Chapter I

BASIC COMPUTER CONCEPTS AND ARCHITECTURE

This chapter deals with conuter, its bASiC NCpts, its fCharos Batbageproposerl a steam diven
architecure its emory conponente data Calelabid machhe the siz of a rorn, which he
ropresentation Called thd Differenco Engine This nachine would be
ABe fo cornputg tablos f iurnters, uch as
What is computer literacy &knowledge? kogarittn tables Babbage riext invgnted in
Analytic
Computeriteracy is referred as "knowing how conputers | Engind) Thia device is rnorg ganera! purpos
work and operate t inctudos the kiowkedge ad abity to nature becasse t would te proqtarnmabla
USe computers and related technology effcientty with
a range of skills oovering tevels from elementary use to fHollerittr's inventionj kngwn as tha Hollerith desk,
programming and advanced problem sotving the hoas th
consisted of a card reader which sensedwhich
the cards,)a gear driven rnechanisrn could
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER: Count. arid a large wall of dhal indicators to display
the rosuts of the count
Definition: An eloctronic device designed to acept data,
pertorn prescnbed arithmetic and logical operations One early success was thelMarvard Mark I cormputer)
at high speed, and display the results of these operatons which was built as apartrnershp betweon Harvard
arnd IBM in 1944, This was the first prograrnmabBe
Modern conputers are electronic and digital The actual diqital computer fnade in thg U.S.JBut it was not
machinery -wies, transistors, and ciHcuits is callod a puroly olectronic CUrnputer Instead the Mark I was
hardwaro The instructions and data arc callcd soflwaro, Construcled put of switches relay, rotating shafs
All general-purposce computers require the following and clutchos. Ong of the primary programmers for the
basic hardware components Mark Iwas awoman, Grace Opper
input device: Usually a keyboard and mouse, the input
device is ihe devices through which data and instructions The title of forcfather of today's,ail-clectronic digital
computers is usualiy awardod talENIAC which stood
enter a computer
foElectronic Numerical Integrator and Caiculator.
Memory Enabies a computer to store. atleast
temporariy, data and programs. (Eckeit) and (Mauchly teamed up with the
Mass storage device: Allows a computer to permanently mathematician John von Neumann to design
retain large amounts of data. Common mass storage EDVAC, Who pioneered the stored program.
devices include disk drives and tape drives. (UNIVACis the first conmercial (that is, mass
Central Procossing Unit (CPU): The heart of the computer, produced) computer In the 50's, UNIVAC
this is the component that actually executes instructions. (a contraction of "Universal Automatiç Computer")
Output device: Adisplay screen, printer, or other device was the household word for "computer"UNVAC was
that lets yousee what the computer has done. also the first computer to employ magnetictape

Ilistory of computers: MITS Altairjcomputer, was the worid's firstpersonai

computer (PC).
eRRzeeati

The abacus was an earty aid for mathematical

computations. It can perform addition and subtraction. GENERATION OF COMPUTERS:

John Napier invented logarithms, which is atechnique The history of computer development is often referred to
that allows multiplication to be performed via addition in reference to the different generations of computing
using a printed table.. Napier also invented devices. Each generation of computer is characterized
an alternative to tables, where the logarithm values by a major technological development that fundamentally
were caryed on ivory sticks, which are now called changed the way computers operate, resulting in
Napier's Bones. increasingly smaller, cheaper, more powerful and more
efficient and reliable devices.
The first calculating rmachine to actually be built was
probably the calculating clock, so named by its First Generation (1940-1956) Vacuum Tubes:
inventor, tihe German professof WNilhelm Schickard. )
The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and
(In 1642 Blaise Pascal invented thePascaline. magnetic drums for memory, and were often enomous,
Pascal built one-function calculator (it could only taking up entire rooms. They were very expensive to
add) which wasn't accurate. operate and in addition to using agreatdeal of electricity,
generated a lot of heat, which was often the çause of
(Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz buit a four-function malfunctions. First generation computers relied on machine
(addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division) language, the lowest-lavet programming language
calculator that he called the (stepped reckoner understood by computers, to perform operations, and they
Although the stepped reckoner employed the could only solve one problem at a time. Input was bascd on
decimal number system,( Leibniz was the first to punched cards and paper tape, and output was displayed
advocate use of the binary number system which is on printouts. The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are
fundamental to the operation of modern computers. examples of first-generation computing devices.
