_ L Unit 1 Introduction to Computer Expected Duration: 2hrs Introduction In this lecture you will learn about information and Communication Technolagy (ICT), as you know, ‘we are now in information age and every aspect of our life depends on information technology. Ther eforein this course you will learn about definition of computer, its historical development. You will al so learn about great computer scientist who con tributed to development of computer. its applications in different areas of human endeavour such as banking, education, science, health, a gticulture etc. The course will also take you through memory lane of computer developmental stage sand characteristics, Learning Outcome for Unit 1 At the end of this unit, you sh ould be able to: 1.1__Define computer 1.2. Explain historical development of computer 1.3 Explain the contributions of the great computer scientist to developments of comput er 1.1. The Meaning and Characteristics of Computer 1.1.1. Definition of Computer Thereismo doubt that man is highly gifted and is of high capabilties and potentials. In fact, manistruly an amazing being and a master of inventions. He constantly uses the power of his imaginations and inventions to solve problem in his environment. Alot technologies have been developed, be it television, vehicle, camera, radio etc. arehis inventions, Gomputerisno 1 an exemption, itis one of the inventions of this amazing being. Therefore, what is a comput. er? A.computer is an electronic machine used in solving problem. This definition of computer that you just read is just a simple definition, it does not say enough about computer. This is because not all electronic machines are computer. You should also note that computer is not just physica lequipment that you can only see or touch, itis also made up of parts you cann ot easily see like the program, Now in a more encompassing manner, let us define computer Computer therefore, is an electronic device (calculating machine) that is capable of acceptin 4g data (Input), process the data logically or arithmetically using some sets of instruction s (P “d rT_ L rocessing) and release result (Output) In another way a computer can be defined as an electronic machine that solves problem by applying prescribed instructions on data represented to it. To the present day generation, co mputer has different meaning to different group of people. The use to which it is put determi nes the understanding attached to it. It is common for different group to see it differently be cause of differences in usage. As you study along, bear it in mind that computer is not comp osed just a machine, but itis a collection of interrelated parts which areable to transmit info mation to one another Duorior —@) Symamrnt. @speaker — Dkeybose Doden — @ Meuse ©) hiner Fig 1.1: to be inserted 1.2 Historical Background of Computer 1.2.1 ABACUS Historically, computing may be considered to have begun with ABACUS, which originated about 5,00 O years ago. During the Middle age, the abacus was used throughout the European and Arab Worlds as well as in Asia, The design is simply a wooden rack holding parallel wires on which beads are stru rng, Calculations can be performed manually by sliding (beads or blocks) along the parallel wires (rod 5). The counters are divided into two sections by means of a bar perpendicularto the rods. One secti “d rT_ L on has two counters, representing 0 and 5 depending upon their position along the rod. The second section has four or five counters, representing units. Each bar represents a significant digit, with the least significant digit on the right. Another computing instrument, the ASTROLABE, was also in use about 2,000 years ago for navigation. Fig 1.2:abacus 1.2.2 BLAISE PASCAL Going by the popular saying that “necessity is the mother of invention, a young rman by name Blaise Pascal invented the first calculating machine age at the age of 19 years during the 17th century, 16 42 to be precise. His inven ion was in response to his desire to assist his father in his cumbersomeb usiness account works that involved a lot of calculations. Pascal's machine was able to carry out on ly addition and subtraction of numbers. It utilzed a mechanical gear system to add and subtract, wi thas many as eight columns of digits Between 1 663 and 1666 Sir Morland in En gland unaware of Pascal's machine invented three machin e out of which only onewas used for British currency addition, pounds and shillings, the two other machine were devices which provided access to pre ~ calculated tables. 1.2.3 GOTFRIED WILHELM LEIBNITZ In 1694 the German mathematician Leibnitz dev elo ped a more advanced mechanical calculator. His calculator called Stepped Reckoner could also multiply, divide and extract square roots, This calculat “d rT_ L of's first working model was completed 100 years later in 1794 and exhibited at Royal Society in Lon don. 1.2.4 CHARLESBABBAGE ‘After Leibniz’s machine proved unreliable, by the 1830's Charles Babbage an English inventor develo ped the first automatic digital computer called Analytical Engine, The new device was able to. combi ne arithmetic process of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division with decisions based on its own computations. Most of the basic elements of the modern digital computer was found in Babba e's engine which includes punched —card input/output medium, arthmetic unit, memory for storaq e of numbers and sequential control. Charles Babbage invention marked the beginning of modern co puter architectural design. Considering this great achievement he was referred to father of moder computer. Although he was not able to implement his design because of level of technology as at his time. 1.2.5 GEORGE BOOLE ‘The essays written during the mid-19® century by Boole was of greater significance. He called atten tion to the analogy between the symbols of algebra and those of logic as used to represent logical f corms, Boold systemwith its binary logical op erators (e.g. AND, OR and NOT) became the basis of w hat is now known as Boolean algebra on which electronic computer switching theory and procedure sare based, 1.2.6 HERMAN HOLLERITH Introduction of punched cards in 1880 by Herrman Hollerth a U.S. Statistician who worked on censu sreturn was another major step in computer development. He recognised the possibilty that a pat em of holes in perforated sort and manipulate electrically by a machine specially designed to sort an d manipulated the numerical data represented by the holes. By the U. S. Census of 1890, Hollerith h ad invented a tabulating system that automated census count. As stated earlier Hollerith’s