GGE 3202 Engineering Surveying I [39 Hours]

Credits: 3 Hrs

Prerequisites: GGE 1201 Surveying I

Purpose of the Course

To provide the student with an understanding of the basic concepts of engineering surveying
including setting out of engineering structures the establishment and densification of control
systems.

Expected learning outcomes

At the end of the course unit the student should be able to:

1. Set out engineering structures e.g. buildings, Pipelines, sewers, drains, canals, bridges etc.
2. Densify and transfer both horizontal and vertical controls
3. Design and setting out of horizontal and vertical curves.

Course Content
Engineering Surveying: Definition, categories of engineering surveying; Design, construction,
monitoring. Setting out works: Definition, purpose. Control and reference points. Setting out
procedures. Transfer of control; horizontal control, underground control, controlling verticality.
Setting out levels: Pipelines, sewers, drains, canals, land grading. Route Location. Setting out
engineering structures: Roads, bridges, buildings. Curves: Definition, design, computations
and setting-out of curves; horizontal, vertical, transition. Interpretation of Civil Engineering
designs and drawings: Roads, cross-sections, longitudinal profiles, kerb details, gully-pots and
road drainage structures. Fieldwork.

Mode of Delivery
The method of instruction will be lectures, interactive tutorials, practical classes, and any other
presentations / demonstrations the lecturer will deem fit towards enhancing understanding of
the concepts taught in class. Lectures: 2 Hours per week; Lab: 3 hours per week

Instruction Materials/Equipment
1. Whiteboard
2. LCD/Overhead Projector
3. Handouts
4. Smart board

Course assessment
During the period of study, assessment will be conducted by CATs (Continuous Assessment
Tests), regular assignments and a final Examination at end of the unit. The composition for
continuous assessment shall be as follows: 15% Practical, 5% Assignments, 10% Tests, and
regular examination at end of semester 70%.
Core Text Book
1. Allan, A.L. (2007) Principles of Geospatial Surveying, Whittles Publishing
http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kuctebooks/detail.action?doc ID=3417298.

Reference Text Books

1. Deumlich, Fritz (2010). Surveying Instruments, De Gruyter, Inc., http://ebookcentral.
proquest.com/lib/kuct-ebooks/detail.action?docID=937776
2. Kavanagh B. F, (2009). Surveying with Construction Applications. 7th Edition. New Jersey:
Prentice Hall.
3. Kavanagh B. F., (2008). Surveying: Principles and Applications. 8th Edition. New Jersey:
Prentice Hall.
4. Ghilani C. D., and Wolf P. R., (2008). Elementary Surveying: An Introduction to Geomatics. 12th
Edition. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
5. W. Schofield W. and Mark Breach M., (2007) Engineering Surveying. 6th Edition. Boston:
Butterworth-Heinemann
6. McCormac J. C., (2003) Surveying. 5th Edition. Chichester: Wiley.

Core Journals
1. International Journal of Spatial Science
2. Journal of Surveying Engineering (ASCE Library)
https://ascelibrary.org/journal/jsued2 : ISSN (print): 0733-9453 | ISSN (online): 1943-5428

Reference Journals
1. Journal of Engineering, Design and Technology (Emerald Publishing)
http://www.emeraldgrouppublishing.com/products/journals/journals.htm?id=jedt : ISSN: 1726-0531
2. Building Survey Journal
Engineering Surveying
Definition

 Engineering Surveying is the broad term used to describe the work of surveyors on civil
engineering jobs.
 The role of an engineering surveyor is a lot larger than simply set out for construction of a
structure and survey pick-ups.
 Engineering surveying can be defined as any survey carried out to support/ facilitate the design,
construction and maintenance of engineering works.
 Engineering Surveyors will usually be the professionals who first examine a finished design for a
project and often will identify any design or practicality issues.
 Engineering surveying covers a broad range of surveying fields. The main areas can be broken
down into the following fields
(i) Civil
(ii) Environmental management
(iii) Aeronautical
(iv) Mechanical
(v) Mining engineering
 Basic principles that have application across the whole spectrum of survey activity, from field
work to photogrammetry, mining surveying to metrology, hydrography to cartography, and
cadastral to construction surveying include:

Basic principles of surveying
(i) Control network
 A control network is the framework of survey stations whose coordinates have been precisely
determined and are often considered definitive.
 The stations are the reference monuments, to which other survey work of a lesser quality is
related.
 By its nature, a control survey needs to be precise, complete and reliable and it must be possible
to show that these qualities have been achieved.
 This is done by using equipment of proven precision, with methods that satisfy the principles
and data processing that not only computes the correct values but gives numerical measures of
their precision and reliability.
 The practice of using a control framework as a basis for further survey operations is often called
‘working from the whole to the part’.
 If it becomes necessary to work outside the control framework then it must be extended to
cover the increased area of operations.
 Failure to do so will degrade the accuracy of later survey work even if the quality of survey
observations is maintained.

 (ii) Economy of accuracy
 Surveys are only ever undertaken for a specific purpose and so should be as accurate as they
need to be, but not more accurate.
 In spite of modern equipment, automated systems, and statistical data processing the business
of survey is still a manpower intensive one and needs to be kept to an economic minimum.
 Once the requirement for a survey or some setting out exists, then part of the specification for
the work must include a statement of the relative and absolute accuracies to be achieved.
 From this, a specification for the control survey may be derived and once this specification has
been achieved, there is no requirement for further work.
(iii) Consistency
 Modern methods of survey network adjustment allow for some flexibility in the application of
the principle and it is not always necessary for all of a particular stage of a survey to be of the
same quality.
 If error statistics for the computed control are not to be made available, then quality can only be
assured by consistency in observational technique and method.
 Such a quality assurance is therefore only second hand.
 With positional error statistics the quality of the control may be assessed point by point. Only
least squares adjustments can ensure consistency and then only if reliability is also assured.
 Consistency and economy of accuracy usually go hand in hand in the production of control.
(iv) The Independent check
 The independent check is a technique of quality assurance.
 It is a means of guarding against a blunder or gross error and the principle must be applied at all
stages of a survey.
 Failure to do so will lead to the risk, if not probability, of ‘catastrophic failure’ of the survey
work.
 If observations are made with optical or mechanical instruments, then the observations will
need to be written down.
 A standard format should be used, with sufficient arithmetic checks upon the booking sheet to
ensure that there are no computational errors.
 The observations should be repeated, or better, made in a different manner to ensure that they
are in sympathy with each other.
 For example, if a rectangular building is to be set out, then once the four corners have been set
out, opposite sides should be the same length and so should the diagonals. The sides and
diagonals should also be related through Pythagoras’ theorem. Such checks and many others
will be familiar to the practising surveyor.
(v) Safeguarding
 Since survey can be an expensive process, every sensible precaution should be taken to ensure
that the work is not compromised.
 Safeguarding is concerned with the protection of work.
 Observations which are written down in the field must be in a permanent, legible, unambiguous
and easily understood form so that others may make good sense of the work.
  Observations and other data should be duplicated at the earliest possible stage, so that if
something happens to the original work the information is not lost.
 This may be by photocopying field sheets, or making backup copies of computer files.

Role of engineering surveying

 Today, Surveying Engineers play a vital role in developing societies.