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 Secent Coneration (1956 983) T*nsistors These computer types ar
Anatog Computers
beo0 genertirn of nput nsistyt as fat Drcg1tai Computers
Hybrit Cumputers
horome smalipt faster oheaet e eray e f f t
d risbt than first ueratoY Anatoy Computers: Analog type of Cornputer use analog
varying
on punched ats for inpust end
sigils fhat are representexd by a Continuous set ofcenters
Dntouts for VOlaqes axd aro usc in scient1fic research
Seoond-generatton conputere moved from cyptictbutput
machne
bmaIy hosptals and Maht centers in analoque type of cornputers
iangage to synbol, of assembly langua0es are represonted by physical
measurable
which allowed programmers to specfy O valses
wonts High ieve nstructiong in quantto9 eg voltages Arnalog type computers program
beng devekoped at programming languages
this tne such as 0arty
were also anthmetc and logical operations by measuring physical
COBOL and FORTRAN versions of Changosie tomporatures or prossure
Third Generation (1964-1971)ntegratcd Circuits: Digital Computers: Data is represented by digital of
0and 1 or"off stato and "on" stato It recognizes data by
The development of the
hallmark of the thrd ntegrated crcuit was thc counting discrete signalof (0 or 1), they are high speed
qeneration of computers
Transistors were mniaturized programmablo; thoy computevalues and stores results.
and placed on silicon
chps, called
senmiconductors, which drastically Hybrid Computcrs: Hybrid cornputer types are very
the speed and efficiency of computers increased
punched cards and printouts, users Instead of unique, in the sense that they combine both analog and
interacted
generation computers through keyboards and with third digital features and opcrations. They operate by using
and interfaced with an monitors digital to analog convertor and analog to digital convertor.
the device to run many operating system, which allowed
different applications at one time
with a central program that Computers can be gencrally classified by size as
were smaller and cheaper thanmonitored the memory. They follows, though there is considerable overlap:
their predecessors. Personal computer or micro computer
Fourth Generation Workstation
(1971-Present) Microprocessors: Minicomputer
The microprocessor brought the fourth Mainframe
Computers, thousands of integrated generation
as
of
Supercomputer
onto a single silicon chip. The Intel 4004circuits were built
chip, developed
in 1971, had all the
components of the Personal computer: It can be defined as a small,
the central processing unit and memorycomputer--from
to inputtoutput relatively inexpensive computer designed for an
controls-on a single chip. In 1981 IBM introduced its individual user. In price, personal computers range
first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple
introduced the Macintosh. Microprocessors also anywhere from a few hundred pounds to over five
out of the realm of desktop computers and into moved
many
thousand pounds. All are based on the microprocessor
areas of life as more and more everyday products began technology that enables manufacturers to put an entire
to use CPU on one chip. Businesses use personal Computers
microprocessors.As these small computers
became more powerfu!, they could be linked together to for word processing, accounting,desktop publishing, and
form networks, which eventually led to the development for running spreadsheet and database management
of the Internet. Fourth generation
computers also saw applications. At home, the most popular use for personal
the development of GUls, the mouse. and handheld Computers is for playing games and recently for surfing
devices. the Internet. Personal computers first appeared in the
late 1970s. One of the first and most popular personal
Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond) Artificial computers was the Apple ll, introduced in 1977 by Apple
Intelligence: Computer. The principal characteristics of personal
Computers are that they are single-user systems and are
Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial based on microprocessors.
intelligence, are still in development, though there are
Some applications, such as voice recognition, that are
being used today. The use of parallel processing and Personal Computer Types:
Superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligençe Actual personal computers can be generally classified by
a reality. The goal of fifth-generation computing is to size and case. The case is the metal frame that serves
develop devices that respond to natural language input as the structural support for electronic
components.
and are capable of learning and self-organization.
1. Tower model:
TYPES OF COMPUTERS: The term refers to a computèr in which the power
supply, motherboard, and mass storage devices are
Computers are classified based on: stacked on top of each other in a cabinet. This is in
1. Technology Contrast to desktop models, in which these
2. Size
Components are housed in a more compact box.
