Group one-The Alkali metals

Element Symbol Electronic

Structure
Lithium Li 1s22s1
Sodium Na 1s22s22p63s1
Potassium K 1s22s22p63s23p64s1
Rubidium Rb
1s22s22p63s23p64s24P65s1
Caesium Cs

1s22s22p63s23p64s24P65s15P66s1
 Occurrence and Abundance

•Despite their close chemical

similarity, the elements do not
occur together, mainly
because their ions are of
 different size. Sodium is the
most abundant, followed by
potassium, rubidium, lithium,
and caesium. Francium is
intensely radioactive and very
rare.
•Lithium is the
thirty-fifth
most abundant
minerals, spodumene
LiAl(SiO3)2 and lepidolite
Li2Al2(SiO3)3(FOH)2.
•Sodium and potassium are the
seventh and eighth most
abundant elements by weight
in the earth’s crust.
 The largest source of sodium
is rock salt (NaCl).
Various salts including NaCl,
Na2B4O7.10H2O (borax),
NaNO3 (saltpetre) and
Na2SO4
 (mirabilite) are obtained from
deposits formed by the
evaporation of ancient seas.
•Potassium occurs mainly as
deposits of KCl (sylvite), a
mixture of KCl and NaCl
(Sylvinite), and the double
salt KCl.MgCl2.6H2O
(carnalite).
•There is no convenient source
of rubidium and only one of
caesium and these elements are
obtained as by-products from
lithium processing.
•All of the elements

heavier than

bismuth (atomic

number 83) 83Bi

 radioactive and has a short
half-life period of 21 minutes
it does not occur appreciably
in nature.
 Extraction of metals
•The metals may all be
isolated by electrolysis of a
fused salt, usually the fused
halide, often with impurity
 added to lower the melting
point.
Sodium is made by the
electrolysis of a molten
mixture of about 40% NaCl
 and 60%CaCl2 in a Downs

cell.This mixture melts at

about 600 C compared with

803 C for pure NaCl.

The small amount of calcium
formed during the electrolysis
is insoluble in the liquid
sodium, and dissolves in the
eutectic mixture.
Eutectic mixture is a type of
a homogeneous mixture that has
a melting point lower than those of
the constituents.
•There are three advantages to
electrolyzing
•It lowers the melting point and
so reduces the fuel bill.
The lower temperature results
in a lower vapour pressure for
sodium, which is important as
sodium vapour ignites in air.
•At lower temperature the
liberated sodium metal does
not dissolve in the melt, and
this is important
•because if it dissolved it would
short-circuit the electrodes and
thus prevent further
electrolysis.
•A Downs cell comprises a
cylindrical steel vessel lined

with firebrick, measuring

about 2.5m in height and

1.5m in diameter.
•The anode is a graphite rod in
the middle, and is surrounded
by a cast steel cathode.
•A metal gauze screen separates
the two
electrodes, and prevents the Na
formed at the cathode from
recombining with Cl2
produced at the anode.
 The molten

sodium rises, as

it is less dense
 and removed, and packed into

steel drums.

•A similar cell can be used to

obtain potassium by
electrolyzing fused KCl.
 However, the cell must be
operated at a higher
temperature because the
melting point of KCl is
higher, and this results in the
 vapourization of the
liberated potassium. Since
sodium is readily available, the
modern method is to reduce
molten KCl with
sodium vapour at 850 C in a
large fractionating tower.
This gives K of 99.5% purity.
Na +KCl →NaCl +K