sy stemh ad accomplished in one year and seven months what it would have taken a hundred clerks seven ye ars and eleven months to do. Hollerith left the census bureau in 1896 to formthe tabulating Machin Company which was eventually changed to the Intemational Business Machine Corporation (IBM), “d rTL which today stands out as one of the largest computer manufacturer in the world. Fig 1.3: punch card 1.2.7 AUTOMATIC CALCULATOR In 1939 John V. Atanasoff, a U. §. Mathematician and Physicist buit what some consider to bea prototype of an electromechanical digital computer. That same year Howard Alken of Harvard University, in association with engineers of International Business Machine Corporation began work ‘ona fully automatic large-scale calculator using standard business machine components. By 1944 he first calculator called Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator, commonly known as Mark-1 wa made. Later Mark-2 and Mark-3 were built on similar tine;Fig 1.4: Automatic calculator “Another machine called ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and calculator) which consists of sw itches and interconnecting wires was built around 1939, this was mainly for calculating trajectories and could also beused in other computations. The use of paper tape for data entry into these machi nes was slow and did not allow the machine to operate at full speed. Similarly there was a needtom ake programs available intemally along with the data, to take advantage of the high speed inherent i n electronic systems. Large memory was designed in Cambridge by M. V. Wilkes. His machine called EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator) was used for the training of a whole generat ion of computers oriented mathematicians at Cambridge. Between 1945 and 1950, EDVAG (Electro nic Discrete Variable Computer) wa s designed. This machine emphasized theidea of stored progra m By 1948 a prototype machines at Manchester was completed. Later, companies like IBM, Reming ‘on Co-operation ICL and many other joined in producing computer in commercial quantities._ L Fig 1.6: ENIAC © Can you highlight the contributions of the great computer scientist you have read abou v © Goover unit 1.2 © Doyou know why Charles Babbage contribution was unique? © He proposed the architecture of the modern computer Scientific and military applications were the first areas to which the computer was put to use to aid problem soWing calculations, especially during war. Presently itis also widely used for planning and asan aid to business. Because of its wide area of application it can be said to be a general purpose machine. It performs its data-processing operations accurately at high speed with little or no human interventions by loading it with different packages or programmes. It is also called an automatic dev ice and has the ability to perform calculations, sort Files, and Edit information lt must be noted that its compatibility to solve any given problem is limited by the in struction supple d. A problem that has no solution from human point of view also has no solution in the computer re alm. Henceit can be said to an extension of human mind, though in speed and accuracy, tt performs better. This view is not true because it has no mind ofits own, t cannot start itself, and its ability to solve problem is limited by logic or steps supplied by the programmer. Thereis also a high degree of reliability in its processing operations and performance of repetitive operations. It stores vast quantities of information and also retrieves any given volume within a very shart tine gap. One major advantage is the abilty to take some decisions by altering the flow instructions Due to speed and accuracy of processing, computer machine are fast more becoming more popular and there is increase in their demand n the world over. It is currently having a proud influence on scie nce, business, government, industry, and education. Science and mathematical research have been v asily accelerated by the use of the computer. In business and government, management practices h ave been revolutionized by computer and also because of its ability to process data and present it in -_ L ‘a more meaningful form. The development in the computer industry is so fast that latest developme ints today may be out dated within 2 years. This continuous revolution and development in the comp uter industry makes it challenging area to be exploded ‘Today's computers comein a variety of shapes, sizes and costs. Larger general-purpose computers are used by many large corporations, universities, hospitals and government agencies to carry out s ophisticated scientific and business calculations. These computers are generally referred to as main frames. They are very expensive (some cost millions of dollars), and they require a carefully controle environment (temperature, hurridity, etc.). As a rule, they are not physically accessible to the scient ists, engineers and corporate accountants that use them. Mainframes have been available since the early 1950s, but very few people had any opportunity to use them, particularly in the earlier years. T hhus it is not surprising that computers were viewed mysteriously and with some suspicion by the ge neral public. ‘The late 1960 and early 1970s saw the development of small, less expensive minicomputers. Many of these machines offer the performance of earlier mainframes at a fraction of the cost. Many busin ess and educational institution that could not afford mainframe acquired minicomputers as they be came increasingly available. By the md-1970s, advances in integrated circuit technology (silicon “chi ps") resulted in the development of still smaller and less expensive computers called microcomputer s. These machines are built entirely of integrated circuits and are therefore not much larger (ar more expensive) than a conventional office typewriter. Yet they can be use for a wide variety of personal, e ducational, commercia land technical applications. Their use ten ds to complement rather than repla ce the use of mainframes. In fact, many large organizations utilize microcomputers as terminal or w orkstations that are connected to a mainframe computer (or series of mainframes) through a comm, nication network. Particular interest is the development of the personal computer a small, inexpens ive microcomputer that is intended to be used by only one person at a time. Many of these machines approach small rrinicomputer in power. Moreover, their performance continues to improve dramatic ally as their cost continues to drop. Personal computers are now used in many schools and small bu siness, and it appears likety that they wills oon become a common household iterns Summary of Unit 1 In Unit 1, you have learned that: 1. A computer is an electronic device (calculating machine) that is capable of accepting dat “d rTa L a (Input), process the data logically or arithmetically using some sets of instructions (Proces sing) and release result (Output). 