Lesson 4: Application

• Radiation Protection Radiation protection is a critical aspect of

ensuring safety in environments where ionizing radiation is present.
• Effective shielding is necessary to protect workers, patients, and the
general public from unnecessary exposure.
• The design and material selection of radiation barriers, understanding
the concepts of half-value layer (HVL) and tenth-value layer (TVL), and
the factors influencing controlled and uncontrolled areas are essential
for effective radiation safety.
I. Design and Materials of Primary and Secondary Barriers

A. Primary Barriers Primary radiation barriers are designed to shield

against direct radiation that comes from the source
(e.g., x-ray machines, radiation therapy units).

• These barriers are usually located in areas where direct radiation

exposure is most significant.
• Location: Primary barriers are positioned between the radiation source and
the surrounding environment, such as walls surrounding an x-ray room or
radiotherapy treatment area.
• Materials: The primary barriers must be constructed from materials with high
atomic numbers and high density to effectively attenuate radiation.
• Common materials used include
• Lead
 A standard material due to its high atomic number (Z=82) and density, which effectively
absorbs radiation.
• Concrete
 Frequently used in large radiology or nuclear medicine facilities, as it is dense and cost-
effective.
• Steel
 Sometimes used for its strength and density.
B. Secondary Barriers
Secondary barriers protect against scatter radiation, which occurs when
primary radiation interacts with materials, causing secondary radiation
to spread.
• Secondary barriers are not exposed to direct radiation but must still attenuate
scattered or leakage radiation.
• Location: These barriers are typically found around the edges of rooms or
near areas where individuals are unlikely to be directly exposed to the
primary beam, such as adjacent walls or ceilings.
• Materials: Secondary barriers typically use the same materials as primary
barriers (lead, concrete, steel) but can be thinner, as scatter radiation has
already been attenuated to some extent.
II. Half-Value Layer (HVL) vs. Tenth-Value Layer (TVL)

• Definition:
• The HVL is the thickness of a material required to reduce the intensity of
radiation by half.
• It is a measure of the material's ability to attenuate radiation.
Significance:
• The HVL provides a quick understanding of the effectiveness of a material in reducing
radiation exposure.
• A smaller HVL indicates better shielding performance
B. Tenth-Value Layer (TVL)
• Definition
• The TVL is the thickness of a material required to reduce the radiation
intensity to one-tenth of its original value.
Significance:
• TVL is a more stringent measure of shielding and provides greater attenuation of
radiation compared to HVL.
• It is used when designing for higher levels of protection or in high-radiation areas
Difference Between HVL and TVL
• HVL reduces the intensity by half, while TVL reduces it by 90%.

