Chemistry form 2

Chapter 1

Elements and periodic table

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Email: info@learnmalawi.com

Compiled By: Stephan S. Kanyenda

1
CHAPTER ONE: Elements and The Periodic Table
 Elements in the periodic table are metals (on the left), metalloids (in the middle), and non-
metals on the right.
Periodic Trends
 A trend is a behavioural pattern that may occur repeatedly. Among the patterns in the periodic
table are; atomic radius, electron affinity, electronegativity and ionisation energy.

a) Atomic Radii
 The radius of an atom is the distance from the centre of the atom to the farthest shell.
 Across the periodic table atomic radius of elements decrease. This is because of increased
attraction between nucleus and outer electrons as the atomic number increases and
electrons are being added to the same shell.
 Down the group the atomic radii increase due to decrease in attraction between nucleus and
outer electrons because an extra shell is being added and the shells cause shielding of
nuclear attraction.

Sodium atomic radius

2
b) Electron Affinity
 This is the ability of an element to accept electrons. This is the opposite of electronegativity.
 Effective nuclear charge (force of attraction) increases across the period due to increase in
atomic number.
 Electron affinities, therefore, increase across the periodic table but decrease down the group
due to increase in atomic radii.

c) Electronegativity
 This is the ability of an atom to attract electrons to itself.
 Across the period, electronegativity increases due to an increase in nuclear charge as the
atomic number increases.
 Down the group, the electronegativity decreases due to increase in radius as the number of
shells increases.

d) Ionisation Energy

 Ionisation energy is the minimum energy required to remove electrons from an atom.
 Down the group ionisation energy decreases because electrons in the outer shell are less
attracted to the nucleus.
 Across the period ionisation energy increase because electrons in the outer shell increase
and experience more attraction force.

Element Ionisation Energy (K) Atomic radius

Lithium (Li) 520 0.15

Sodium (Na) 496 0.19

Potassium (K) 479 0.23

NB: Valence Electrons are the outer electrons. Across the period, valence electrons increase, and
down the group, valence electrons remains the same.

3
Properties of some Groups

A) Alkali Metals – Group 1 elements

 These include; Lithium, Sodium and Potassium.

Physical properties:

 They are soft

 They are shiny when freshly cut
 They float on water i.e. they have lower density than water

Chemical properties:

 They react with water to form a hydroxide and hydrogen gas.

e.g. 2Na (s) + 2H2O (l) 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g)

 They are the most reactive metals

 They react with oxygen to form an oxide

e.g. Li (s) + O2 (g) 2LiO (s)

 They react vigorously with halogens producing metal halides in the process
e.g. 2K (s) + Cl2 (g) 2KCl (s)

In group 1, reactivity increases down the group because atomic radii increases down the group so
the valence electron is weakly attracted to the nucleus and the element can easily become an ion.
Uses of Alkali Metals
1. Lithium
 In glasses and ceramics that resist heat.
 Its alloys can be used in aircraft building.
 For making cellphone and computer batteries
 For making lubricating greases
 Its salts are used for making drugs for stabilising mood

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2. Sodium

 As coolants in nuclear reactors.

 As a luster in metals.
 Its compounds are used in petroleum, textile and paper industries.
 In street lights and sodium vapour lamps.
 Its hydroxide is used in soap making.

3. Potassium

 Its nitrates are used for making explosives, fireworks and food preservatives.
 Its chromate is used for tanning leather and manufacture of inks, gun powder, dyes and
safety matches.
 Its hydroxide is used for making soap.

B) Alkaline Earth Metals – Group 2 elements

 These include; Beryllium, Magnesium and Calcium.

Physical properties of Alkaline-earth metals

 They have high melting and boiling points. The melting and boiling points decrease down
the group.
 They have grey silvery surface.
 They are good conductors of heat.
 They are good conductors of electricity.
 Density increase down the group due to increased mass of the atom.
 The atomic radii increase down the group. This is because down the group, the number of
energy levels increases.
 Ionisation energy decreases down the group because as one goes down the group the radii
of the atoms increase.

Chemical Properties of Alkaline-earth metals.

 They burn in air (oxygen) to form simple metal oxides

Metal + Oxygen Metal oxide

5
 Magnesium + oxygen Magnesium oxide

 They react with water to form metal hydroxide and hydrogen gas.

Calcium + water Calcium hydroxide + hydrogen gas

 They react with chlorine to form chloride salts.

Magnesium + chlorine Magnesium chloride

Mg (s) + Cl2 (g) MgCl2 (s)
 They react with dilute acids to form salt and hydrogen gas.
Uses of Alkaline Earth Metals

 Beryllium is used in high strength electrical insulators and semi-conductors.