Rb and Cs are produced in

a similar way by reducing

the chlorides with Ca at

750 C under reduced

 All react with water to give
hydrogen gas and the metal
hydroxide. They also react
with the oxygen in the air to
give either an
 oxide, peroxide or
superoxide depending on the
metal.
These metals almost always
form ions with a positive (+1)
charge.
•Most of the alkali metals glow
with a characteristic colour
when placed in a flame;
lithium is crimson, sodium
gives off an intense yellow,
potassium is Lilac, rubidium is
a red-violet, and caesium gives
off blue light.
 Electronic structure
Group 1 elements all have one
valence electron in their outer
orbital- an s electron, which
occupies a spherical orbital.
 The single valence electron is
a long distance from the
nucleus, is only weakly held
and is readily removed.
 In contrast the remaining

electrons are closer to the

nucleus, more tightly held,

and are removed only with

great difficulty.
Because of similarities in
the electronic structures of
these elements, many
similarities in chemical
behaviour would be
 Size of atoms and ions
Group 1 atoms are the
largest in their periods in the
periodic table.
When the outer electron is
removed to give a positive ion,
the size decreases
considerably.
There are two reasons for this.

1). The outermost shell of

electrons has been completely

removed.
2). Having removed an electron,

the positive charge on the

nucleus is now greater than

the charge on the remaining

 electrons, so that each of the
remaining electrons is attracted
more strongly towards the
nucleus. This reduces the size
further.
•Positive ions are always
smaller than the parent atom.
Even so, the ions are very
large, and they increase in
size from Li+ to Fr+ as extra
 shells of electrons are added.
The Li+ is much smaller than
the other ions. For this reason,
Li only mixes with Na above
380°C and it is immiscible
with the metals K, Rb and Cs,
even when molten.
In contrast the other metals
Na, K, Rb and Cs are miscible
with each other in all
proportions.
Density
The atoms are large, so group
1 elements have remarkably
low densities.
 Metallic Ionic Density
radius radius (gcm-3)
(Å) M+(Å)
Li 1.52 0.76 0.54
Na 1.86 1.02 0.97
K 2.27 1.38 0.86
Rb 2.48 1.52 1.53
Cs 2.65 1.67 1.90
Ionization Energy
•The first ionization energies
for the atoms in this group are
appreciably lower than those
for any other group in
 the periodic table. The atoms
are very large so the outer
electrons are only held weakly
by the nucleus.
•Hence the amount of energy
needed to remove the outer
electron is not very large.
•On descending the group from

Li to Na to K to Rb to Cs, the

size of the atoms increases; the

outermost electrons become

 less strongly held, so the
ionization energy decreases.
Electronegativity
The electronegativity values
for the elements in this
group
 are very small- in fact the

smallest values of any

element. Thus when these

elements react with other

elements to
 form compounds, a large
electronegativity difference
between the two atoms is
probable, and ionic bonds are
formed.
 Li- 1.0, Na-0.9, K-0.8,
Rb-0.8, Cs-0.7(Pauling’s
electronegativity).
Chemical properties
Some reactions of Group 1
metals
2M +2H2O →2MOH +H2
The hydroxides are the
strongest bases known.
With excess dioxygen
4Li +O2 →2Li2O
Monoxide
is formed by Li and to a small
extent by Na.
 2Na+O2→Na2O2
Peroxide is
formed by Na and to a small
extent by Li
K +O2 →KO2
Superoxide formed by K, Rb,
•2M +H2 →2MH ionic
‘salt-like’ hydrides.

•6Li +N2 →2Li3N Nitride

formed only by Li.
•3M +P →M3P All the
metals form phosphides
•3M +As →M3As All the
metals form arsenides

•3M +Sb →M3Sb All the

metals form stibnides
•2M +X →M2X (X=S,Se,Te)
All the metals form
sulphides, selenides, and
tellurides.
• 2M +X2 →2MX (X=F, Cl, Br,
I) All the metals form
fluorides, chlorides, bromides,
and iodides
•2M + 2NH3 →2MNH2 + H2
All the metals form amides
 Uses of Lithium:
•Lithium is used to make
electrochemical cell (both
primary and secondary
batteries).
 Lithium is used in lubricants,
in glass industries, and in
alloys of lead, aluminum, and
magnesium to make them less
dense and stronger.
Uses of sodium:
Liquid sodium metal is used as
a coolant in fast breeder
nuclear reactor. Sodium has
many biological uses like
nerve signal transmission.
 Sodium nitrite is a principal
ingredient in gunpowder. The
pulp and paper industry uses
large amounts of sodium
hydroxide, sodium carbonate,
and sodium sulphate.
•Sodium carbonate is used by
power companies to absorb
sulfur dioxide, a serious
pollutant, from smokestack
gases (locomotive chimneys or
 ship chimneys). Sodium
carbonate is also used in
the glass and detergent
industries.
 Sodium chloride is used in
foods and to soften the water.
Sodium bicarbonate (baking
soda) is used in the food
industry as well.
 Uses of potassium:
•Potassium is an essential
element for life. Roughly 95%
of Potassium compounds are
used as fertilizers for plants.
•Potassium hydroxide is used in
detergent.