2 Computer was developed through effort and contributions of great computer scientists. Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Unit 1 Now that you have completed this study session, you can assess how well you have achieved its Le aming Outcomes by answering these questions. You can check your answers with the Notes on the Self-Assessment Questions at the end of this Module. SAQ 1.1 (tests learning outcome 1.1) How can we correctly define computer? SAQ 1.2 (tests learning outcome 1.2) Briefly discuss contribution of Charles Babbage and Blaise Pascal Name the people whe designed the following machines () Difference engine (i) Pascaine Notes on the Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Unit 1 SAQ 1.1: A computer is an electronic device (calculating machine) that is capable of accepting data (Input), process the data logically or arithmetically using some sets of instructio ns (Processing) and release result (Output). SAQ 1.2: Charles Babbage proposed the architecture of the modem computer while Blaise Pascal developed a adding machine also known as pascaline. Difference engine- Charles Babbage Pascaline~ Blaise Pascal SAQ 1.4: Fist Generation - Vacuum tube ‘Second Generation - Transistor Third Generation = IC (Integrated circuit) Fourth Generation - VLSI_ L Fifth Generation - Al ( Artificial intelligence) 1, The characteristics of computer include: speed, accuracy, storage, integrity, security etc 2 Computer has generations and that each generation is a reflection of its developmental stage 8 References Unit 2 GENERATIONS OF COMPUTER Expected Duration: 2hrs Introduction In unit 7 you learnt definition and historical development of computer. This unit will take you a step f Urther by learning the developmental stages that computer has gone through. Computer has gonet hrough stages of design ranging from big size to small size computer, computer that generate heat t © the one that generate less heat, computer with high processing power to computer with less proce ssing power. These and some other design features are the characteristics of computer generations ‘that you will learn in this unit. Learning Outcome for Unit 2 Atthe end of this unit, you sh ould be able to: 2.1 List five(5) generations of computer 2.2 Explain the generations of computer 23 State the distinctive characteristics of each generation of computer 2.1. Generations of Computer 2.1.1 Overview Since the development of Mark, the digital computer has evolved at an extremely rapid pace. The s tuccession of advances in computer hardware, most notably in logic circuitry and storage systemis generally discusses in term of the concept of generation. Each stage of development is associated with one sort of technological innovation or another. Each generation is usually better than the previous by making possible, certain which were not possible wi ththe earlier generation. “d rT_ L 2.1.2 FIRST GENERATION J. P.Eckert and John W. Mauchly ushered in the first generation of modern-day computers with ENI AC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator) in 1946. It was the first all-purpose, all electroni cdigtal computer. Unike earlier machines, it used vacuum tube instead of relays as its active logicel ement. There was substantial increase in computational speed due to the use of electron tubes. This computer was more than 1000 times faster than its electromechanical predecessor s and could exec ute an average of 5,000 basic arithrmetic operations per second In 1974 the Hungarian mathematician John Von Neumann devised a method of converting the ENIA C concept of an externally programmed machine to that of a stored program concept. This stored-pr gram concept led to development of the self ~ modifying computer. Other notable first generation & lectronis digital computers included the UNIVAC-1 (Lniversal Automatic Computer) built in 1951. Thi salso utilized vacuum tubes, its main memory consisted of mercury relay lines “This memory system permitted an access time of about $00 micro seconds. UNIVACA was first com puter to handle both numerical and alphabetical information with equal ease and assailed the princi pple of the separation of input/output from computation per se “The main problem encountered during the era of the first generation computers was that they occup ied large amount of space and large circuits were involved. Generally, they were slow in operation an d generated a lot of heat with the problemof unreliability compared to other generations. The period of this generation spanned mid — forties to mid — fifties Fig 1.7: First generation Computer 2.1.3 SECOND GENERATION This generation was between late fifties and early sixties, Invention of semi-conductor device known “d rT_ L as TRANSISTORS in electronic engineering led to the development of this generation of comput ers ‘Aftera series of development in transistors for about 10 years, it became a viable alternative to the v acuum tube. The small size of the transistor, its greater reliabilty and its comparatively low power c consumption made it tar superior to the latter. By using transistors in control, arithmetic and logic circuits along with an improved magnetic core m. emory manufacturers were able to produce more efficient, smaller and faster (50,000.00) operation sper second) digital systems. ‘The transistors helped in building a series of processors operating at microsecond speed ranges wit, h lower level of generated heat. Fig 1.7: Second generation computer 2.1.4. THIRD GENERATION During late 1960's and 1970's an important technological innovation resulting in dramatic advances in computers hardware the breakthrough in the fabrication of the integrated circult(IC),a solid-state device consisting of hundreds of transistors, diodes and resistors on a tiny silicon chip. Theimpact o f integrated circuitry permitted the construction of mainframe (large-scale) computers of higher ope rating speed, capacity reiability at substantially lower cost. it also helped the engineers to design mi ni computers. “The next major development was Large Scale Integration (LSI) which made it possibleto pack thous ands of transistors and related devices on a single integrated circuit. This also led to the invention of the micro ~ processor which is an integrated circutt on a single silicon chip that contains all the arith metic, logic and control circuitry which make up a digital computer CPU. The CPU (Central Processin g Unit) is the part of the digital computer that interprets and executed instruction. The development of the CPU into a single integrated circuit led to the production of microcomputers. “d rTFig. 