• TVL is a more effective measure of shielding and is used for higher

radiation doses or in situations requiring more robust protection
III. Controlled vs. Uncontrolled Areas
• Radiation areas are classified into controlled and uncontrolled areas
based on the level of radiation exposure and the protection measures
required.
• The distinction between these areas is critical for ensuring safety in
radiological environments.
A. Controlled Area
• A controlled area is a region where radiation levels are closely
monitored, and safety measures are in place to limit exposure
Requirements:
• Workload: The total radiation output from the source(measured in mA-
minutes or mAs)
 A higher workload increases the need for effective shielding.
• Occupancy: This refers to the amount of time individuals spend in the area.
 High occupancy leads to higher radiation exposure, necessitating stronger barriers.
• Distance: The greater the distance from the radiation source, the lower the
radiation exposure, due to the inverse square law.
• Limitations: Entry to controlled areas is restricted to trained personnel, and
safety measures are enforced (e.g., radiation monitoring, dosimetry).
B. Uncontrolled Area Definition
An uncontrolled area is a space where radiation exposure is not closely monitored
and is typically open to the general public.
These areas must meet stringent radiation safety criteria to limit exposure.
Requirements:
• Workload: While the workload may be lower compared to controlled areas,
calculations are still necessary to ensure radiation levels are within safe limits.
• Occupancy: Occupancy in uncontrolled areas is typically low, reducing the
potential for exposure.
• Distance: Like controlled areas, increasing distance from the radiation source
reduces exposure in uncontrolled spaces as well.
• Limitations: Although unrestricted, the radiation levels in these areas must be
kept below the regulatory limits, ensuring public safety.
IV. Key Factors for Designing Radiation Protection
When designing radiation protection measures, several factors must be
considered:
• Workload (W) refers to the intensity of radiation output, which influences
the thickness and material choices for barriers.
• As workload increases, barrier thickness must increase to maintain safety.
• Occupancy (T) reflects the time spent in a given area.
• High occupancy in controlled areas necessitates stronger shielding to reduce the
cumulative dose received by workers or individuals.
• Distance: The inverse square law means that as distance from a radiation
source increases, the radiation exposure decreases.
• Ensuring appropriate distances between the source and occupied spaces is an
effective radiation protection strategy.
Regulations, Recommendations,
and Public Awareness in the
Philippines
Regulations, Recommendations, and Public
Awareness in the Philippines
• Radiation protection in the Philippines is essential for the safe and
responsible use of ionizing radiation in various sectors, including
healthcare, industry, and research.
• Several regulatory agencies and international organizations provide
guidelines, standards, and recommendations to ensure that radiation
is used safely while minimizing harm to workers, patients, and the
public.
• This lecture will explore the agencies responsible for radiation
protection, the current recommendations of the International
Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP), and public awareness
efforts in the Philippines
I. Agencies Responsible for Formulating
Policies and Standards in the Philippines
• Several agencies in the Philippines are responsible for regulating and
formulating radiation protection policies and standards.
• These agencies collaborate with international bodies like the
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and the International
Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) to ensure that radiation
safety practices align with global standards.
• PNRI
• DOH
• FDA
• OSHC
A. Philippine Nuclear Research Institute (PNRI)
• The Philippine Nuclear Research Institute (PNRI), an attached agency
of the Department of Science and Technology (DOST), is the primary
regulatory body responsible for ensuring the safe use of nuclear
technology and radiation sources in the Philippines. It plays a critical
role in setting policies and standards for radiation protection.
• The PNRI is tasked with licensing and regulating the use of radiation
sources in medical, industrial, and research applications. It also
conducts inspections and monitoring to ensure compliance with
safety standards. PNRI's work aligns with international guidelines and
recommendations, including those from the IAEA and ICRP, to ensure
the safety of radiation use in the country.
B. Department of Health (DOH)
• The Department of Health (DOH), specifically through its Bureau of
Health Devices and Technology (BHDT), is responsible for regulating
radiation protection in the healthcare sector, particularly in the use of
medical imaging devices like X-rays, CT scanners, and radiation
therapy equipment. The DOH also provides guidance on the safe use
of radiopharmaceuticals and radiation safety protocols for healthcare
professionals.
C. Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
• The FDA regulates the use of medical devices, including radiation-
emitting devices such as X-ray machines and radiotherapy equipment.
• They ensure that these devices meet safety standards before being
used in clinical settings.
• The FDA works closely with the DOH and PNRI to enforce radiation
protection policies in the medical field.
D. Occupational Safety and Health Center (OSHC)
• The Occupational Safety and Health Center (OSHC), under the
Department of Labor and Employment (DOLE), is responsible for
ensuring radiation safety in occupational settings.
• OSHC develops guidelines and conducts training on radiation safety
for workers exposed to ionizing radiation, such as those working in
radiology departments or nuclear power plants.
II. Current ICRP Recommendations in
Radiation Protection
• The International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP)
provides recommendations on radiation protection that are widely
adopted across the globe.
• These recommendations are also implemented in the Philippines,
particularly through the PNRI, DOH, and other relevant agencies.
A. Key Principles of Radiation Protection (ICRP)
• Justification:
• The ICRP states that no practice involving radiation should be undertaken unless it has a net benefit. This
principle of justification ensures that radiation is only used when the benefits, such as diagnosis or therapy,
outweigh the risks.
• Optimization (ALARA):
• The ICRP emphasizes the ALARA (As Low As Reasonably Achievable) principle, which aims to minimize
radiation exposure by optimizing radiation protection measures.
• This includes minimizing exposure times, maximizing distance from radiation sources, and using appropriate
shielding.
• Dose Limitation:
• The ICRP sets limits on the amount of radiation individuals can be exposed to, including occupational
exposure, medical exposure, and public exposure.
• Occupational exposure:
• For radiation workers, the ICRP recommends a dose limit of 20 mSv per year, averaged over five consecutive
years, with no single year exceeding 50 mSv.
• Public exposure: For the general public, the recommended dose limit is 1 mSv per year, excluding natural
background radiation and medical exposure.
B. Dose Limits and Safety Standards in the Philippines