•Potassium chlorate is used in

explosive.
•Potassium carbonate is used
in ceramics, colour TV tubes
and fluorescent light tubes.
Potassium bromide is used
in photography industries.
 Uses of Rubidium and

caesium:

Rubidium is used almost

exclusively for research, but

 caesium is used in special
glasses and radiation detection
equipment
GROUP TWO-THE ALKALINE EARTH
METALS
Element Symbol Electronic
Structure
Beryllium Be 1s22s2
Magnesium Mg 1s22s22p63s2
Calcium Ca
1s22s22p63s23p64s2
Strontium Sr

1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p65s2
Barium Ba
• Alkaline earth metals make up the second
group of the periodic table.

• This family includes the elements beryllium,

magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium, and
radium (Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, and Ra,
respectively).

• These metals are silver and soft, much like the

alkali metals of Group 1.
• Each alkaline earth metal has two valence
electrons.

• They will easily give these electrons up to

form cations.

• These metals become increasingly more

reactive as you go down the periodic table.
This is concurrent with general periodic
trends.
• The group two elements show the same
trends in properties as were observed with
Group 1.

• However, beryllium stands apart from the

rest of the group and differs much more
from them than lithium does from the rest
of Group 1.
• The main reason for this is that the
beryllium atom and Be2+ are both
extremely small, and the relative increase in
size from Be2+ to Mg2+ is four times
greater than the increase between Li+ and
Na+.
• Beryllium and barium compounds are all
very toxic.

• The elements form a well-graded series of

highly reactive metals, but are less reactive
than Group 1.

• They are typically divalent and generally

form colourless ionic compounds.
• The oxides and hydroxides are less basic
than those of Group 1: hence their oxosalts
(carbonates, sulphates, nitrates) are less
stable to heat.

Occurrence and Extraction

• These elements are all found in the Earth’s
crust, but not in the elemental form as they
are so reactive. Instead, they are widely
distributed in rock structures.
• Beryllium, like its neighbours Li and B is
relatively not very abundant in the
earth’s crust. It occurs to the extent of
about 2ppm and is thus similar to Sn (2.1
ppm), Eu (2.1 ppm) and As (1.8 ppm).

• Beryllium is found in small quantities as

the silicate minerals beryl
Be3Al2Si6O18 and phenacite Be2SiO4.
• Magnesium is the sixth most abundant
element in the earth’s crust (27640 ppm ).

• The main minerals in which magnesium is

found are carnellite (KCl.MgCl2.6H2O),
magnesite (MgCO3) and dolomite
(MgCO3.CaCO3).
• Calcium is the fifth most abundant element in
the earth’s crust. Hence the third most
abundant metal after Al and Fe.
• Calcium is found in gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O),
anhydrite (CaSO4), fluorite (CaF2), apatite
(Ca5(PO4)3F) and limestone (CaCO3)

• There are two crystalline forms of CaCO3,

calcite and aragonite.
• Strontium (384ppm) and barium (390ppm)
are much less abundant, but are well known
because they occur as concentrated ores,
which are easy to extract. They are
respectively the fifteenth and fourteen
element in abundance.
• Strontium is mined as celestite SrSO4 and
strontianite (SrCO3). Ba is mined as Barytes
BaSO4. Radium is extremely scarce and is
radioactive. It was first isolated by Pierre
and Marie Curie by processing many tons of
the uranium ore pitchblende.
• Of the elements in this Group only
magnesium is produced on a large scale.