1.8: Third generation computer 2.1.5 FOURTH GENERATION ‘The set of computer produced in the 1980's were referred to as the fourth generation computers. “There is no clear difference between them and the third generation's. The major distinguishing chara teristics or feature is attributed to the availabilty of the VERY LARGE-SCALE INTEGRATED (VLSI) a s compared to LSI of the third generation. This technology has vastly increased the circutt density of the microprocessor, memory and support chips. Worth of note is the fact that large-scale integrated circuits contain thousands of computers on a sil icon chip less than 0.2 inch (five mrn) square, the very large-scale integrated citeuit holds hundreds of thousands of electronic components within the same amount of space. (A micro processor is ac entral processing unit fabricated on a chip). ‘This generation witnessed the flooding of the market with a wide variety of software tools lke datab ase management systems, word processing packages, spreadsh eet packages, game packages ett. | ‘also witnessed the enhancement on networking capabilities in the areas of LAN (Local Area Netwo rh)i a saan Fig 1.9:fourth generation computer 2.1.6 FIFTH GENERATION ‘This generation of computers is yet to be in the market because of the features expected. It is expec ted that the architecture of this generation will bea bit different from Von Neumann's model of the p revious generations. Atficia| Intelligence (Al) should be major feature of this generation such machines would havethec apability to reason, to recognise relationship and to learn and improve their performance on the basi of experience. It is also expected that they would not have to be instructed step by step as to how to carry out specific task as required by current computers. There is hope that simultaneous executi on of several separate operations (e.g. memory, logic and control) by means of numeraus integrated ircuits in which millions of GPU, memory, and input/output circuits are combined on a single chip, Fig 1.9: fifth generation of computer Manufacturers are expected to produced voice input device capable of handling connected speech o f larger vocabularies. A summary of the development and the generation of computers fromits early daysto thepresent day showed in the chart fig 1.1 ‘A summary of the develop ment and the generation of computers from its early days to the present d ay is shown in the chart of Fig 1.1 “d rTGenera |Mid-forties | Late fifties to ea | Late sixties to s | In the eig | Inthe future a | timin | to tly sixties eventies hties sitis not yeti 4 mid - fifties in market Archite | It uses vacuum tub | It uses transistor | It uses fabricate | It uses ve | It is expected cture | es as its active logi | s, control, arithm | dlntegrated Cire | ry Large | to be different c elements etic and logic cit | uit (IC) Seale Inte | from Von Neu cuits aration (V | man’s model Ls) Unique | Universal Automati | Itis an altemativ | LSI/CPU Artificial intell feature | ¢ Computer (UNIVA | e to vacuum tub igence (Al) develo | C1) e, low power con pment sumption andre liable Operati | 5,000 basic Operati | 50,000,000 oper | Higher operation | Higher op | Higher operat on per| on per second ation per second | /second. eration pe | ion per secon speed rsecond_| dis expected Speed | Its access time as | Ithas a micro se | Higher speed | Higher sp | Higher speed Access | 500 micro second | cond speed rang eed is expected time e Heat g | Alot of heat & hig | Lowrange of he | Low range of he | Low heat | Low heat gen enerat | h power consumpti | at consumption | at and low powe | generatio | eration an lo ed and | on power rconsumption | n & low p | w power cons power ower con | umption consu sumption mption Memor | Large amount of s | Ituse small size | it contains hund | 0.2inch s | Expected to b y Spac | pace and large am | transistor reds of compon | quare sili | e very small e& circ | ount of circuit is in ent on tiny silico | con amp uit Spa | volve nchips contain t ce housands of compo nents Cost | Higher Cost High cost Low cost Relatively | Relatively low low cost Summary of Unit 2 In Unit 2, you have learned that: Computer has generations and that each generation is a reflection of its developmental 1 “] stages -a L 2. Each generation of computer has distinctive features: size, heat generation, memory siz e, processing speed and the technology used in building the computer of that generatio n Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Unit Now that you have cormpleted this study session, you can assess how well you have achieved its Le aming Outcomes by answering these questions, You can check your answers with the Notes on the Self-Assessment Questions at the end of this Module. SAQ 2.1 (tests learning outcome 2.1) List five(S) generation of computer you know SAQ 2.2 (tests learning outcome 2.2) Explain feature of the fifth generation computer SAQ 2.3 (tests learning outcome 2.3) State the unique char acteristics of each computer generation?. Notes on the Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Unit 1 SAQ 2.1: First generation, second generation, third generation, fourth generation and fifth generatio n SAQ 2.2: See unit 2.1.6 SAQ 2.3: First Generation - Vacuum tube Second Generation - Transistor Third Generation - IC (Integrated circuit) Fourth Generation - VLSI Fifth Generation - Al ( Artificial intelligence ) References_ L Unit 3 Computer System Expected Duration: 2hrs Introduction Now that you have learned history and generation of computer, it is time to study in detail what com, puter really look like, ts characteristics, uses, application areas and benefits. n this unit you willalso learn types of computer and classifications of computer based on size and purpose and speed. Learning Outcome for Unit 3 Atthe end of this unit, you sh ould be able to: 3.1 Explain computer system 3.2 State five (5) characteristics of computer 33 Areas of application of computer 1.1.1 State three (3) types of computer 35 Classify computer by size, purpose and by speed 3.1 Computer as a System. Before we discuss computer in detail, there is need for us to learn what a systemis. We ofte n speak of water system, digestive system in biology, computer system and other types of s ystem. What then is a system? A system is a collection