 Their primary role is to determine the position of natural and man-made objects on the earth's
surface, and record it for future planning purposes; to set and reset boundaries both within the
country and internationally.
 Surveying Engineers or Surveyors collect, analyze, and manage the global spatial infrastructure.
They design, develop, and operate systems for collecting and analyzing spatial information
about the land, the oceans, natural resources, and man-made features.
 They use sophisticated equipment such as Global Positioning Systems (GPS), electronic
theodolites, levels, aerial photographs, satellite imagery for gathering, analyzing, and using
information about the earth.
 Modern Surveying topics include digital mapping, geodesy, photogrammetry, remote sensing, as
well as more traditional surveying involving property surveys.
 Since our societies are becoming more complex, information with a spatial position associated
with it are of vital importance and are critical to decision-making, both from a personal and a
business perspective, and for different levels of government.
 Surveying Engineers answer many questions that describe where a certain area of land is. They
compute, portray and explain what it looks like, and how much is there. They put these facts in
deeds, leases, and other legal documents.
 Engineering surveyors may be engaged at the design stage of a project and used to advise and
resolve any future design issues which may arise during the construction stage. Their role is
extremely important to ensure the accuracy of any project. The engineering surveyor will liaise
with Project managers, engineers and designers to ensure the success and quality of a project.
 This role may include but not limited to
(i) Project planning and design compliance verification
(ii) Site set out
(iii) As constructed reporting
(iv) Volume calculations
(v) Claims measuring
(vi) Quality control
(vii) Engineering advice by monitoring the performance and health conditions of completed
structures and facilities.
 Engineering surveyors are also engaged for one off residential projects, preforming building set
outs and height verifications along with relevant reporting.
 This will most likely mean liaising with land surveyors when positioning new buildings in relation
to the site boundaries.
Principles of engineering survey:

 Largely Same principles of general land surveying apply but guided or distinguished by the
following factors:-
(i) Small scale operations requiring large scale maps or plans.
(ii) High accuracy requirements.
(iii) Higher need for statistical analysis.
(iv) More emphasis on differences in measured values (horizontal measurements and
heights).
(v) Repeat measurements from time to time.
(vi) More frequent need for calibration of equipment.
(vii) Result may be based on arbitrary or actual controls.
(viii) Mostly uses high precision EDM’s and precise leveling methods during measurements.
(ix) Firsthand information may be obtained through the analysis of raw data.
(x) Because of high accuracy, values of metrological data are essential.

Techniques used in engineering survey:

(a) Terrestrial techniques to provide horizontal information.

 EDM measurements
 Use of theodolites (accuracy o.1”).
 Triangulation based on fixed or relative deformation nets.
(b) Precise leveling or any other appropriate leveling method.
 Provide vertical information
 Used to determine differences in height which are required in drainage, pipeline, railways
construction etc.
 Used to determine the rate of settlement or uplift of the structure.
(c) Global positioning system (GPS).
 Provide both horizontal and vertical information
 Appropriate when accuracies up to centimeter level are required e.g. terrain movements,
coastal deformations etc.
(d) LiDAR technology -

• Light Detection and Ranging is a method of detecting distant objects

and determining their position or other characteristics by analysis of pulsed laser light reflecting
from their surfaces. Airborne LiDAR-advantages over traditional topo surveys
in terms of speed, access, resolution, accuracy and canopy penetration, for a variety of applicati
ons.

(e) Other techniques e.g Photogrammetry and remote sensing.

 Aspects of Engineering Surveys include:-

 Setting out for engineering construction e.g roads, railways, bridges, huge buildings dams,
tunnels etc.
 Monitoring the deformation trend of engineering structures e.g dams, huge buildings, bridges
etc.
 Industrial alignments e.g installation of machines, mine fields, alignments, crane routes etc.
 Vertical alignment of high rise buildings and roads.
 Prediction of deformation behavior of engineering structures on the basis of the already known
deformation pattern of the natural ground especially in the Rift Valley- it is a design
requirement.
 Mining Survey
 Any other Survey required in Engineering works e,g levelling for drainage or railway or pipeline
construction etc.

Role of Engineering Survey:

 Mainly to provide information that may be used to protect human life and property and
guarantee the safety of engineering structures. This may be illustrated in the following areas.
i) Adequate monitoring of structural behavior may lead to accurate prediction of natural
catastrophes such as earthquakes which in effect, would lead to the protection of human
life and property incase such natural structures occur.
ii) Risk to existing engineering structures due to earth movements may be reduced through
consistent monitoring of the deformation behaviour of such structures.
iii) Aiding of Economic planning and development through provision of vital information
required at the design stage when structures are to be constructed.
iv) Aiding to the exploitation of natural resource. Major earth resources are closely related to
past movements of the earth’s crust. The distribution of mineral deposits, geothermal
energy resources, oil wells etc is intimately tied to the tectonic movements. Hence
monitoring of earth movements would help in exploitation and exploration of natural
resources.
v) Collaborate/ complement geological data in search of a better understanding of earth
movements. Through engineering surveying (deformation monitoring), linear
measurements may be obtained and compared with geological/geophysical evidence
regarding earth movement.

Setting out works

 Setting out is the process of using the surveying instrument and techniques in survey practice to
transfer information from a plan to the ground.
 Setting out is the establishment of the marks and lines to define the position and level of the
elements for the construction work so that works may proceed with reference to them.
 In engineering the production of an accurate large-scale plan is usually the first step in the
planning and design of a construction project.
 Thereafter the project, as designed on the plan, must be set out on the ground in the correct
absolute and relative position and to its correct dimensions.
  Thus, surveys made in connection with a specific project should be planned with the setting-out
process in mind and a system of three-dimensional control stations conveniently sited and
adequate in number should be provided to facilitate easy, economical setting out.
 It is of prime importance that the establishment and referencing of survey control stations
should be carried out at such places and in such a manner that they will survive the construction
processes.
 This entails careful choice of the locations of the control stations and their construction relative
to their importance and long- or short-term requirements.
 For instance, those stations required for the total duration of the project may be established in
concrete or masonry pillars with metal plates or bolts set in on which is punched the station
position.
 Less durable are stout wooden pegs set in concrete or driven directly into the ground.
 A system of numbering the stations is essential, and frequently pegs are painted different colors
to denote the particular functions for which they are to be used.
 Three parties are involved;
(i) Client/employer,
(ii) Surveyor and
(iii) contractor
 The setting-out surveyor should establish such a system of work on site that will ensure the
accurate setting out of the works well in advance of the commencement of construction.
 To achieve this, the following factors should be considered.
(i) A complete and thorough understanding of the plans, working drawings, setting-out data,
tolerances involved and the time scale of operations. Checks on the setting-out data
supplied should be immediately implemented.
(ii) A complete and thorough knowledge of the site, plant and relevant personnel.
Communications between all individuals is vitally important. Field checks on the survey
control already established on site, possibly by contract surveyors, should be carried out at
the first opportunity.
(iii) A complete and thorough knowledge of the survey instrumentation available on site,
including the effect of instrumental errors on setting-out observations
(iv) Office procedure should be so organized as to ensure easy access to all necessary
information. Plans should be stored flat in plan drawers, and those amended or superseded
should be withdrawn from use and stored elsewhere. Field and level books should be
carefully referenced and properly filed. All setting-out computations and procedures used
should be clearly presented, referenced and filed.
(v) Wherever possible, independent checks of the computation, abstraction and extrapolation
of setting-out data and of the actual setting-out procedures should be made.

Purpose of setting out:

 Principle of setting out: The main aim of setting out is to ensure that the various elements of the
scheme are positioned correctly in all three dimensions. The two aims of Setting Out are
(a) The various elements of the scheme must be correct in all three dimensions both relatively and
absolutely, that is each must be its correct size, in its correct plan position and correct reduced
level
(b) Once setting out begins it must proceed quickly with little or no delay in order that the works
can proceed smoothly and the cost can be minimized. It must always be remembered that the
contractors main commercial purpose is to make a profit – therefore setting out needs to be
done efficiently and any errors of SO the contractor is responsible.

 Setting out accuracy can vary based on specifications of the engineer

Definition of terms

 Curb (kerb)- Refers to the edge of the raised path at the side of a road, usually made of long
pieces of stone
 Hub- A stake with a nail in it, used to mark a temporary point.
 Level- Refers to an elevation of point or differences in elevation between points.
 Cover level- It is the finished ground level at a location, measured against a fixed benchmark.
 Invert level- It is the term given to the level of the bottom of the inside of a drainage pipe or
inspection chamber i.e. it simply means the level of the inside bottom of the pipe or the lowest
point on the inside of the pipe.