• PNRI follows the ICRP's recommendations, setting similar dose limits

for occupational and public radiation exposure.
• The PNRI also ensures that facilities using radiation-emitting devices
comply with international standards for radiation protection.
• In medical radiology and radiotherapy, the DOH ensures that medical
professionals follow ICRP guidelines for radiation safety, particularly
concerning patient exposure during diagnostic imaging and
treatment.
III. Public Awareness in Radiation Protection in the Philippines

• Public awareness and education about radiation safety are essential

in ensuring that individuals understand the risks and safety measures
related to ionizing radiation.
• In the Philippines, various efforts are underway to educate both
professionals and the general public about radiation protection.
A. Importance of Public Education Understanding Radiation Risks

• Radiation can be perceived as dangerous due to its invisible nature

and potential health effects.
• Public education efforts help dispel myths and provide accurate
information about radiation types, exposure risks, and safety
measures.
• PNRI and other agencies regularly conduct seminars, workshops, and
public information campaigns to improve radiation awareness and
educate the public on safe practices.
• Medical Radiation Awareness
• In medical settings, patients may be unaware of the radiation risks associated
with certain diagnostic procedures, such as X-rays and CT scans.
• Public awareness campaigns aim to inform patients about the risks
and benefits of these procedures and encourage them to ask
healthcare providers about radiation exposure.
• The DOH and PNRI work together to promote the concept of
"informed consent" for medical procedures that involve radiation,
ensuring patients are fully aware of potential risks.
• Environmental and Occupational Radiation Awareness:
• Public education campaigns also focus on understanding
environmental and occupational radiation exposure risks, particularly
for workers in industries such as mining, radiology, and nuclear
power.
• Agencies such as PNRI and OSHC provide radiation safety training to
workers in these industries to ensure compliance with safety
standards.
B. Educational and Outreach Initiatives Training and Certification

