CHAPTER FIVE: WAVES

5.0 Introduction
Wave motion provides the means of transfer of energy from one body to another. Different forms
of energy are transferred through waves, they include sound, light, heat, vibrations, x-ray radiation,
microwave, etc.
A Wave motion is defined as the disturbance which travels through the medium as a result of the
constant motion of the particles of the medium about their mean position.
For example, a stone thrown vertically on the surface of the water will push the water molecules
away from the direction of the falling stone. After some time, the water molecules appear to return
back to its original shape due to their elastic nature. In this way, the gravitational force of the
falling stone caused the water position to be elevated and then depressed about their mean position
thereby vibrating up and down motion called simple harmonic motion.

Vertical direction of a falling stone

Direction of propagation of wave

A B C D E

Figure 5.1: Wave on the surface of the water

Wave propagation takes place in a medium with the following properties:
(i) Elasticity: This is the tendency of the medium to return to its original shape or position after
being distorted of stressed.
(ii) Inertia: This is the ability of the medium to store energy
(iii) Frictional resistance: This is the small opposition to an external force to avoid the dissipation
of energy.
Waves are disturbances usually set up by vibrating bodies, which result in the transfer of energy
from one region of the medium to the other. They occurred both in material medium and free
space.

Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter, the student should be able to:
1. define wave motion and mention the types of waves;
2. classify waves according to their mode of propagation;
3. distinguish transverse waves and longitudinal waves;
4. mention the properties of wave motion; and
5. use wave equations to solve a simple problem.

5.1 Classification of waves

Waves are classified according to their mode of propagation.
(a) Plain-progressive (traveling) waves. This is the type of wave in which the waveform
moves along repeatedly with the speed of the wave and with the same frequency.

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(b) Stationary or standing waves. These are waves produced by the superposition of two
progressive waves traveling in the opposite direction in the same medium.
5.1.1 Type of waves
Waves are of three main types:
1. Mechanical waves. These are waves that require a material medium for their propagation and
the motions of these waves are governed by Newton’s law. The material medium for which these
waves exist is water, air, and rock. The waves are very common as we meet them every day in our
environment. Examples include water waves, sound waves, waves on a rope of string, and seismic
waves.
2. Electromagnetic waves. These are those waves that do not require a material medium for their
propagation. These waves are not common but are constantly used. Examples include light waves,
visible and ultraviolet light, radio and television waves, microwaves, x-rays, and radar waves.
Light waves from stars, for example, travel through the vacuum of space to reach us. All
electromagnetic waves travel through a vacuum at the same speed c = 299 792 458m/s or 3x10 8m/s.
3. Matter waves. These waves are linked to the movement of matter particles though, there are
commonly used in modern technology. They are associated with electrons, protons, neutrons and
other fundamental particles, and even atoms and molecules. Because we commonly think of these
particles as constituting matter, such waves are called matter waves.
5.1.1.1 Mechanical waves
Mechanical waves are classified into two types, namely transverse and longitudinal waves.
Transverse waves
These are wave whose displacements of the medium are perpendicular to the direction of travel of
the wave along with the medium. That is, transverse waves are those waves for which the particle
of the medium moves at right angle to the direction of the propagation of the wave. Examples of
transverse waves are:
 Water waves
 Waves on a plucked string
 Electromagnetic waves (light waves)
5.1.1.2 Longitudinal waves
This wave occurs when the displacements of the medium are parallel to the direction of travel of
the wave along with the medium. That is, longitudinal waves are those waves for which the
particles of the medium tend to move in the same direction as the wave. Example; sound wave and
earthquake.
5.1.2 Features of waves
(i) The wave is produced by the constant motion of the medium particle.
(ii) The particles of the medium vibrate about their mean position but they are not permanently
displaced in the wave’s propagation direction.
(iii) The phase difference between the particles of the medium changes frequently as the wave
propagates.
(iv) The velocity of the wave is constant throughout the medium.
(v) The velocity of the wave is different from the velocity of the particle.
(vi) During wave motion, only energy is transferred, but not a piece of the medium.