 Invert depth- It is calculated from the drawing by subtracting the invert level from the cover
level.
 Sight rails- These are basically horizontal rails set at a specific distance apart and to a specific
levels such that a line of sight between them is at a required gradient. Thus they are used to
control trench excavation and pipe gradient without the need of
the professional supervision.
 Boning (Traveller) rod-It is a portable sight rail with a vertical
support whose length defines the level of the finished works
below the sight rail plane

• Setting out data

 Levels(invert or raised structures)
 Positions (x,z) on the ground
 Angles
 Centre lines
 Base lines
 • Setting out instruments:
 Total stations
 GPS RTK configured Receivers
 Levels(ordinary/ digital)

• Setting out of engineering structures:

 Site Construction
 Highways and streets.
 Railways.
 Sewer and pipelines.
 Tunnels.
 Bridges and culverts.
 Dams.
 Buildings.
Horizontal and Vertical Controls

 Information on the drawing concerning the proposed works must be transferred to the ground
in a format that can be understood by all levels of the workforce on site
 With this in mind it is normal to provide recognized systems of pegs and markers that are similar
from one site to another.
 Effectively three orders of points can be defined primary, secondary and details points.
(a) Primary settings out points are stations on the control traverse or control triangulation systems
and they can be referenced to the National Grid for orientation and coordination if so required
by the client. The stations should be permanent for the life of the works and typical
construction. The stations should be clearly marked and protected so that they are not
disturbed by constructing traffic and should have sufficient space for the instrument to be set up
and freely accessed.
(b) Secondary setting out points are established closer to points of detail on the proposed works
and are referenced by measurements from the primary points. They must be robust and rigid
designed to survive the construction period of elements of the works that they provide control
to.
(c) Details points mark the location of features on the works such as centre of a pile, corner of a
building etc. Any marker will be lost in the excavation as soon as construction starts and a
temporary format such as a 50mm square timber peg with a nail in the top or a road will be
quite adequate
(d) Temporary bench marks (TBM) are used for vertical control and their purpose being to provide
a bench mark adjacent to the works and thus avoid substantial runs of flying levels. The bench
mark should be rigid permanent construction like primary and secondary points for horizontal
control.
 The importance of a good framework of horizontal and vertical control in a project area cannot
be overemphasized.
 It provides the basis for positioning structures, utilities, roads, etc., in each of the stages of
planning, design, and construction.
 Too often surveyors and engineers have skimped on establishing a suitable network of control
points, and they have also failed to preserve them through proper monumentation, references,
and ties.
 The surveyor in charge should receive copies of the plans well in advance of construction to
become familiar with the job and have time to “tie out”or “transfer”any established control
points that might be destroyed during building operations.
 On most projects, additional horizontal and vertical control is required to supplement any
control already available in the job area. The control points must be:
(i) Convenient for use, that is, located sufficiently close to the item being built so that work is
minimized and accuracy enhanced in transferring alignment and grade.
(ii) Far enough from the actual construction to ensure working room for the contractor and to
avoid possible destruction of stakes.
(iii) Clearly marked and understood by the contractor in the absence of a surveyor.
(iv) Supplemented by guard stakes to deter removal and referenced to facilitate restoring them.
Contracts usually require the owner to pay the cost of setting initial control points and the
contractor to replace damaged or removed ones.
(v) Suitable for securing the accuracy agreed on for construction
 Construction stakes can be set in their required horizontal positions by making observations of
horizontal angles or horizontal distances from established control points.
 Radial stakeout by angle and distance from one control point is often most expedient, but the
choice will depend on the project’s nature and extent.
 Frequent checks should be made on points set. This can be done with observations from other
control stations or by checking distances from nearby points to verify their correctness in
position.
 Grade stakes and reference elevations are most often set using a leveling instrument whose
height of instrument has been established by differential leveling.
 For convenience, enough benchmarks are generally placed on construction sites so that at least
one is readily accessible at any location in the area.
 Then the height of instrument of the level can be established with just a single back sight to the
benchmark.
 After grade stakes are set, a closing foresight is taken back to the benchmark for a check.
 However, this practice can be dangerous since the instrument operator will have a tendency to
expect the closing foresight to agree with the initial back sight, and therefore could read it
carelessly.
 As a result, a serious mistake in the initial back sight could go undetected, resulting in a faulty
setting of grade stakes.
 Therefore, even though it requires more time, it is recommended that level circuits for setting
grade stakes always begin on one benchmark and close on another.
 Recap on leveling
(a) Reducing the levels
 Reduction shall be carried out on site before packing up to ensure that the levelling has been
done correctly. For example

Booking and Calculation of Reduced Levels

 Two methods are used to book and calculate the reduced level. These are: Rise and Fall Method;
and, Height of Instrument or collimation method.

Rise and Fall Method

 The rise and fall method uses differences in level between two consecutive points to obtain the
rise or fall in elevation at that point.
 For example, if A is located at a point 200 meters above sea level and the difference in height is
2m, then the location B is 202m.
 To book and calculated the level in a level notebook, 6 columns are drawn for the station,
backsight, foresight, rise, fall reduced level and remarks.
 The calculation is performed step by step a shown hence the level at D is 201m.
  Calculate the rises and fall between successive points and book them in the appropriate column
(one can determine whether each shot is a rise or fall by the following rule of thumb: a higher
value on top denotes a rise; a higher value on the bottom denotes a fall)
 Add up the backsight and foresight columns for the entire traverse and note the difference
between them; this is the close add up the rises and falls for the entire traverse, and compare
the difference between them with the difference between the backsights and foresights; they
should be the same
 Carry the reduced levels in the R.L. column down the page by adding or subtracting the
appropriate rise and fall values to the successive values of R.L.
 The final value of the original starting point will differ from the original value by the amount of
the close.
 If the levelling has been done correctly and all arithmetic reductions are correct, the differences
between total backsights and foresights, total rises and falls, and starting and finishing R.L.'s
should be the same. This difference is the close; and for site inspection purposes it should be
within ± 2mm or ± 6mm, depending upon which water-level standard is being followed, ± 3mm
or ± 10mm.

To check the accuracy of the tabulation the formulae is used as follows:

Note: The sum of the back sight mines the sum of the foresight must be equal to the sum of the rise
mine sum of fall must be equal to first reduced level mine last reduced level. In the above example, they
are all equal meaning that the table was correctly compiled.

Example

Using Rise and fall method prepare a set of profile leveling notes for the data listed and show the
checks. The elevation of BM A is 1275.39 m, and the elevation of BM B is 1264.78 m. Rod readings are:
BS on BM A, 5.68; IFS on 1+00, 4.3; FS on TP1, 9.56; BS on TP1,10.02; IFS on 2+00,11.1;on 3+00, 6.1; FS
on TP2,8.15;BS on TP2, 3.28; IFS on 3+64,1.51; on 4+00, 3.1;on 5+00, 6.4; FS on TP3, 7.77; BS on TP3,
3.16; FS on BM B, 7.23.

Station BS IFS FS Rise Fall Measured Corrected Remarks

Elevation+ R.L
Correction
BMA 5.68 1275.39 BMA
1275.39m
T1+00 4.3 1.38 -0.01 1276.76 Chainage
1276.77 1+00
TP1 10.02 9.56 3.88 -0.01 1271.50 Change
1271.51 Point TP1
T2+00 11.1 1.08 -0.02 1270.41 Chainage
1270.43 2+00
T3+00 6.1 3.92 -0.02 1275.41 Chainage
1275.43 3+00
TP2 3.28 8.15 1.87 -0.02 1273.36 Change
1273.38 Point TP2
T3+64 1.51 1.77 -0.03 1275.12 Chainage
1275.15 3+64
T4+00 3.1 0.18 -0.03 1273.53 Chainage
1273.56 4+00
T5+00 6.4 3.12 -0.03 1270.23 Chainage
1270.26 5+00
TP3 3.16 7.77 4.49 -0.03 1268.86 Change
1268.89 point TP3
BMB 7.23 4.07 -0.04 1264.78 BMA
1264.82 1264.78m
∑ 22.14 32.71 1.87 12.44
Misclosure = 1264.82- 1264.78= 0.04
Checks ∑BS-∑FS=∑RISE-∑FALL=R.L at B-R.L at A= -10.57