• PNRI offers training programs for radiation protection officers, healthcare

workers, and industry professionals to improve knowledge and practical
skills in radiation safety.
• The DOH and FDA provide certification for medical personnel who use radiation-
emitting devices to ensure that they are properly trained in radiation safety
procedures.
• Public Campaigns
• The PNRI and DOH regularly publish information materials such as leaflets, posters,
and online resources to raise awareness about radiation safety in the Philippines.
• These materials are distributed to healthcare facilities, schools, and the general
public.
• Mass media campaigns, including TV and radio programs, also contribute to
educating the public on radiation safety.
• Community Engagement
• Community outreach programs, particularly in areas with nuclear facilities or
medical radiation sources, help inform the public about radiation safety
protocols and emergency procedures in case of accidents or incidents.
• PNRI and other agencies also engage with local governments to spread
information and raise awareness in rural and underserved areas.
Cardinal Principles of Radiation
Protection and Emergency
Procedures
• The use of radiation, particularly in medical, industrial, and research
settings, requires specific strategies to minimize exposure and
prevent harmful effects.
• The fundamental strategies for radiation protection are based on the
cardinal principles, which are designed to control and limit exposure.
• This lecture will focus on the cardinal principles of radiation
protection—time, distance, and shielding—and the essential
emergency procedures to follow in case of a radiation incident
I. The Cardinal Principles of Radiation
Protection
• The cardinal principles of radiation protection are time, distance, and
shielding.
• These principles are essential in minimizing radiation exposure to
individuals and ensuring safety in environments where ionizing
radiation is used.
 A. Time
• The principle of time emphasizes reducing the amount of time spent near a
radiation source to minimize exposure.
• The longer an individual is exposed to radiation, the greater the total dose they
will receive. Therefore, limiting the time spent near sources of radiation is one of
the most effective ways to reduce exposure.
• Reducing Exposure Duration
• In medical settings, such as radiology or nuclear medicine, reducing the duration of
procedures (e.g., limiting the time a patient spends in an X-ray room) helps minimize
exposure.
• Worker Protocols: For radiation workers (e.g., radiologists, nuclear plant workers), minimizing
exposure time during procedures or maintenance activities reduces the overall dose they
receive.
• Example: In radiology, it is important to limit the number of X-rays performed during a
procedure, particularly unnecessary follow-up images. Also, workers operating radiation
equipment should spend the least amount of time in the room with radiation-producing
devices.
B. Distance
• The principle of distance states that increasing the distance from a radiation
source significantly reduces exposure. Radiation intensity follows the inverse
square law, which means that as the distance from the source doubles, the
exposure rate is reduced by a factor of four (i.e., 1/4th of the original exposure).
• Maximizing Distance: In both medical and industrial settings, the principle of
distance is critical in protecting workers and patients.
• For example, using remote-controlled devices or tools can help maintain a safe distance from
radiation sources.
• Safety Zones: In nuclear power plants or industrial radiography, designated
controlled areas are established to ensure that only authorized personnel work
near radiation sources, while others maintain a safe distance.
• Example: During radiation therapy, the technologist or healthcare worker should increase
their distance from the patient while administering treatment.
• In some instances, remote-controlled machinery can allow workers to operate radiation
equipment from a safe distance. In industrial radiography, radiographers use long poles or
robotic systems to carry out inspection tasks from a distance, minimizing exposure
C. Shielding
• Shielding involves using materials that absorb or block radiation to protect individuals from
exposure.
• The type of shielding depends on the type of radiation involved (e.g., alpha, beta, gamma, or X-
ray radiation)
• Material Selection: Different materials provide varying levels of shielding.
• For example, lead is commonly used to shield against X-rays and gamma rays, while concrete or steel is used
in nuclear power plants and other high-radiation environments.
• Shielding Design: Radiation protection professionals must design shielding based on the radiation
source's intensity and energy, as well as the expected exposure levels.
• Example: In medical radiology, lead aprons are commonly used to shield patients and healthcare workers from
scattered radiation.
• Additionally, lead walls are used to create radiation-proof rooms for procedures like fluoroscopy and CT
scans.
• In nuclear power plants, thick concrete barriers serve as shielding to prevent radiation from
leaking into the environment and to protect workers from exposure to high levels of radiation.
II. Emergency Procedures in Radiation Protection
• While radiation safety protocols aim to minimize exposure,
emergencies can still occur.
• These can include accidents in medical facilities, industrial settings, or
nuclear power plants. Having clear emergency procedures in place is
crucial to minimize harm in the event of radiation exposure.
A. Types of Radiation Emergencies
• Radiological Dispersal Devices (RDD):
• Often referred to as "dirty bombs," these devices combine conventional
explosives with radioactive material.
• While unlikely to cause significant immediate radiation exposure, they can
cause widespread contamination and panic.
• Nuclear Power Plant Accidents:
• Accidents such as the Chernobyl or Fukushima disasters can release large
amounts of radioactive materials into the environment.
• These incidents require extensive emergency response to prevent large-scale
radiation exposure to the public.
• Medical Radiation Incidents
• These incidents can involve radiation overdose during medical procedures
(e.g., radiation therapy), malfunctioning equipment, or accidents involving
radiation sources in hospitals or research labs.
• Transport Accidents
• Accidents involving radioactive materials in transit (e.g., during shipping or
industrial transport) can lead to radiation exposure and contamination.
B. Key Elements of Emergency Procedures
Evacuation and Shelter-in-Place
• Evacuation
• In case of a radiation leak or accident, evacuating people from the
contaminated area is the most effective way to limit exposure.
• Evacuations should be conducted based on the level of radiation detected
and the area affected.
• Sheltering: If evacuation is not possible, people may need to shelter
in place, especially if radioactive materials have been dispersed into
the air.
• Sheltering-in-place includes sealing windows and doors to prevent
contamination.
• Radiation Monitoring: Detection:
• Radiation levels in affected areas should be continuously monitored using
appropriate radiation detectors (e.g., Geiger counters, scintillation counters).
• This allows responders to assess the radiation hazard and make informed
decisions.
• Decontamination
• Affected individuals or areas should undergo decontamination procedures to
remove radioactive particles. T
• This may involve washing or using special equipment to clean exposed
surfaces.
• Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
• Emergency responders should wear appropriate PPE, including radiation suits,
gloves, masks, and other protective gear, to prevent contamination.
• Medical Treatment
• Individuals exposed to high levels of radiation may require medical treatment
for radiation sickness, which includes symptoms like nausea, vomiting, and
skin burns.
• Potassium iodide (KI) can be administered to protect the thyroid gland in the
event of a radiation exposure from iodine-131.
• Public Information and Communication
• Providing clear, accurate, and timely information to the public is essential in
reducing panic and ensuring compliance with safety measures.
• Authorities must use mass media, public announcements, and social media to
inform people of evacuation routes, shelter locations, and safety procedures.
• Long-Term Health Surveillance
• After a radiation emergency, individuals involved should undergo medical
surveillance for the long-term effects of radiation exposure, such as cancer
and genetic mutations.