrate Solution – Dissolve 20.2 g Fe(NO3)3•9H2O (Ferric (III)

nitrate non-hydrate) in approximately 500 ml of distilled water. Add
concentrated nitric acid (HNO3) until the solution is almost colorless (20
to 30 ml). Make the volume to 1 l with distilled water.

4. Charcoal washed in 0.01M Ca (NO3)2 and dried.

5. Chloride Standard Stock Solution (1000 ppm) – Dissolve 0.2103 g

KCl in approximately 50 ml of extracting solution. Bring up to 100 ml. For
preparing solution of 100 ppm (mg L-1), 10 ml is take out from the stock
solution (1000 ppm). The volume is made to 100 ml. Pipette out 0.5, 1.0,
2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, and 10.0 ml from 100 ppm standard solution and make
up the volume to 100 ml with extracting solution to get concentrations of
0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 4.0, 5.0, and 10.0 ppm. 21
BBYCL-134 Plant Ecology and Taxonomy
3.5.3 Procedure
1. Add 10 g of soil into a 50 mL Erlenmeyer flask.

2. Add approximately 25 mg washed charcoal (dried).

3. Add 25 ml extracting solution.

4. Shake for 15 minutes and filter the contents using Whatman No. 42 filter
paper.

5. Transfer a 10 ml aliquot to a 50 mL beaker.

6. Add 4 ml each of the thiocyanate and the ferric nitrate solutions. Shake
to mix.

7. Allow 10 minutes for color development.

8. Read color intensity (optical density) OD at 460 nm.

8. Prepare a blank in a similar manner but without soil sample.

9. Prepare a standard curve by pipetting out 10 ml aliquot of each of the

working standards. Plot the absorbance against concentration.

10. Determine chloride concentration using standard curve.

3.5.4 Observations and Results

More the optical density more is the amount of chloride present. The quantity
of the chloride can be calculated using the standard curve prepared by using
calcium chloride.

S. No. Soil A Soil B

3.6 DETERMINATION OF PHOSPHATES

The phosphate levels in the soil can be determined by the Ascorbic Acid or
Fiske Subbarrow method.

3.6.1 Materials Required

1. Extracting solution – ( 0.5 M NaHCO3 solution pH 8.5) Dissolve 420 g
sodium bicarbonate in distilled water. Make volume to 10 l. Dissolve the
salt by putting the flask on the magnetic stirrer. Adjust pH to 8.5 by
adding 50% sodium hydroxide.

2. Acid Molybdate Stock Solution – Dissolve 60 g ammonium molybdate,

(NH4)6Mo7O24•4H2O, in 200 ml of distilled water. Heat to about 60°C
until solution is clear. Allow the solution to cool. Add 1.455 g of antimony
potassium tartrate in the solution. Slowly add 700 ml of concentrated
sulfuric acid. Cool the solution. Dilute to make a final volume of 1l. This
solution may be blue in color but becomes clear on dilution. Refrigerate
22 and store in dark.
Exercise 3 Determination of pH, and analysis of two soil samples for
carbonates, chlorides, nitrates, sulphates, organic matter
and base deficiency by rapid field test
3. Ascorbic Acid Stock Solution – Dissolve 13.2 g of ascorbic acid in
distilled water and dilute to a final volume of 100 ml. Refrigerate in dark.

4. 50 ml Erlenmeyer flasks

5. Rotating or reciprocating shaker

6. Funnels

7. Whatman Filter Paper No. 42 or No. 2

8. Funnel rack

9. Volumetric flasks

3.6.2 Procedure
1. Take 2 g of soil (ratio of soil-to-solution is 1:10) in a 50 mL Erlenmeyer
flask.

2. Add 20 ml of extracting solution and shake at 200 rpm for 5 minutes at

the room temperature.

3. Filter extracts through Whatman No. 42 filter paper. Refilter the contents
if required.

4. Ascorbic Acid or Fiske Subbarrow method can be used for color

development.

Fiske-Subbarow Method

3.6.3 Reagents
1. Acid Molybdate Stock Solution (P-B Solution) – Dissolve 75.25 g of
ammonium molybdate, (NH4)6Mo7O24•4H2O) in 500 ml of distilled water
heated to 60°C. Cool the solution and mix with 1500 ml HCl (37.5%).
Dilute the solution to 2000 ml with distilled H2O in a volumetric flask.
Store in a glass-stoppered, brown bottle to which 100 g of boric acid
(H3BO3) has been added.

2. Dry Reducing Agent: Aminonaphthol-sulfonic acid (P-C Powder) –

Mix 5 g of 1-amino-2-napthol-4 sulfonic acid with 10 g of sodium sulfite
(Na2SO3) and 292.5 g of sodium pyrosulfite (Na2S2O5). Grind the mixture
to a fine powder. Store the solution in a brown bottle. The reagent can
be kept for one year.

3. Dilute Reducing Agent (P-C Solution) – Dissolve 16 g of dry reducing

agent in 100ml of distilled water heated to 60°C. Cool and store in brown
bottle. Make fresh every 3 weeks.

4. Working Solution – Add 25 ml of acid molybdate stock solution to a

volumetric flask containing about 800 ml of distilled water. Mix
thoroughly. Add 10 ml of ascorbic acid stock solution. Add distilled water
to final volume of 1l. Prepare fresh.

5. Stock Standard Phosphorus Solution (50 ppm) – Dissolve 0.2197 g

potassium dihydrogen phosphate (KH2PO4) in about 25 ml of distilled
water. Dilute to a final volume of 1l with extracting solution. 23
BBYCL-134 Plant Ecology and Taxonomy
6. Working Standards – Pipette calculated amount from 50 ppm stock
standard phosphorus solution into volumetric flasks. Bring flasks to
volume with extracting solution.

3.6.4 Procedure
1. Transfer a 5 ml aliquot of the extract to a test tube.

2. Add 0.25 ml acid molybdate solution (P-B solution). Shake to mix with
filtrate.

3. Add 0.25 ml dilute-reducing agent (P-C solution). Allow color to develop

15 minutes.

4. Read optical density using colorimeter or spectrophotometer set at 660

nm within 45 minutes after adding reducing agent.

5. Prepare a standard curve by pipetting 5 ml aliquot of each working

standard, developing color. Read the color intensity of the solutions.
Determine concentration in soil extracts from intensity and the standard
curve.

Ascorbic acid method

The method was given by Watanabe and Olsen (1965). This procedure is
recommended for calcareous soils, particularly those containing more than 2%
calcium carbonate. It can also be used for determination of phosphate in
neutral and alkaline soils.

3.6.5 Reagents
Acid Molybdate Stock Solution

Reagent A

Dissolve 60 g of ammonium molybdate (NH4)6Mo7O24•4H2O, in 1250 ml of

distilled water. Dissolve 1.455 g of antimony potassium tartrate in 500 ml of
distilled water. Add both of these solutions to 5000 ml of 2.5 MH2S04 (prepared
by adding 148 ml of concentrated H2S04 in one liter of water). Mix and dilute to
10,000 ml with distilled water. Store in a glass, pyrex bottle in a dark, cool
place.

Reagent B

Dissolve 2.639 g of ascorbic acid in 500 ml of reagent A. This reagent must be

freshly prepared.

3.6.6 Procedure
1. Transfer a 5 ml aliquot to a beaker or Erlenmeyer flask (50 mL or larger).

2. Add 15 ml of distilled water.

3. Add 5 ml of Reagent B and mix well.

4. Keep aside for 10 min for color development. Measure the optical
24 density at 882 nm using colorimeter.
Exercise 3 Determination of pH, and analysis of two soil samples for
carbonates, chlorides, nitrates, sulphates, organic matter
and base deficiency by rapid field test
5. Prepare a standard curve by pipetting a 5 ml aliquot of each of the
working standards. Develop color and read intensity in the same manner
as with the soil extracts. Plot intensity against concentration of the
working standards.

3.6.7 Observations and Results

The intensity of the color is proportionate to the concentration of the element
estimated. The color intensity is measured spectrophotometrically.

Precaution- Intensity of blue color can change slightly with every batch of
molybdate reagent. The standard curve should be prepared after
measurements for each day.

S. No. Soil A Soil B

3.7 DETERMINATION OF SULPHATES

Sulphates are determined by the turbidimetric method (Chesnin and Yien,
1951).

3.7.1 Materials Required

1. 30-to 60-mesh BaC12 crystals

2. 10% BaC12

3. HC1

3.7.2 Procedure
Add few drops of acidified (treated with HCl) 10% BaC12 solution to 10 ml
extract. The solution turns turbid. The presence of turbidity and/or white
precipitate of BaS04 indicate presence of sulphates. The absorbance of the
BaS04 suspension was measured within 30 min after precipitation with a
colorimeter at 420 nm wavelength (Rossum and Villarruz, 1961).

3.7.3 Observations and Results

The more is the turbidity of the solution more the amount of phosphate
present.

S. No. Soil A Soil B

3.8 DETERMINATION OF ORGANIC MATTER

Organic matter is the source of nutrients such as nitrogen released through
microbial activity. It helps in soil aeration, filtration and moisture holding
capacity. It is considered as an index of soil fertility. 25
BBYCL-134 Plant Ecology and Taxonomy
At first a simple qualitative test is performed. A small amount of soil is taken in
a test tube. A few drops of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) are added to the test
tube containing the soil sample. Any organic matter present in the soil gets
oxidized. This results in effervescence. A volume/intensity of the
effervescence provides an idea of the presence of organic matter.

Organic matter of the soil can be estimated using Dichromate method (wet
oxidation method) or loss on ignition method.

Wet oxidation method or Walkley-Black titrimetric wet oxidation method

3.8.1 Method
The method is based on the oxidation of carbon by oxygen liberated from
potassium dichromate in the presence of sulphuric acid. The reaction is as
follows:

K2Cr2O7 + 4 H2O = K2SO4 + Cr2 (SO4).4 H2O + 3 O

3 atoms of oxygen are liberated from each molecule of potassium dichromate.

Hence 1 ml of K2Cr2O7 is equivalent to 3 mg of carbon. The conventional
carbon to organic matter factor is 1.724.

3.8.2 Materials Required

Erlenmeyer flask

Sulphuric acid

Potassium dichromate

Phosphoric acid (concentrated)

o-phenanthroline- ferroin indicator

Ferrous sulphate heptahydrate -0.25 mol L-1

In this method heat of dilution of conc. H2S04 with 1 N K2Cr207 is the source of
heat. Barium diphenylamine sulfonate (0.16% aqueous solution) is used as an
indicator. "Ferroin" indicator (ortho-phenanthro1ine ferrous sulfate, 0.025 M
solution) is used.

3.8.3 Procedure
1. Take 2 g of dried soil.

2. Add10 ml of dichromate solution. Gently swirl.

3. Add 20 ml of sulfuric acid. Swirl gently to mix the contents. Swirl

vigorously for 1 min.

4. Keep the flask aside for 30 min.

5. Add 200 ml of distilled water and 10 ml of concentrated phosphoric acid.

6. Add 3-4 drops of indicator and titrate with ferrous sulfate. As the
endpoint approaches the color of the solution changes from green to
deep green and blue. At the endpoint color changes from blue to red or
26 maroon.
Exercise 3 Determination of pH, and analysis of two soil samples for
carbonates, chlorides, nitrates, sulphates, organic matter
and base deficiency by rapid field test
7. Blank is prepared using the same procedure.

Calculations-

% Carbon= V1-V2/ W x 0.003x 100

V1 = volume of potassium dichromate

V2-= Volume of ferrous ammonium sulphate

W= weight of the soil

Organic matter (%) = % carbon x 1.724

Volumetric method (Walkley and Black, 1934)

3.8.4 Materials Required

1. Conical flask

2. Pipettes

3. Burette

4. Phosphoric acid (85%)

5. Sodium fluoride solution (2%)

6. Sulphuric acid (96 % containing 1.25% Ag2SO4)

7. Standard 0.1667M K2Cr2O7- Dissolve 49.04 g of K2Cr2O7 in water and

dilute to 1 liter.

8. Standard 0.5M FeSO4 solution- Dissolve 140 g Ferrous sulphate in 800

ml water, add 20 ml concentrated H2SO4 and make up the volume to 1
liter.

9. Diphenylamine indicator- Dissolve 0.5 g diphenylamine in 20 ml water

and 100 ml concentrated H2SO4.

3.8.5 Procedure
1. Weigh 1.0 g of the prepared soil sample and place it in a 500 ml conical
flask.

2. Add 10 ml of 0.1667M K2Cr2O7 solution and 20 ml concentrated H2SO4.

3. Mix thoroughly and allow the reaction to complete for 30 minutes.

4. Dilute the reaction mixture with 200 ml water and 10 ml H3PO4.

5. Add 10 ml of NaF solution and 2 ml of diphenylamine indicator.

6. Titrate the solution with standard 0.5M FeSO4 solution to a brilliant green
color.

7. A blank is prepared without sample.

Percent Organic matter = Y x 1.724 (organic matter contains 58% organic

carbon, hence 100/58=1.724) 27
BBYCL-134 Plant Ecology and Taxonomy
Note: Organic carbon to total organic matter conversion factor for surface soils
vary from 1.724 to 2.0. A value of 1.724 is commonly used, although
whenever possible the appropriate factor is determined experimentally for
each type of soil.