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5.2 Characteristics of wave motion
(i) Amplitude (A) - Is the maximum displacement or height of a crest or a trough relative to the
equilibrium level. It is measured in meters (m).
(ii) Wavelength (λ) - Is the distance between two successive Crest or two Successive troughs. It is
the horizontal distance that is covered by a wave after one complete oscillation. It is measured in
meter (m).
(iii) Period (T) - Is the time it takes a particle to execute a complete cycle of oscillatory motion
from one extreme to the other extreme and back. It is measured in seconds (s).
(iv) Frequency (f) - Is the reciprocal of the period, it is defined as the number of cycles per unit of
time.
1
f 
T
The unit of frequency is the cycle per second (cy/s), which is also called hertz (Hz).
(v) Wave velocity (v) - Is the velocity at which any part of the waveform moves forward. The
velocity of the wave along the string is different from the velocity of a particle of the string.
Wave velocity, v = fλ
where f is the frequency and λ is the wavelength. v is measured in metres per second (m/s).
(vi) A cycle is the complete to-and-fro movement or oscillation of a vibrating particle.

5.3 Graphical representation of waves

Consider the case of a plane progressive simple harmonic wave originating at the origin 0 and
traveling in the positive x-axis with the velocity, v.

Fig 5.1.1: Parts of a transverse wave

5.4 Wave equation

Progressive wave equation
An equation is formed to represent the displacement y of a vibrating particle in a medium in which
the wave passes. Let us consider a one-dimensional sinusoidal wave traveling along the x-axis
from left to right. O will vibrate according to the equation.
y  A sin wt 5.1
where t is the time taken and w  2f , is the angular frequency.

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At a particular point along the x-axis from 0 to P the phase ϕ vibration will be different from that
at 0, Figure 5.2.
Displacement y

φ=

0
P A
X

λ
Figure 5.2: Progressive wave equation

The phase difference at P is given by

2x


Then the displacement of any particle at a distance, x and time, t from the origin is given by

Angular frequency
Displacement at
time t Amplitude
time Phase angle

y(t )  Asin(wt   )
Phase

The name of the quantities in equation 5.2 for the transverse sinusoidal wave l
y  A sin(wt   ) 5.2
2x
y  A sin( wt  ) 5.3

2x
y  A sin( 2ft  ) 5.4

For v = fλ, w = 2πf
2
y  A sin (vt  x )

2 2
For w  and k  , equation 5.4 may be written as
T 
t x
y  A sin 2 (  ) 5.5
T 
Equations 5.5 represent a plane progressive wave, the negative sign in the bracket indicates that,
since the wave moves from left to right, the vibration at point P to the right of 0 will lag on that
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0. But for a wave traveling in the opposite direction from right to left, arrives at P before 0 so
vibration at P leads that at 0. Therefore, a traveling wave in the opposite direction is given by
t x
y  A sin 2 (  ) 5.6
T 
2 x
y  A sin (vt  ) 5.7
 
y  A sin(wt  kx) 5.8

5.5 Stationary (standing) and Progressive (traveling) waves

Stationary (standing) wave

Stationary wave also referred to as standing wave is a wave which oscillates in time but whose
peak amplitude profiles does not move in space. The peak amplitude of the wave oscillations at
any point in space is constant with time, and the oscillations at different points throughout the
wave are in phase. The phenomenon is the result of interference between two waves travelling in
opposite directions; their energies are either added together or cancelled out. This interference
occurs in such a manner that specific points along the medium appear to be standing still.

On a stationary wave, the locations at which the absolute value of the amplitude is minimum is
referred to as nodes and the locations where the absolute value of the amplitude is maximum are
referred to as antinodes. All the particles in a given segment vibrate in phase but in opposite phase
relative to the particles in the adjacent segment.

In a standing wave, the particles at the nodes are permanently at rest but other particles attain their
position of momentary rest simultaneously. All the particles attain their own maximum velocity at
the same time when they pass through their mean positions. In the case of a longitudinal stationary
wave, the variation of density is different at different points being maximum at the nodes and zero
at the antinodes.

The most common cause of standing waves is the phenomenon of resonance in which standing
waves occur inside a resonator due to interference between waves reflected back and forth at the
resonator’s resonant frequency.

One common example of standing waves is two people shaking either end of a jump rope. If they
shake in sync the rope can form a regular pattern of waves oscillating up and down, with stationary
points along the rope where the rope is almost still (nodes) and points where the arc of the rope is
maximum (antinodes). Standing waves are also observed in optical media such as optical
waveguides and optical cavities.