 Magnesium is mixed with Aluminium or Zinc to alloys of more desirable qualities.
 Calcium is used in separating metals from their ores.

C) Halogens – Group 7 elements

 These include; Fluorine, Chlorine, Bromine and Iodine.

Physical Properties:

 Are made up of diatomic molecules, e.g. F2, Cl2.

 Have low melting and boiling points.
 Atomic radii increase down the group.
 Are poisonous and have different colours:
 Fluorine – pale yellow gas
 Chlorine – greenish yellow gas
 Bromine – brown liquid
 Iodine – blue, black shiny solid

Chemical properties:
 They are very reactive non-metals.
 They react with hydrogen to produce hydrogen halides.

H2 (g) + Br2 (l) 2HBr (l)

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  They react with alkali metals to form metal halides.

2Na (s) + Cl2 (g) 2NaCl (s)

Reactivity decreases down the group because the atomic radii increases, hence smaller atoms can
easily become ions.

Uses of Halogens

 Fluorine is used in the form of fluorides in drinking water and toothpaste to reduce tooth
decay
 Chlorine is used to make plastic called polyvinyl-chloride (PVC) for electrical insulators
and making household bleaches e.g. harpic.
 Chlorine can be used to kill bacteria and viruses in drinking water.
 Bromine is used in photography as silver bromide (AgBr) and medicine as potassium
bromide (KBr).
 Bromine is used as flame retardant in fire extinguishers.

D) Inert (Noble) Gases

These do not take part in chemical reaction (they are unreactive) because they fill outermost shells.
These are helium, neon, argon krypton and xenon.

Physical Properties:

 They are colourless gases.

 They are mono-atomic elements

Uses of Inert Gases

1. Argon is used to fill the bulbs to prevent the tungsten from reacting with air.

2. Neon

 Glows when electricity passes through it, hence used in advertising signs.
 It is used in Geiger-Muller tubes to detect radiation.
 It is also used together with helium-neon laser gas that is used in eye surgery.

3. Helium

 Used as a coolant in nuclear reactions.

 Used to inflate tyres of large aircraft to make them light enough.

7
 Used to fill airships and weather balloons to make them very light and cause them float on
water and in air.

References

Atkinson, A and Saleh, Z (1988). Complete certificate chemistry. Kenya: Longhorn Publishers.

Earl, Band Wilford, L.D.R (2001). GCSE Chemistry, 2nd Edition. London: Hodder Education.

Gallagher, R.M (2000). Complete Chemistry. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Grime, R, Saunders, N and Stirrup, N (2011). AQA GCSE Chemistry. Edinburgh, UK: Pearson
Education Limited.

London Examinations GCE O-Level Chemistry, May/June 2005 and January 2006. London
Qualifications Limited.
Napwora, J.N, Waweru, M, and Ogari, D.N (2007). K.C.S.E Golden tips chemistry. Kenya:
Macmillan Publishers Ltd.

Wallis, K (2007). Chanco physical science for Malawi, MSCE Book 1 3rd Edition. Zomba:
Chancellor College Publication.

8
Chemistry form 2
Chapter 2

CHEMICAL BONDING

Website: www.learnmalawi.com

Email: info@learnmalawi.com

Compiled By: Stephan S. Kanyenda

Copyright © learnmalawi | All rights reserved

9
CHAPTER TWO: Chemical Bonding
 Chemical bonding is the joining of two or more atoms to form new products.
 Chemical bond is the force of attraction between atoms.
 Atoms bond in order to be stable and gain more ionisation energy.
 Atoms react (chemically bond) by gaining of electrons, loosing of electrons and sharing of
electrons.

Types of Chemical Bonding

A) Ionic Chemical Bonding

 It is the type of chemical bonding that involves the transfer of electrons from metals to
non-metals.
 It is formed when atoms either lose or gain atoms i.e. become ions. The positive ions are
cations and negative ions are anions.
 The cations and anions attract to form a bond. For example, Na+ and Cl-.
 It is a type of bond that is also known as Electrovalent bond.

Ionic bonding in sodium chloride

Ionic Lattice: This is an ionic crystal (grain). Ions in an ionic lattice are arranged side by side.
Formulae of Ionic Compounds
 The easier method of writing formulae of ionic compounds is to swap the charges between the
ions and write them as subscripts of the atomic symbols leaving out signs. For example, the
formula of magnesium chloride:
Magnesium is Mg2+, Chlorine is Cl-, hence the formula is:

Mg2+ Cl- = MgCl2

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Physical properties of Ionic compounds

 They have high melting and boiling points.