The main advantage of tower models is that there
Computers can be divided into 3 categories according to are fewer space constraints, which makes
electronic nature and computer functions (i.e. Technology). installation of additional storage devices easier.
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 And porsonal organizer Unlike portable Computers.
2 Desktop modet: most PDAs are pen based, using a stylus rather
A computer desig ed to fit comfortabiy on top of
than a keyboard for input They also incorporate
a desk, typically with the monitot sitng on top of t harlwriting rocognition features, voice recognition
computer Desktop model conputers are broad and technologios PDAs aro also called palmtops.
low, whereas towr node! computes Are narOw and hand held cornputors and pocket cörnputers.
tall Because of their shape, desktop modet
Computers are gneratly ited to three intemal mass
storage devices Desktop models cdesigned to be very Workstation: It is a type of cornputer used for
small ane sometimes referedto as slimline models engineeririg applications (CADICAM), desktop
software developrnent, and other types of
publishirng,
arnount of
3 Notebook computer: appiications that requite a noderate
Itis an extrenely lightweight personal computer and Computing power and relatively high quality graphics
is snall enough to fit easily in abriefcase. Aside Capabilites Workstations generally come with a large,
of
from SIze. the principal difference between high-resolution graphics screen, at large amount
a notebook computer and a personal computer is RAM, built-in network support, and a graphical user
the display screen In temms of computing pOwOr, interlace. Most workstations also have a rmass storage
type of
modern notebook computers are nearly equivalent device such as a disk drivo, but a special without
to personai computers Notebook computers cost workstation, callcd a diskless workstation, Comes
workstations
about twice as much as equivalent regular-sized adisk drive. Like personal cornputers, rnost
computers Notebook computers cone with battery are single-user computers.
packs that enable you to run them without plugging
them in. However the batteries need to be Minicomputer: It is a midsize computer. In general.,
of
recharged every few hours. a minicomputer is a multiprocessing system capable
supporting upto 200 users simultaneously.
4 Laptop computer:
Asmal, portable computer small enough that it Mainframe: A mainframe is a very large and expensive
can sit onyour lap. Nowadays, laptop computers are computer capable of supporting hundreds, ór even
more frequently called notebook computers. thousands, of users simultaneously. The chief difference
between a supercomputer and a mainframe is that
5. Subnotebook computer: asupercomputer channels all its power into executing
A portable computer that is slightly lighter and a few programs as fast as possible, whereas a
smaller than a full-sized notebook computer. mainframe uses its power to execute many programs
Typically, subnotebook computers have a smaller concurrently. In .some ways, mainframes are more
keyboard and screen, but are otherwise equivalent powerful than supercomputers because they support
to notebook computers. more simultaneous programs. But supercomputers can
execute asingle program faster than a mainframe.
6. Hand-held computer:
A portable computer that is small enough to be held Supercomputer: Supercomputer is a broad term for one
in one's hand. Although extremely. convenient to of the fastest computers currently available.
carry, handheld computers have not replaced Supercomputers are very expensive and are employed
notebook computers because of their small for specialized applications that require immense
keyboards and screens. They are specificaly amounts of mathematical calculations (number
designed to provide PIM (personal information
manager) functions, such as a calendar and address Grunching). For example, weather forecasting requires
a supercomputer.
book. Hand-held computers are also called PDAS,
paimtops and pocket computers.
COMPONENTSOFA COMPUTER
7. Palmtop:
A small computer that literaliy fits in your palm. All computer systems need two types of parts that work
Compared to full-size computers, palmtops are together to make them run. These parts are:
severely limited, but they are practical for certain
functions such as phone books and calendars. 1. Hardware: The hardware is the part of the computer
Palmtops that use a pen rather than a keyboard for you can touch and see. (ex. keyboard, mouse,
input are often called hand-held computers or PDAs. monitor)
Palmtops are also. called PDAs, hand-held
computers and pocket computers: 2. Software: The software is a pat of the computer
you cannot touch but is very important. The software
8. PDA (personal digital assistant): i_ all the programming that makes the computer run;
A handheld device that combines computing. controlling verything that the computer does.