•It is extracted from sea-water by the addition

of calcium hydroxide, which precipitates out
the less soluble magnesium hydroxide.

•This hydroxide is then converted to the

chloride, which is electrolysed in a Downs
cell to extract magnesium metal.
• The metals of this group are not easy to
produce by chemical reduction because they
are themselves strong reducing agents, and
they react with carbon to form carbides.

• They are strongly electropositive and react

with water, and so aqueous solutions cannot
be used for displacing them with another
metal, or for electrolytic production.
• All the metals can be obtained by
electrolysis of the fused chloride, with
sodium chloride added to lower the
melting point, although strontium and
barium tend to form a colloidal
suspension.
Properties of the elements
• The alkaline earth metals are silvery white,
lustrous and relatively soft. Their physical
properties when compared with those of
group 1A metals, show that they have a
substantially higher melting point., boiling
point, enthalpies of fusion and
vapourization.
• They have two valency electrons which
may participate in metallic bonding,
compared with one electron for Group 1
Metals.
• Consequently Group 2 metals are harder,
have higher cohesive energy and much
higher melting points and boiling points
than Group 1 elements.
• The melting points do not vary regularly,
mainly because the metals adopt different
crystal structures.
Melting points of Group 1 and 2
Melting Pt(°C)
Be 1287 Li 181
Mg 649 Na 98
Ca 839 K 6
Sr 768 Rb 39
Ba 727 Cs 28.5
• This can be understood in terms of the size
factor and the fact that two valency
electrons per atom are now available for
bonding.
• Again, Be is notable in melting more than
1100°C above Li and being nearly 3.5
times as dense; its enthalpy of fusion is
more than 5times that of Li.
 Size of atoms and ions
Group 2 atoms are large but are smaller than
the corresponding group 1 elements as the
extra charge on the nucleus draws the orbital
electrons in.

Similarly the ions are large, but smaller than

those of Group 1, especially because of the
removal of two orbital electrons increases the
effective nuclear charge further.
• Thus, these elements have higher densities
than group 1 metals.
 Size and Density
metallic Ionic Density
radius(Å) Radius(Å) (gcm-3)
Be 1.12 0.31 1.85
Mg 1.60 0.72 1.74
Ca 1.97 1.00 1.55
Sr 2.15 1.18 2.63
Ba 2.22 1.35 3.62
Ra 1.48 5.5
• Comparison with group 1A shows the
substantial increase in the ionization energies;
this is related to their smaller size and higher
nuclear charge and is particularly notable for
Be.
Ionization energy
1st 2nd 3rd
Be 899 1757 14847
Mg 737 1450 7731
Ca 590 1145 4910
Sr 549 1064
Ba 503 765
Ra 509 979
• The third ionization energy is so high that
M3+ ions are never formed. The ionization
energy for Be2+ is high and its compounds
are typically covalent, Mg also forms some
covalent compounds.

• However, the compounds formed by Mg, Ca,

Sr and Ba are predominantly divalent and
ionic.
• Since the atoms are smaller than those in
Group 1, the electrons are more tightly
held so that the energy needed to remove
the first electron (1st ionization energy) is
greater than those in Group 1.
• Once one electron has been removed, the
ratio of charges on the nucleus to orbital
electrons is increased, so that the
remaining electrons are more tightly held.
Hence the energy needed to remove a
second electron is nearly double that
required for the first.
ELECTRONEGATIVITY
The electronegativity values of Group 2
elements are low, but are higher than the
values for Group 1.
The electronegativity difference between
Group 2 metals (Mg, Ca, Sr, and Ba) and
the halogens or oxygen is large and the
compounds are ionic. The value for
Beryllium is higher than for others.
HYDRATION ENERGIES
The hydration energies of the Group 2 ions
are four or five times greater than for group 1
ions. This is largely due to their smaller size
and increased charge. The crystalline
compounds of Group 2 contain more water of
crystallization than the corresponding Group
1 compounds.
• Thus NaCl and KCl are anhydrous but
MgCl2.6H2O, CaCl2.6H2O and
BaCl2.2H2O all have water of
crystallization. Note that the number of
molecules of water of crystallization
decreases as the ions become larger.
Differences between Beryllium and the
other Group 2 elements
Beryllium is anomalous in many of its
properties and shows diagonal relationship to
aluminum in Group 3.