interrelated components interacting t ogether to achievea goal. Most systems haveinput, process and output stages asillustrate dwith the diagram below. PROCES ourPUT s fig3.3: Input-Process-Output system Input: thisis the element that enter the system for processing Processing; This organises or arranges input into an output Output: This is the result obtained from processing activities To facilitate understanding of input-process-output processing in a system we shall use dige stive system, and human body as an illustration 3.1.1 Digestion of food as a System “d rT_ L Digestion of food is the taking in of food through the mouth, breaking down the foodsiinto s oluble forms and wastes by body enzymes and releasing the wastes in formof urine and exc feta, Thel-P-O phase in the system involves the following Input: foods Process: breaking down the foods Output: waste inform of urine and excreter 3.1.2 Human body asa system You can take a look at the figure 3.4 below. it shows different parts of human body. The par ts can belikened to LP-0 system. That is it has input, processing and output components Fig .5: Human body system Input: ~ Eyes: for sensing object ~-Ears: for hearing sound = Mouth :for drinking and eating + Nose :for breathing in oxygen Processing = Brain : for thinking, memorising and controlling the activities of the body Output = Hands: for writing information = Mouth for speech = Nose for breathing out carbondioxide 3.1.3 Computers a system The definition of computer you read in unit 1 of this module shows that computer is an -P-0 system. Fromthe definition, computer accepts data (input), processes the data and gives ou 1 results(output). The I-P-O is represented in figure 3.6 below INPUT PROCESS ourPur Data Execution Resutts_ L Figure 3.6: Input Process-Output-Phase in Computer Consider this scenario: suppose numbers 10 and 15 are supplied to a computer with an instruction t © add the two numbers. Can you show the HP-O phase of how computer will carry out this scenario. “The computer will add the two numbers according to the given instruction and generate the required result which is 25. The I-P-O phase of the addition operation of the two numbers is represented in fig ure 3.7 below INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT >| Add Wto 15 Figure 3.7: FP-0 PHASE 3.2 Computer System In our earlier study in unit 1 we gave simple definition of computer. You have also further studied tha ‘ta computer is a system, What then is a computer system? A computer systemis not a single mach ine. It consists of a group of electronic components like monitor, system unit, Keyboard, mouse, print er and other components working together to achieve a particular goal. You can see figure 1.1 ford ifferent components of a computer systems 3.2.1 Characteristics of a Computer System. Cormputer has some characteristics or features which distinguish them from other machine. These c haracteristics constitute the advant ages of computer. Below are sorne of these characteristies Speed: Computers process information at a very fa strate, the speed of processing is measured inn anoseconds (billionth of seconds), some also operate faster in picoseconds (trillionths of seconds) Some processing speeds are of the order of gigaflops. ‘Access : Computers are used mainly for information processing, but more important access to thes peed stored processed information in more important. They offer the advantage of fast and easy ac cess to store information. The speed of retrieval however depends on the capacity of the system (co puter) and the peripheral device used Extra ordinary task: Computers have the abitty to performtasks that would otherwise not be feasibl er cost effective using conventional means. A goad example of this is the abilty to solvetedious a ind long equations in space program. Security: Computers are provided with in-built security codes that make ft impossible for outsiders t “d rT_ L ‘© manipulate the data or record in the computer files. This security helps to check unauthorized acc ess by other insider except the user. Storage Space: Every piece of information thatis stored within the computer's memory s encoded a some unique combination of zeros and ones. These zeros and ones are called bits (binary digits). E ach bit is represented by an electronic device that is, in some sense, ether “off” (zero) or “on” (one) Most small computers havememories that are organized into 8-bit multiples called bytes. Normally “byte represents a character (.e,, a letter a single digit or a punctuation symbol) ‘An instruction may occupy 1, 2, or 3 bytes, and a single numerical quantity may occupy anywhere fr om 2.108 bytes, depending on the precision and type of number. The size of a computer's memory is usually ex presses as some multiple of 2°10 = 1024 bytes. This s referred to as 1k. Small computers have memories whose sizes typically range from 64k to 1024k (1 mega) bytes. Take a lookat this explanation If the memory of a small computer is say 64k bytes, then, as many as 64* 1024 =65,536 char acters and/or instructions can be stored in the computer memory. If the entire memory is used tore present character data, then about 800 names and address can be stored within the computer at a ny one time (assuming 80 characters for each name address). If the memory is used to represent nu merical data rather than names and address, then about 16,00 individual quantities can be stored at any one time (assuming 4 bytes per number). Large computers have memories that are organized in ‘to words rather than bytes. Each word will consist of a relatively large number of bits, typically 32 or 36. This allows one numerical quantity, or a small group of characters (typically four or five) to be re presented within a single word of memory. Large computer memories are usually expressed as som, emutiple of 1k (Le.2"10 = 1024) words. ‘Alarge computer may have several millions words of memory. Some memories have ability to store 16,000 or 64,000 bits (pieces of information) and there are others that can store information I nthe region of gigabytes (1 gigabyte 1024 * 1024 = 1048576). Now can you calculate the ca pacity of this computer in term of data storage? © If the memory of a large general purpose computer is 2048kb, can you determine the sto rage capacity of the computer? © Then this is equivalent to 2048 * 1024 = represent numerical data, then roughly 2 milion numbers can be stored within the comp, ,097, 152 words. If the entire memory is used to uter at any one time, If the memory is used to represent character rather than numerical data, then about 8 milion characters can be stored at any