3.8.6 Loss of Weight or Ignition Method (LOI)

Materials Required
1. Sieve

2. Beaker

3. Oven

4. Muffle furnace

3.8.7 Procedure
1. Dry the ashing vessel (crucible) in oven at 105oC. Label the crucible and
record the weight.

2. Weigh 5 to 10g of soil into crucible. Record the weight of the crucible.

3. Place the crucibles with soil into a drying oven set at 1050C for 4 hours.
Cool in a dessicator. Record the weight of the crucible.

4. Place crucibles in muffle furnace set at 500oC. Ash overnight. Turn off
the furnace. Place the crucibles in a dessicator for cooling. Record
weight of the crucible.

5. The water lost from clay crystals is calculated using formula (%) = "loss
on ignition" (%) - (0.05 x wt. of clay in the sample). Organic matter for
organic soils can be determined by this method without any correction. It
can also be calculated as

Percent organic C = % OM x 0.58

3.8.8 Observations and Results

The organic matter is calculated using the formula given in the procedure.

S. No. Soil A Soil B

3.9 DETERMINATION OF BASE DEFICIENCY

It can be measured by colorimetric method (Datta et al., 1962)

3.9.1 Materials required

1. Spectrophotometer

2. Conical flask

28 3. Pipettes
Exercise 3 Determination of pH, and analysis of two soil samples for
carbonates, chlorides, nitrates, sulphates, organic matter
and base deficiency by rapid field test
4. Standard potassium dichromate solution (1N)

5. Concentrated sulphuric acid containing 1.25% Ag2SO4

6. Sucrose

3.9.2 Procedure
1. Take 1 g of soil in 100 ml conical flask.

2. Add 10 ml of 0.1667M K2Cr2O7 and 20 ml of conc. H2SO4 containing

1.25 % Ag2SO4.

3. Stir the reaction mixture and allow it to stand for 30 minutes.

4. The green color of solution (chromium sulphate) is read on a

spectrophotometer at 660 nm.

Preparation of standard curve: Sucrose is used as a primary source of carbon.

Take different quantities of sucrose (1 mg to 20 mg) in 100 ml flasks. Add 10
ml standard K2Cr2O7 and 20 ml of concentrated H2SO4 in each flask. Swirl the
flasks and leave for 30 minutes. A blank is also prepared in the similar way
without adding sucrose. Green color develops. The color is read on
spectrophotometer at 660 nm after adjusting the blank to zero. The reading so
obtained is plotted against mg of sucrose as carbon source (carbon = wt. of
sucrose x 0.42 because carbon content of sucrose is 42%) or against mg C
directly. The standard curve gives the estimate of organic carbon. The curve is
shown directly against C content, which has been derived from mg sucrose
used in preparing the standard curve.

Calculations

The carbon content of the sample is found out from the standard curve which
shows the carbon content (mg of carbon v/s spectrophotometer readings as
absorbance).

Percent C = mg C observed x 100/1000 (observed reading is for 1 g soil,

expressed as mg).

Percent OM = % C x 1.724

3.9.3 Observations and Results

Organic matter is one of the major components of healthy and productive
soils. The organic matter content of agricultural topsoil is usually in the range
of 1–6%.On the basis of organic matter content, soils are characterized as
mineral or organic. Mineral soils contain about 30 percent organic matter.
Organic soils are naturally rich in organic matter and contain more than 30
percent organic matter. Organic matter releases nutrients in a form available
to plants upon decomposition. Soil organic matter provides estimate for
nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur mineralized available for production of crop
plants. Organic matter thus can serve as a reservoir of nutrients that can be
released to the soil. A decline in organic matter content increases the
susceptibility to soil erosion. 29
BBYCL-134 Plant Ecology and Taxonomy
S. No. Soil A Soil B

Precautions

1. Care should be taken while handling the acids.

2. Weighing should be done accurately.

3. The methodology should be followed strictly as given.

30
Exercise 4 Comparison of Bulk Density, Porosity and Rate of Infiltration of
Water in Soil of Three Habitats

EXERCISE 4
Comparison of Bulk Density,
Porosity and Rate of
Infiltration of Water in
Soil of Three Habitats
Structure
4.1 Introduction 4.3 Measurement of Porosity of
Soil
Objectives
4.4 Measurement of Water
Study Guide/Prior Reading
Infiltration Rate
4.2 Measurement of Bulk Density
of Soil

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Soil structure is influenced by its physical, chemical and biological
characteristics. The structure and texture of soil affects the soil's ability to hold
water. Soil physical properties are important because they determine the
capacity of holding water and aeration. Soil physical characteristics are
measured as changes in bulk density, soil moisture content, soil texture and
water potential.

Soil physical properties form the foundation of several chemical and biological
processes, which may be further governed by climate, landscape position, and
land use.

Objectives
After performing these exercises you should be able to:

measure the bulk density of different soil samples,

measure the porosity of different soil samples, and

measure the water infiltration rate of different soil samples.

31
BBYCL-134 Plant Ecology and Taxonomy
Study Guide/Prior Reading

Blake, G.R. 1965. Bulk Density in Methods of Soil Analysis, Agronomy, No. 9,
Part 11, C.A. Black, ed. pp. 374-390.

4.2 MEASUREMENT OF BULK DENSITY OF SOIL

Soil bulk density (apparent density) depicts the actual weight of the dry soil in
a given volume. Dry bulk density (g/cm3) is estimated as the ratio between dry
mass (g) and wet sample volume (cm3). It is usually expressed in terms of
grams per cubic (Q/m3 > (g/cm) or SI units of megagram per cubic meter. The
dry bulk density of soil samples was determined by oven drying the samples at
60oC until constant weight. Density of an ordinary soil is approximately
2.65g/cc. It is measured by the simple method in which is a cylindrical core of
soil of known volume is cut and mass of the dried soil is measured.

Bulk density (BD) of a soil is ratio of the mass (M) of oven-dried soil to its bulk
volume (BV) and includes the volume of the soil particles and the voids (pore
spaces) between the particles. It increases with depth in the soil profile and
normally occurs in the range of 1.0 to 1.7 g/cm.

4.2.1 Materials Required

1. Core sampler - hydraulic sampler

2. Sharp knife or spatula

3. Weighing balance (sensitivity 0.01 g)

4. Oven

5. Plastic bags

6. Weighing tins

7. Cellotape

8. Glass beads (260 pm)

4.2.2 Procedure

1. Prepare a smooth undisturbed vertical or horizontal soil surface. Insert

sampler into the soil to fill the cylinder. Precaution should be taken so
that soil remains undisturbed (not compressed).

2. The soil can be pushed out of the cylinder into a plastic bag. The bag
should be closed and labelled.

3. If the soil is kept in the cylinder, place a metal disk on each end and
carefully place in a plastic bag. The opening of the bag should be taped.

4. The soil filled cylinder is weighed. The weight of the wet soil along with
tin and cylinder is recorded as Wl. Record the weight of the tin as W2
and the weight of the cylinder as W3. These weights (W2 and W3) are
32 taken before sampling.
Exercise 4 Comparison of Bulk Density, Porosity and Rate of Infiltration of
Water in Soil of Three Habitats
5. The soil samples are dried in an oven at 105OC. For cores, 7.62 cm diameter.
X 7.62 cm long, time of 72 h is used to dry the soil but for smaller soil
samples less time is required. Record the weight of the oven dry sample,
tin and cylinder as W4. The wet weight (Wl) is used to calculate the
moisture content at time of sampling.

Calculations

Db = W4-W2-W3

Vol. of cylinder and moisture content

QV = Wl-(W4-W2) wt. of oven-dry soil. X 100

The oven-dry weight of the sample is divided by the volume of the undisturbed
sample at field moisture conditions. If the volume is very large, then a
subsample is oven-dried and the oven-dried weight of the entire soil
calculated.

4.2.3 Observations and Results

Record the observations for the each soil sample provided to you. Interpret the
results on the basis of information provided to you.

Bulk density is an indicator of soil compaction. Higher is the number, more

compacted is the soil. High bulk density indicates low soil porosity and soil
compaction. Highly compact soil restricts root growth because of poor
movement of air and water through the soil. Compaction results in shallow
plant rooting which affects plant growth. Bulk densities greater than 1.6 g/cm3
restrict root growth. Sandy soils usually have higher bulk densities (1.3–1.7
g/cm3) while clays have bulk densities in the range of 1.1 – 1.6 g/cm3.

Table 4.1: Soil bulk density and root growth.

Ideal bulk densities for

Soil Texture
plant growth (g/cm3)

Sandy < 1.60

Silty < 1.40

Clayey < 1.10

4.3 POROSITY
The porosity (pore space) of a soil provides the measure of open space
present in the sample volume. It refers to the volume of soil voids that can be
filled by water and/or air. It is inversely related to bulk density. Porosity is
usually expressed as a percentage of the material’s total volume.

4.3.1 Materials Required

1. 2 paper cups

2. Graduated cylinder 33
BBYCL-134 Plant Ecology and Taxonomy
3. Beaker

4. Soil samples

5. Spoon/scraper

6. Stopwatch or other timing device

4.3.2 Procedure
1. Pour 100 mL of water into cup and draw a line where the water comes
up to. Write 100 mL in the total volume column on your data sheet. Pour
out the water.

2. Fill the cup with the soil sample up to the marked line.

3. Using a graduated cylinder, slowly and carefully pour water into the cup
until the water reaches the top of your sample. Record the volume of
water remaining in the graduated cylinder on your data sheet.

4. Subtract the volume remaining from the total volume. This is the amount
of water you added to your sample. The volume of water added to the
sample on the data sheet gives the pore space.

5. To determine the porosity of the sample, divide the pore space volume
by the total volume and multiply the result by 100.

6. Calculate porosity using the formula.

Calculation

% pore space = pore space/total volume x 100

4.3.3 Observations and Results

Record the observations for the each soil sample provided to you.

Porosity refers to the volume of soil voids that can be filled by water and/or air.
It is inversely related to bulk density. It has been found that loose, porous soils
have lower bulk densities and greater porosities in comparison to tightly
packed soils. Porosity varies depending on particle size. It is more in clayey
and organic soils as compared to sandy soils. Loose, porous soils have lower
bulk densities and greater porosities than tightly packed soils. Porosity varies
depending on particle size and aggregation. It is greater in clayey and organic
soils than in sandy soils. A large number of small particles in a volume of soil
produce a large number of soil pores. Fewer large particles can occupy the
same volume of soil so there are fewer pores and less porosity.

4.4 INFILTRATION RATE

The infiltration rate is the velocity or speed at which water enters into the soil.
It is usually measured by the depth (in mm) of the water layer that can enter
the soil in one hour. An infiltration rate of 15 mm/h means that a water layer of
15 mm will take one hour to move into the soil. The infiltration rate varies
34 depending on the initial moisture content.
Exercise 4 Comparison of Bulk Density, Porosity and Rate of Infiltration of
Water in Soil of Three Habitats
4.4.1 Materials Required
1. Aluminum ring (3 to 6 inch in diameter)

2. Rubber weight

3. Block of wood or plastic insertion cap

4. Plastic wrap

5. Plastic bottle marked at 107 mL (3-inch ring) or 444 mL (6-inch ring) for
1 inch of water, or graduated cylinder

6. Distilled water or rainwater

7. Stopwatch or timer

4.4.2 Procedure
1. Clear all residues from the soil surface. Drive the ring into the soil to a
depth of 3 inches using a rubber mallet and a plastic insertion cap or
block of wood. The ring should be inserted downward evenly and
vertically. Press soil inside the ring to eliminate gaps.

2. Cover the inside of the ring with plastic wrap, and drape it over the rim.

3. Pour 107 or 444 mL of distilled water or rainwater into the plastic lined
ring. Gently pull plastic wrap away. Record the time it takes for the water
to infiltrate the soil.

4. Repeat the step to determine steady state of infiltration rate.

5. Remove the ring with the soil intact.

These methods can be followed for three soil samples collected from three
different habitats to have a comparison.

4.4.3 Observations and Results

Record the observations for the each soil sample provided to you.

Refer to the table and note the observations.

Soil type infiltration rate (mm/h)

sand less than 30

sandy loam 20 - 30

loam 10 - 20

clay loam 5 - 10

clay 1-5

The infiltration rate depends on soil texture (the size of the soil particles) and
soil structure (the arrangement of the soil particles). 35
BBYCL-134 Plant Ecology and Taxonomy
The infiltration rates for different soils as given by Tidemann (1996) as follows

• low infiltration rate: < 15 mm / hour;

• medium infiltration rate: 15 to 50 mm / hour;

• high infiltration rate: > 50 mm / hour.