• It is extremely small and has a high charge

density and so by Fajans rules it has a
strong tendency to covalency.
• Beryllium hydride is electron deficient
and polymeric with multicentre bonding
like aluminium hydride.
• The halides of beryllium are electron
deficient, and polymeric with halogen
bridges. BeCl2 usually forms chains but
also exists as the dimer. AlCl3 is
dimeric.
• Be forms many complexes – not typical
of Groups 1 and 2.
• Be like Al is rendered passive by nitric acid.
• Be is amphoteric, liberating H2 with NaOH
and forming beryllates. Al forms
Aluminates.
• Be(OH)2 like Al(OH)3 is amphoteric.
• Be salts are extensively hydrolysed.
• Be salts are among the most soluble known.
• Beryllium forms an unusual carbide Be2C
which like Al4C3 reacts with water to give
methane whereas magnesium carbide and
calcium carbide give propyne and
ethyne(formerly called acetylene)
respectively.
• Be2C+4H2O → 2Be(OH)2 + CH4
• Mg2C3 + 4H2O → 2Mg(OH)2 +
C3H4
• CaC2 + 2H2O → Ca(OH)2 + C2H2
• Beryllium metal is relatively unreactive at
room temperature, particularly in its massive
form.

• It does not react with water or steam even at

red heat and does not oxidize in air below
600°, though powdered Be burns brilliantly
on ignition to give BeO and Be3N2.
• The halogens (X2) react above 600°C to
give BeX2 but the chalcogens (S, Se, Te)
require higher temperatures to form BeS,
e.t.c.

• Ammonia reacts above 1200°C to give

Be3N2 and carbon forms Be2C at 1700°C.

• In contrast with the other group IIA metals,

Be does not react directly with Hydrogen,
and BeH2 must be prepared indirectly.
• Cold concentrated HNO3 passivates Be but
the metal dissolves readily in dilute
aqueous acids (HCl, H2SO4, HNO3) with
the evolution of hydrogen.
• Beryllium is sharply distinguished from the
other alkaline earth metals in reacting with
aqueous alkalis(NaOH, KOH) with
evolution of hydrogen.
• Magnesium is more electropositive than the
amphoteric Be and reacts more readily
with most of the non metals.
• It ignites with the halogens, particularly
when they are moist, to give MgX2 and
burns with dazzling brilliance in air to give
MgO, Mg3N2.
• It also reacts directly with the other elements
in Group V and VI (and Group IV); when
heated and even forms MgH2 with hydrogen
at 570 and 200 atm.

• Steam produces MgO, or Mg(OH)2 plus

Hydrogen and ammonia reacts at elevated
temperature to give Mg3N2.
• The heavier alkaline earth metals, Ca, Sr, Ba
(and Ra) react even more readily with non
metals and again the direct formation of
nitrides M3N2 is notable.
• Other products are similar though the
hydrides are more stable and the carbides
less stable than for Be and Mg.
• There is also a tendency, previously noted
for the alkali metals to form peroxides
MO2 of increasing stability in addition to
the normal oxides MO.
 Some reactions of Group 2 metals
M +2H2O →M(OH)2 +H2 Mg with
hot water, and Ca, Sr and Ba react rapidly
with cold water.

2M +O2 →2MO Normal oxide

formed by all group members.
With excess dioxygen
• Ba +O2 →BaO2 Ba also forms the
peroxide.

• M +H2 →MH2 Ionic ‘salt–like’

hydrides formed at high temperatures by Ca,
Sr and Ba.