one time, This is morethan en “d rT_ L ough memory to store the cont ent of an entire book Most computers also employ auxiliary memory device (e.g. magnetic tapes, disks, solid-state mem ory devices) in addition to their primary memories. These devices typically range from a few hundred ‘thousand bytes (for a small computer) to several millon words (For a larger computer). Moreover, th ey allow for the permanent recording of in formation, since they can be physically mounted or dismo unted from the computer and stored when not in use. However the access time (i. thetime require dito store or retrieve information) is considerably greater for these auxiliary devices than for primary memory, SPEED AND RELIABILITY: Because of its extremely high speed, a computer can carry out calculatio ns in just a few minutes that would require month's perhaps even years ~ if carried out by hand. Sim ple tasks, such as adding two numbers, can be carried out in fractions of a microsecond (1 us = 10: 6s). Ona more practical level; the end-of-semester grades for all students na large University can ty pically be processed in just a few minutes of computer tine. For exampleit was estimated that Holle rith’s system had accomplished in one year and seven months what it would have taken hundred ole rks seven years and eleven months to do. This very speed is accompanied by an equally high level reliability. Thus a computer practically neve makes a mistake of its own accord. Highly publicized “computer” errors such asa person receiving a monthly bill of a programming error or an error in data transmission rather than an error caused b y the computer itself. In computer systems, output could be described as 100% reliable if theinput is, correct. Hence the saying garbage‘in, garbage out (what you send n, is what you must expect). Activity 1.1 “Take a moment to reflect on what you have read so far. Based on your learning experience, and kno ‘wing that computer has a lot characteristics which make them to be very useful for daly activities, C an you mention some of the advant ages, individual, organisations and even government can derive f rom using computer? Activity 1.1 Feedback ‘The advantages of computer ranges from speed, accuracy, storage capacity, integrity and security. Read more from unit 3.2.1 3.3. Types and Classifications of Computer “d rT| 3.3.1 TYPES OF COMPUTERS “There are two basic types of computers namely (1) Analogue Computers and (2) Digital Computers “The analogue computers operate on data represented by variable physical quantities, such as vokag esand are measured continuously. Digital computer on the other hand works with numbers, words and symbols expressed as digits, w hich t manipulates and counts discretely. ANALOGUE COMPUTERS ‘An analogue device is defined as one that operates on the principle of similarity in proportional relati ons to a process modelled when values are kept constant over a specified range. A computer of this ‘ype solves prob lems by operating on continuous variables rather than on discontinuous or discrete nit s as do digital computers. Analogue computers are similar to a voltmeter in the way they measu revalues. They translate various physical conditions such as flow, temperature, pressure, mechanica I motion, and angular position into mechanical or electrical analogue values. ‘These types of computer uses various types of amplifiers to perform arithmetic operations as sum. ation and multiplication. So_ L Fig 1.11: Analogue computer DIGITAL COMPUTERS ‘Adigial computer processes all kinds of data in discrete formi.e numbers expressed directly as the ‘two digits 0 and 1 of the binary code. Using various techniques, these two binary digits called "BIT’ can be made to represent numbers, lett ets, and symbols. Binary 0110 for example, represents the decimal number 6, By operating in binary codes, a computer is able to indicate two possible states or conditions. The st ate is said to beeither ON of OFF, ON stands for 1 and OFF stands for O. Groups of binary digits are called BYTES or WORDS, In computer programming thesesets of bytes is what is used to develop both complex and simple se ts of instructions called SUBROUNT INE, ROUTINES and PROGRAMS. ‘These sets of instruction called programms assist a computer to generate solution for scientific, busin 88 and machine control problems. Adigtal computer also ha s the ability to compare, it also has capacity to make decisions, by using o remploying prescribed criteria, Exampke of typical decision making instruction to a computer two of such reads thus: “] -_ L Hf A multiplied by B is less than X perform program P or if the result of A multiply by B is less than X perform process Y and add 1 to counter. Allthe computer will do is to assess the value of the manip ulation and make conclusion without human interference but still following strict the program or in | Figl.12:Digital computer struction earlier given. 33.2 CLASSIFICATION Classffcation of digital computers depend on the same factors ike size, complexity, cost, computati on, retrieval speed, and transmission capability. It must be noted that they all folow certain fundam ental concepts and operational principles ‘The principal factor for classifying computers is the processing power. Using these factors, computer can be classified into three broad categories namely: () Mainframe Computers (2) Mini Computers (3) Micro Computers Itmust be noted that recent development has made the clasefication difficuk. Recently, som emini computers and micro computers produced are more powerful than traditional mainframes. MAINFRAME COMPUTERS ‘The first and second generation computers commonly referred to as the earliest computers were all mainframes: Mainframe computers have the following characteristics; (@) They are mostly large occupying large floor space. (i) Their functional units being physically separated. (ii) They are general purpose processors capable of handing multiple simultaneous functions s “d rT| uch as batch processing interactive and transaction processing under the control of an operating sy stem, (iv) They support a widerange of peripheral equipment, such as printers, including high speed d evices and communication lines (¥) They are normally housed in air-conditioned rooms surrounded by security measures, run by team of professional operators. (vi) They have large memories of say 4 Megabytes with several disk units, each holding 3-6 hund red megabytes of information Mainframe computers are normally used by large or ganizations such as University and Research est ablishments where they supply general-purpose computing facilites Banks where large amount