telephone/fax, and networking features. A typical
PDA can function as a cellular phone, fax sender,

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 Av#imeti
Control
Input unt Lotit sit Output unit

Main nemoty

Secondary memóry

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF ADIGITAL COMPUTER

Mother board: This is
system board, base board,alsoplanar
referrod as main board, information out of a cormputer system. These inputoutot
This is the main printoed board or logic board devicos are also known as peripherals since they SuTrount
general pupose circuit Board (PCB) found in tho CPU and memory of a computer system. Some
systems It holdsmicrocomputers
and allows
andother expandable commonly used Input/Output devices are listed below.
many of the crucial communication betwcen
electron:c components of a system. INPUT DEVICES OUTPUT DEVICES
A digital
computer sVstem consists
of an
system of
proceSsor
interconnected Keyboard
Mouse
Monitor
LCD
Joystick
memory Scanner
Printer
input/output devices Light Pen
Plotter
speakers
Processor (CFU}: The processor is also called central Touch Screen
processing unit. It is the heart of any computer
which actually does the whole system, Input Devices
The central processing unit job of program execution.
also called used in micro computers is (i) Keyboard: It is a text based input device that allows
processing microprocessor. Main
memory and central
unit are mounted on a single the user to input alphabets, numbers and other
motherboard but they are separateboard called the characters. It consists of a set of keys mounted on
a program entities. For a board.
executing the
by the user) source program (.e.
program written
must be stored in the computer and the data required fortheit Alphanumeric Keypad: It consists of keys for
memory. Only then the English aiphabets, 0 to 9 numbers, and special
central processing unit runs the program. characters like +, -,/, *,() etc.
Components of a Processor: Function Keys: There are twelve function keys
Control unit: Responsible for labeled F1, F2, F3... F12. The functions assigned to
supervising the
operation of the entire computer system. these keys differ from one software package to
Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU): another. These. keys can also be used as
computer with logical and computationalProvides the
capabilities. programmable keys.
Registers: A storage
location inside the processor. Special-function Keys: These keys have special
Memory: The second part of the computer component functions assigned to them and can be used only for
is those specific purposes. Functions of some of the
the main memory which is referred to as
memory, primary storage or common storage. Itprimary holds
important keys are defined below.
the source code or program. A program is defined as Enter- It is similar to the 'return' key of the
an ordered set of instructions which can be and is used to execute a command or typewriter
used to solve program.
a problem. It holds data which may be Spacobar- It is used to enter a space at the current
input data. The
inemory unit consists of many thousand storage Cursor location.
locations or cells. Each cell is a tiny device which may Backspace - This key is used to move the cursor
assume the state of binary digits as zero or one. This one position to the left and also delete the character
state of the cell represents a single bit. in that position.
IVO devices: The computer will be of no use Delote - It is used to delete the character at
unless it is the cursor position.
able to communicate with the outside world. Input/Output
Insert - Insert key is used to toggle between insert
devices are required for users to communicate with the and overwrite mode during. data entry.
computer. In simple terms, input devices bring Shift - This key is used to type capital letters when
information into the computer and output devices bring pressed along with an alphabet key. Also used to
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 type the special characters locatod on tho (vi) Light Pon: It is a pén shaped device used to select
upper-side of a key that has two charactors definod objocts on a display scroen. It is quite like the
on the same key mouso (in its functionality) but uses a light pen to
Caps Lock -Caps Lock is Used to toggle betwoon movo tho pointor and sclect any cbject on the
the capital lock features. When 'on', it locks the sCroon by pointing to the object. Users of Computer
alphanumeric keypad for capital leltors input only Aided Dosign (CAD) applications commonly use the
Tab - Tab is used to move the cursor to the next tab light pens to directly draw on screen.
position defined in the document. Also, it is usod to operate/nake
inscrt indentation into a document. (vii) Touch Scroon: It allows the user
Ctrl -Control key is used in conjunction with other selections by simply touching the display screen.
keys to provide additional functionality on tho Common examples of touch screen include
information kioskS, and bank ATMs.
keyboard.