• 3M +N2 →M3N2 All form nitrides at high

temperatures.
• 3M +2P →M3P2 All the metals form
phosphides at high temperatures.

• M +X →MX (X=S,Se,Te) All the

metals form sulphides, selenides, and
tellurides.

• M +X2 →MX2 (X=F, Cl,Br, I) All the

metals form fluorides, chlorides, bromides
and iodides.
 M +2NH3 →M(NH2)2 + H2 All
the metals form amides at high
temperatures.
Hydroxides
Be(OH)2 is amphoteric, but the hydroxides
of Mg, Ca, Sr and Ba are basic.

The basic strength increases from Mg to Ba

and Group 2 shows the usual trend that basic
properties increase on descending a group.
SULPHATES
• The solubility of the sulphates in water
decreases down the group, Be Mg
Ca Sr Ba.

• Thus BeSO4 and MgSO4 are soluble but

CaSO4 is sparingly soluble and the
sulphates of Sr, Ba and Ra are virtually
insoluble.
• The significantly higher solubilities of
BeSO4 and MgSO4 are due to the high
enthalpy of solvation of the smaller Be2+
and Mg2+ ions.

• The sulphates all decompose on heating,

giving the oxides:
heat
MgSO4 → MgO+SO3
• MgSO4 and CaSO4 cause permanent hardness
in water while the presence of Mg(HCO3)2
and Ca(HCO3)2 causes temporary hardness in
water.
 HYDRIDES
The elements Mg, Ca, Sr and Ba all react with
hydrogen to form hydrides MH2.

Beryllium hydride is difficult to prepare, and

less stable than the others.

Hydrides are all reducing agents and are

hydrolysed by water and dilute
acids with the evolution of hydrogen.
 CaH2 +2H2O→Ca(OH)2+2H2

NITRIDES
The alkaline earth elements all burn in
dinitrogen and form ionic nitrides M3N2.
This is in contrast to Group 1 where Li3N is
the only nitride formed.
3Ca +N2 →Ca3N2
All the nitrides are all crystalline solids,
which decompose on heating and react
with water, liberating ammonia and
forming either the metal oxide or
hydroxide e.g.

• Ca3N2 +6H2O →3Ca(OH)2 +2NH3

 Compounds
The predominant divalence of the Group IIA
metals can be interpreted in terms of their
electronic configuration, ionization energies
and size. Further ionization to MX3 is
impossible[14847kJmol-1 for Be,
7731kJmol-1 for Mg and 4910kJmol-1 for
calcium].
 USES
• In its elemental form, magnesium is used for
structural purposes in car engines, pencil
sharpeners, and many electronic devices
such as laptops and cell phones.

• In a biological sense, magnesium is vital to

the body's health: the Mg2+ ion is a
component of every cell type.
• Calcium metal is used to make alloys with
Aluminium for bearings.

• It is used in the iron and steel industry to

control carbon in cast iron and as a
scavenger for P, O and S.

• Other uses are as a reducing agent in the

production of other metals-Zr, Cr, Th and
U- and for removing traces of N2 from
argon.
Chemically CaH2 is sometimes used as a
source of H2.
Radium was used for radiotherapy treatment
of cancer at one time: other forms of
radiation are now used.
 GROUP 4A ELEMENTS
Element Symbol Electronic Structure
Carbon C [He] 2s22p2
Silicon Si [Ne] 3s23p2
Germanium Ge [Ar] 3d104s24p2

Tin Sn [Kr] 4d105s25p2

Lead Pb [Xe] 4f145d106s26p2
 OCCURRENCE OF THE
ELEMENTS
• The elements are all well known, apart from
germanium.

• Carbon is the seventeenth and silicon the

second most abundant element by weight in
the earth’s crust.

• Germanium minerals are very rare. Germanium

occurs as traces in the ores of
 other metals and in coal, but it is not well
known.