Collimation (Height of Instrument Method)

 In this method, the back sight is added to the known elevation of the point to get the height of
instrument.
 The foresight of the second point is then subtracted from the height of the instrument to obtain
the reduced level or the elevation of the second point.
Example 2

 In the following example, the elevation at BM-A is known, and we need to know the elevation of
BM-K. The level is set up at a point near BM-A, and a rod reading taken. The height of
instrument (HI) is calculated and a rod reading to a turning point (TP1) is taken. The reading of
the foresight is subtracted from the height of instrument to obtain the elevation at TP1. The rod
stays at TP1, the level moves ahead and the rod at TP1 now becomes the backsight. This
procedure is repeated until the final foresight to BM-K.
Example 3

A following readings are taken with the level with a 4m leveling staff on a continuously slope ground at
30m interval. 0.680, 1.455, 1.855, 2.330, 2.855, 3.380, 1.055, 1.860, 2.265, 3.540,0.835, 0.945, 1.530 &
2.250 The R.L of starting point was 80.750m rule out a page of level book an enter above readings carry
out reduction of height by collimation method and apply arithmetic checks. Determine gradient of the
line joining 1st and last point.
Example

The following consecutive staff readings were taken on pegs at 15m interval on a continuously sloping
ground B.S 2.895, I.S 3.305, F.S 4.800, B.S 3.960, I.S 4.690, F.S 5.255, B.S 4.120, I.S 4.825, I.S 5.450, F.S
5.895, B.S 3.685 and I.S 4.050. The reduced level of the intermediate sight with a reading of 4.050 was
determined as 1750.250m above datum. From the last position of the instrument two more stations B
and C with reduced levels 1750.800m and 1751.000m respectively were established without disturbing
the instrument. Work out using the height of collimation method,

The staff readings at point B and C

Solution

HI= RL120+IFS= 1750.250+4.050=1754.300m

IFS= HI-RLB= 1754.300-1750.800=3.5m

IFS= HI-RLC= 1754.300-1751.000=3.3m

Station B.S I.S F.S H.I R.L Remarks

0 2.895 1758.485 1755.590

15 3.305 1758.485 1755.180

30 3.960 4.800 1758.485 1753.685 CP1

45 4.690 1757.645 1752.955

60 4.120 5.255 1757.645 1752.390 CP2

75 4.825 1756.510 1751.685

90 5.450 1756.510 1751.060

105 3.685 5.895 1756.510 1750.615 CP3

120 4.050 1750.300 1750.250

B 3.5 1750.300 1750.800

C 3.3 1750.300 1751.000

 ∑14.66 ∑19.25

Check

∑BS-∑FS= 14.66-19.25= 1751.000-1755.590= -4.59

Control and Referencing points for setting-out works

 Most site operatives have little concept of the time, effort and expertise involved in establishing
setting-out pegs.
 For this reason the pegs are frequently treated with disdain and casually destroyed in the
construction process.
 A typical example of this is the centreline pegs for route location which are the first to be
destroyed when earth-moving commences.
 It is important, therefore, that control stations and benchmarks should be protected in some
way and site operatives, particularly earthwork personnel, impressed with the importance of
maintaining this protection.
 Where destruction of the pegs is inevitable, then referencing procedures should be adopted to
relocate their positions to the original accuracy of fixation.
 Various configurations of reference pegs are used and the one thing that they have in common
is that they must be set well outside the area of construction and have some form of protection.
 A commonly used method of referencing is from four pegs (A, B, C, D) established such that two
strings stretched between them intersect to locate the required position(Figure below).
Distances AB, BC, CD, AD, AC, BD should all be measured as checks on the possible movement of
the reference pegs, whilst distances from the reference pegs to the setting-out peg will afford a
check on positioning.
 Ideally TP1 should be in line with DB and AC. Intersecting lines of sight from theodolites at, say,
A and B may be used where ground conditions make string lining difficult.

 All information relating to the referencing of a point should be recorded on a diagram of the
layout involved.
Basic setting-out procedures

(a) Setting out procedure using coordinates

 Plans are generally produced on a plane rectangular coordinate system, and hence salient points
of the design may also be defined in terms of rectangular coordinates on the same system.
 For instance, the centreline of a proposed road may be defined in terms of coordinates at, say,
30-m intervals, or alternatively, only the tangent and intersection points may be so defined.
 Its normal to have a system of control points remote from the line of works probably on a
traverse that was established at the survey stage.
 The work will have been designed by computer and hence coordinates are available for all
details points.
 These can thus be set out by bearing and distances methods using EDM equipment from the
control point.
 The basic methods of locating position when using coordinates are either by
(i) Polar coordinates
(ii) By intersection.

By polar coordinates

 In figure below, A, B and C are control stations whose coordinates are known.

 It is required to locate point IP whose design coordinates are also known.

 The computation involved is as follows:
(i) From coordinates compute the bearing BA (this bearing may already be known from the initial
control survey computations).
(ii) From coordinates compute the horizontal length and bearing of B−IP.
(iii) From the two bearings compute the setting-out angle AB (IP), i.e. β.
(iv) Before proceeding into the field, draw a neat sketch of the situation showing all the setting-out
data. Check the data from the plan or by independent computation.

Alternative

 Alternatively the coordinate geometry functions in a theodolite/ total station can be used to
avoid most of the computations. The field work involved is as follows:
(i) Set up theodolite at B and backsight to A, note the horizontal circle reading.
(ii) Add the angle β to the circle reading BA to obtain the circle reading B−IP.
(iii) Set this reading on the total station to establish direction B−IP and measure out the
horizontal distance L.
 If this distance is set out by steel tape, careful consideration must be given to all the error
sources such as standardization, slope, tension and possibly temperature if the setting-out
tolerances are very small.
 The best field technique when using a steel tape is carefully to align pegs at X and Y each side of
the expected position of IP (Figure below).

 Now carefully measure the distance BX and subtract it from the known distance to obtain
distance X−IP, which will be very small, possibly less than one metre.
 Stretch a fine cord between X and Y and measure X −IP along this direction to fix point IP. A total
station may be used to display horizontal distance, so the length B−IP may be ranged direct to a
reflector fixed to a setting-out pole.

Example

Two primary control points, A and B, have coordinates 1000.00mE, 2000mN and 986.72mE,
1897.46mN respectively. Calculate data to set out points S, 1025.00mE, and 1950.00mN by two
measurements.

Solution
Intersection method

 This technique, illustrated in Figure below, does not require linear measurement; hence,
adverse ground conditions are immaterial and one does not have to consider tape corrections.

 The technique is applicable if a total station is not available or if its batteries are flat.
 The computation involved is as follows:
(i) From the coordinates of A, B and IP compute the bearings AB, A−IP and B−IP.
(ii) From the bearings compute the angles α and β.
(iii) The relevant field work, assuming two theodolites are available, and one is set up a at A,
back sight to B and turn off the angle α and the second one is set up at B, back sight to A and
turn off the angle β.
(iv) The intersection of the sightlines A−IP and B−IP locates the position of IP.
(v) The angle δ is measured as a check on the setting out.