Water infiltrates rapidly in a dry soil.

Suggested readings

JoVE Science Education Database. Environmental Science. Soil Nutrient

Analysis: Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Potassium. JoVE, Cambridge, MA,
(2018).

36
Exercise 5 Study of Ecological Adaptations in Plants

EXERCISE 5
Study of Ecological
Ecological
Adaptations in Plants
Structure
5.1 Introduction 5.4 Features of Stem Parasite
(Cuscuta), Root Parasite
Objectives
(Orobanche) (biotic
Study Guide/Prior Reading interactions)
5.2 Adaptations of Hydrophytes 5.5 Features of Epiphytes,
5.3 Adaptations of Xerophytes Insectivorous Plants (biotic
interactions)

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Habitat is the type of natural environment in which a particular species of
organism lives. Plants have adaptations to help them survive (live and grow) in
different areas. Adaptations are special features that allow a plant or animal to
live in a particular place or habitat. Plants have been classified into different
types on the basis of their habitat. Mesophytes are land plants which grow at
the normal land conditions with sufficient water in the soil to live. Hydrophytes
are the plants that grow only in water. Xerophytes are plants which grow in
desert areas with very low water availability and high temperatures. They can
survive in drought conditions like the desert. Epiphytes are plants that grow on
the surface of other plants. These plants are not parasites but survive on other
big and tall-growing trees.

Any feature of an organism which enables it to exist under conditions of its

habitat is called adaptation. Every organism possesses certain adaptive
features which help in its survival or stabilization. Plants growing in dry
habitats (xerophytes) and water bodies (hydrophytes) possess some
specialized morphological and anatomical features that help them to adapt /
survive in those conditions.

Objectives
After doing these exercises you should be able to:

enlist the morphological adaptations in hydrophytes,

37
BBYCL-134 Plant Ecology and Taxonomy

enlist the morphological adaptations in xerophytes,

describe the major features of epiphytes, and

describe the major features of parasites.

5.2 ADAPTATIONS IN HYDROPHYTES

HYDROPHYTES

The plants that grow in water (freshwater or saline) either partially or

completely are known as aquatic plants or hydrophytes. Hydrophytes are of
three types.

Floating Hydrophytes

Plants that float on the surface of water are called floating hydrophytes. They
may be free floating or rooted. These plants float freely on the surface of water
and stay in contact with water and air. They are not rooted in the mud.
Examples- Wolffia sp., Trapa bispinosa, Eichhornia crassipes, Salvinia and
Azolla.

Submerged Hydrophytes

Plants which grow below the water surface are called submerged
hydrophytes. They may be free-floating or rooted. Some plants are rooted in
mud but their leaves and flowering shoots float on or above the surface of
water. Example Vallisneria, Hydrilla, Potamogeton, Najas and Ceratophyllum.

Emergent (Amphibious) Hydrophytes

These plants are adapted to both aquatic and terrestrial modes of life. These
plants grow in shallow water or on the muddy substratum. Roots and some
parts of stems and leaves in these plants may be submerged in water or
buried in mud but some foliage, branches and flowering shoots remain above
the surface of water or spread over the land. The aerial parts show
mesophytic or sometimes xerophytic features, while the submerged parts
develop true hydrophytic characters. Examples- rice (Oryza sativa), Marsilea,
Sagittaria. Ranunculus aquatilis, Phragmites etc. Amphibious plants that grow
in saline marshy places are termed as halophytes. Amphibious plants in which
shoots are completely exposed to air but the roots are buried in water lodged
soil or mud are referred as marsh plants. The common examples are Cyperus,
Typha, Scirpus, Rumex, etc.

5.2.1 Material and Methods

Observe carefully the plant species provided to you. Note down the
morphological features.

38 Hydrophytic species- Hydrilla, Eichhornia (water hyacinth), Wolffia, Lemna.

Exercise 5 Study of Ecological Adaptations in Plants
5.2.2 Procedure
• Observe the plant samples carefully.

• Stem, leaf, and root are separated and the morphological adaptations
are noted.

• The sections of the tissues such as stem, root and leaf are cut to study
anatomical features.

• Transverse section of the tissues such as stem and root are taken,
stained and mounted in glycerin. The prepared slide is observed under
the microscope.

5.2.3 Observations and Results

The major adaptations in hydrophytes have been noted as changes in
morphological and anatomical features.

Morphological features

1. Root systems in hydrophytes are poorly developed. They are either

reduced or absent. Roots are absent in floating forms while submerged
plants (Hydrilla) have less developed roots. The roots may be branched
or unbranched. Root hairs are less developed or absent (Lemna). The
plant body remains in direct contact with water, hence water gets directly
absorbed by the plant surface.

2. The stem is long, slender, weak, spongy and flexible in submerged

hydrophytes, while it is short, stoloniferous, thick and spongy in free
floating plants.

3. The leaves of free-floating forms are smooth, shining and coated with
wax. The leaves of submerged forms such as Hydrilla are thin, ribbon
like. The plants sometimes show heterophylly i.e. two different types of
leaves are present on the same plant. Example- Potamogeton,
Sagittaria. The broad leaves are present on the upper surface while
finely dissected narrow leaves are found submerged in water. The
submerged leaves provide resistance against water currents while the
leaves found on the upper surface of water regulate the hydrostatic
pressure in the plant body.

4. In some floating plants, the petioles become swollen and spongy to

provide buoyancy to plants. Examples- water hyacinth, Trapa etc.

5. Reproduction occurs mainly by vegetative methods such as

fragmentation of shoots or buds.

Anatomical features

1. Parenchyma tissue occupies a large portion of the root and stem. The
tissue helps in the exchange of gases. The parenchyma tissue found in
the hydrophytes contains lots of air spaces, hence known as
aerenchyma. Aerenchyma provides buoyancy and mechanical support
to aquatic plants. Air chambers or spaces are filled with respiratory
gases such as CO2 and moisture. 39
BBYCL-134 Plant Ecology and Taxonomy
2. Hypodermis is poorly developed. Thin walled cells are present in the
region.

3. The vascular tissues are poorly developed. The vascular tissues are not
required in these plants because the absorption of water and nutrients
takes place through surface of plant.

4. Cuticle is absent or poorly developed.

5. Stomata are less in number or absent and exchange of gases takes

place directly through cell walls. If present, they are confined only to the
upper surface of the epidermis.

6. Chlorophyll is present in all the tissues.

(a) (b)

Fig. 5.1: (a) Hydrilla, (b) Sagittaria showing heterophylly.

40 Fig. 5.2: Section of Hydrilla stem.

Exercise 5 Study of Ecological Adaptations in Plants

5.3 ADAPTATIONS IN XEROPHYTES

XEROPHYTES

Plants which grow in dry habitats or xeric conditions are called xerophytes.
These plants are able to survive under conditions of high temperature and
extreme dryness. Xerophytes are found in desert and semi-desert regions.
These plants develop certain morphological and anatomical features that help
in their survival in dry conditions. Plants show excessive transpiration.
Ephemerals or “drought escapers/ evaders” complete their life cycle within a
short period. Succulent plants possess fleshy organs which store water. The
structural and physiological characteristics help in absorption of water,
retaining water in tissues for long time and reduce transpiration to prevent
water loss. Xerophytes are categorized into different groups according to their
drought resisting power. These include:

1. Drought escaping plants

These xerophytes are short-lived. They survive critical dry periods in the form
of seeds and fruits. The seeds possess hard and resistant seed-coats and
pericarps. The seeds germinate at the advent of favorable conditions. The
plants complete their life cycle within a few weeks time. The seeds become
mature before the dry condition approaches. These are called ephemerals or
drought evaders or drought escapers. Examples—members of families
Zygophyllaceae, Boraginaceae, some grasses etc.

2. Drought enduring/ resistant plants

These are small sized plants which have capacity to endure or tolerate
drought. These plants develop certain adaptive features which help them to
resist extreme drought conditions. Some of these plants grow on rocky soils
(lithophytes), deserts, sand and gravel (psammophytes) and waste lands
(eremophytes). Some plants of xeric habitat have water storing organs.
Example- Agave, Bougainvillea, Portulaca, Lithops, Verbena, Lantana.

Xerophytes can also be divided following groups

(1) Succulent and (2) Non-succulents xerophytes

Succulent xerophytes are those plants in which some organs become swollen
and fleshy due to active accumulation of water in them. The plant body is
composed of water storing tissues. Water stored in these tissues is used
during extreme drought conditions.

5.3.1 Material and Methods

Observe carefully the plant species provided to you. Note down the
morphological features.
Xerophytic species such as Opuntia will be provided to you.

5.3.2 Procedure

• Observe the plant samples carefully. 41

BBYCL-134 Plant Ecology and Taxonomy
• Stem, leaf, and root are separated and the morphological adaptations
are noted.

• The sections of the tissues such as stem, root and leaf are cut to study
anatomical features.

• Transverse section of the tissues such as stem and root are taken,
stained and mounted in glycerin. The prepared slide is observed under
the microscope.

5.3.3 Observations and Results

Plants growing in the dry habitats develop certain morphological and structural
changes in them.

Morphological adaptations

1. Xerophytes possess well developed root systems. The roots are

profusely branched and grow very deep in the soil to get access of
water. Root hairs are well developed and help in the absorption of water.

2. Stem is hard and woody and stunted in growth. Example - Acacia,

Zizyphus. In some xerophytes, stems may be modified into thorns.
Example- Duranta, Ulex, etc. In some plants such as Asparagus a
number of axillary branches become modified into small needle-like
green leaf like structures called cladodes. In succulent species such as
Euphorbia stem become green. In succulents, main stem itself becomes
bulbous and fleshy. Stem is covered with thick coating of wax and silica.
Example- Equisetum. In some xerophytes stem are modified into leaf-
like flattened, green and fleshy structures which are termed as
phylloclades. Example- Opuntia, Euphorbia splendens.

3. The leaves are greatly reduced to scales. Leaf blades or pinnae are
reduced. The pinnae are shed from the rachis and the green petiole
swells and becomes flattened taking the shape of leaf. The
photosynthesis is carried out by phylloclades or cladodes (modified
stem). Example- Casuarina, Ruscus, Asparagus. Some xerophytes have
needle-shaped leaves. Example- Pinus. In succulents, leaves are fleshy
because of storage of water and latex. Some plants possess thick and
leathery leaves. The waxy coating present on the upper surface of
leaves reduces transpiration. Example- Calotropis procera.

4. In some plants, the petiole becomes flattened and is termed as phyllode.

The phyllode stores excess amount of water and performs
photosynthesis. Leaves in some extreme xerophytic grasses have
capacity for rolling or folding. The leaves roll upwardly to prevent loss of
water.

5. Hairs are present on the leaves and stems. Example- Zizyphus, Nerium,
42 Calotropis procera.
Exercise 5 Study of Ecological Adaptations in Plants

Fig. 5.3: Opuntia showing reduction of leaves into spines.

Anatomical adaptations

1. Epidermis possesses a well developed cuticle. The leaves show

lignification and wax deposition on the upper surface. This prevents the
loss of water from the surface of plant body. Multiple layered epidermis
present on upper and lower surface of leaves. Example- Two or three
layered epidermis in Nerium leaf.

2. Stomata are reduced in numbers and are mainly confined on the lower
surfaces. The stomata are of sunken type i.e. they are present in the
ridges and furrows or pits of mesophyll region. Subsidiary cells of
sunken stoma are arranged in a way that outer chamber is connected by
narrow opening or the stoma. Example- Equisetum. Walls of the guard
cells and subsidiary cells are heavily cutinized and lignified.

3. Hypodermis consists of one or several layers of thick walled compactly

grouped sclerenchyma cells. The cells are filled with tannin and
mucilage. In leaves, mesophyll is compact and the intercellular spaces
are greatly reduced. They may be spherical, rounded or cuboid in shape.

4. Palisade tissue develops in several layers. In succulent leaves, spongy

parenchyma is present that stores water.

5. Shining smooth surface of cuticle reflects the rays of light and does not
allow them to go deep into the plant tissues. Thus, it checks the heavy
loss of water. Example Nerium odorum.

6. Some species of grasses show rolling up of leaves. This reduces the

exposure of leaf surface to sun. The rolling of leaves occurs due to
highly specialized motor cells. These cells become flaccid during dry
periods. Some of the epidermal cells become enlarged and are called
bulliform cells or motor cells or hinge cells. These are found usually on
the upper surface of leaves.

7. Vascular tissues such as xylem and phloem are well developed.

8. Since the leaves are reduced, the photosynthetic activity is taken up by

outer chlorenchymatous cortex. 43
BBYCL-134 Plant Ecology and Taxonomy

Fig. 5.4: Section of Nerium leaf showing sunken stomata.