• The abundances of tin and lead are

comparatively low, they occur as
concentrated ores which are easy to extract.
• Carbon occurs in large quantities combined
with other elements and compounds mainly as
coal, crude oil, and carbonates in rocks such as
calcite CaCO3, magnesite MgCO3 and
dolomite [MgCO3. CaCO3].
• Silicon occurs very widely, as silica SiO2
(sand and quartz) and in a wide variety of
silicate minerals and clays.
• Germanium is only found as traces in some
silver and zinc ores.
• Tin is mined as cassiterite SnO2.
• lead is found as the ore galena PbS.
 Extraction
• Carbon black (soot) is produced in large
amounts. It is made by the incomplete
combustion of hydrocarbons from natural gas
or oil.

• Natural graphite is usually found as a mixture

with mica, quartz and silicates, which contains
10-60% C.
• Silicon is made by reducing SiO2 and scrap
iron with coke.
SiO2 + Fe + 2C FeSi + 2CO
There must be an excess of SiO2 to prevent
the formation of the carbide SiC.

• High purity silicon is made by converting Si to

SiCl4, purifying this by distillation, and
reducing the chloride with Mg or Zn.
• SiO2 + 2C Si + 2CO
Si + 2Cl2 SiCl4
SiCl4 + 2Mg Si + 2MgCl2

• The only important ore of tin is

SnO2(Cassiterite).

• SnO2 is reduced to the metal using Carbon at

1200-1300 C in an electric furnace. The
product often contains traces of iron, which
make the metal hard.
• Iron is removed by blowing air through the
molten mixture to oxidize the iron to FeO,
which then floats to the surface.

• The main oxide of lead is galena PbS. There

are two methods of extracting the element:
1). Roast in air to give PbO and then reduce
with coke or CO in a blast furnace.
2PbS + 3O2 2PbO + 2SO2

+C
2Pb(liquid) + CO2(gas)
 2). PbS is partially oxidized by heating and
blowing air through it.

• The air is turned off after some time, heating

continues and the mixture undergoes self-
reduction.

heat in heat in
• 3PbS PbS + 2PbO 3Pb(liquid)
+ air air
SO2(gas)
• The Group 4A elements are found in the
p-block.

• Each of these elements has only two

electrons in its outermost p orbital with
electron configuration ns2np2.

• The Group 4A elements tend to adopt

oxidation states of +4 and, for the heavier
elements, +2 due to the inert pair effect.
• The inert pair effect is the
phenomenon of electrons remaining
paired in valence shell. It can be
defined as the reluctance of the
outermost shell s-electrons to
participate in bonding.
• Members of this group conform
well to general periodic
trends. The atomic radii increase
down the group, and ionization
energies decrease.
• Metallic properties increase down the
group. Carbon and silicon are non-
metals, germanium has some metallic
properties, tin and lead are metals.
• The elements in this group are relatively
unreactive, but reactivity increases down the
group.

• MII oxidation state becomes increasingly

stable on descending the group.

• Pb often appears more noble(unreactive) than

expected from its standard electrode potential
of -0.13volts.
• The unreactiveness is partly due to a
surface coating of oxide.

• Carbon, silicon and germanium are

unaffected by water, tin reacts with steam
to give SnO2 and H2. Pb is unaffected by
water, probably because of a protective
oxide film.
• Carbon is the fourth most abundant
element in the known universe but not
nearly as common on the earth, despite
the fact that living organisms contain
significant amounts of the element.
• Common carbon compounds in the
environment include the gases carbon
dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4).

• Allotropes
• Carbon exists in several forms called
allotropes. Diamond is one form with a very
strong crystal lattice, known as a precious
gem from the most ancient records.
• Graphite is another allotrope in which the
carbon atoms are arranged in planes which
are loosely attracted to one another (hence its
use as a lubricant). The recently discovered
fullerenes are yet another form of carbon.
• Inorganic carbon may come in the form of
diamond as transparent, isotropic crystal. It
is the hardest natural occurring material on
this earth.