NB: If only one theodolite is available then two pegs per sight line are established and then string
lines connecting each opposite pair of pegs locate position IP

(b) Setting out procedure using Grids

 Many structures in civil engineering consist of steel or reinforced concrete columns supporting
floor slabs.
 As the disposition of these columns is inevitably that they are at right angles to each other, the
use of a grid, where the grid intersections define the position of the columns, greatly facilitates
setting out.
 It is one of the most common ways of controlling works on a compact site to establish a grid of
secondary points in the form of a rectangle around the perimeter.
 The spacing of the grid cab be varied to suit the site and typically it will be arranged to coincide
with the spacing of piles of columns in the permanent construction.
 However, the grid will normally be offset from the centre line of such columns to prevent the
construction work from obscuring sight lines
 It is possible to define several grids as follows:
(i) Survey grid: The rectangular coordinate system on which the original topographic survey is
carried out and plotted as shown in the figure below
(ii) Site grid: Defines the position and direction of the main building lines of the project, as shown
in Figure below.
 The best position for such a grid can be determined by simply moving a tracing of the site grid
over the original plan so that its best position can be located in relation to the orientation of the
major units designed thereon.
 In order to set out the site grid, it may be convenient to translate the coordinates of the site
grid to those of the survey grid using the well-known transformation formula:

Where ∆E, ∆N are difference in easting and northing of the respective grid origins; E1, N1 are the
coordinates of the point on the site grid θ =relative rotation of the two grids; E, N are the
coordinates of the point transformed to the survey grid
 Thus, selected points, say X and Y (Figure above) may have their site-grid coordinate values
transformed to that of the survey grid and so set-out by polars or intersection from the survey
control.
 Now, using XY as a baseline, the site grid may be set out using theodolite and steel tape, all
angles being turned off on both faces and grid intervals carefully fixed using the steel tape under
standard tension.
 When the site grid has been established, each line of the grid should be carefully referenced to
marks fixed clear of the area of work.
 As an added precaution, these marks could be further referenced to existing control or
permanent, stable, on-site detail.
(iii) Structural grid: It is used to locate the position of the structural elements within the structure
and is physically established usually on the concrete floor slab (Figure above). It may be used
where the relative positions of points are much more important than the absolute positions,
such as for the holding down bolts of a steel frame structure. The advantages of such a grid are
that the lines of sight are set out in a regular pattern and so can be checked by eye even for
small errors and that there is more check on points set out from the grid than if those points
were set out individually by bearing and distance or by coordinates from a total station.
(c) Setting-out procedure use of GPS
 Surveying work needed on setting out engineering projects is usually dependent on the
determination of accurate plane coordinates and heights.
 GPS is a highly accurate navigation system using signals from satellites to determine a location
on the Earth's surface, irrespective of weather conditions,
 Any ground-based receiver which receives signals from four or more GPS satellites can use
navigation equations to calculate its location on the Earth's surface.
 The aiding devices record the exact positions of the coordinates, according to the national
coordinate system.
 With current developments in the Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS), real-time 3D
positioning can be generally achieved at the cm level of accuracy.
 Such accuracy helps to expand the use of Real Time Kinematic (RTK) GPS positioning techniques
for setting-out works, particularly for large sites when rapid survey is needed.
 Using RTK techniques in the setting out of cadastral survey marks estimated cost savings of 25-
50% compared with ground survey methods. This ratio has been improving over the years with
improvements in software and hardware capabilities.
 The reduction in field expenses results from the fact that in setting out marks by means of RTK
GPS, the number of surveying crew members can be reduced, frequent setups of the surveying
instruments are no longer required, and the need for accurate local traverses or multiple control
stations within the site is eliminated.
 Cost savings do not come, however, with a significant loss in accuracy, and previous studies
showed that RTK GPS and the traditional techniques employing total stations give statistically
compatible results.
 In addition, with the implementation of the national RTK network of reference stations, the user
no longer needs to establish his own GPS reference station on site, as the required
measurement corrections can be received from the existing continuously running network.
 This approach is expected to dominate surveying by GPS in the construction sector due to
reductions in field personnel and cost, and the increase in versatility and reliability.
 To obtain real-time positioning accuracy at the cm level, the carrier-phase measurements should
be employed after resolving the initial integer number of cycles (phase ambiguity).
 For real time applications, the main elements affecting the performance of the RTK GPS surveys
in the construction field are:
(a) Satellite availability,
(b) Multipath errors resulting from near large buildings, and
(c) Latency of the reference data.
 The RTK GPS system can be integrated with the total station, such that it can be used for
instantaneous determination of the total station location by mounting the GPS antenna directly
on top of the total station alidade in open sites; thus eliminating the need for establishing
permanent horizontal control stations on site.
 For orientation determination, the total station can be sighted at a nearby point (back station),
where its coordinates can be instantaneously determined using the RTK-GPS technique.
 This process improves the economics of surveying work, and reduces the overall surveying time,
including the time required for the initialization of the total station at each setup for vertical
plummeting over a known point.
 (d) Setting out procedure using Laser Pointing Systems
 To speed up the staking process by minimizing the number of points occupied by GPS, a system
is developed consisting mainly of three cheap orthogonal laser pointers.
 The three laser pointers are aligned to generate three perpendicular laser beams as shown in
the figure below.

 The three pointers are held by a special frame that can be mounted on a tribrach.
 When the system is leveled by the base screws, one pointer heads down for plummeting of the
laser system.
 For densification of surveying marks along a desired direction, the second laser pointer is
sighted at a mark on that direction.
 Then by unclamping the pointer, it can be rotated in the vertical plane to set out points along
the desired direction.
 The third laser pointer can be used to mark points in a direction that is perpendicular to the first
one.
 This laser pointer has also the freedom to rotate in a vertical plane to set out points at variable
distances.
 This system can be used to provide a fast method for setting out several points along and
perpendicular to any line in the site replacing the traditional optical instruments.
 The system is particularly helpful for setting out points within short ranges during night work, or
during periods of low brightness level of the sun at day time.
 It is also suitable for indoor use where GPS cannot be employed. However, the system cannot
usually be employed in bright sunlight, as in this case, it will be hard to identify the laser point.

SETTING OUT PIPES

 Pipelines are used to carry water for human consumption, storm water, sewage, oil, natural gas,
and other fluids.
 Pipes, which carry storm runoff, are called storm sewers; those which transport sewage,
sanitary sewers.
 Flow in these two types of sewers is usually by gravity, and therefore their alignments and
grades must be set carefully.
 Flow in pipes carrying city water, oil, and natural gas is generally under pressure, so usually they
need not be aligned to as high an order of accuracy.
 In pipeline construction, trenches are usually opened along the required alignment to the
prescribed depth (slightly undercut if pipe bedding is required); the pipe is installed according to
plan, and the trench backfilled.
 Pipeline grades are fixed by a variety of existing conditions, topography being a critical one.
 A profile is usually used to analyze the topography and assist in designing the grade line for each
pipe segment as shown below.

 To minimize construction difficulties and costs, excavation depths are minimized, but at the
same time a certain minimum cover over the pipeline must be maintained to protect it from
damage by heavy loading from above and to prevent freezing in cold climates.
 Minimum grades also become an important design factor for pipes under gravity flow.
 Accordingly, a grade of at least 0.5% is recommended for storm sewers, but slightly higher
grades are needed for sanitary sewers.
 In designing pipe grade lines, other existing underground elements often must be avoided, and
due regard must also be given to the grades of connecting lines and the vertical clearances
needed to construct manholes, catch basins, and outfalls.
 Prior to staking a pipeline, the surveyor and contractor should discuss details of the project.
 An understanding must be reached concerning the planned trench width, where the installation
equipment will be placed, and how and where the excavated material will be stockpiled.
 Then a reference offset line can be appropriately established that will
(a) Meet the contractor’s needs,
(b) Be safe from destruction, and
(c) Not interfere with operations.
 The alignment and grade for the pipeline are taken from the plans.
 An offset reference line parallel to the required centerline is established, usually at 25or 50-ft
stations when the ground is reasonably uniform.
 Marks should be closer together on horizontal and vertical curves than on straight segments.
 For pipes of large diameter, stakes may be placed for each pipe length—say,6 or 8 ft.
 On hard surfaces where stakes cannot be driven, points are marked by paint, spikes, or scratch
marks.
 Either batter boards or laser beams guide precise alignment and grade for pipe placement.
 Batter board for sewer line
 Depending upon conditions, these may be placed at 50 ft,25 ft, or any other convenient distance
along the sewer line.
 The top of the batter board is generally placed a full number of feet above the invert (flow line
or lower inside surface) of the pipe.
 Nails are driven into the board tops so a string stretched tightly between them will define the
pipe centerline.
 A graduated pole or special rod, often called a story pole, is used to measure the required
distance from the string to the pipe invert.
 Thus, the string gives both line and grade. It can be kept taut by hanging a weight on each end
after wrapping it around the nails.