 They conduct electricity in their molten state because they have free ions.
 They are soluble in water to form aqueous solutions.

B) Covalent (molecular) Chemical Bonding

 These bonds are formed by sharing valence electrons. It is the reaction between non-
metals only, e.g. hydrogen chloride (HCl).

 The shared electrons are found where the outer-most shells overlap.
 When one pair of electrons is shared, then it is a single bond, when 2 pairs are shared, then
it is a double bond, and when 3 pairs are shared, then it is a triple bond.

Example
Nitrogen molecule (triple bond)

Carbon dioxide (double bond)

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  Dative (co-ordinate) bond is a covalent bond in which the shared pair of electrons is
provided by one of the bonded atoms.
 This pair of electrons is shared with an atom that has lost its electron(s) in the outer shell
and has become ionised. The atom providing electrons is called a donor and the one
receiving is called an acceptor.
 A dative bond is formed in ammonium ion.

Molecular compounds are formed when different non-metal atoms share electrons to form
covalent bonds, such as hydrogen chloride, methane, glucose, etc.

Formulae of covalent (molecular) structures

This is possible when the valence electrons are known. For example:

Methane (CH4) is: C4 H1 CH4

H1
Ammonia (NH3) is: N3 H NH3

Physical properties of Molecular compounds

 They have low melting and boiling points.

 They do not conduct electricity
 They are insoluble in water but soluble in organic compounds.

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C) Matallic Chemical Bonding

 These bonds are made between the stationary positive ions and free delocalised electrons.
There is attraction between these ions.
 These are the strongest bonds because each free delocalised electron is attracted in their
directions, hence forming a very strong bond.

Strength of Metallic Bond

 It occurs mainly due to:

a) Size of metal atoms

 The electrostatic force decreases going down the group. Hence substances from the upper
part of the group will be having stronger electrostatic forces and they will be hard.
b) Number of valence electrons contributed to the ‘sea’ of electrons

 The melting and boiling points of metals across the periodic table increase because of
increasing numbers of delocalised electrons. As the delocalised electrons increase, the
electrostatic force of attraction between the electrons and nuclei increases.

Properties of metals

 They have high melting and boiling points; because they have very strong bonds.
 They expand when heated.
 Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity.
 They are malleable (can be beaten into various useful shapes e.g. sheets).

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 Metals are ductile (they can be drawn into wires).
 They are sonorous (they produce a ringing sound).
 Metals are dense and strong

References

Atkinson, A and Saleh, Z (1988). Complete certificate chemistry. Kenya: Longhorn

Publishers.

Earl, Band Wilford, L.D.R (2001). GCSE Chemistry, 2nd Edition. London: Hodder Education.

Gallagher, R.M (2000). Complete Chemistry. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Grime, R, Saunders, N and Stirrup, N (2011). AQA GCSE Chemistry. Edinburgh, UK: Pearson
Education Limited.

London Examinations GCE O-Level Chemistry, May/June 2005 and January 2006. London
Qualifications Limited.

Napwora, J.N, Waweru, M, and Ogari, D.N (2007). K.C.S.E Golden tips chemistry. Kenya:
Macmillan Publishers Ltd.

Wallis, K (2007). Chanco physical science for Malawi, MSCE Book 1 3rd Edition. Zomba:
Chancellor College Publication.

14
Chemistry form 2
Chapter 3

ACIDS AND BASES

Website: www.learnmalawi.com

Email: info@learnmalawi.com

Compiled By: Stephan S. Kanyenda

15
CHAPTER THREE: Acids and Bases

Properties of Acids

 Acids have sour taste, such taste as lemons, vinegar, sour milk, etc. some acids are found
in both plants and animals, and are referred to as Organic acids. While other acids are
formed from reactions of chemicals, and they are called inorganic or mineral acids.
 Acids conduct electricity. When an acid is dissolved in water the resulting solution
conducts an electric current.
 A number of mineral acids are corrosive. This means they can eat away skin, cloth and
metals.
 Acids turn blue litmus paper red, and changes the colour of the universal indicator.

Organic acids

Name Where found

Citric acid Citrus fruits such as orange, lemons, malambe

Tartaric acid Grapes, health salts, baking powder, bwemba

Lactic acid Sour milk

Ethanoic acid Vinegar

Methanoic acid In ant, bee and nettle stings

Butanoic acid Cheese

Tannic acid Tea

Common mineral or inorganic acids

Name Where found

Hydrochloric acid In stomach, in chemicals used to clean metallic surfaces

Sulphuric acid Car batteries, fertilisers, detergents.

Nitric acid Fertilisers and explosives.

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Properties.of Bases

 Bases have a flat/ bitter taste e.g. drugs called anti-acids.