• Diamond has four valence electrons, and

when each electron bonds with another
carbon it creates a sp3-hybridized
atom. The boiling point of diamond is
4827°C.
• Unlike diamond, graphite is opaque, soft,
dull and hexagonal. Graphite can be used as
a conductor (electrodes) or even as pencils.
• Germanium, categorized as a metalloid in
group 4A, the Carbon family, has five
naturally occurring isotopes.
• Germanium, abundant in the Earth's crust
has been said to improve the immune
system of cancer patients. It is also used in
transistors, but its most important use is in
fiber-optic systems and infrared optics.
• The name for silicon is taken from the Latin
silex which means "flint". The element is
second only to oxygen in abundance in the
earth's crust and was discovered by
Berzelius in 1824. The most common
compound of silicon, SiO2, is the most
abundant chemical compound in the earth's
crust, which we know it better as common
beach sand.
• Properties
• Silicon is a crystalline semi-metal or
metalloid. One of its forms is shiny, grey
and very brittle (it will shatter when
struck with a hammer). It is a group 4A
element in the same periodic group as
carbon, but chemically behaves
distinctly from all of its group
counterparts.
• Silicon shares the bonding versatility of
carbon, with its four valence electrons, but is
otherwise a relatively inert element.
However, under special conditions, silicon
can be made to be a good deal more
reactive.
• Silicon exhibits metalloid properties, is able
to expand its valence shell, and is able to be
transformed into a semiconductor;
distinguishing it from its periodic group
members.
• 27.6% of the Earth's crust is made up of
silicon. Although it is so abundant, it is not
usually found in its pure state, but rather its
dioxide and hydrates.
• SiO2 is silicon's only stable oxide, and is
found in many crystalline varieties.
• Its purest form being quartz, but also as
jasper and opal. Silicon can also be found in
feldspar, micas, olivines, pyroxenes and even
in water.
• Silicon is most commonly found in silicate
compounds.
• Applications
• Carbon has a very high melting and boiling
point and rapidly combines with oxygen at
elevated temperatures. In small amounts it is
an excellent hardener for iron, yielding the
various steel alloys upon which so much of
modern construction depends.
• Activated carbon is used extensively in
sugar industry as decolourizing agent.

• It is also used in purification of chemicals

and gases. It is used as catalyst.
• An important (but rare) radioactive isotope of
carbon, C-14, is used to date ancient objects
of organic origin.

• It has a half-life of 5730 years but there is

only 1 atom of C-14 for every 1012 atoms of
C-12 (the usual isotope of carbon).
• Silicon is a semiconductor with a clear
shiny bluish grey metallic lustre. It is used
in the production of transistors while an
isotope 29Si, is used in NMR
spectroscopic studies.
• Si/steel alloys are used for the construction
of electric motors. Silicon dioxide and
Silicon (in the form of clay or sand) are
important components of bricks, concrete
and Portland cement. Silicon
• Silicon parts are used in computers, transistors,
solar cells, Liquids Crystal Display (LCD)
screens and other semiconductors devices.
Silicates are used to make pottery and enamel.
Sand which contains silicon is an important
component of glass. Silicones are used in high
temperature greases, waxes, breast implants,
contact lenses, explosives and pyrotechnics.
• Germanium is transparent to infra-red light
and is therefore used for making prisms and
lenses and windows in infra-red
spectrophotometer.
• Germanium is used in transistor technology
and in optics. Magnesium germanate is used in
the special alloy, strain gauges and in
superconductors. Germanium is used in
electronic application when doped with
arsenic, gallium or other elements.
• Germanium oxide has a high refractive index
of refraction and dispersion, making it suitable
for use in wide-angle camera lenses and
objectives lenses for microscopes. It is also
used as an alloying agent (adding 1%
germanium to silver stops if from tarnishing)
in fluorescent lamps and so a catalyst.
• Both Ge and germanium oxide are transparent
to infrared radiation and so are used in the
manufacture of infrared spectroscopes.
• Tin is used for electroplating steel to make tin-
plate and alloys.

• Lead is used to make lead/acid storage

batteries.
• Lead is used as protective shielding against X-
ray and radiation from nuclear reactors