At -Like the control key, Alt key is always used in
(viii) Digital canera: A digital camera can store many
combination with other keys to perfom spocific more picturos than an ordinary camera. Pictures
tasks.
taken using adigital camera are stored inside its
Esc - This key is usually usod to negate a command. memory and can be transferred to a computer by
Also used to cancclor abort exccuting programs. connecting the camera it. Adigital camera takes
Numeric Keypad: Numeric keypad is locatcd on the pictures by converting the light passing through the
right side of the keyboard and consists of keys lens at the front into a digital image.
having numbers (0 to 9) and mathematical operators
(t, -. , /) defined on them. This keypad is provided (ix) The Speech Input Device: The "Microphones -
to support quick entry for numeric data. Speech Recognition" is a speech Input device. To
operate it, we are using a microphone to talk to the
Cursor Movement Keys: These are arrow keys computer. Also we need to add a sound card to the
and are used to move the cursor in the direction computer. The Sound card digitizes audio input into
indicated by the arrow (up, down, left, right). o/1s .A speech recognition program can process the
() Mouse: The mouse is a small device used to point to input and convert it into machine-recognized
a particular place on the screen and select in order to commands or input.
pertorm one or more actions. It can be used to select
menu commands, size windows, start programs etc. Output Devices
The most conventional kind of mouse has two buttons
on top, the left one being used most frequently. (i) Monitor: Monitor is an output device that resembles
Mouse Actions: the television screen and uses aCathode Ray Tube
Left Click: Used to select an item. (CRT) to display information. The monitor is
Double Click: Used to start a program or open a file. associated with.a keyboard for manual input of
characters and displays the information as it is
Right Click: Usually used to display a set of
Commands. keyed in. It also displays the program or application
Drag and Drop: It allows you to select and move an output. Like the television, monitors are also
item from one location to another. To achieve this available in different sizes.
place the cursor over an item on the screen, click
the left mouse button and while holding the button (ii) Liquid Crystal Display (LCD): LCD was introduced
down move the cursor to where you want to place in the 1970s and is now applied to display terminals
the item, and then release it. also. Its advantages are low energy consumption,
smaller and lighter. These features paved its way for
(ii) Joystick: The joystick is a vertical stick which usage in portable computers (laptops).
moves the graphic cursor in the direction the stick is
moved. It typically has a button on top that is used to (ii) Printer: Printers are used to produce paper
select the option pointed by the cursor. Joystick is (commonly known as hardcopy) output. Based on
used as an input device primarily used with video the technology used, they can be classified as
games, training simulators and controlling robots
Impact printers
(iv) Scanner: Scanner is an input device used for direct Non-impact printers.
data entry from the source document. into the
computer system. It converts the document image Impact printers use the typewriting printing
into digital form so that it can be fed into the mechanism wherein a hammer strikes the paper
computer. Capturing information like this reduces through a ribbon in order to produce output. Types
the possibility of errors typically experienced during of impact printers are
large data entry. Hand-held scanners are commonly Dot-matrix
seen in big stores to scan codes and price Character printers
information for each of the items. They are also
termed as bar code readers.
Non-impact printers do not touch the paper while
printing. They use chemical, heat or electrical
(V) Bar codes: A bar code is a set of lines of different .signals to etch the symbols on paper. Types of
thicknesses that represent a number. Bar Code non-impact printers are
Readers are used to input data from bar codes. Inkjet printers
Most products in shops have bar codes on them. Deskjet printers
Bar code readers work by shining a beam of light on Lascr printers
the lines that make up the bar code and detecting Thermal printer
the amount of light that is reflected back
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 When we talk about printers we ofer to two basic randon access
SDRAM Synchronous dynamic various
qualities associated with printer3 goneric name for kinds of
1. Resolution: Punt momory is a memory (DRAM) that ra
resolution is measued in dynamic random accoss that the
terms of numbor of dots per inch (dpi)
Speed: Pnnt speed is measured in tem3 of synchronized -with the clock specd This tends to
microprocossor is optimized for. that the
number of characters printed in a unit of timne and instructions
is incroase the number of
nepresented as characters per-sOcond (cps). procosscr can perform in a given
time.
linesper-minute (lpm), or pagos pcr minute (ppm),
(iv) Plotter: Plotters are used to print 2. READ ONLY MEMORY (ROM):normally can only be
on paper. It interprets graphical output ROM 0s a type of memory that
computer can be both read
makes line drawings on paper usingcommands and read, as opposed to RAM which ROM cannot be
multicolourcd
automated pens. It is capable of producing and written, The contents of
graphs, commonly used to store
drawings, charts, maps etc. Computor Aided changed. RÖM is most to have
programs that we want
Engineering (CAE) applications like CAD (Computer ^ystem-level
availablo to the PC at all times. Types of ROM are:
Aided Design) and CAM (Computer Aided
Manufacturing)are typical usage areas for plotters.