 Bases conduct electricity (they are electrolytes)
 Bases react with metals. Their concentrated solutions are corrosive.
 Bases change the colour of the universal indicator and red litmus paper to blue.

Acid / Base Indicators

 Indicators are used to distinguish acids from bases

 Indicators change into different colours when put in acids and bases.
 Examples of indicators are universal indicator, bromothymol blue indicator,
phenolphthalein indicator and litmus paper.

Preparing Acid/Base indicators from local materials

• Indicators are usually dyes extracted from plants. The dyes are found in plant leaves and
flowers. They can be extracted from leaves of acacia, tomatoes and hibiscus flower.

Strength of Acids and Bases (pH scale)

• The strength of an acid or a base is determined by using Electrical conductivity, a universal

indicator or a pH scale.
• The strength of a base or acid can be known by using a pH scale. The pH stands for
power of hydrogen. The pH scale has corresponding colours as can be seen below:

Colour pH scale

Red 1

Pink 2

Orange 3

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 Orange 4 Increasing acid

Yellow 5

Light-green 6

Green 7 Neutral

Dark-Green 8

Dark-blue 9

Blue 10 Increasing alkalinity

Violet 11

Purple 12 /13 /14

pH Scale chart

pH 1 2 3&4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12, 13
& 14
Colour Red Pink Orange Yellow Light Green Dark Dark Blue Violet Purple
Green Green Blue

 pH 1 to 6 means the solution is acidic.

 pH 7 means the solution is neutral.
 pH 8 to 14 means the solution is alkaline or base.
 If the pH value is very small then the solution is very acidic.
 If the pH value is very great then the solution is very alkaline or basic.

NB: A universal indicator is preferred when measuring pH of a solution because it provides a wide
range of colour.

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Examples of indicators and their colours

Name of indicator Basic colour Acidic colour

Litmus paper Blue Red

Phenolphthalein Pink Colourless

Bromothymol blue Blue Yellow

Universal indicator Blue Red

Uses of Acids and Bases

 Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) is used in car batteries and manufacturing industries producing
paints, fertilisers and soap less detergents like surf.
 Ethanoic acid (acetic acid) is used as a food preservative and a solvent.
 Methanoic acid is used in dyeing and electroplating.
 Bases are used in food preparation e.g. okra (thelele).
 Bases are used to manufacture soap.
 Bases are used to neutralise acidic soils and acids are used to neutralise alkali soils.

Neutralisation

 This is a process of reducing acidity or basicity of a substance. All acid-base reactions are
neutralisation process.
 It is a chemical reaction between a base and an acid to produce a salt and water only.

Neutralisation is applied in:

a) In digestion: the acidity in the stomach can be reduced by stomach powder such as drew
liver salt, magnesium trisilicate and milk of magnesium.
b) Used in Agriculture: some crops do well in acid soils, others in neutral soils and basic soils.
So acidic or alkaline soils have to be neutralised to accommodate crops which prefer neutral
soils.
c) Used in cleaning teeth: acids produced by micro-organisms in the mouth are reduced by
alkali bases.

19
d) Taking of ant-acids such as milk of magnesia and sodium bicarbonate (soda).
e) Insect bite neutralisation. Apply base on insect sting bite area

References

Atkinson, A and Saleh, Z (1988). Complete certificate chemistry. Kenya: Longhorn Publishers.

Earl, Band Wilford, L.D.R (2001). GCSE Chemistry, 2nd Edition. London: Hodder Education.

Gallagher, R.M (2000). Complete Chemistry. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Grime, R, Saunders, N and Stirrup, N (2011). AQA GCSE Chemistry. Edinburgh, UK: Pearson
Education Limited.

London Examinations GCE O-Level Chemistry, May/June 2005 and January 2006. London
Qualifications Limited.

Napwora, J.N, Waweru, M, and Ogari, D.N (2007). K.C.S.E Golden tips chemistry. Kenya:
Macmillan Publishers Ltd.

Wallis, K (2007). Chanco physical science for Malawi, MSCE Book 1 3rd Edition. Zomba:
Chancellor College Publication.

20
Chemistry form 2
Chapter 4

HYDROCARBONS

Website: www.learnmalawi.com

Email: info@learnmalawi.com

Compiled By: Stephan S. Kanyenda

21
CHAPTER FOUR: Hydrocarbons

Hydrocarbons are organic compounds which contain carbon and hydrogen atoms only.

Organic compounds are substances which contain C-H bond. There are three classes of organic
compounds, namely:

I. Hydrocarbons: substances which contain carbon and hydrogen atoms only; e.g. alkanes
and alkenes.
II. Oxycarbons: substances which contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms e.g. alkanols.