Laying Drainage Pipes

 Underground Drainage Pipes should be laid in a trench that is 300mm wider than the pipe itself
(i.e. 410mm for 110mm pipes).
 The trench may be trimmed and used as the pipe bed if it is of a suitable material (fine soil with
no large stones or flints).
 It is more usual though for granular material such as pea shingle no larger than 10mm to be
used to construct the pipe bed.
 The "as dug" material can also be used as a sidefill and backfill, providing again that it is suitable,
if not pea shingle should be used.
 At least 300mm of material should be replaced over the top of the pipe before mechanical
compaction can be undertaken.
 When there is any danger that the pipe may be in danger of contact (for example when
gardening) it should be protected by a paving slab cover.

Falls & Gradients for Drainage

Pipe Gradients

 A fall is the term used to denote the distance that a level drops vertically relative to its
horizontal length - essentially the slope of the pipe.
 Fall calculations will be made when planning a project in order to provide adequate flow rates,
and ensure solids do not slow down and create a blockage. The fall is defined as the vertical
amount the pipe will drop from point A to point B over a certain distance.
  For example, a 1 in 40 pipe fall means that for every 40 units of length, the pipe will drop by 1
unit. For example, in a 40 metre run of pipe, the vertical drop of that pipe run will be 1 metre.
 It makes no difference what unit of measurement is used.
 Pipe fall can also sometimes be described as a gradient. To calculate the gradient, divide the
vertical fall by the horizontal length of the pipe run. So in our 1 in 40 example, the calculation
would be (1/40) giving a gradient of 0.025.

Example 1

For example in a 24 metre section of drainage pipe if you had a fall of 0.30 metres and were asked to
calculate the gradient:

Gradient = 0.30 / 24
Gradient = 0.0125
This can be converted into a gradient written as a ratio or 1
Gradient = 1 / 0.0125 = 80
Fall = 1 in 80
The above formula may be rearranged for fall if the gradient is known

Example 2

Calculate the fall in a 50 metre section of foul water pipework if the gradient is to be 1 in 80. A gradient
of 1 in 80 is converted to a number instead of a ratio.

1 / 80 = 0.0125

Fall = Gradient x Distance

Fall = 0.0125 x 50

Fall = 0.625 metres or 625mm.

Example

A length of sewer being laid from manhole A with an invert level of 30.02m to manhole B which is 60m
away, given that the gradient from A to B being 1 in 100 and falling from A and B as shown in the figure
below and the boning (traveller) rod is 3.75m. Determine the sight rail levels at A and B and invert level
at point B.

Solution

To fix these sights rails for use with a 3.37m long traveller,

The sight rail level at A= invert level @ A+ traveller length

The sight rail level at A= 30.02+3.75= 33.77m

Distance AB= 60m

Fall= 60/100= 0.60m

Invert level B= 30.02-0.60= 29.42 m

Sight rail B R.L= 29.42+3.75= 33.17m

What is the correct fall for Underground Drainage?

 It is always advise that 110mm drainage is laid to a fall of 1 in 40 on installations of 5 houses or

less in order to maintain a self-cleansing flow. This applies to all 110mm underground drainage
pipes regardless of the manufacturer. In certain instances where there are higher flow rates the
fall may be decreased, please refer to Document H of the Building Regulations (Drainage and
Waste Disposal) for further information. If in you are in any doubt you should seek advice from
your appropriate local authority.

Controlling Grading excavation

 This type of setting out generally occurs in drainage schemes where the trench, bedding
material and pipes have to be laid to a specified design gradient. Manholes (MH) will need to be
set out at every change of direction or at least every 100 m on straight runs.
 The Manhole or inspection chambers are generally set out first and the drainage courses set out
to connect into them.
 The centre peg of the MH is established in the usual way and referenced to four pegs
 Alternatively, profile boards may be set around the MH and its dimensions marked on them.
 If the boards are set out at a known height above formation level the depth of excavation can be
controlled
 
 A manhole or access chamber is required to gain access to a drainage system for un-blocking,
cleaning, rodding or inspection. A typical manhole is shown below.

 Manholes may be manufactured from masonry or precast concrete.

 Sometimes several precast concrete rings are used to form a manhole which speeds up the on-
site construction process.
 Normally deep manholes below 1.0 metre in depth require step irons to assist access for a
workman.
 Manholes and access chambers are also manufactured in PVC.
 An access chamber is not usually large enough to admit a person but is suitable for access by
cleaning rods or hose and they are used for domestic applications, a common size of plastic
access chamber is 450mm diameter.
 For the domestic market plastic, fibreglass or galvanised steel lids may be used but cast iron lids
are required where traffic crosses
 A back drop manhole is used in areas where the surface level slopes as shown below.


  If the underground sewer pipe is to stay below ground it must follow the average gradient of the
slope. This invariably means that the pipe gradient becomes too steep, resulting in the solids
being left stranded in the pipe therefore causing a blockage.
 To overcome this problem the back drop manhole was developed, as shown below.

Staking pipes grades

 Staking pipeline grades is essentially the reverse of running profiles, although in both operations
the centerline must first be marked and stationed in horizontal location.
 The actual profiling and staking are on an offset line.
 Information conveyed to the contractor on stakes for laying pipelines usually consists of two
parts:
(a) Giving the depth of cut or fill),to enable a rough trench to be excavated;
(b) Providing precise grade information, to guide in the actual placement of the pipe invert at its
planned elevation.
 Cut (or fill) values for the first part are vertical distances from ground elevation at the offset
stakes to the pipe invert.
 After the pipe’s grade line has been computed and the offset line run, cuts (or fills) can be
determined by a leveling process, illustrated in Figure below
 The process is summarized as follows:
(i) List the stations staked on the pipeline
(ii) Compute the flow line or invert elevation at each station
(iii) Set up the level and get an HI by reading a back sight on a BM
(iv) Obtain the elevation at each station from a rod reading on the ground at every stake and
subtract it from the height of instrument
(v) Subtract the pipe elevation from the ground elevation to get cut or fill
(vi) Mark the cut or fill (using a permanent marking felt pen or keel) on an offset stake facing the
centerline; the station number is written on the other side.
 In another variation, which produces the same results, grade rod (difference between height of
instrument and pipe invert) is computed, and ground rod (reading with rod held at stake) is
subtracted from it to get cut or fill.
(vii) For station grade and after the trench has been excavated based on cuts and fills marked on the
stakes, batter boards are set.
(viii) Marks needed to place them can be made with a pencil or felt pen on the offset stakes
during the same leveling operation used to obtain cut and fill information.

Methods of controlling grading excavation

(i) By use of sight rails and boning rods
 Sight rails (SRs) are basically horizontal rails set a specific distance apart and to a specific level
such that a line of sight between them is at the required gradient.
 Thus they are used to control trench excavation and pipe gradient without the need for constant
professional supervision.
 The figure below illustrates SRs being used in conjunction with a boning rod (or traveller) to
control trench excavation to a design gradient of 0.5% (rising).
 
 Pegs A and B are offset a known distance from the centre-line of the trench and leveled from a
nearby TBM.
 Thus, holding the boning rod vertically in the trench will indicate, relative to the sight rails,
whether the trench is too high or too low.
 Assume that peg A has a level of 40 m and the formation level of the trench at this point is to be
38 m. It is decided that a reasonable height for the SR above ground would be 1.5 m, i.e. at a
level of 41.5;
Example
Consider now peg B, with a level of 40.8 m at a horizontal distance of 50 m from A. The
proposed gradient is 0.5%, which is 0.25 m in 50 m, and thus the formation level at B is 38.25 m.
If the boning rod is 3.5 m, the SR level at B is (38.25+3.5) = 41.75 m and is set (41.75−40.8) =
0.95 m above peg B.
(ii) By use of a Laser

 The word laser is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation and is
the name applied to an intense beam of highly monochromatic, coherent light.
 Because of its coherence the light can be concentrated into a narrow beam and will not scatter
and become diffused like ordinary light.
 In controlling trench excavation the laser beam simply replaces the line of sight or string in the
sighting rails situation.
 It can be set up on the centre-line of the trench, over a peg of known level, and its height above
the peg measured to obtain the reduced level of the beam.
 The instrument is then set to the required gradient and used in conjunction with an extendable
traveller set to the same height as that of the laser above formation level.
 When the trench is at the correct level, the laser spot will be picked upon the centre of the
traveller target, as shown in figure below.
 A leveling staff could just as easily replace the traveller; the laser spot being picked up on the
appropriate staff reading.
 Setting out Buildings
 Control networks must be established in order to connect the site to the national survey control
grid.
 These horizontal and vertical controls will eventually form the basis for the subsequent
construction surveys.
 For buildings with normal strip foundations the corners of the external walls are established by
pegs located directly from the survey control or by measurement from the site grid.
 As these pegs would be disturbed in the initial excavations their positions are transferred by
total station on to profile boards set well clear of the area of disturbance as shown in the figure
below.