1
2.
PROM
EPROM
(v) Audio Output Sound Cards and 3. EEPROM
Spcakers: The
Audio output is the ability of the computer
sound. Two components are nceded: to output Programmable ROM (PROM): This is a type of ROM
Sound card - Plays contents of digitized
recordings. that can be programmed using special, equipment; it
Speakers - Attached to sound card. can be weitten to, but onty once. Programming
a PROM is also called buming, just like burning
MEMORY a CD-R, and it is cornparable in terms of its flexibility.
Computer memory: It is a device that is used to store Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM): An
data or
programs (sequences of instructions) on EPROM is a ROM that can be erased and
atemporary or permanent basis for use in an reprogrammed. This is much more useful than
digital computer. electronic
a regular PROM, but it does require the erasing light.
This technology is analogous to a reusable CD-RW.
Types of memory:
Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM
Computer memory is divided into
(EEPROM): we can erase the content of EEPROM
Main (or primary) memorym and$ )
e m o r v ! s n e u n d e r software control. This is the most flexible type
2. AuxiarY (or secondary) of ROM, and is now commonly used for holding
Main memory holds instructions and data when BIOS programs,
a program is executing, while auxiliary memory holds
data and programs not currently in use and provides SECONDARY MEMORY:
long-term storage. Secondary memory (or external storage) is the slowest
PRIMARY MEMORY: and cheapest form of memory. It cannot be processed
directly by the CPU. It must first be copied into primary
1 RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM): storage. It is the addressable data storage that is not
RAM contains storage cells that- can be accessed Currently in the computer's main memory. It is also called
directly for read and write operations. It is a type of as auxiliary storage. Secondary memory devices include
computer memory that can be accessed randomly. magnetic disks(like hard drives and floppy disks)
That is, any byte of memory can be accessed optical disks (CDs and CDROMS)
without touching the preceding bytes. It is the magnetic tapes
"working memory" storage area within the computer.
RAM is volatile, which meansthat it requires FLOPPY DISK or DISKETTE:
a steady flow of electricity to maintain its contents.)
As soon as the power is turned off, whatever data Around, floppy piece of plastic that you put into a computer
was in RAM is lost. Types of RAM are to store information. It is in a hard square cOver .for
1 SRAM protection. The content of floppy will be read and written by
2 DRAM a floppy.disk driye (FDD). Floppies are portable, because
3 SDRAM they can be remnoved from adisk drive. Floppy disks are
slower to access than hard disks and have less storage
SRAM: Static random access memory works by capacity, but they are much less expensive.
using the state of aflip-flop to store abit of data. In Floppy types (mnost recent to oldest):
general, it needs less power and is quicker than
DRAM and is most commonly used as cache
memory for a CPU. Storage Capacity
Jacket
DRAM: Dynamic random access memory works on Highest Lowest Creator
a different principle and stores abit of data using
a transistor and capacitor pair, which make up memory 3.5" rigid 1.44MB 400KB Sony
cell, with the capacitor holding either a high or low
charge and the transistor behaving as a switch. DRAM 5.25" flexible 1.2MB 100KB Shugart
is slower than SRAM, but because of its relatively low 8" flexible 1.2MB 100KB IBM
price, it is used more often in computers.
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 COMPACT DISK (CD):
compact disc is a
DECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM: Base 10 number
snall, portabie, rond,
(close in size to the floppy number system is a
medium The decimal
recording,
and other stoing, and playingdisk)tackdiscaudio,
for
electtonically system
Thereare 10symbols
that represent
quantities:
infomation
be up to 700 in video,
MB CO has digital tom) Typical capacitylext, will 0, 1,2,3, 4, 5. 6,7,
8,9
number has a power
1 vaious
CDROM (Compact disk tead only foms like adecimal
Each place value in
3 CD-R(copàct disk recordable) memory)
CO-RW Exampl. (5733)=5*1000+7*100+3*10+3*1
of 10
VCD act disk revwritabBo)
Compact Discs) etc. BÍNARY NUMBER SYSTEM:
DIGITAL
A VERSATILE DISK (DVD):
DVD is an optical disc system is a Base 2 number
system.
offers higher storage storage media format which The binary nurnber represent quantities:
capacity than compact
sided discs hold 4.7GB, There are 2 syrmbols that
discs. Single
ouble-sided disks hold
bVD has vaious toms like
9.4GB,
0, 1
Each place value in a binary
number has a power of 2.