III. Nitrocarbons: These contain carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen atoms e.g. CH3NO2.

Families of Hydrocarbons

 There are several families of organic compounds each of which form a Homologous series
with similar characteristics.
 Homologous series are series of compounds related by the same general formula and with
similar properties.
 The two families or homologous series of hydrocarbons are alkanes and alkenes.

Sources of Hydrocarbons

 Alkanes and alkenes come from the remains of the dead pants and animals which give rise
to:
 Fossil fuels (fractional distillation of petroleum)
 Cracking of long-chain alkanes
 Natural gas

Alkanes (paraffin)

 In this homologous series, each carbon atom forms 4 simple covalent bonds with other
atoms.
H

H C H
H

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  Alkanes are called saturated hydrocarbons because the carbon atoms have 4 single bonds
and the carbon atom cannot take in anymore atoms.

General formula for alkanes

The general formula is Cn H2n+2 where n stands for the number of carbons. If n = 1, then the formula
is CH4, and when n = 2 the formula is C2H6 etc.

Nomenclature of Alkanes

 Nomenclature is a naming system. Members that belong to a particular family have similar
names.
 Alkanes are named by adding a suffix “-ane” to the prefixes. The names of the first ten
members of alkanes are:

Number of Carbons Prefix Name of Alkane

1 Meth- Methane

2 Eth- Ethane

3 Prop- Propane

4 But- Butane

5 Pent- Pentane

6 Hex- Hexane

7 Hept- Heptane

8 Oct- Octane

9 Non- Nonane

10 Dec- Decane

For example, the chemical formula of butane will be:

Cn H2n+2 = C4 H(2×4)+2 = C4 H8+2 = C4 H10

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Structural Formula and Skeletal formula

 A structural formula shows how the atoms are arranged and joined in a molecule.
 For example, Hexane

 Skeletal formula shows the carbon chains i.e. all hydrogens are removed.
 For example, Hexane

C–C–C–C–C–C

Condensed Formula: This formula shows both the carbon and hydrogen atoms and how many
hydrogen atoms per each carbon atom.

For example, Hexane is CH3CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3 or CH3 (CH2)4 CH3

24
25
Physical properties of Alkanes
 They are insoluble in water. They are hydrophobic (water-hating)
 At room temperature, alkenes with up to 4 carbon atoms are gases and those with 5 to 16
carbon atoms are liquids, and those with more than 16 carbon atoms are solids.
 Alkanes with larger molecules have higher melting and biling points because the longer
the carbon chain the bigger the molecular and the greater the intermolecular forces (imf)
and the more the heat required to weaken the force. Hence higher melting and boiling
points.
 The bigger the molecule the greater the density.
 The larger the alkane, the more viscous it is. Viscosity is defined as the resistance of a
liquid to flow.
 Alkanes do not conduct electricity. They are non-electrolyte.

Chemical properties of Alkanes

 They take part in combustion.

For example: CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l) + Heat Energy
 They take part in substitution reaction in which the hydrogen atoms can be substituted by
another atom e.g. a halogen.
Examples
CH4 (g) + Cl2 (g) CH3Cl + HCl [chloromethane]
CH3Cl (g) + Cl2 (g) CH2Cl2 + HCl [dichloromethane]
CH2Cl2 + Cl2 CHCl3 + HCl [trichloromethane]
CHCl3 + Cl2 CCl4 + HCl [tetrachloromethane or Carbon
tetrachloride]

Uses of Alkanes

 For heating and cooking e.g. natural gas.

 Alkanes in form of bitumen, are used for surfacing the roads.
 They are used as fuels for vehicles, ships, geoplanes etc.
 They are also used to store the most the most reactive metals such as lithium, potassium
etc.
 They are used as lubricating oil, where moving parts of a machine are lubricated to prevent
rusting and reduce friction.
 They are used to produce other organic compounds such as alkenes.
 They are used as the solvent for other organic substances.

26
Alkenes

 Alkenes, unlike alkanes, are unsaturated compounds. The carbon atoms can accept more
atoms. They also possess a double bond between a pair of carbon atoms.

H H
C C
H H
 The double bond is called a functional group. A functional group is the group of atoms or
bonds within a molecule that determines the properties of a compound.
 Alkenes are produced from alkanes through the process called catalytic cracking. This is
the process where a long-chain alkane is split up, under high pressure and temperature and
in the presence of aluminium and chromium as catalysts. For example,

 Cracking is subjecting larger hydrocarbon molecules to high pressure at high temperature

to break them into smaller molecules in the presence of a catalyst.