of inforrmation has to be collected, sorted and distributed also make use of Mainframe Computers. Fig 1.13:Mainframe computer MINI COMPUTERS “The third generation of computers ushered in Mini comput ers. Aminicomputer is structurally a small version of a mainframe computer. It is used for low volume applications which require relatively sophisticated computational capabilt‘The earliest developed mini computers were used for aerospace applications and they appeared int hemarket between 1961 ~ 62, Generally when an organization decides to decentralize its operation or distribute its computer powe r'to various stations or locations within user departments, minicomputers were the first choice befo rethe arrival of micro computers. General characteristics of mini computers: (@) Easier to install @) Have smaller memory size and word lengths (ii) Are best suited for dedicated purposes (W) Need no complex management structures () Typical word length of 12-1 8bits (vi) Themain memory ranges from 256K to 512K. It has ability to expand to several megabytes (MBs). “]Se Fig. 1.14:Mini computer MICRO COMPUTERS Technological advancement that led to the production of LSI madeit possible to develop micro com puters ‘Micro computer isa small computer consisting of processors on a single silicon chip mounted on ac ircuit board together with memory chips, ROMs and RAM chips etc Major characteristics areas follows: (@) —_Akeyboard for the entry of data and instructions (i) Asoreen for display purpose ii) Interface for connecting peripherals such as plotters, disc drive, ight pen, a mouse e.tc. (i) __Ithas fivebasic components which inclide Random Access Memory (RAM), Read Only Mem cory (ROM), Input and Output devices, Interface components. (¥) They haveword length of 4,8, 16 bits (some are 32 bits, and they are referred to as super mi cto cormputers) (vl) They can operate under normal office conditions (vil) Their main memory range's from 4K to 256K (vii) They have facility for add-on memory of up to 1 MB (ix) They are commonly found in homes, schools business, offices etc.a HYBRID COMPUTER Fig 1.15: Micro computer ‘Alybrid computer system consists of a combination of analogue and digital computers. “The earliest hybrid computers were introduced in late 1950's. “The principle here was the ‘employment of digital machines as a support device for the analogue uni t Most recent hybrid computers, by contrast are digitally based “The basic components are; @) —_Adigital processor (i) Amemory forthe internal storage of a master digital program and data (ii) Primary Input/Output hardware which are video display terminals. (W) — Anelectronic keyboards (¥) Interactive graphic devices (Wi) Severalanalogue units used to provide continuous parallel computational capability (vi) Provision of converters called Digital to Analogue Converters (ADC) for proper interfacing (T his translates data fromthe analogue processors into digits of the binary codes) and (vi) Provision of devices that convert digitally processed information into analog ue representatio Ni called Digital to Analogue converters (DAC) Fig 1.16: Hybrid computer One major advantage of hybrid system is the offer of greater precision than do analogue computers and more control capability than provided by digital machines. 3.4 Uses of Computer Systern “d rTI Computer system can be used to do the following 1. Type and print documents 2. Used to send information 3. useto play music 4.can be used to do caleulation 5. used to store and process data 6. used to television and listen to radio programme over the internet 25 Areas of Application of computer Computer is applied in almost every aspect of human life and operation. In other word computer ha made their presence fet in almost every speck of life today. Some of the areas where computer ha become very common are: 3.5.1. Commercial application # Banking sector Super markets © Electricity bill generation © Transportation © Alarm system © Paperless money through credit cards 1.1.1 Educational institutions: © Online examination © Open distance learning format © Processing examination resukt © Computer aided leaming 1.1.2 Broadcasting Services © Use of computer in receiving urgent news © Runtime reporting as done during parliament elections or sports eventsa 1.1.3 other Applications include © spacetechnology © field of medicine applied science and technology © in industrialresearch Summary of Unit 3 In Unit 3, you have learned that: a systemis a collection of elements working together to achieve a particular goal ‘Acomputer isa system made up of input, processing unit and output “There are different types of computer; analogue, digital and hybrid computer 2 3 4. Computer can be classified by size, purpose and speed. 5. Computer can be used to process, store and transmit data 6 Computer has its applications in different areas:: banking, education , medicine, industries ete Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Unit 3 Now that you have completed this study session, you can assess how well you have achieved its Le aming Outcomes by answering these questions, You can check your answers with the Notes on the Self-Assessment Questions at the end of this Module: SAQ 3.1 (tests learning outcome 3.1) Define a system. Mention two input and two output and one processing unit in human body SAQ 3.2 (tests learning outcome 3.2) State five characteristics of computer SAQ 3.3(tests learning outcome 3.3) Mention five areas where computer can be used SAQ 3.4 (tests learning outcome 3.4) Describe the type of computer SAQ 3.5 (tests learning outcome 3.5) “]a Notes on the Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Unit 2 Name class of computer system SAQ 3.1: Asystem is collection of a components working together to achieve a goal Input ~ Eyes: for sensing object ~ Mouth :for drinking and eating Processing = Brain : for thinking, memorising and controling the activities of the body Output - Hands: for writing information ~ Mouth for speech minicomputers and micro computers Classifying computer by purpose we have general pur pose and special purpose computer SAQ 3.2 (tests learning outcome 3.2) The characteristics of computer are - Speed - Storage - Reliability ~ Extra ordinary task - security SAQ 3.3{tests learning outcome 3.3) ‘Areas where computer can be used are: - banking - transportation education = broadcasting_ L ~ electricity billing + cashless system SAQ 3.4 (tests learning outcome 3.4) “The types of computer are ‘Analogue digital and hybrid computers SAQ 3.5 (tests learning outcome 3.5) If you classify by their sizes: - Mainframe computer ~ Mini computer - Micro computer Refences Unit 4 