Exarnple: (1010),=12°+0*2+1*2'+0*2°
2 DVD-ROM
DVD-R and DVD+R (record data
DVD-RW, DVD+RW, and once) 0CTAL NUMBER SYSTEM:
8number system.
version) DVD-RAM (re-writable The octal number system is aBase quantities:
represent
HARD DISK: There are 8 symbols that
À
magnetic disk on which you can
Hard
0,1,2,3, 4, 5,6, 7
has a power or
disks hold nore data and are store computer data.y Fach place value in an octal number
A single hard faster than
disk usually of several floppy disks.
8
platter has the same consists Example: (567)a=5*8'+6*8'+78°
that cuts across all number of tracks, and aplatters. Each
platters is called a cylinder.track
hard disks are less portable location
In general, HEXADECIMAL NUMBERS:
than toppies. The hexadecimal number system is a/ Base 16
number system,
UNIVERSAL SERIAL BUSUSB):
An external bus There are 16 symbols that represent quantities:
rates of 12 Mbps.standard that
A single USBsupports data transfer 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F.
connect upto 127 port can be used to Each place value in a hexadecimal number has
peripheral devices, a power of.16.
Example: (A6B9) 6=10*16°+6*16²+11*16'+9*16°
DATA REPRESENTATION
Here we discuss how text is AMERICAN STANDARD cODE FOR INFORMATION
a computer
represented/sent
system. Before that, let us see the in
basic
INTERCHANGE (ASCIl):
terminology of data representation. ASCII is a code for representing Engish characters as
DATA is raw facts, no context, just numbers, with each letter assigned a number from 0 to 121.
numbers and text.
0NFORMATION is
data is information. data with context i.e. Meaningful
For example, the ASCIl code for uppercase A is 65. The
standard ASCIl character set uses 7 bits for each character.
Most computers are digital i.e. FLIP-FLOPS:
two discrete states: on or off. SoThey recognize only
we are using binary Flip-flops are heavily used for digital data storage, transfer
number system for representing data inside the and are commonly used in "registers" for the storage of
computer. binary numerical data. We have 4 types of fip-flops:
BIT Asingle digit is called a bit 1 S-R (set-reset) flip-flop
smallest unit of data that the (binary digit) which is the
computer can represent 2 J-K flip-flop
NIBBLEA nibble is a collection, of four bits 3 D (data) flip-flop
BYTE:A byte is agroup of eight bits, 4 T (toggled) flip-flop
WORD:A word is a contiguous group of bytes. REGISTERS:
KILO BYTE (KB): 1KB=1024(2") bytes or 1000 Ves, Aregister is a high-speed storage area within the CPU.
MEGA BYTE (MB): 1MB=1024 KB (220) The power and speed.of a CPU depends on number of
GIGA BYTE (GB): 1GB= 1024 MB (20) registers and the size of each register. Types of CPU
TERA BYTE (TB): 1TB = 1024 GB (2) registers are:
PETA BYTE (PB): 1PB = 1024TB (250) 1. Accumulator (AC): stores intermediate arithmetic
CONFIGURATION OF A COMPUTER: Computer and logic results.
configuration can refer to either hardware or 2 Instruction register ((R): stores the instruction
software, or the combination of both. iA typical currently being executed by the CPU.
configuration for PC consists of 32MB 3. Memory Address Register (MAR): either stores the
(megabytes) main memory,V.a floppy drive, a hard memory address from which data will be fetched to
the CPU or the address to which data will be sent
disk, amodem, a CD-ROM drive, a VGA monitor, and stored.
and the Windows operating system.
4 Memory Data Register (MDR): contains the data to
NUMBER SYSTEMS: be stored in the computer storage or the data after
We will discuss about the following number systems in brief. a fetch from the computer storage.
1. Decimal number system 5 Program counter: holds the address of the nex
2. Binary number system instruction to be executed.
3. Octal number system 6. Input/output register: communicates with th
4. Hexadecimal number system inputvoutput devices.
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