5.4 FEATURES OF PARASITES

Parasites
Most plants are autotrophs and produce their food through photosynthesis.
However, some plants lack chlorophyll and behave as parasites. A parasite is
an organism that lives inside the host (other organism) or on a host. The
parasite uses the host's resources to maintain itself. A parasitic plant attaches
itself to another plant via haustorium. Haustoria are special suckers that
invade the host plant and help in absorption of food such as sugars and
minerals. Example- Rafflesia arnoldii is a parasitic plant that invades the
underground roots of vines to take food. Many plants are totally dependent on
their host for food. They are referred as total parasites.

Parasites infect an organism and can spread diseases. The parasites can be
of two types- endoparasites i.e., which live inside the host body or cells and
ectoparasites i.e., which live on the hosts.

Types of Parasitic Plants

Parasitic plants can be categorized into different types depending upon their
attachment to the host, the degree of nutritional dependence upon the host
and requirement of host for completion of life cycle. Parasites have been
divided into two types depending upon their location in plants- stem and root
parasites. Stem parasites occur in several families. These mainly include
members of family Loranthaceae, Lauraceae. Giant dodder (Cuscuta reflexa).
is the most common example of stem parasite. Root parasites occur in diverse
44 taxonomic groups. Most of them belong to broomrape family, Orobanchaceae.
Exercise 5 Study of Ecological Adaptations in Plants
Parasitic plants may also be classified as hemiparasites or holoparasites.
Hemiparasites contain chlorophyll when mature (hence are photosynthetic).
They obtain water and dissolved nutrients by connecting to the host xylem via
the haustorium when mature but complete their life cycle without hosts at
maturity. Example- Triphysaria and Odontites. They are also referred as
facultative parasites.

Holoparasites lack chlorophyll, are non-photosynthetic and totally depend

upon the food contents of the host. They require a host to complete their life
cycle. They are also referred as obligate parasites.

Besides these, some intermediate types are also found. They act as a link
between the facultative and obligate parasites. These include species such as
Cuscuta (dodder). The members of broomrape family (Orobanchaceae) have
been considered as the best examples to study evolution of hemiparasites and
holoparasites.

5.4.1 Material and Methods

Observe carefully the plant species provided to you. Note down the
morphological features.

Plants include Cuscuta (stem parasite) and Orobanche (root parasite)

5.4.2 Procedure
• Observe the plant samples carefully.

• Study the morphology of stem, leaf, and root.

• Cut sections of the tissues such as stem, root and leaf are to study
anatomical features.

5.4.3 Observations and Results

Stem parasite

In stem parasites, the vegetative portion consists of a stem and leaves.

Holoparasites tend to have leaves reduced to scales, succulent stems and a
primary haustorium.

Cuscuta

• Cuscuta (dodder) is stem parasite. The plant depends upon their hosts
for carbohydrates. It belongs to the family Convolvulaceae (morning
glory).

• Plant is leafless with branching stems. The plant tissues lack chlorophyll
and hence plant cannot perform photosynthesis. It grows on other plants
and uses their nutrients for its growth thereby causing weakening of the
host plant.

• The stems are slender, thin and pink or brown in color. The stem
attaches firmly to the host plants. The root gets removed and the mature
plant lives without any attachment to the ground. 45
BBYCL-134 Plant Ecology and Taxonomy
• The leaves are reduced to minute scales.

• The stems coil around the host producing suckers called haustoria.
These are root like organs that penetrate the tissue of a host plant and
help in absorption of food. Hence haustorium is the structure that acts as
an interface from where nutrients, solutes, and carbohydrates are
exchanged between host and parasite.

• The flowers are tiny, yellow or white bell-like and present in clusters.

• Cuscuta completely depends on the host plant to complete their life

cycle, hence is considered as an obligate holoparasite.

• The prehaustorial cells produce adhesive substances such as pectins

and polysaccharides. Cuscuta induces the host plant to produce sticky
substances such as arabinogalactan proteins. These proteins promote
adhesion. The glycoproteins secreted by the host plant localize to the
cell-wall and induce adhesion along with components such as pectins.

Fig.5.5: Cuscuta.

Root parasites

Complete Root Parasite – Orobanche (Broom rape)

• The plant belongs to family –Orobanchaceae (the broomrape family).
Orobanche spp. are total root parasites affecting tobacco, brinjal,
tomato, cauliflower, turnip and many other Solanaceous (eggplant,
tomato, tobacco, potato), Cruciferous plants. The majority of species
grow only on one or two host plants.

• Orobanche includes unbranched parasitic herbs. The plants lack

chlorophyll. The plants are variable in color, ranging from yellowish-
brown and reddish-violet to purple, blue, and orange.

• The plant consists of a stout, fleshy stem 15 to 50 cm long. This stem is

yellow or brownish red in color and is covered by small thin and brown
46 scaly leaves.
Exercise 5 Study of Ecological Adaptations in Plants
• The flower are white and tubular, seeds are small and black in color. The
flowers are born in spike. Fruits are one-celled capsules and many
seeded.

• The plants live directly on their host by attaching strong haustoria to their
roots. The haustoria penetrate the root tissues of the host and absorb
nutrients.

• The seeds require about a week time to germinate. A substance

produced by the roots of mature host plants encourages broomrape
seed germination. Seeds are minute, long-lived (can survive in the soil
for 13 yr).

• It gradually forms a nodule on the host root. As the nodule increases in

size, small prominences emerge on its surface which develops into
roots. They surround the nodule closely, and penetrate the host roots at
other places.

Fig. 5.6: Image showing Orobanche.

5.5 CARNIVOROUS PLANTS (INSECTIVOROUS

PLANTS)
The plants that are capable of capturing and digesting insects and other
animals are referred as carnivorous or insectivorous plants. They use pitfalls
and traps for catching the prey. Leaf acts as a trap. It is generally hollow filled
with liquid to passively collect and digest prey. The traps can be active or
passive and this depends upon on the sticky mucilage. The mucilage may be
present on the leaf surface or on gland-tipped hairs. The dense glandular hairs
present on the leaf surface act as traps and help in absorption of nutrients
from insects. Pitfall traps are found in pitcher plants. Venus flytrap (Dionaea
muscipula) uses rapid leaf movements to capture insects. Bladder traps are
found in bladderwort plants (Utricularia). They actively suck in small organisms
by creating a partial vacuum. Lobster-pot traps are found predominantly in
corkscrew plants (Genlisea), employ downward-pointing hairs to force prey
deeper into the trap.

Carnivorous plants digest their prey through a process of chemical breakdown

similar to digestion in animals using enzymes or bacteria. The end products
are nitrogenous compounds and salts which are absorbed by the plants. 47
BBYCL-134 Plant Ecology and Taxonomy
Most of the carnivorous plants belong to the family Lentibulariaceae. The
family includes bladderworts (Utricularia species), butterworts (Pinguicula,
species), and corkscrew plants (Genlisea sp.). The family Droseraceae mainly
includes sundews (Drosera). Pitcher plants (Nepenthes) constitute the genus
of the family Nepenthaceae. The different trapping mechanisms found in these
plants include

1. Adhesive trap-The leaves have specialized short stalked glands that

secrete sticky mucilage that traps small creatures. The adhesive trap
leaves with tentacles. The tentacles provide a longer grasp of the prey.
The thinner mucilaginous tentacles have been found in Drosera.

2. Pitfall traps are leaves modified into pit-like structures. The the base of
the whorl of leaves seal to form a cup to catch water. Prey slip down the
leaves into the pool at the base and drown. The traps may have
nectaries, bright colors, or a flower-like scent to attract prey. The traps
have hairs to direct prey to the trap opening or cause the prey to fall into
the trap. The lip of the trap is usually slippery and the inside of the trap
waxy. The leaves adjust the pH of the water and release digestive
enzymes.

3. The most dramatic trap is the snap trap. Suction traps move too fast to
see the action. A prey moves into the trap, brushes against the trigger
hairs, and prey gets trapped. The trap will then slowly seal and digest
the prey. The trap reopens after prey has been completely eaten up.
These are found in Dionaea muscipula and Aldrovanda vesiculosa.

4. In Utricularia inflate, suction trap leaves.

Pitcher plant
Venus fly trap
(Nepenthes)
(Dionaea muscipula)

Fig. 5.7: (a) Dionaea; (b) Nepenthes

5.5.1 Material and Methods

Observe carefully the plant species provided to you. Note down the
morphological features.

48 Photographs of the plants Nepenthes, Dionaea and Drosera

Exercise 5 Study of Ecological Adaptations in Plants
5.5.2 Procedure

• Observe carefully the plant samples.

• The plant parts such as stem, leaves and root are separated. The
peculiar features are noted.

5.5.3 Observations and Results

Nepenthes

• It is also called tropical pitcher plant or monkey cup.

• These are perennial herbaceous plants.

• The plant possesses unusual leaf that develops a tendril at its tip. The
tip of the tendril develops an amazing pitcher. The pitcher leaves
function as passive pitfall traps. The pitcher swells and droops due to its
weight.

• As the plant materes matures, leaf suddenly begins to inflate with air. Once
inflated it begins to fill with liquid. The pitcher has a lid present on the top.
When the leaf is fully grown, the lid opens and the trap is ready. They
attract insects with the odor of nectar. Once inside the leaf, wax on the
interior surface does not let the insect get grip on the walls of the pitcher.
Eventually it falls, struggles to escape and this motion stimulates
digestive glands to release a digestive acid.
• The nectar is secreted from the underside of the trap’s lid. The prey slips
from the mouth of the pitcher into a pool of liquid at the bottom. At the
base of pitcher are present sticky hairs.

5.6 EPIPHYTES
Epiphytes are the plants that grows upon another plant or object and get
physical support from them. Epiphytes are not attached through roots to soil.
They get support from other plants. Most epiphytes are found in moist tropical
areas. They are mainly angiospermous flowering plants. Common examples
include species of orchids, members of the pineapple family (Bromeliaceae),
mosses, ferns, and liverworts. They are found in tropical and temperate
regions.

Epiphytes obtain water from rain. The specialized leaves found in some
species absorb moisture. Minerals are obtained from rain, nutrients are
generally absorbed from the debris present on the supporting plants. The seed
dispersal occurs by wind. The seeds are feathery or small dust like.

5.6.1 Material and Methods

Observe carefully the plant species provided to you. Note down the
morphological features.

Photographs of the plants moss, orchid 49

BBYCL-134 Plant Ecology and Taxonomy
5.6.2 Procedure
• Observe carefully the plant samples.

• The peculiar features of the plants are noted.

• The sections of stem, root and leaf are cut and anatomical features are
noted carefully.

5.6.3 Observations and Results

• The plant grows upon another plant for physical support.

• The root system is well developed. The roots may be normal, clinging or
aerial. Normal roots absorb water, minerals, and organic nutrients from
decaying barks of supporting plants. Clinging roots fix the epiphytes on
the surface of the supporting object. They absorb nutrients from the
humus and dust that are accumulated on the surface of bark. Aerial
roots are green, spongy and hang downwardly in the atmosphere. They
absorb moisture from the air. These roots are photosynthetic because of
the presence of chlorophyll. Aerial roots absorb moisture from the humid
air, allowing them to develop on other plants without harming their hosts.
Example -orchid (Dendrobium).

• Stem is generally succulent in vascular plants.

• The leaves are less in number. Some orchids develop only a single leaf
in a growing season. Leaves are mostly fleshy and leathery. The roots
branch and produce number of delicate rootlets. Spoon-like leaves in
rosettes have been reported in members of family Bromeliaceae. These
leaves store rain water which is absorbed by the epidermal hairs present
on the surface of the leaves.

• The fruits and seeds are usually dispersed by wind insects and birds.

Anatomical features

Important anatomical features of epiphytes include

• Epidermis consists of thick cuticle and sunken stomata. These greatly

reduce the loss of water from the plants.

• In succulent epiphytes, thin-walled parenchymatous tissue presents in

the velamen that stores water.

• Aerial hanging roots possess a characteristic greenish white thin-walled

massive tissue called velamen. The velamen is hygroscopic tissue that
rapidly absorbs moisture from the atmosphere. It has been found in
epiphytes belonging to the families Araceae and Orchidaceae. Velamen
has been considered as a modification of multilayered epidermis. The
cells are empty (i.e., dead) and cell walls show spiral or reticulate
thickenings. Inner to the velamen, is present a layer called exodermis.
The cells of exodermis are of two types- one having lignified and thick
walled cells and another having thin walled cells or passage cells. The
walls are permeable to water. The velamen is formed by dead compactly
arranged cells with suberized walls. The velamen absorbs and retains
50 moisture till that is absorbed by passage cells of exodermis.
Exercise 5 Study of Ecological Adaptations in Plants

(a) (b)

Fig. 5.8: (a) Tillandsia; (b) Bromeliad.

Suggested readings

Williams, Stephen E. (1980) How Venus' Flytraps Catch Spiders and Ants.
Carniv. Pl. Newslett. 9(3):65, 75-78 part 1

Katagiri, Yoshiaki (1984) The Leaf Blade Movement of Drosera prolifera.