 Prior to this their positions must be checked by measuring the diagonals as shown in the figure
below.
  The profile boards must be set horizontal with their top edge at some predetermined levels such
as damp proof course (DPC) or finished floor level (FFL).
 Wall widths, foundation widths, etc., can be set out along the board with the aid of a steel tape
and their positions defined by saw-cuts.
 They are arranged around the building as shown in Figure above.
 Strings stretched between the appropriate marks clearly define the line of construction.
 In the case of buildings constructed with steel or concrete columns, a structural grid must be
established to an accuracy of about ±2 to 3 mm or the prefabricated beams and steelwork will
not fit together without some distortion.
 The position of the concrete floor slab may be established in a manner already described.
 Thereafter the structural grid is physically established by Hilti nails or small steel plates set into
the concrete.
 Due to the accuracy required a 1” theodolite and standardized steel tape corrected for
temperature and tension may be preferable to a total station.
 Once the bases for the steel columns have been established, the axes defining the centre of
each column should be marked on and, using a template orientated to these axes, the positions
of the holding-down bolts defined as shown in figure below.

 A height mark should be established, using a level, at a set distance (say, 75 mm) below the
underside of the base-plate, and this should be constant throughout the structure.
 It is important that the base-plate starts from a horizontal base to ensure verticality of the
column.

Methods of staking out a building

 The first task in staking out a building is to locate it properly on the correct lot by making
measurements from the property lines.
(a) Staking out building using ordinance established setback lines from street and houses
 Most cities have an ordinance establishing setback lines from the street and between houses to
improve appearance and provide fire protection.
 Stakes may be set initially at the exact building corners as a visual check on the positioning of
the structure, but obviously such points are lost immediately when excavation is begun on the
footings.
 A set of batter boards and reference stakes, placed as shown in figure below, is therefore
erected near each corner, but out of the way of construction.

 The boards are nailed a full number of meters above the footing base or at first-floor elevation.
 Nails are driven into the batter board tops so that strings stretched tightly between them define
the outside wall or form line of the building.
 The layout is checked by measuring diagonals and comparing them with each other (for
symmetric layouts) or to their computed values.
 After constructing the batter boards and setting the cross pieces at the desired elevations, the
alignment nails on the batter boards can be set by pulling taut string lines across established
corners.
 The figure below illustrates the placement on a lot and staking of a slightly more complicated
building.

(b) Staking out using radial method

 As an alternative to this building stakeout procedure, radial methods can be used.
 This can substantially reduce the number of instrument setups and stakeout time required.
 In the radial method, coordinates of all building corners are computed in the same coordinate
system as the lot corners.
 Then the total station instrument is set on any convenient control point and oriented in azimuth
by sighting another inter-visible control point.
 Angles and distances, computed from coordinates, are then laid off to mark each building
corner.
 Measuring the distances between adjacent points, and also the diagonals, checks the layout
(c) Staking out building using two known points near the building
 Another method of laying out buildings is to stake two points on the building, occupy one of
them with the total station instrument, take a back sight on the other, and stake all (or many) of
the remaining points from that setup using pre-calculated angles and distances.
 In some cases, advantage can be taken of symmetrical layouts to save considerable time.
 The figure below shows an unusual symmetrical building shape, which was laid out rapidly using
only two setups (at points A and O).
 With this choice of stations, half the corners could be set from each setup, and the same
calculated angles and distances could be used.
 Again if this method is used, it is essential that enough dimensions be checked between marked
corners to ensure that no large errors or mistakes were made.
Controlling verticality of building during construction
 To control elevations on a building construction site, a benchmark (two or more for large
projects) should be set outside the construction limits but within easy sight distance.
(a) Using a plumb-bob
 In low-rise construction a heavy plumb-bob (5 to 10 kg) may be used.
 If the external wall were perfectly vertical then, when the plumb-bob coincides with the centre
of the peg, distance d at the top level would equal the offset distance of the peg at the base.
 This concept can be used internally as well as externally, provided that holes and openings are
available.
 The plumb-bob should be large, say 5 kg, and both plumb-bob and wire need to be protected
from wind.
 The motion of the plumb-bob may need to be damped by immersing the plumb-bob in a drum
of water.
 The considerations are similar to those of determining verticality in a mine shaft but less critical.
 To ensure a direct transfer of position from the bottom to the top floor, holes of about 0.2 m
diameter will need to be left in all intermediate floors.
 This may need the agreement of the building’s designer.
(b) Using a theodolite
 If two centre-lines at right angles to each other are carried vertically up a structure as it is being
built, accurate measurement can be taken off these lines and the structure as a whole will
remain vertical.
 Where site conditions permit, the stations defining the ‘base figure’ (four per line) are placed in
concrete well clear of construction.
 Lines stretched between marks fixed from the pegs will allow offset measurements to locate the
base of the structure.
 As the structure rises the marks can be transferred upon to the walls by theodolite, as shown in
Figure (b), and lines stretched between them.

 It is important that the transfer is carried out on both faces of the instrument.
 Where the structure is circular in plan the centre may be established as in Figure (a) and the
radius swung out from a pipe fixed vertically at the centre.
 As the structure rises, the central pipe is extended by adding more lengths.
 Its verticality is checked by two theodolites (as in Figure (b) and its rigidity ensured by supports
fixed to scaffolding.
 The vertical pipe may be replaced by laser beam or auto-plumb, but the laser would still need to
be checked for verticality by theodolites.
 Steel and concrete columns may also be checked for verticality using the theodolite.
 By string lining through the columns, positions A–A and B–B may be established for the
theodolite.
(c) Using optical plumbing
 For high-rise building the instrument most commonly used is an auto-plumb as shown in figure
below.

 This instrument provides a vertical line of sight to an accuracy of±1 second of arc (1 mm in 200
m).
 Any deviation from the vertical can be quantified and corrected by rotating the instrument
through 90◦ and observing in all four quadrants; the four marks obtained would give a square,
the diagonals of which would intersect at the correct center point.
 A base figure is established at ground level from which fixing measurements may be taken.
 If this figure is carried vertically up the structure as work proceeds, then identical fixing
measurements from the figure at all levels will ensure verticality of the structure
 To fix any point of the base figure on an upper floor, a Perspex target is set over the opening and
the centre point fixed as above as illustrated in figure below.
 Sometimes these targets have a grid etched on them to facilitate positioning of the marks.
 The base figure can be projected as high as the eighth floor, at which stage the finishing trades
enter and the openings are closed.
 In this case the uppermost figure is carefully referenced, the openings filled, and then the base
figure re-established and projected upwards as before.
 The shape of the base figure will depend upon the plan shape of the building.
 In the case of a long rectangular structure a simple base line may suffice but T shapes and Y
shapes are also used.
(d) Use of rotating laser
 Rotating lasers can be used to control elevations for the tops of footings, floors, and so on.
 Permanent foresights are helpful in establishing the principal lines of the structure.
 Targets or marks on nearby existing buildings can be used if movement due to thermal effects or
settlement is considered negligible.
 On formed concrete structures, such as retaining walls, offset lines are necessary because the
outside wall face is obstructed.
 Two-by-two inch hubs with tacks can first mark the positions of such things as interior footings,
anchor bolts for columns, and special piping or equipment.
 Survey disks, scratches on bolts or concrete surfaces, and steel pins can also be used. Batter
boards set inside the building dimensions for column footings have to be removed as later
construction develops.
 On multistory buildings, care is required to ensure vertical alignment in the construction of
walls, columns, elevator shafts, structural steel, and so on.
 One method of checking plumbness of constructed members is to carefully aim a total station’s
line of sight on a reference mark at the base of the member.
 The line of sight is then raised to its top.
 For an instrument that has been carefully leveled and that is in proper adjustment, the line of
sight will define a vertical plane as it is raised.
 It should not be assumed that the instrument is in good adjustment; therefore, the line should
be raised in both the direct and reversed positions.
 It is necessary to check plumbness in two perpendicular directions when using this procedure.
 To guide construction of vertical members in real time, two instruments can be set up with
their lines of sight oriented perpendicular to each other, and verticality monitored as
construction progresses.
 Alternatively, lasers can be used to guide and monitor vertical construction.
 If the surveyor does not give sufficient forethought to the basic control points required, the best
method to establish them, and the most efficient approach to staking out a building, the job can
be a time-consuming and difficult process.
 The number of instrument setups should be minimized to conserve time and calculations made
in the office if possible, rather than in the field while a survey party waits.