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 Standing wave

Characteristics Of Stationary Waves

1. A stationary wave also referred to as standing wave remains in a constant position.
2. The energy is not propagated onwards because each particle possesses its own characteristic
vibration.
3. The particles of the medium at nodes are permanently at rest but other particles attain their
position of momentary rest simultaneously.
4. The amplitude of vibration of the particles changes from zero at nodes to maximum at antinodes.
5. All the particles in a given segment vibrate in phase but in opposite phase relative to the particles
in the adjacent segment.
6. All the particles attain their own maximum velocity at the same time when they pass through
their mean positions.
7. Stationary waves do not undergo forward motion and due to its crests and troughs blink at the
initial position.
8. In stationary wave, the distance between three successive nodes or anti-nodes is referred to as
wavelength.
9. The wavelength of stationary wave is denoted as twice the distance between adjacent nodes
(nλ=2L, where n=1, 2, 3…).
10. All particles oscillate at the same frequency but the particles at nodes do not.
11. In a longitudinal stationary wave, the variation of density is different at different points being
maximum at the nodes and zero at the antinodes.
12. The equation of a stationary wave is, y= A sin 2π/λ (vt)

Progressive (traveling) wave

Progressive wave also referred to as travelling wave, is a wave which travels continuously in
medium in the same direction without the change in its amplitude. They are those waves having
visible disturbances meaning the vibrations can be seen moving throughout the material. The
disturbance produced in the medium travels onward, it being handed over from one particle to
the next. Each particle executes the same types of vibration as the preceding one, though not at
the same time. The amplitude of each particle is the same but the phase changes continuously.

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 In a progressive wave, no particle is permanently at rest. Different particles attain the state of
momentary rest at different instants. All the particles attain the same maximum velocity when
they pass through their mean positions. In the case of a longitudinal progressive wave, all the
parts of the medium undergo similar variation of density one after the other. At every point there
will be a density variation. Examples of progressive waves are sound waves, water waves, etc.

Progressive wave

Characteristics Of Progressive Waves

1. A progressive wave also referred to as travelling wave moves away from the source. It moves
relative to a coordinate system in a fluid.
2. The energy is transmitted from one point to another due to movement of vibration within the
molecules of the wave.
3. No particle of the medium is permanently at rest. Different particles attain the state of
momentary rest at different instants.
4. The amplitude of vibration of each particle is the same throughout but there is significant
variation in phase.
5. Each particle executes the same type of vibration as the preceding one, though not at the same
time.
6. All the wave particles attain the same maximum velocity when they pass through their mean
positions.
7. In progressive wave the wave undergoes forward motion and thus the crests and troughs are
also in motion.
8. In progressive wave, the distance between successive crests of a transverse wave and distance
between compression and rarefaction is referred to as wavelength.
9. The wavelength of a progressive wave is simply equal to the distance between the particles at
the same phase (nλ=L, where n=1, 2, 3..).
10. Particles oscillate at the same frequency.
11. In a longitudinal progressive wave, all the parts of the medium undergo similar variation of
density one after the other. At every point, there will be a density variation.
12. The equation of a progressive wave is, y= A sin 2π/λ (vt-x)

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 Difference Between Stationary and Progressive Waves in Tabular Form