Carniv. Pl. Newslett. 13(2):52-53

Studnicka, Miloslav (2003) Further problem in Genlisea Trap untangled?

Carniv. Pl. Newslett. 32(2):40-45

Volkova, Polina A. and Shipunov, Alexey B. (2009) The natural behavior

of Drosera: Sundews do not catch insects on purpose. Carniv. Pl. Newslett.
38, 114-120.

51
BBYCL-134 Plant Ecology and Taxonomy

EXERCISE 6

Determination of Minimal
Quadrat Size for the
Study of Herbaceous Vegetation
in the College Campus by Species
Area Curve Method
Method

Structure
6.1 Introduction 6.2 Requirements
Objectives 6.3 Procedure
Study Guide/Prior Reading 6.4 Observations and Results

6.1 INTRODUCTION
Plant species are not evenly distributed in an area. They may be present in
high numbers at some places and less in number at other places. The
distribution of species in an area is referred to as frequency. The plant
frequency can easily be measured using quadrat method. A quadrat is a
sampling unit (it could be in the form of a frame) that marks specific area of
the community. The quadrat is a sample plot or unit for a detailed analysis of
vegetation. It is a plot of specific size used to study a population or a
community. Quadrats are used to assess vegetation, measure parameters
such as plant density, frequency and biomass. It is difficult to find frequency of
plant species for large populations or extensive habitats. Frequency varies
according to size and shape of the quadrats used. Quadrats may be square,
rectangular or circular in shape. In case of rectangular quadrat, ratio of
breadth and length is generally 1: 2 or 1: 4 or 1: 8. Phytosociological analysis
can be carried out using quadrat method.

Community analysis is carried by measuring quadrats [10m X 10m (100sqm)

size] randomly to study tree species and shrub species present in a given
area. A single quadrat cannot sample a community adequately, hence
52 repeated quadrat samples are taken. The herbaceous species was studied by
Exercise 6 Determination of Minimal Quadrat Size for the Study of Herbaceous
Vegetation in the College Campus by Species Area Curve Method
laying 50 quadrats of 1m X 1m (1 m2) size randomly in each study site. For
herbaceous vegetation quadrat size of 1m2 is used. The size of the quadrat
depends on the layer or type of vegetation being sampled.

Vegetation Dimensions Area(m2)

Mosses 10 x 10cm 0.01

Herbaceous 31.6 x 31.6cm 0.1

Forest floor herb 1x 1m 1

Shrub 3.16 x 3.16 m 10

Forest/tree 10 x 10m 100

The concept of quadrat or sample-plot method was given by Clements

(1898). In the study of forest community quadrats of one-fifth acre are
established to include maximum number of trees. In study of shrubs and grass
covers usually small size quadrats are used. For grassland and low
herbaceous community, the quadrats of one square meter size or 50 cm x 50
cm size or even 20 cm x 20 cm size are used.

The total basal area is measured at breast height (1.5m) and calculated using
the formula πr2. In case of herbaceous vegetation it is measured on the
ground level by using calipers.

Types of Quadrats

Quadrats are named according to the use.

(i) List quadrats

When the organisms encountered in the sample plot are listed by their
names, the quadrat is called list quadrat. It includes all the species
botanically identified or otherwise. This quadrat gives floristic analysis of
the community. This is used for studying the frequency of different
species.

(ii) Count quadrat or list-count quadrat

In this type of quadrat, name and the number of individuals of each

species present in an area are recorded. This type of quadrat is used for
forest survey.

(iii) Cover quadrat

This quadrat records the ground area covered or shaded by vegetation.

(iv) Chart quadrat

Quadrats are mapped to scales to show the location of individuals of

species. Individual plants are recorded on miniature quadrat on a graph
paper. This is carried out with the help of instrument called pantograph.
This measures long range vegetational changes. 53
BBYCL-134 Plant Ecology and Taxonomy

Objective
After performing this practical exercise you will be able to:

understand the use of quadrat in analysis of vegetation,

describe the use of quadrat in determining the frequency, abundance

and density of a species present in a given area, and

determine the cover area for a species.

6.2 REQUIREMENTS
Measuring scale, nails, thread, hammer.

6.3 PROCEDURE
1. Visit any green area and lay down a series of horizontal and vertical grid
lines in the area.

2. In each grid count the number of species present. Also note the total
number of plant belonging to each species.

3. This can be repeated in plots of different sizes. Number of species are

recorded for each plot.

4. The optimum quadrat size taken for the study of vegetation is 50 cm x

50 cm. The size is ascertained from the species-area curve analysis.
The different parameters measured during the sampling include:

o Counts–number of individuals of a species

o Cover–the area (%) of the quadrat occupied by a plant species

o Density–number of individuals of a species per unit area.

o Frequency–number of quadrats in which the species is present

o The occurrence and numerical strength of each species in each

quadrat gives assessment of frequency and density.

5. Frequency : The number of quadrats in which occurrence of a species

is observed in relation to the total number of quadrats sampled gives the
frequency. It indicates the number of times a plant species is present
within a given number of sample quadrats. This term refers to the
degree of dispersion of individual species in an area. The study area is
randomly sampled at several places and the name of the species is
recorded. It can be calculated using the formula

Frequency (%) = (Number of sampling units in which the species

occurs)/(Total number of sampling units employed for the study) X100

6. Density : The numerical strength of a species in present in definite unit

space is called its density. It refers to the number of individuals of a
54
Exercise 6 Determination of Minimal Quadrat Size for the Study of Herbaceous
Vegetation in the College Campus by Species Area Curve Method
particular species per unit area. The number of individuals of a species
in all quadrats, expressed as the fraction of number of total quadrats
sampled gives the density of that species. Variation in distribution is
caused by several factors like soil conditions, vegetative propagation,
quantity and dispersal of seeds, grazing or other biotic activities and
predation by insects or diseases.

Density of a species per unit area = Total number of individuals of a

species in all the sample plots/Total No. of sample plots studied

7. Abundance : Abundance refers actually to density of population in

those quadrats in which a given species occurs. To determine
abundance, the sampling is done by quadrat or other methods at
random at many places. In grasslands abundance can be recorded by
uprooting the plants. It is the study of the number of individuals of
different species in the community per unit area. The number of
individuals of each species was summed up for all the quadrats divided
by the total number of quadrats in which the species occurred. It is
calculated using the formula

Abundance of a species = Total number of individuals of the species in

all quadrats /Total number of quadrats in which the species occurred

8. Cover : The cover implies the area covered or occupied by the leaves,
stems and flowers, as viewed from the top. The coverage is studied at
the canopy level and the basal region. In forest, each layer of vegetation
is considered separately for measuring the coverage. Basal cover is the
basal area covered by crowns or stems penetrating the soil. Basal area
in grasslands refers to the coverage of ground one inch above the
ground surface by stems and leaves. It is also called herbage cover. The
coverage can be measured by quadrat method, transect method and
point method of sampling.

A table provided by Daubenmire given various cover classes for

categorization of species.

Cover class Range of coverage (%)

1 0-5

2 5-25

3 25-50

4 50-75

5 75-95

6 95-100

6.4 OBSERVATIONS AND RESULTS

The number of plants of each species present in each grid and the quadrat is
counted. Similarly note down the observations for at least 10 such quadrats. 55
BBYCL-134 Plant Ecology and Taxonomy
The data obtained is used for calculating the frequency, density abundance of
the vegetation using the formulae provided.

The numbers of species found in the plots of different sizes are plotted on
vertical axis (Y axis) against sample plot sizes plotted on the horizontal axis (X
axis). A graph is drawn with size of the quadrat on X axis and number of
species on the Y axis. A sigmoid curve will be obtained. This is called species-
area curve. The point at which the curve starts flattening up is the minimum
size of the quadrat required sampling that field.

Number of quadrat Number of species

1 ---

2 ----

3 ----

4 ----

5 ----

50

40

Number of
30
species

20

10

100 200 300 400 500

Quadrat area (cm2)

Table 6.1: Measurement of plant frequency in a given size quadrat.

Quadrats Number of Total Frequency

quadrats in number of (%)
Name of
which quadrats
the
species studied
species
occur

1 2 3 4 5

56
Exercise 6 Determination of Minimal Quadrat Size for the Study of Herbaceous
Vegetation in the College Campus by Species Area Curve Method
Table 6.2: Measurement of plant density in a given size quadrat.

Name Quadrats Number of Total Density

of the species in number of
species all the quadrats
quadrats studied

1 2 3 4 5

Table 6.3: Measurement of Plant abundance in a given size quadrat.

Name Quadrats Total Number of Abundance

of the number of quadrats
species individuals in which
of the species
species in occur
all quadrats

1 2 3 4 5

Precautions

The quadrat should be of such small size so that it can cover maximum
number of species.
Suggested readings

Baxter J. (2014) Vegetation Sampling Using the Quadrat Method. In: Methods
in EEC (BIO221B) Dept. of Biological Sciences.

57
BBYCL-134 Plant Ecology and Taxonomy

EXERCISE 7

Analysis
Quantitative A nalysis of
Herbaceous Vegetation for
Frequency and Comparison with
Raunkiaer’s Frequency
Distribution Law
Law

Structure
7.1 Introduction 7.2 Requirements
Objectives 7.3 Procedure
Study Guide/Prior Reading 7.4 Observations and Results

7.1 INTRODUCTION
Frequency can be defined as the degree of uniformity of the occurrence of
individuals of a species within a plant community. It indicates the number of
times a plant species is present within a given number of sample quadrats. In
a community, the individuals of all the species are not evenly distributed. The
individuals of some species are widely spaced while those of some other
species are found in clumps. The distribution patterns of individuals of different
species indicate their reproductive capacity as well as their adaptability to the
environment.

Frequency can be calculated using the formula

% Frequency = (Number of sampling units or quadrats in which the species

occurs)/(Total number of sampling units or quadrats employed for the
study)*100

Suppose, species ‘A’ occurred in 4 quadrats out of total ten quadrats studied,
the frequency of species A will be

4/10 x 100 = 40%

58
Exercise 7 Quantitative Analysis of Frequency of Vegetation and Comparison
Using Raunkiaer’s Frequency Distribution Law
Raunkiers Frequency Distribution Law
Danish botanist Christen C. Raunkier in his study on plant communities gave
‘Occupancy frequency distribution (OFD)’. Raunkiaer recognized five
frequency classes of plant species in the community on the basis of their
frequency percentages. He divided the species into five classes A, B, C, D
E. Raunkiaer (1934) suggested that the number of species in frequency
class A is greater than that of class B; B is greater than in class C, class C is
greater, or equal or lesser than class D; and D is lesser than class E. i.e. A > B
> C = D < E. This is also known as Raunkiaer’s ‘frequency law’. From the
above law it is apparent that the species with low frequency value are higher
in number than the species with higher frequency value in most natural
communities. A reverse J shaped curve is obtained as Raunkier’s Frequency
distribution diagram.

The frequency class distribution is given on the basis of occurrence of

species.

The classes are:

Class A 1-20% frequency
Class B 21-40% frequency
Class C 41-60% frequency
Class D 61-80% frequency
Class E 81-100% frequency
If the individuals of a species are evenly distributed over the area they may
occur in the sample plots and thus the frequency of species will be 100%.
Poorly dispersed species will occur only in a few quadrats and their frequency
will be low. This indicates that higher the frequency value of a species in the
area the greater will be the uniformity in the spread. Some species abundantly
spread all over the area have a chance of occurring in all the sampling
quadrats and therefore, its frequency will be 100. The plants with high
frequency are wide in distribution.

The dispersion of species in relation to that of all the species is termed as

relative frequency of a species. The relative cover, relative density and relative
frequency determine the proportional representation of each species relative
to the entire plant community.
Relative cover is the proportional cover of an individual species as a
percentage of total plant cover. It is expressed as a percentage, ranging from
0–100%.

Relative frequency, relative density and relative dominance, was also drawn to
compare the overall phytosociological importance of the species.

Relative density is the proportion of density of a species to that of stand as a

whole. It is the study of numerical strength of a species in relation to the total
number of individuals of all the species. The degree of dispersion of individual
species in an area in relation to the number of all the species occurred.

Dominance of a species is determined by the value of the basal cover. It is the

coverage value of a species with respect to the sum of coverage of the rest of
the species in the area. 59
BBYCL-134 Plant Ecology and Taxonomy
These parameters can be calculated by the formulas

Relative frequency (RF)= Frequency of the species/Sum of the frequencies for

all species in stand x 100

Relative density (RD) = Total no. of individuals of a species/Total no. of

individuals of all species x 100

Relative dominance (RDQ)= Total basal area of a species/total basal area of

all species X 100

An ‘Importance Value’ (IV) for each species is derived from the combined
contribution of the relative cover, relative density and relative frequency of
each species in the community. Importance gives the measure of overall
influence of a plant species in the community. This is because it combines
relative cover, density and frequency, importance values range from 0–300.
The relative value of these vegetational parameters (density, frequency and
dominance) was calculated to compute Importance Value Index (IVI) for each
species.