General formula of Alkenes

It is CnH2n, where n stands for the number of carbon atoms. The smallest alkene has 2 carbon
atoms because of the double bond.

Nomenclature of Alkenes

The prefix is the same as those of alkanes. The suffix for alkenes is “-ene”. The names of the first
9 alkenes are:
Number of Carbons Prefix Name of Alkene

2 Eth- Ethene (C2H4)

3 Pro- Propene (C3H6)

27
4 But- Butene (C4H8)

5 Pent- Pentene (C5H10)

6 Hex- Hexene (C6H12)

7 Hep- Heptene (C7H14)

8 Oct- Octene (C8H16)

9 Non- Nonene (C9H18)

10 Dec- Decene (C10H20)

28
The naming of alkenes follows the IUPAC system of naming where the position of the carbon to
carbon bond is given.

The numbering of carbon atoms starts closer to the position of the double bond.

Physical Properties of Alkenes

 They are insoluble in water
 They exist in all states at room temperature
 Their melting and boiling points increase as the number of carbon atoms.
 The density of alkenes increases with increase in molecular size
 Viscosities follow the same trend as other organic compounds
 They do not conduct electricity

Chemical Properties of Alkenes

 They are more reactive than alkanes because of the presence of the double bond. They take
part in combustion and addition reactions.

A) Combustion reaction

• They react with oxygen to produce CO2, H2O, and Heat Energy.

29
 • For example: C2H4 (g) + 3O2 (g) 2CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l) + Heat

B) Addition reaction

 In addition reactions, two or more molecules combine to form a larger molecule.

I. Addition of hydrogen (catalytic hydrogenation)

 Ethene reacts with hydrogen in the presence of nickel catalyst to form ethane. A
temperature of 1500C is required.
 For example: CH2 = CH2 + H2 C2H6 (ethane)
II. Halogenation reaction
 Addition of halogens to ethane. Halogens readily add across a double bond of
alkenes to form compounds called dihalides.
 For example: CH2 = CH2 + Br2 CH2BrCH2Br (1,2-dibromoethane)
III. Hydration
 Water is added to an alkene.
 For example: CH2 = CH2 + H2O C2H5OH (ethanol)

Uses of Alkenes

 Ethane and propene are used in the manufacture of plastics. These plastics are made through
addition polymerisation. polythene is used to make dustbins, bags,electrical insulators and
clothing.
 Ethane is used in artificial ripening of fruits such as mangoes, bananas among others.
 For flower maturation.
 For seed germination.
 Used to produce alkanols at industrial level; when they undergo process of hydration.
 Used in the production of halogen alkanes which are important industrial solvents.

30
References

Atkinson, A and Saleh, Z (1988). Complete certificate chemistry. Kenya: Longhorn Publishers.

Earl, Band Wilford, L.D.R (2001). GCSE Chemistry, 2nd Edition. London: Hodder Education.

Gallagher, R.M (2000). Complete Chemistry. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Grime, R, Saunders, N and Stirrup, N (2011). AQA GCSE Chemistry. Edinburgh, UK: Pearson
Education Limited.

London Examinations GCE O-Level Chemistry, May/June 2005 and January 2006. London
Qualifications Limited.

Napwora, J.N, Waweru, M, and Ogari, D.N (2007). K.C.S.E Golden tips chemistry. Kenya:
Macmillan Publishers Ltd.

Wallis, K (2007). Chanco physical science for Malawi, MSCE Book 1 3rd Edition. Zomba:
Chancellor College Publication.

31
Chemistry form 2
Chapter 5

AIR

Website: www.learnmalawi.com

Email: info@learnmalawi.com

Compiled By: Stephan S. Kanyenda

32
CHAPTER FIVE: Air

 Air is composed of many kinds of gases. The gases are found in different percentages.

Component % by Volume

Nitrogen 78.08

Oxygen 20.95

Argon 0.93

Carbon dioxide 0.03

Neon 0.002

Helium 0.0005

Methane 0.00017

Krypton 0.000114

Trace 0.000056

 In addition to these gases, air also contains water vapour, dust particles, smoke and ash.

Separation of components of Air

 Air is a mixture of gases. These are nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, noble gases, water
vapour and dust particles.
 Fractional distillation is the best method used to obtain individual gases from air. This is
possible because the gases have different boiling points. This means that the gases must
condense first.

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Gas Boiling Point C
ͦ

Xenon -108

Krypton -157

Oxygen -183

Argon -186

Nitrogen -196

Neon -246

Helium -269

34
Properties and uses of Gases

a) Nitrogen gas

 Nitrogen is diatomic molecule where the two atoms are bonded by a triple bond [N≡N].
 The triple bond is very strong and cannot easily be broken. This property makes nitrogen
to be a very unreactive gas.