S/N BASIS OF STATIONARY WAVES PROGRESSIVE WAVES

COMPARISON
1 Description A stationary wave also referred to as A progressive wave also referred to as
standing wave remains in a constant travelling wave moves away from the
position. source. It moves relative to a coordinate
system in a fluid.
2 Energy The energy is not propagated onwards The energy is transmitted from one point
because each particle possesses its own to another due to movement of vibration
characteristic vibration. within the molecules of the wave.
3 Particle At The particles of the medium at nodes are No particle of the medium is permanently
Nodes permanently at rest but other particles attain at rest. Different particles attain the state
their position of momentary rest of momentary rest at different instants.
simultaneously.
4 Amplitude Of The amplitude of vibration of the particles The amplitude of vibration of each
Vibration changes from zero at nodes to maximum at particle is the same throughout but there
antinodes. is significant variation in phase.
5 Particle All the particles in a given segment vibrate Each particle executes the same type of
Vibration in phase but in opposite phase relative to the vibration as the preceding one, though
particles in the adjacent segment. not at the same time.
6 Particle All the particles attain their own maximum All the wave particles attain the same
Velocity velocity at the same time when they pass maximum velocity when they pass
through their mean positions. through their mean positions.
7 Forward Stationary waves do not undergo forward In progressive wave the wave undergoes
Motion motion and due to its crests and troughs forward motion and thus the crests and
blink at the initial position. troughs are also in motion.
8 Wavelength In stationary wave, the distance between In progressive wave, the distance
three successive nodes or anti-nodes is between successive crests of a transverse
referred to as wavelength. wave and distance between compression
and rarefaction is referred to as
wavelength.
9 Wavelength The wavelength of stationary wave is The wavelength of a progressive wave is
Equation denoted as twice the distance between simply equal to the distance between the
adjacent nodes (nλ=2L, where n=1, 2, 3…). particles at the same phase (nλ=L, where
n=1, 2, 3..).
10 Particle All particles oscillate at the same frequency Particles oscillate at the same frequency.
Oscillation but the particles at nodes do not.
11 Variation Of In a longitudinal stationary wave, the In a longitudinal progressive wave, all the
Density variation of density is different at different parts of the medium undergo similar
points being maximum at the nodes and zero variation of density one after the other.
at the antinodes. At every point, there will be a density
variation.
12 Equation The equation of a stationary wave is, y= A The equation of a progressive wave is, y=
sin 2π/λ (vt) A sin 2π/λ (vt-x)

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5.6 Properties of waves
(i) Diffraction of waves
Diffraction occurred when traveling waves passed through a narrow opening or move around a
barrier in their path for the wave tends to spread out. This usually happens when the size of the
aperture or obstacle is of the same order or size as the wavelength of the incident wave. For very
small aperture sizes, the vast majority of the wave is blocked. For large apertures, the wave passes
by or through the obstacle without any significant diffraction.

Figure 5.3: Single slit diffraction

Figure 5.3: Single slit diffraction when a wave passes through an aperture with a width smaller
than the wavelength (d is less than wavelength, d<λ). For a significant amount of the wave to pass
through, the aperture must be close to the size of the wavelength

(ii) Reflection of waves

Reflection is the change in direction of wavefronts when they meet a boundary or an obstacle.
Several things happened when a wave meets an obstacle depending on the nature of the boundary,
part of the waves is absorbed, transmitted, and reflected. Some examples of waves are the
reflection of light, sound, and water waves.

(iii) Refraction of waves

Refraction involves a change in the direction of waves as they pass from one medium to another.
The path of the wave is either bent away from the normal, depending on whether the second
medium is less dense or denser, respectively than the first medium when there is oblique incidence.
This change in the direction of the wave is due to the change in velocity of the wave entering a
different medium. As the velocity changes, there is a corresponding change in wavelength while
the frequency remains the same. The amount of refraction or bending of the wave depends on the
ratio of velocities of the waves in the two media.
The velocity of wave v is
 f
v 1
2 f
where λ1 is the wavelength in the first medium, λ2 is the wavelength in the second medium and f
is the unchanging frequency.

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5.7 Principle of superposition
When two waves travel through a medium, their combined effect at any point can be found by the
principle of superposition.
The principle of superposition of wave states that when two or more waves pass through the same
region of space at the same time, the actual displacement of any point at any time is the vector (or
algebraic sum of the separate displacement).

Y1

Y2

Figure 5.4: Two pulses traveling in opposite directions along a stretched string

For example, the sound waves produced from a musical concert is a combination of many
instruments that are heard from one source. Suppose that two waves in Figure 5.4 travel
simultaneously along the same stretched string. Let y1(x, t) and y2(x, t) be the displacements that
the string would experience if each wave traveled alone. The displacement of the string when the
waves overlap is then the algebraic sum given by
y(x t) = y1(x1t) + y2(x2t)
Supposed the waves are up to three or more the equation is written as
y(x t) = y1(x1t) + y2(x2t) + y3 (x3t) … yn(xnt)
where n is the number of waves displayed in the medium.