Objectives
After doing this practical exercise you will be able to

describe the use of quadrat in determining the frequency, abundance

and density of a species present in a given area,

describe the Raunkiers Frequency Distribution Law, and

categorize the species given in a specific area into different classes

according to their frequency.

7.2 REQUIREMENTS
Measuring scale, nails, thread, hammer.

7.3 PROCEDURE
1. Visit any green area and lay down a series of horizontal and vertical grid
lines in the area.

2. In each grid count the number of species present. Also note the total
number of plant belonging to each species.

3. The number of quadrats in which occurrence of a species is observed in

relation to the total number of quadrats sampled.

7.4 OBSERVATIONS AND RESULTS

The data obtained is put in the table and the frequency of the species is
60 determined using the given formula.
Exercise 7 Quantitative Analysis of Frequency of Vegetation and Comparison
Using Raunkiaer’s Frequency Distribution Law

Name Quadrats Number of Total Frequency

of the quadrats in number of (%)
species which quadrats
species studied
occur

1 2 3 4 5

Frequency indicates the number of times a plant species is present within a

given number of sample quadrats. More frequent is the occurrence of the
species, more is the frequency.

Precautions

The quadrat should be of such small size so that it can cover maximum
number of species.

Suggested readings

Baxter J. (2014) Vegetation Sampling Using the Quadrat Method. In: Methods
in EEC (BIO221B) Dept. of Biological Sciences.

61
BBYCL-134 Plant Ecology and Taxonomy

EXERCISE 8
To Study the Ve
Vegetative
getative and
Floral Characters of Some Dicot
and Monocot Families

Structure
8.1 Introduction 8.3 Material Required

Objectives 8.4 Method

8.2 Study Guide 8.5 Observations

8.1 INTRODUCTION
Identification is central to the study of plant taxonomy and systematics. The
initial step is to identify and classify the angiosperms till the family level. This is
because a family is considered to be the smallest of the major classification
categories and represents a more natural unit than any of the higher
categories. To do so, a systematic description of the plant specimens and to
assign them to their families forms the basis of any taxonomic investigation. A
practical study of plants enables us to study the diagnostic morphological
features, classify and identify their families using the identification key. In this
exercise we will be describing five families Solanaceae, Brassicaceae,
Asteraceae, Lamiaceae and Liliaceae of which four Solanaceae,
Brassicaceae, Asteraceae, Lamiaceae are dicot families and Liliaceae is a
monocot family.

Objectives
After doing this exercise you should be able to:

describe the vegetative and floral characters of Solanaceae,

Brassicaceae, Asteraceae, Lamiaceae and Liliaceae;

draw the floral diagram and write floral formula of the families you have
studied;

differentiate between flowers of dicot and monocot plants; and

to identify the members of families Solanaceae, Brassicaceae,

Asteraceae, Lamiaceae and Liliaceae.
62
Exercise 8 To Study of Vegetative and Floral Characters of Some Dicot and Monocot Families

8.2 STUDY GUIDE

Flowering plants are classified on the basis of their vegetative and floral
structures. As you know that the reproductive characters are more
conservative (change less quickly than others in evolution), the study of a
flower becomes an important aspect for identification of a plant and its
classification into a family. You have to observe flower carefully to study
features such as presence of bracts, pedicel, perianth and understand the
number and arrangement of sepals and petals, stamens and gynoecia.
Generally the flowers are well differentiated in calyx and corolla but in some
plants the flowers are not well differentiated into sepal and petal, are presented
as perianth. The perianth consists of tepal or tepals. As flower is the important
part for identifying a family. You will also study how to write floral formula and
draw floral diagram. The description of floral characters needs to be illustrated
and presented in the form of a floral formula and a floral diagram. For this you
must be familiar with the technical vocabulary. A glossary of semi technical
terms has been provided to you at the end of this section. Here, we are going
to study some selected families of dicots and monocots. One or two
representative species from each family have been described in detail.

8.3 MATERIAL REQUIRED

In addition to general Biology Kit and Laboratory Kit provided you will require:

a) Plants

Family Plant

Solanaceae Solanum nigrum, Withania somnifera

Brassicaceae Brassica campestris, Iberis amara

Asteraceae Sonchus oleraceus, Tridax procumbens

Lamiaceae Salvia officinalis,Ocimum sanctum

Liliaceae Asphodelus tenuifolius, Allium cepa

b) Other Requirements

Hand Lens

File Book

Two Dissecting needles with sharp, pointed tips

A pair of fine forceps

Dissecting microscope

A sharp razor blade

Slides
63
Coverslips
BBYCL-134 Plant Ecology and Taxonomy
8.4 METHOD
Description of flora is based on the study of several plants occurring in the
region. The characters of each plant are studied in detail. We begin with the
habit of the plant and the morphology of different structures. The
morphological data includes – firsthand information about the type of the plant
(tree, shrub, climber or herb), the size of the plant, the habit of the plant
(prostrate, erect, etc.), leaf shape and its arrangement, type of inflorescence,
the structure of the flower and type of fruits. The structural details include
information about aestivation (arrangement) of petals and sepals and the type
of placentation.

You have to record and draw all the vegetative and floral structures of the
families you are studying, in your note book and get it checked by the teacher
concerned. Draw the entire flower; make l. s. of flowers, draw a floral diagram,
and construct floral formula of each plant that you are studying. Each and
every diagram gives vital information about the plant.

i) Drawings

You should draw whole flower is in such a way that diagram depict as many
structural details as possible (Fig. 8.1). The structure of flower is drawn after
cutting the flower into two halves along a longitudinal plane. This is done with
a sharp razor blade, starting at the pedicel, dividing through the centre of the
abaxial side of the flower. Then lay the flower on the table or on the slide
under a dissection microscope (if flower is small) and make a sketch of it. After
drawing the half flower, you could observe details of the attachment of various
parts to the receptacle (Fig. 8.1)Make a transverse section of the ovary with
the help of a sharp razor blade to determine the type of placentation and to
find out the number of ovules. Place the sections on a clean glass slide, mount
in glycerine/water and observe by placing a cover slip under a dissection
microscope.

Fig. 8.1 a, b: Drawings of complete and half flower showing attachment of parts
64 to the receptacle and internal structure of ovary.
Exercise 8 To Study of Vegetative and Floral Characters of Some Dicot and Monocot Families
ii) The Floral Diagram

The floral diagram is drawn to show the numbers and relationships of the
different parts of the flower in a very formal way.

The various symbols used are shown in Table 8.1. These include a symbol for
the axis of the inflorescence (drawn away from you) to which the flower is
attached and for the bract (drawn nearer to you) which subtends the flower.
Between these two are sketched four whorls of floral parts, viz., calyx,
corolla, androecium and gynoecium, represented as four concentric circles.
If there is more than one whorl of petals and stamens there will be more
circles. When some of the floral parts are spirally arranged, a spiral is
superimposed on the appropriate circle. The symbols for each part (Table 8.1)
are then added (Fig. 8.2) depicting such characters as aestivation of calyx and
corolla, then direction in which stamens open (introrse or extrorse), adnation
or connation of stamens and the number and position of loculi as well as the
placentation in the T. S. of the ovary. When the floral diagram is complete (Fig.
8.2), you can read most of the characteristics of the flower.
Table 8.1: Symbols used in floral diagrams.

Floral parts, etc. Symbol

Floral axis

Subtending bract

Sepal

Petal

Perianth parts (when all petalloid) as for petals

Aestivation Overlapping of edges in diagram

Connation of petals, sepals edges

joined by loop or line

Stamens

introrse

extrorse

Connation of stamens

anther filaments (stamina tube)

Adanation of stamens (e.g.

epipetalous

Carpel gynoecium Draw t. s. showing placentation 65

BBYCL-134 Plant Ecology and Taxonomy

Fig. 8.2: Construction of a floral diagram, using symbols shown in Table

(Caesalpinia pulcharrima).
66
Exercise 8 To Study of Vegetative and Floral Characters of Some Dicot and Monocot Families
iii) The Floral Formula

Floral formula is another way of representating of the structure of flower. The

first symbol in the formula shows whether flower is actinomorphic or
zygomorphic and whether it contains both stamens and pistil or only stamens
or pistil. Calyx is represented by K and corolla by C and numbers of sepals or
petals are added. If the sepals or the petals are united then a bracket encloses
the number. For perianth symbol P is used. The stamens are depicted as A
and adanation of parts is indicated by adding a single bracket, above the
letters representing the part involved. Gynoecium is represented by symbol G
and after adding the number of carpels, a line is drawn under the number if
ovary is superior and over the number if ovary is inferior.

Table 8.2: Symbols used floral formula.

Floral part or Symbol Example

characteristic
Symmetry
Actinomorphic ⊕
Zygomorphic %
Sex of flower
Staminate (Male)

Pistillate (Female)

Hermaphrodite

Calyx K K5 – sepals free

K(5) – sepals fused
Corolla C C5 – petals free
C(5) – petals fused
Perianth parts (if all the P P5 – 5 perianth parts, free
same)
P(5) – 5 perianth parts, fused
Androecium A A(5) – stamens fused
Indefinite number A∞ = indefinite number
Gynoecium G
Ovary superior G3 – 3 carpels, free
Ovary inferior G G3– 3 carpels, inferior

Connation Brackets K(5) = 5 connate sepals

Adnation Horizontal bracket C5 A5 = 5 epipetalous stamens

The description given here is an attempt to summarise the characteristic

features of families and genera. The families described here have been
selected to illustrate typical variations in the dicot and monocot pattern and to
give a reasonable cross–section of some important families. Under each
family general description and characters are given with a brief description of
some common example/s. 67
BBYCL-134 Plant Ecology and Taxonomy
Study of the following families has been done as description, V.S. flower,
section of ovary, floral diagram/s, floral formula/e and systematic position is
assigned according to Bentham & Hooker’s system of classification.

8.5 OBSERVATIONS
(A) Study of Vegetative and Floral Characters of the Family
Solanaceae.

SOLANACEAE – NIGHTSHADE FAMILY

General characters

The family consists of 91–102 genera and about 2925 species. Some 18
genera and 88 species are found in India.

The family consists of herbs, shrubs and trees,

Leaves – simple, pinnate usually spiral or exstipulate,

Infloresence – usually cymose; sometimes solitary flowers,

Flower– generally bracteate, pedicillate, usually actinomorphic (rarely

zygomorphic), bisexual, hypogynous and pentamerous,

Perianth– biseriate, tubular, hypanthium absent,

Calyx – symsepalous (=gamosepalous), generally valvate aestivation

persistent, 5 calyx lobes,

Corolla – sympetalous, variously shaped, funnel shaped (infundibulum), bell

shaped (companulate) or rotate; convoluate, imbricate or valvate lobes,
valvate aestivation, Scale or hair–like outgrowths may arise from the inside of
corolla tube,

Androecium – Stamens 5, antipetalous (opposite the petals), and epipetalous

(attached to the petals), anthers dithecous,longitudinal in dehiscence,

Gynoecium – bicarpellary syncarpous, superior ovary, ovary obliquely placed,

2 locules, axile placentation, and anatropous ovules. A hypogynous
nectariferous disc is present at the base of the ovary,

Fruit – berry, drupe, or capsule.

Floral formula

Common Indian forms are Solanum, Nicotiana, Cestrum, Capsicum, Petunia,

68 Datura, Hyoscyamus and Lycopersicum.
Exercise 8 To Study of Vegetative and Floral Characters of Some Dicot and Monocot Families
Solanum nigrum

Kingdom : Plantae

Class : Dicotyledonae

Sub–Class : Gamopetalae

Series : Bicarpellatae

Order : Polemoniales

Family : Solanaceae

Genus : Solanum

Species : S. nigrum

Habit – annual herb,

Root – tap, branched,

Stem – erect, branched, herbaceous, cylindrical, solid, glabrous

Leaf – simple, alternate, cauline, petiolate, exstipulate, ovate, dentate, acute,

reticulate venation,

Inflorescence – extra–axillary helicoid cyme,

Flower – pedicillate, ebracteate, hermaphrodite, actinomorphic, complete,

pentamerous, hypogynous,

Calyx – 5 sepals, gamosepalous, oblong, acute, green, hairy, valvate or

imbricate aestivation,

Corolla – 5 petals, gamopetalous, oblong, acute, twisted or valvate

aestivation,

Androecium – 5 stamens, polyandrous, epipetalous, short filaments equal in

length, anthers oblong, basifixed, introrse, yellow,

Gynoecium – 2 carpels (bicarpellary), syncarpous, superior ovary, globose,

bilocular, axile placentation, stigma one, bilobed

Fruit – berry with persistent calyx.