Hardware Components of Computer Expected Duration: 2hrs Introduction In this unit you will learn about hardware components of cormputer. The hardware components are physical components of computer system. Learning Outcome for Unit 4 Atthe end of this unit, you sh ould be able to: 4.1 explain computer hardware 42 List five(S) examples of input unit 43. Listfour examples of output unit 44 Explain the two main types of computer memory 4.1. Computer Hardware Components HARDWARE COMPONENTS: “d rTa “The diagram of Fig 2.1 shows the general organizational structure of a computer and Fig 2.2 ilustra tethe general functional components of a computer, namely the hardware, which comprises two ba sic sections; the central processing unit (CPU) and the peripheral unit. The central processing unit co mprises the memory control unit and the arithmetic/Logical unit Fig.1.18: Hardware Components CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU) The CPU consists of the Memory unt, Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU), control unit (CU). ‘The CPU is commonly referted to as the heart of the system without it no system can function. It ist he minimum hardware a subsystem can use Fig. 1.19: Central Processing Unit CONTROL UNIT ‘This unit co -orcinate's the activities of the units of the system and ensures that the instructions co nntain in fts programs are executed in proper sequence it also controls the activities of various input/ output devices.L Fig 1.20: Controlunit “The operations carried out by the control unit while executing a single instruction may be summarize das folows: (@) Obtain the ‘address of memory for the current instruction to be obeyed from the Program co. unter (b) Copy the instruction from its location in memory into the Instruction Register. (© _Incremnent the Program Counter so that it now contains the address of the next instruction t obe obeyed. (Decode the instruction from its pattern of binary digit to determine what operation isto bec arried out, using the Instruction Decoder. (© Execute the Instruction using the ALU. (f)— Goback to step (A). From Compiter Oeshep Ereyeepeda (@itos Te Computer Lnguage Co. ne. arene SC CMeN Control | Arithmetic/Logic “] Input Devic UnitUnit| Output Devi i e ceFig, Parts of a computer hardware system. Control | Arithmetic/ Logic Unit nit Input t+ Output Device | Prograral wut Data Device Input Data Buffer MEMORY Fig Data flow in a computer system. ARITHMETIC AND LOGIC UNIT ‘The Arithmetic and Logic Units (ALU) consists of two units, (The Arithmetic Unit: This unit performs arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction, muktipl ication, division etc. {i The Logic Unit: This unit performs logical operations su ch as the comparison between numbers, shifting of values from one area to another. It s sometimes called the“mil” for the computer data pr cessing “d rTFig 1.21:ALu ‘STORAGE UNIT ‘The term bit is used as shorthand for binary digit. Digit computer system stores one character of da tain each memory cell. The total of the eight-bit group is known as a byte (pronounced "bite’).Every byte represents one of the characters in the computer character set. For this reason, the termbytea nd the word character are nearly synonymous. Byte, however, has the more technical connotation 0 f comprising eight bits” Each byte consists of a zone and a digit which identify the character represented. A byte, therefore, consists of two four bit parts. Processor speed is also governed by the amount of data that can pro cessed in one cycle. This is measured in term of access width, meaning the number of binary digit, or bits, that can be transferred or processed at one time. Computers represent data using binary codin ag schemes made up of zeros and ones. One character- a letter of the alphabet or a number, for exa mple-requires eight bits, called a byte ‘Aprocessor with an access width of 8 bits transfers one byte or one character per cycle. proceso rwith a 16-bit access width transfer two bytes ‘The second is twice as fast as the first. Access width is governed by the bus, an electrical co ductor that connects all of the hardware system component. Computer system have two buses. 0 ne connects all of the peripheral input/out put devices to the CPU and the primary storage to the pro cessor. The IBMPC for example uses the 8088 processor which is manufactured by Intel. The 8088 has an internal bus of 16 bits, which means that data are transferred within the processor at a rate of one byte per cycle. IBM's PC uses the Intel 80286 processor which has both internal and external buses of 16 bits. The ‘Alpha Micro, another microcomputer, employs internal and external buses with access width of 32 bi “d rT_ L ts each. The IBM system 38, a mainframe computer, uses a 48-bit bus. Most manufacturer of large range computer, such as Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) a nd IBM, manufacture their own processors, Producer of microcomputers and some Minicoputer stypically use processors manufactured by firms that specializein the production of processors. In the United states, which dominates the market for these devices, there are but a few manufacturers of processors. Intel produces the 8088 (BM Display Writer word processor), and several other more powerful processors MOS Technology Produces the 6502 processor, an 8-bit device used n the Appl ell and Frankin computers, Motorola manufacturers the 68000, a 32/16 (meaning 32-bit intemal a nnd 16-bit extemalbus) used in the Apple Machintosh Zilog manufacturers the Z80 processor, an 8 bit processor used n many microcomputer. MAIN MEMORY (PRIMARY STORAGE) Every digital computer has a main memory that holds data and instructions for immediate u se by the central processing unit. “The main memory receives this information from an input device or an auxiliary storage apparatus. In addition, it accepts and temporarily stores data from the control and arithmetic/logic unit of the C PU. The primary storage device is generally a high speed random-access memory (RAM) whose acce ssis time independent of the sequence in which buts of information were stored Each communication between any two units passes through the memory unit. Before the co puter can solve any problem must be loaded into the memory unit Fig,: 1.22: Main memory “THE PERIPHERAL UNIT: ‘Theunit consists of the input, Output unit and auxiliary storage INPUT UNIT ‘The Input units provides the medium by which data is fed into the computer. Itaccepts input data and transmits the data as a series of electrical pulses into the compute '’s memory unit. An input unit consists of an input device and input medium, “d rT