5.8 Interference
This is the wave phenomenon that occurs when two or more waves overlap in the same region of
space. Consider two waves pause of the same amplitude and frequency on a cord propagation
along the x-axis in the opposite directions. The displacement of the two waves are
y1(x,t) = Asin (kx – wt) 5.9
y2 (x,t) = Asin (kx + wt) 5.10
The displacement of the resulting wave is given as
y (x,t) = Asin (kx – wt) ) + Asin (kx + wt) 5.11
1
A = (2A sinkx) coswt
The amplitude of the resulting wave A1 = 2Asinkx 5.12
The resulting wave is known as a standing wave. It is not a traveling wave but an oscillation that
has a position-dependent amplitude. A standing wave does not transfer energy from one end to the
other, unlike traveling waves.

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EXERCISE 5

5.1. If the time for one complete cycle of oscillation is 0.30s, what is the frequency?
Solution
T = 0.30s
f= = = 3.33Hz
.

20x
5.2. A progressive wave is represented by the equation y  0.5 sin( 20t  ) where y is in m, t
17
in second, and x the distance from the point 0, in metres. Calculate (i) the amplitude (ii) the
wavelength and (iii) the speed of the wave.
Solution
20x 2x
Comparing the equation y  0.5 sin( 20t  ) with y  A sin( wt  )
17 
(i) 0.5m
(ii) – =−
×
λ= = 1.7m
(iii) w = 2πf = 20π
f= = 10Hz
V = fλ = 10 x 1.7 = 17m/s

5.3. The displacement of a progressive wave is given as y  2.00 sin 3.62t  2.11x  . What is the
frequency of the wave?
Solution
A = 2.00cm, k = 2.11 and w = 3.62
Recall: y  A sin wt  kx  (1)
Given that y  2.00 sin 3.62t  2.11x  (2)
Comparing equations 1 and 2
w = 2πf = 3.62
.
f= = = 0.576Hz

5.4. A wave of amplitude 0.54m has a frequency of 3.0Hz as it travels with a velocity of 18m/s.
What is the angular frequency, period, wavelength, and wave number of the wave?
Solution
A = 0.54m, f = 3.0Hz and v = 18m/s
The angular frequency is w = 2πf = 2π x 3 = 18.85rad/s
The period is T = = = 0.33s
.
The wavelength is λ = = = 6m
.
The wavenumber is k = = = 1.047m-1

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Summary of Chapter 5
1. Amplitude (A) - Is the maximum displacement or height of a crest or a trough relative to the
equilibrium level. It is measured in metre (m).
2. Wavelength (λ) - Is the distance between two successive Crest or two Successive troughs.
Measured in metre (m)
3. Period (T) - Is the time it takes a particle to execute a complete cycle of oscillatory motion from
one extreme to the other extreme and back. It is measured in seconds (s).
4. Frequency (f) - Is the reciprocal of the period, it is defined as the number of cycles per unit time:
f=

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER 5

5.1. When a pebble is dropped into a pond of still water, what happens?
A. Particles move B. Waves move C. The pebble moves D. Water moves

5.2. Mechanical waves are called elastic waves.

A. True B. False C. none of the above D. all of the above.

5.3. What are the essential properties a medium must possess for the propagation of mechanical
waves?
A. Stable pressure B. Maximum friction C. Constant temperature D. Minimum friction

5.4. Transverse waves can be formed in fluids.

A. True B. False

5.5. Which of the following waves can be transmitted through solids, liquids, and gases?
A. Transverse waves B. Longitudinal waves C. Mechanical waves D. Electromagnetic waves

5.6. For aluminum the modulus of rigidity is 2.1x1010N/m2 and the density is 2.7x103kg/m3. Find
the speed of transverse waves in the medium.
A. 27.9x103m/s B. 24.1x103m/s C. 25.14x103m/s D. 2.79x103m/s

5.7. In which medium does sound travel faster?

A. Solid B. Liquid C. Gas D. Water vapour

5.8. A wave has a speed of 10m/s and a frequency of 100Hz. What is its wavelength?
A. 0.1m B. 1m C. 10m D. 100m

5.9. A wave with a frequency of 1000Hz has a period of

A. 10s B. 0.001s C. 0.01s D. 1.0s

5.10. A wave traveling alone a spring

A. cannot be transverse B. transport particles of matter C. has no kinetic energy
D. has a definite wavelength
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