Floral formula –

69
BBYCL-134 Plant Ecology and Taxonomy

Fig. 8.3: Solanum nigrum (a) Branch with inflorescence; (b) L.S. of flower; (c)
70 Stamens; (d) Carpel; (e) Floral diagram.
Exercise 8 To Study of Vegetative and Floral Characters of Some Dicot and Monocot Families
i) Withania somnifera

Kingdom : Plantae

Class : Dicotyledonae

Sub–Class : Gamopetalae

Series : Bicarpellatae

Order : Polemoniales

Family : Solanaceae

Genus : Withania

Species : W.somnifera

Habit – a perennial herb,

Root – tap root, branched,

Stem – erect, aerial, herbaceous with basal part woody, branched, cylindrical,
solid, hairy green,

Leaf – cauline, exstipulate, petiolate, alternate, simple, ovate, entire, acute,

glabrous, unicostate reticulate,

Inflorscence – cymose, axillary umbellate cyme,

Flower – ebracteate, sub–sessile, actinomorphic, regular, hermaphrodite,

pentamerous, hypogynous, complete, cyclic,

Calyx – 5 sepals, gamosepalous, campanulate, pentafid valvate, persistent,

green, hairy, inferior,

Corolla – 5 petals, gamopetalous, valvate, campanulate, greenish–yellow,

inferior,

Androecium – 5 stamens, polyandrous, epipetalous, antipetalous

(alternipetalous) dithecous, basifixed, introrse,

Gynoecium – 2 carpels (bicarpellary), syncarpous, ovary superior, bilocular,

many ovules in each locule, axile placentation, obliquely placed ovary,
placenta swollen, style long, stigma bifid and capitate,

Fruit – Berry enveloped by persistent calyx.

Floral formula –

71
BBYCL-134 Plant Ecology and Taxonomy

Fig. 8.4: Withania somnifera (a) Branch with inflorescence; (b) Stamens and
Carpel; (c) Floral diagram; (d) T.S. of ovary.

Classification and Identification

Class. Dicotyledonae

1. Cotyledons two

2. Venation reticulate

3. Flowers pentamerous

Sub–Class. Gamopetalae

1. Petals fused

Series. Bicarpellatae

1. Carpels two

2. Ovary usually superior

Order. Polemoniales

1. Alternate, exstipulate leaves

72 2. Flowers actinomorphic
Exercise 8 To Study of Vegetative and Floral Characters of Some Dicot and Monocot Families
Family. Solanaceae

1. Flowers solitary terminal or cymosely umbelled

2. Septum is oblique and the placentae are highly swollen

3. Fruit– berry or capsule

(B) Study of vegetative and floral characters of the family Brassicaceae

BRASSICACEAE (MUSTARD FAMILY)

General characters

This family consists of 321–338 genera, 3400–3700 species. In India, the

family is represented by 51 genera and 138 species. Plants contain a watery,
pungent juice.

Habit – herbs,

Leaves – simple, often lobed or divided, spiral, exstipulate, with branched or

unbranched hairs,

Inflorescence – indeterminate raceme, rarely solitary, axillary flowers,

Flower – bisexual, complete, mostly actinomorphic, pedicillate, ebracteate,

tetramerous and hypogynous. The receptacle is elongated to form gynophore,
perianth is dichlaymydeous and cruciate,

Calyx – 4, free caudaceous sepals, arranged in two whorls of 2 each (2+2),

the outer large, saccate, inner two narrower,

Corolla – 4, free distinct petals, arranged in a whorl. Imbricate aestivation,

show a distinct cruciform arrangement (long claws spread out in the form of
the Greek symbol cross) Valvate aestivation,

Androecium – usually consists of 6 stamens, biseriate, tetradynamous, 2+4

outer two shorter, antisepalous, inner 4 longer, anthers dithecous, basifixed,
introrse with longitudinal dehiscence, disc is often present at the base of the
stamens which has four basal nectarines,

Gynoecium – Bicarpillary, syncarpous with superior ovary, with two parietal

placentae, a false septum (replum) extends from the parietal placenta dividing
the ovary into two locules, placentation axile – parietal, each carpel has two
ovules ,style simple or absent, stigma two–lobbed or discoid,

Fruit – capsule called siliqua.

Floral Formula –

The common Indian genera are Brassica, Raphanus, Nasturtium, Iberis,

Coronopus, Draba and Lepidium. 73
BBYCL-134 Plant Ecology and Taxonomy
i) Brassica campestris

Kingdom : Plantae

Class : Dicotyledonae

Sub–Class : Polypetalae

Series : Thalamiflorae

Order : Parietales

Family : Brassicaceae

Genus : Brassica

Species : B.campestris

Habit – annual cultivated winter herb,

Root – taproot, branched,

Stem – erect, herbaceous, cylindrical, slightly hairy, branched, solid,smooth,

green,

Leaf – cauline, simple, alternate, exstipulate ,petiolate, glabrous, upper leaves

entire, lower leaves lyrate, unicostate, reticulate venation,

Inflorescence – Racemose, Corymbose raceme,

Flower – pedicellate, ebracteate,actinomorphic, hermaphrodite, hypogynous,

complete, tetramerous, cruciform,cyclic, bright yellow,

Calyx – sepals 4, polysepalous, arranged in whorls of two each, 2 outer

anterio–posterior, sepals on inner whorl are lateral and longer, imbricate
aestivation,

Corolla – four petals, polypetalous, each petal consists of a limb and

claw,cruciform arrangement, imbricate aestivation,

Androecium – stamens six, polyandrous, arranged in two whorls, two outer

short stamens, four inner long stamens (tetradynamous), anthers dithecous,
basifixed, introrse,

Gynoecium – two carpels (bicarpellary), syncarpous, ovary superior,

unilocular, divided into two chambers by a false septum (replum) parietal
placentation, style short, stigma bilobed,

Fruit – a narrow, pod–like Siliqua.

74 Floral formula–
Exercise 8 To Study of Vegetative and Floral Characters of Some Dicot and Monocot Families

Fig. 8.5: Brassica campestris (a) Branch with inflorescence; (b) L.S. of flower;
(c) Stamens and carpel; (d) T.S. of ovary; (e) Floral diagram. 75
BBYCL-134 Plant Ecology and Taxonomy
i) Iberis amara

Kingdom : Plantae

Class : Dicotyledonae

Sub–Class : Polypetalae

Series : Thalamiflorae

Order : Parietales

Family : Brassicaceae

Genus : Iberis

Speices : I. amara

Habit – annual herb,

Root – taproot, branched,

Stem – erect, herbaceous, aerial, branched, green, solid, rough surface,

Leaf – cauline, simple, alternate, sessile, glabrous, exstipulate, unicostate

reticulate venation,

Inflorescence – Racemose, corymb,

Flower – pedicellate, ebracteate, complete, bisexual, zygomorphic,

hypogynous, tetramerous, cyclic,white,

Calyx – four sepals, polysepalous, arranged in whorls of two each, imbricate

aestivation

Corolla – four petals, polypetalous, two outer petals large, two inner petals
small, each petal consists of a limb and claw, cruciform, valvate, white,

Androecium – stamens six, free (polyandrous), arranged in two whorls, two

outer short stamens, four inner long stamens (tetradynamous), anthers
dithecous, basifixed, introrse,

Gynoecium – two carpels (bicarpellary), syncarpous, ovary superior,

unilocular when young but becomes bilocular at maturity due to the formation
of false septum – replum; parietal placentation, style long, stigma capitates,

Fruit – Siliqua.

Floral formula –

76
Exercise 8 To Study of Vegetative and Floral Characters of Some Dicot and Monocot Families

Fig. 8.6: Iberis amara (a) Branch with inflorescence; (b) L.S. of flower; (c)
Stamen ; (d) Carpel; (e) Floral diagram.

Classification and Identification

Class. Dicotyledonae
1. Cotyledons two
2. Venations reticulate.
3. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub–Class. Polypetalae

1. Petals free.
Series. Thalamiflorae

1. Flowers hypogynous and ovary superior.

Order. Parietales

1. Carpels united to form unilocular ovary with parietal placentation.

Family. Cruciferae

1. Herbs with alternate exstipulate leaves.

2. Corolla cruciform.
3. Stamens tetradynamous.
4. Ovary bicarpellary, syncarpous, unilocular but becomes bilocular due
to the development of a false septum; fruit siliqua. 77
BBYCL-134 Plant Ecology and Taxonomy
(C) Study of vegetative and floral characters of the family Asteraceae

ASTERACEAE/COMPOSITAE (SUNFLOWER FAMILY)

General characters

Asteraceae is a large family comprising around 1530 genera and about 23,850
species of which 138 genera and 708 species are represented in India.

The family consists of herbs, shrubs and trees. Lactiferous or resin ducts are
present in some taxa.

Inflorescence – Inflorescence is elaborate called head or capitulum. The

highly reduced individual flower is called floret. Each head consists of a flat or
conical receptacle that bears one or more type of flowers. Head can be
homogamous or heterogamous. Each capitulum has numerous florets on a
common receptacle and is surrounded by involucre of bracts. The central
florets having tubular corolla are called as disc florets. They form the central
disc of the capitulum. The outer ring of flowers surrounding the disc florets is
called ray florets. They are usually sterile or pistillate. They form a circle
around the margin of the head. In homogamous head, both the florets are
same in structure i.e. all are bisexual, either regular (tubular) or ligulate. In
heterogamous type, there is a distinction between the florets. The central disc
florets are bisexual while the peripheral ray florets are ligulate and pistillate.
Head can either be discoid i.e. having bisexual disc flowers, disciform i.e.
having pistillate or sterile bisexual or staminate disc flowers, radiate i.e.
having central disc flowers and peripheral ray flowers or ligulatei.e; having
bilabiate ray flowers.
Flower – Bracteate, sessile,epigynous bisexual or unisexual, pentamerous,
besides ray and disc florets, neutral florets are also present,

Calyx – Usually represented by scale or hairs (pappus) having 2–infinite

awns, bristles or scales,

Corolla – sympetalous, having 5 lobeswith 3–5 teeth at the end can be

bilabiate, corolla zygomorphic with a short tube, or actinomorphic with short or
elongated tube, ligulate,

Androecium – Stamens –5, whorled, epipetalous,alternipetalous,

syngenesious, fuse to form a tube,anthers basifixed, longitudinal or introrse,

Gynoecium – bicarpillary,syncarpous, with inferior ovary, 2 carpels, one

locule, basal placentation. Style solitary, branched, stigma two, basal
placentation, ovule anatropus, unitegmic,
Fruit – Cypsella.
Floral formula –

78
Exercise 8 To Study of Vegetative and Floral Characters of Some Dicot and Monocot Families
Some common members of Asteraceae in India are: Sunflower (Helianthus
annuus), Marigold (Tagetes erecta), Lettuce (Lactuca sativa), Safflower
(Carthamus tinctorius), Carrot grass (Parthenium hysterophorus),Vernonia
arborea, Xanthium, Crysanthemum and Dahlia.

i) Sonchus oleraceus

Kingdom : Plantae

Class : Dicotyledonae

Sub–Class : Gamopetalae

Series : Inferae

Order : Asterales

Family : Asteraceae

Genus : Sonchus

Species : S. oleraceus

Habit – annual and sometimes biennial herb,

Root – taproot, upright with many branches,

Stem – simple or branched, glabrous, cylindrical, green, milky,

Leaf – cauline, alternate, simple, lower leaves petiolate, middle and upper
leaves elliptic, oblanceolate, or lanceolate, entire soft, glabrous, acutely
prostrate, coarsely spinulosely dentate margin, apex acute,

Inflorescence – capitulum, involucre of bracts at the base of inflorescence;

homogamous with rayflorets only,

Flower – bracteate, sessile, ligulate, zygomorphic, complete, pentamerous,

epigynous, cyclic,

Calyx – reduced to pappus (persistent),

Corolla – petals 5, gamopetalous, ligulate, strap–shaped, valvate, yellow,

Androecium – stamens 5, epipetalous, syngenecious, dithecous, basifixed,

introrse,

Gynoecium – bicarpellary, syncarpous, ovary inferior, unilocular, placentation

basal, singleovule style long, single, stigma bifid,

Fruit – Cypsella.