Uses of Nitrogen Gas

 Food packaging: nitrogen prevents oil from reacting with oxygen and the food stays for a
longer period.
 Fire extinguishing: Nitrogen stops oxygen from reaching the fire when it is spread onto the
fire from the extinguisher.
 Freezing: Liquid nitrogen is used in refrigeration because at low temperature liquid N2 can
freeze foods quickly.
 Manufacturing of ammonia gas: This is done by the Haber process where nitrogen reacts
with hydrogen.
 Preventing fires in oil tankers: When N2 is put in fuel tankers it provides an inert
atmosphere which prevents fires.

b) Oxygen

 This is a very reactive gas. It reacts with most compounds to form substances called Oxides.
The reaction with oxygen is called a combustion reaction.
 Reaction of oxygen with metals
 This produces metal oxides.

 For example

4Li (s) + O (g) 2Li2O (Lithium Oxides)

Mg (s) + O2 (g) MgO (magnesium oxide)

35
  The Reactivity series for oxygen
 This depends on the rate of reaction between oxygen and different metals. Some metals
react quickly and others react slowly. For example:

K Na Ca Mg Al Zn Fe Sn Pb Cu Ag

Decreasing reactivity

Test for reactivity

 The test for oxygen is that it can relight a burning splint.

Uses of oxygen

 For making oxides e.g. carbon dioxide.

 For combustion with fuels that provide energy for heating and driving vehicles.
 For welding. Oxygen can provide very high temperatures that can melt metals.
 For tissue respiration in living things.
 Used in iron blast furnaces.

c) Carbon dioxide

 Produced from the reaction between carbon and oxygen.

C (s) + O2 CO2 (g)

Properties of CO2

 An odourless and colourless gas.

 Not toxic gas.
 It is slightly soluble in water.
 It is denser than ordinary air.  It is not for combustion.

Uses of CO2

 Used in photosynthesis as a raw material.

 Put in fire extinguishers to fight fire.
 Put in fizzy drinks such as coke.

36
Test for Carbon dioxide gas

 It turns limewater milky.

Test for hydrogen gas

 It produces a pop sound once a burning splint is brought near.

d) Noble gases

 They are also called Inert gases. They are very unreactive gases because their outermost shells
are full.

Properties of Noble gases

 They are all gases at room temperature (25C).ͦ

 They have very low melting and boiling points.

Air Pollution

 This means the introduction of undesirable elements into the atmosphere.

 These undesirable elements are called pollutants.

Sources of pollutants

 Burning fossil fuels. These produce CO2, CO, SO2, NO2 and unburnt hydrocarbons which
are not needed by living things.
 Motor vehicle exhausts gases. These include Nitrogen oxide (NO and NO2) which are toxic
gases.
 Ozone (O3) produced from reaction between O2 and O. It is very reactive but toxic to
humans.
 Industrial chemicals processes. These may release SO2 and ashes with soot which disturb
the environment.
 Natural processes. Processes such as volcanic action, biological processes in the soil and
water and lightning flashes releases such gases as CO, CO2, CH4 and other hydrocarbons
which are dangerous.

37
Effects of Air pollutants on plants and animals
 Nitrogen oxides  Inflammation of cells.
 Interference with O2 transportation in the body as NO2 is incorporated in the haemoglobin.
 Irritation of the lungs.
 Lowering of resistance of an individual to respiratory infections such as influenza.
 Particulates affect humans in that they get deposited into vital body organs and block their
function.
 Sulphur dioxide causes irritation of the respiratory tract leading to high mucous secretion.
 Carbon monoxide is toxic if it is taken by haemoglobin instead of O2.

Efforts to reduce atmospheric pollution

 Improved combustion of fuel in petrol and diesel engines.

 Introduction of better processing of fuels to make them free from sulphur compounds.
 Introduction of better and more efficient filter systems in industries.
 Introduction of smokeless solid fuels or fuels like hydrogen.

38
Chemistry form 2
Chapter 6
Soil

Website: www.learnmalawi.com

Email: info@learnmalawi.com

Compiled By: Stephan S. Kanyenda

39
CHAPTER SIX: Soil

 Soil is made up of soil particles, air, water, micro- and macro- organisms, and humans.
 Humus comes from dead remains of plant and animal matter and it is called Organic matter.
 Soil particles come from the process of weathering.

Chemical properties of Soil

Properties include soil pH cat ion exchange capacity (CEC), salinity and organic matter content.

1. Soil pH

 This measures the acidity or alkalinity of the soil.