Floral formula–

79
BBYCL-134 Plant Ecology and Taxonomy

Fig. 8.7: So nchus: (a) Branch with inflorescence; (b) Disc floret; (c) L.S of ovary;
80 (d) Floral diagram.
Exercise 8 To Study of Vegetative and Floral Characters of Some Dicot and Monocot Families
ii) Tridax procumbens

Kingdom : Plantae

Class : Dicotyledonae

Sub–Class : Gamopetalae

Series : Inferae

Order : Asterales

Family : Asteraceae

Genus : Tridax

Species : T.procumbens

Habit – a perennial herb, found growing as weed in waste land,

Root – tap root, hairy,

Stem – herbaceous, weak, cylindrical, decumbent, branched, hairy,

Leaf – pedicillate, exstipulate, simple, opposite, margins dentate(toothed or

lobed) showing reticulate venation,

Inflorescence – solitary capitulum on long peduncle, head and receptacle

surrounded by green involucres, heterogamous, the tubular disc–florets
occupy the centre and the ligulate ray florets found at the margins. Biseriate
bracts forming a campanulate involucres,

Flower – central deep yellow disc florets, marginal/peripheral light yellow ray
florets,

Disc florets – bracteolate,bracteoles thin and persistent,yellow,complete,

bisexual, pentamerous, actinomorphic,

Calyx – reduced into numerous hairy outgrowths called pappus; arranged on

top of ovary,

Corolla – petals 5, gamopetalous, regular, tubular, ligulate or bilabiate,valvate

aestivation, deep yellow,

Androecium – absent in ray florets; in disc florets –Stamens 5, epipetalous,

syngenesious, filaments free,alternate with petals. Anthers dithecous,
basifixed, introrse and dehiscing longitudinally,

Gynoecium – bicarpellary, syncarpous,ovary inferior, unilocular with a single

ovule, basal placentation. Style simple,long, passing through anther tube,bifid
hairy stigma,

Ray florets – bracteolate, bracteoles membranous, tubular, sessile,

incomplete, pistillate, zygomorphic, epigynous,

Calyx – represented by hairy pappus, 81

BBYCL-134 Plant Ecology and Taxonomy
Corolla – trifid, gamopetalous,ligulate,

Androecium – absent,

Gynoecium – bicarpillary,syncarpous, inferior ovary, unilocular with single

basal ovule, stigma bifid,

Fruit – cypsela with persistent pappus.

Floral Formula –

Classification and Identification

Class. Dicotyledonae

1. Cotyledons two

2. Venation reticulate.

3. Flowers pentamerous.

Sub–Class. Gamopetalae

1. Petals fused.

Series. Inferae

1. Ovary inferior.

2. Stamens usually as many as corolla lobes.

Order. Asterales

1. Stamens epipetalous.

2. Ovary unilocular with one ovule.

Family. Compositae

1. Leaves generally alternate.

2. Inflorescence capitulum.

3. Calyx reduced to hairy pappus.

4. Stamens epipetalous and syngenesious.

82
Exercise 8 To Study of Vegetative and Floral Characters of Some Dicot and Monocot Families

Fig. 8.8: Tridax (a) Branch with inflorescence; (b) Disc and ray floret; (c) L.S of
disc floret; (d) T.S. of ovary; (e) Floral diagram of disc floret; (f) Floral
diagram of ray floret. 83
BBYCL-134 Plant Ecology and Taxonomy
(D) Study of vegetative and floral characters of the family Lamiaceae

LAMIACEAE/LABIATAE (MINT FAMILY)

General characters

The family comprises about 264 genera and 6990 species all over the world.
Some 64 genera and 350 species occur in India.

Habit – It consists of aromatic herbs and shrubs. Short stalked glandular

trichomes producing ethereal essential oils are present on all parts of the
plant. These produce the characteristic aroma,

Root – Tap and branched root,

Stem – aerial, herbaceous, rarely woody, quadrangular, hairy, branched,

sometimes underground suckers,

Leaves – simple, opposite, rarely whorled, exstipulate, hairy, with aromatic

smell,

Inflorescence – Commonly verticillaster consisting of a pair of condensed

dichasial cymes at each node, solitary or axillary flowers,

Flowers – Pedicillate or sessile, bracteate, complete mostly zygomorphic,

hermaphrodite, pentamerous, hypogynous,

Calyx – 5 sepals, gamosepalous, bilabiate with ¼ or 2/3 arrangement of

sepals, valvate or imbricate aestivation,

Corolla – 4 to 5 corolla lobes. Corolla has a tubular base which widens

towards the mouth. Petals 5, gamopetalous. Five lobes are unequal and
mostly bilabiate. Valvate or imbricate aestivation,

Androecium – Stamens 4, didynamous (2+2), posterior 2 stamens reduced

as staminodes, epipetalous, longitudinal dehiscence, anthers dithecous and
introrse,

Gynoecium – Bicarpillary, syncarpous, superior, situated on hypogynous

honey secreting disc; usually bilocular but becomes tetralocular by the
formation of false septum, one ovule in each locule, style– gynobasic (arising
from the base of the ovary), stigma bilobed,

Fruit – schizocarpic/carcerulus.

Floral formula:

Common Indian members of Lamiaceae include Oscimum, Salvia, Mentha,

Coleus and Nepta.
84
Exercise 8 To Study of Vegetative and Floral Characters of Some Dicot and Monocot Families
i) Salvia officinalis

Kingdom : Plantae

Class : Dicotyledonae

Sub–Class : Gamopetalae

Series : Bicarpillatae

Order : Lamiales

Family : Lamiaceae

Genus : Salvia

Species : S.officinalis

Habit – an annual herb with strong aromatic smell,

Root – Tap, branched,

Stem – herbaceous, erect, aerial, branched, quadrangular (4 sided), solid,

green,

Leaves – cauline or ramal, simple, opposite, exstipulate, ovate, serrate, acute,

aromatic smell, reticulate venation,

Inflorescence – Verticillaster, 6 flowered whorls,

Flowers – pedicellate, bracteate, hermaphrodite, zygomorphic, complete,

hypogynous, pentamerous, cyclic,

Calyx – 5 sepals, gamosepalous, bilabiate, 2 lobes in one whorl and 3 in the

other, imbricate aestivation, inferior,

Corolla – 5 petals, gamopetalous, corolla tube short, bilabiate (4/1), upper lip
of 4 petals and lower of 1 petal; imbricate aestivation, inferior, white or purple,

Androecium – Stamens fertile 2, (sometimes didynamous with 2 stamens

absent or present as staminodes),polyandrous, epipetalous, short filament
connected to a long connective, versatile, anthers stamen bears half fertile
anther lobe at the posterior end and a small flat sterile anther lobe at the
anterior, introrse,

Gynoecium – bicarpellary, syncarpous pistil, ovary superior, bilocular ovary in

early stages but tetralocular at later stages, axile placentation, one ovule in
each locule, style gynobasic i.e., arises from the base of the ovary, stigma
bifid,

Fruit – carcerulus.

Floral formula – 85
BBYCL-134 Plant Ecology and Taxonomy

Fig. 8.9: Salvia(a) Branch with inflorescence; (b) Gynobasic style; (c) T.S of
ovary; (d) Floral diagram.
86
Exercise 8 To Study of Vegetative and Floral Characters of Some Dicot and Monocot Families

ii) Ocimum tenuiflorum

Kingdom : Plantae

Class : Dicotyledonae

Sub–Class : Gamopetalae

Series : Bicarpillatae

Order : Lamiales

Family : Lamiaceae

Genus : Ocimum

Species : O.tenuiflorum

Habit – a perennial herb with aromatic smell,

Stem – erect, aerial, branched, quadrangular (4 sided), woody, solid, green,

Leaves – cauline or ramal, simple, opposite, sometimes whorled or

exstipulate, ovate, serrate, acute, aromatic smell, reticulate venation,

Inflorescence– Verticillaster, 6–10 flower whorls,

Flowers – pedicellate, bracteate, hermaphrodite, zygomorphic, complete,

hypogynous, pentamerous, cyclic,

Calyx – 5 sepals, gamosepalous, bilabiate,posterior or upper lip broad, lower

or anterior tip with four small sepals, petaloid (purple), anterior lip with small
lobes, posterior lip broad, imbricate aestivation, inferior,

Corolla – 5 petals, gamopetalous, bilabiate, upper lip 4 lobed, lower lip large,
imbricate aestivation, inferior, white or purple,

Androecium – Stamens 4, polyandrous, didynamous, epipetalous, fifth

(posterior) stamen completely suppressed, anthers bicelled, introrse,
dorsifixed,

Gynoecium – bicarpellary,syncarpous with superior ovary, ovary bilocular in

early stages but tetralocular in later stages, axile placentation, single ovule in
each locule, style gynobasic i.e., arises from the base of the ovary, stigma
bifid,

Fruit – Carcerulus.

Floral formula –

87
BBYCL-134 Plant Ecology and Taxonomy

Fig. 8.10: Ocimum (a) Branch with inflorescence; (b) Flower showing ovary and
gynobasic style c) T.S of ovary showing ovules; (d) Floral diagram.
88
Exercise 8 To Study of Vegetative and Floral Characters of Some Dicot and Monocot Families
Lamiaceae

Classification and identification.

Class. Dicotyledonae

1. Cotyledons two

2. Venation reticulate.

3. Flowers pentamerous.

Sub–Class. Gamopetalae

1. Petals fused.

Series. Bicarpellatae

1. Carpels two.

2. Ovary usually superior.

Order. Lamiales

1. Flowers zygomorphic.

2. Corolla bilipped.

3. Stamens 4, didynamous or 2.

4. Ovary 2 – 4 locular.

5. Fruit drupe or schizocarpic.

Family. Labiatae

1. Stem quadrangular

2. Decussate or whorled exstipulate leaves.

3. Inflorescence verticillaster.

4. Gynoecium generally bilocular with 2 ovules in each locule, sometimes

tetralocular with one ovule in each locule.

5. Style gynobasic.

6. Fruit carcerulus.

(E) Study of vegetative and floral characters of the family Liliaceae.

LILIACEAE (LILY FAMILY)

General characters

Family Liliaceae comprises some 250 genera and 2500 species of which 35
genera with about 190 species grow in India.

Habit – perennial herbs,

Root – fibrous, adventitious, sometimes tuberous, 89

BBYCL-134 Plant Ecology and Taxonomy
Stem – bulbous or rhizomatous, phylloclade or cladode,

Leaves – basal or cauline, alternate or whorled, sheathing, simple

exstipulate/stipulate,
Inflorescence – terminal raceme or umbel; sometimes solitary,

Flowers – actinomorphic or zygomorphic, pedicellate,bisexual, complete,

bracteates,
Perianth – 6 tepals,biseriate(in two whorls of 3 each), free or united,
homochlamydeous or dichalamydeous, tepals often larger and showy,
Androecium – 6 stamens, into whorls of 3+3, distinct and free, anthers
dithecous, usually basified, introrse or extrorse, logitudinal or terminal pore,
Gynoecium – tricarpillary, syncarpous with superior ovary, style solitary,
simple, trilocular,
Stigma – trilobed, placentation axile,
Fruit – Capsule or berry.

Floral Formula –

Common examples of Liliaceae members are: Allium, Lilium, Tulipa, Gloriosa,

Yucca, Dracaena, Smilax, Asparagus and Ruscus.
i) Asphodelus tenuifolius (H. Piazi)

Kingdom : Plantae

Class : Monocotyledonae

Series : Coronarieae

Order : Liliales

Family : Liliaceae

Genus : Asphodelus

Species : A.tenuifolius

Habit – annual herb,

Root – adventitious, fibrous,

Stem – small bulb (compressed stem),

Leaf – radical, slender, erect, fistular, glabrous, pointed, sessile, parallel
venation,
Inflorescence – racemose, raceme,

Flower – bracteate, pedicellate, complete, actinomorphic, bisexual,regular,

hypogynous, trimerous, small,

Perianth – six tepals (in two whorls of three each), polytepalous, valvate,
90
white, free or united at the base, imbricate aestivation,
Exercise 8 To Study of Vegetative and Floral Characters of Some Dicot and Monocot Families
Androecium – stamens six (in two whorls of three each), epiphyllous,
polyandrous, filaments broad at the base of the ovary, anthers dithecous,
basifixed or versatile, introrse, brown,

Gynoecium – tricarpellary, syncarpous, ovary superior, trilocular, each locule

with two ovules, placentation axile, style short, stigma three lobed, yellow,

Fruit – Small loculicidal capsule.

Floral formula –

Fig. 8.11: Asphodelus (a) Branch with inflorescence; (b) L.S. of flower; (c) T.S. of
ovary; (d) Floral diagram. 91
BBYCL-134 Plant Ecology and Taxonomy
ii) Allium cepa (H. Piaz)

Kingdom : Plantae

Class : Monocotyledonae

Series : Coronarieae

Order : Liliales

Family : Liliaceae

Genus : Allium

Species : A.cepa

Habit – an annual cultivated herb,

Root – adventitious fibrous,

Stem – underground tunicated bulb, reduced to a conical disc like structure,

Leaves – radical, cylindrical, long, exstipulate, sessile, fleshy, sheathing leaf

base, hollow,

Inflorescence – Many monochasial cymes grouped together. These appear

like a terminal umbel on a leafless scape, each cyme is enclosed by 2 or 3
membranous bracts arranged in an umbellate manner,

Flower – pedicillate, braceteate, actinomorphic, complete, hermaphrodite,

trimerous, white,

Perianth – 6 tepals, arranged in 2 whorls of 3 each; gamophyllous, united at

the base, white imbricate aestivation,

Androecium – stamens 6, arranged in two whorls of 3 each, polyandrous,

epiphyllous, anthers large, dithecous, dorsifixed, introrse,

Gynoecium – tricarpillary, syncarpous, ovary superior, trilocular, axile

placentation, 2 ovules per locule, style short, stigma 3–lobed,

Fruit – a loculicidal capsule.

Floral formula –

92