 Knowledge of the soil pH determines the type of crops to be grown in a particular area.
 pH means power of hydrogen ions in a solution

Effects of soil pH

a. It affects the availability of plant nutrients. In acidic soils, mineral salts become soluble
and are easily washed away.
b. Soil pH affects the availability of micro-organisms in the soil.

Factors that affect pH

 Application of acidifying fertilizers: phosphate and sulphate of ammonium add acid into
the soil.
 Leaching: heavy rains cause Ca2+, Na+, Mg2+ and K+ to go down into the soil leaving the
concentration of H+ to increase thereby making soil acidic.
 Parent material: sulphur parent material produces acidic soil. The acidity is caused by the
H2SO4 (sulphuric acid) which is formed from sulphur. Limestone (CaCOH2) releases
alkaline soil.
 Drainage: sandy soils tend to have lower pH (acidic) while clay soils have higher pH
(alkaline).

40
Importance of controlling soil acidity

 This is important because it creates a good environment for plant or crop production and
availability of micro-organisms. Presence of micro-organisms improves aeration of the soil
and they enrich the soil with their waste products.

2. Cation Exchange capacity (CEC)

 This is the ability of the soil to exchange ions at a given pH per unit weight. Sometimes ions
are applied into the soil to take place of those present in it. A good example is the liming
process. When liming, calcium oxide is applied to the acidic. Calcium ions replace the
hydrogen ions in the acidic soil.

3. Soil Salinity

 This means the salt content of the soil.

 Salinity means the salt content of the soil. The accumulation of salts in the soil is called
Soil Salination. Saline soil usually contains a lot of sulphate (NO42-), nitrates (NO3-),
carbonates (CO32-) and chlorine (Cl-).

Identification of saline soil

 Release of salty water from a borehole.

 Accumulation of white substances on the surface of the soil.
 Goats and cattle licking the soil.

Effects of saline soil

 It raises the pH of the soil (alkaline).

 Seed germination and plant growth usually fail because water is not available to plants and
seeds due to high concentration of salts in the soils.
 It reduces the presence of moco-organisms in the soil.

41
4. Organic Matter

 This is the decaying plant and animal remains in the soil.

Importance of organic matter

 It binds soil particles together thereby improving drainage, aeration and reducing soil
erosion.
 It improves soil structure and water holding capacity of the soil.
 It promotes the activity of the micro-organisms.

Soil Pollution

 Soil pollution is the introduction of substances that are harmful to the soil. It may be due
to the human and industrial activities. Substances that encourage pollution are called
pollutants.

Source of soil pollutants and degradation

The following are human activities which encourage soil pollution:

1) Poor farming methods; e.g. making ridges along the slope.

2) Application of inorganic fertilisers and pesticides. Inorganic fertilisers add acidity into the
soil and some pesticides are non-biodegrable.
3) Car exhausts and industrial wastes such as CO2, NO2 and SO2. When these dissolve in
water they form acid rain which increases soil acidity.
4) The reactions are as follows:
a. CO2 (g) + H2O (l) H2CO3 (aq) Carbonic acid
b. 4NO2 (g) + 2H2O (l) 4HNO2 (aq) Nitric acid
c. SO2 (g) + H2O (l) H2SO4 (aq) Sulphuric acid
5) Waste plastics and industrial effluent deposits. Waste plastic is non-biodegradable and
remains in the soil for a long time while effluent kills marine organisms.
6) Lead compounds: these are released from exhaust pipes and when dumped into the soil,
they kill soil organisms.

42
Prevention of soil pollution and degradation

 Several methods are used:

 Using electricity and solar power maintains soil cover.
 Using good farming methods or practices
 Afforestation and Re-afforestation.
 Recycling industrial and domestic wastes.
 Processing the wastes in fuels.
 Application of organic fertilisers like manure and animal dung.

Separation of Soil from water by Filtration

43
References

Atkinson, A and Saleh, Z (1988). Complete certificate chemistry. Kenya: Longhorn Publishers.

Earl, Band Wilford, L.D.R (2001). GCSE Chemistry, 2nd Edition. London: Hodder Education.

Gallagher, R.M (2000). Complete Chemistry. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Grime, R, Saunders, N and Stirrup, N (2011). AQA GCSE Chemistry. Edinburgh, UK: Pearson
Education Limited.

London Examinations GCE O-Level Chemistry, May/June 2005 and January 2006. London
Qualifications Limited.

Napwora, J.N, Waweru, M, and Ogari, D.N (2007). K.C.S.E Golden tips chemistry. Kenya:
Macmillan Publishers Ltd.

Wallis, K (2007). Chanco physical science for Malawi, MSCE Book 1 3rd Edition. Zomba:
Chancellor College Publication.

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