Setting-out Highways

 Alignments for highways, railroads, and other transportation routes are designed after careful
study of existing maps, air photos, and preliminary survey data of the area.
 From alternative routes, the one that best meets the overall objectives while minimizing costs
and environmental impacts is selected.
 Before construction can begin, the surveyor must transfer that alignment (either the centerline
or an offset reference line) to the ground.
 Normally staking will commence at the initial point where the first straight segment (tangent) is
run, placing stakes at full stations (100m intervals) or at perhaps 30- or 40-m spacing if the
metric system is employed.
 Stationing continues until the planned alignment changes direction at the first point of
intersection (PI).
 The deflection angle is measured there and the second tangent stationed forward to the next PI,
where the deflection angle there is measured.
 The process continues to the terminal point.
 Staking continuously from the initial point to the terminus may result in large amounts of
accumulated error on long projects.
 Therefore, work should be checked by making frequent ties to intermediate horizontal control
points and adjustments should be made as necessary.
 Alternatively, on smaller projects the alignments can be run from both ends to a point near the
middle.
 After tangents are established, horizontal curves (usually circular arcs) are inserted at all PIs
according to plan. The subject of horizontal alignments, including methods for computing and
laying out horizontal curves.
 After the centerline or reference line (including curves) has been established, the PIs,
intermediate points on tangent (POTs) on long tangents, and points where horizontal curves
begin (PCs), and end (PTs), are referenced using procedures.
 Points used in referencing must be located safely outside the construction limits.
 Referencing is important because the centerline points will be destroyed during various phases
of construction and will need to be replaced several times.
 Benchmarks are also established at regular spacing along the route.
 These are placed on the right of way, far enough from the centerline to be safe from
destruction, but convenient for access.

 After the centerline or reference line has been established, stakes marking the right-of-way
should be set.
 This is normally done by carefully measuring perpendicular offsets from the established
reference line.
 The right-of-way is staked at every change in its width, at all changes in alignment, including
each PC and PT, and at sufficient other intermediate points along the tangents so that it is
clearly delineated.
 When the reference line and right-of-way have been staked, the limits of actual construction
are marked so that the contractor can clear the area of obstructions.
 Following this, some contractors want points set on the right-of-way with subgrade
elevations, showing cut or fill to a given elevation, for use in performing rough grading and
preliminary excavation of excess material.
 To guide a contractor in making final excavations and embankments, slope stakes are driven
at the slope intercepts (intersections of the original ground and each side slope), or offset a
short distance.
 The cut or fill at each location is marked on the slope stake.
 Note that there is no cut or fill at a slope stake the value given is the vertical distance from
the ground elevation at the slope stake to grade.
 Grade stakes are set at points that have the same ground and grade elevation.
 This happens when a grade line changes from cut to fill, or vice versa.
 A line connecting grade stakes, perhaps scratched out on the ground, defines the change
from cut to fill,
 Slope stakes can be set at slope intercept locations predetermined in the office from cross-
sectional data.
Setting out Tunnels

 In tunnel surveys, a coordinate system based on field measurements and computations of

lengths, direction and the slope of line connecting given points and the laying out of that
line.
 For a short tunnel (e.g a highway tunnel through a ridge) the following steps are needed.
(i) Run a traverse and level between the terminal points.
(ii) Compute the length, direction and grade of the connecting line.
(iii) Establish permanent monuments outside the tunnel on the centre line at both ends.
(iv) To fix the direction of the tunnel on each side of the ridge, establish additional points at
convenient surface location on the center line.
(v) As construction proceeds, the line at either end is given by setting up at the permanent
monument (see ii) outside the tunnel, sighting the fixed point on the line and then setting
points along the tunnel.
(vi) Direct leveling to point on either the roof or the floor to provide the grade. Distances are
measured from the permanent monuments to the station along the tunnels.
 From such surveys, the length, direction, and slope of each of the several sections of the
tunnel are calculated and the construction is controlled by establishing these lines and
grades as the work progresses.
 Rail or road tunnels and other tunnels in mountainous countries are often several km long
and are not uniform in either slope or direction.
 Since tunnels are driven both from the ends and from the intermediate points where shafts
are sunk to intersect the centreline of the tunnel.
 Surveys for such tunnels include precise triangulation and /or triangulation systems tied to
monuments at the portals of the main tunnel and at the entrances of shafts.
 In addition a precise system of differential levels connecting the same points is required.
 Tunnel alignment may also be achieved through laser equipped instruments.
 In addition electromagnetic distance measuring (EDM) instrument is also quite useful in
establishing distance to theodolite stations, points of curvature and chord points as the
tunnel is set out.
 A gyroscopic theodolite is used to establish absolute directions (azimuths), periodic
determination of the azimuth of the centreline of the tunnel, provides the necessary checks
for maintenance purposes.

Bridges and Culverts

 Location survey provides sufficient information needed for the design of small bridges and
culverts.
 However, a special topographical survey of the site is required for long bridges and for grade
separation structures.
 The site map should have the following features:
 (i) Scale: 1:1200 with 5m contours for long bridges in rough terrain, and scale 1:600 with
contour interval of 1m urban regions and where the terrain is level.
(ii) All data of location survey, line and grade of the roadway and the marking and
referencing of all survey points.
(iii) Hydrographic survey which provides a continuous profile of the bottom of the river at 3
to 8 m intervals is required where the bridge crosses rivers or other water bodies.
 Planning for horizontal and vertical control for design mapping needs to incorporate the
following factors:-
(i) Control points to be suitably located for the construction surveys.
(ii) Long crossing over water require elaborate first order triangulation and/ or trilateration
to facilitate the setting out process before the construction is started.
(iii) To establish the location of offshore structures simultaneous sights are taken from two
appropriate control points so as to locate the points by intersections. Armed with EDM
the theodolites, points may by located by distance and direction and the survey
accomplished in stages as deemed necessary.
 Laser equipped instruments may then be employed to provide alignments and vertical
positions before the construction process commences. The designed construction
specifications are then followed until the bridge is completed.
 On completion of the structure permanent survey points are established to assist in future
monitoring of the deformation behaviour of the bridge structure.

Setting out of a culvert requires the following steps:-

 At the intersection of the centre line of the culvert with the located survey line of the
highway or railway, turn off the angle of intersection.
 Project survey line, defining the direction of the culvert, for a short distance beyond its ends
and reference that line.
 If excavation is necessary for the channel to and from the culvert, stake it out in the usual
way it is done in the roadway cut.
 Establish benchmarks nearby and set hubs for convenient leveling to the culvert. Establish
lines and grades as required for a particular type of culvert.

Setting out Dams

 The design and setting out of a dam requires the following.

(i) Topographic survey required to determine, the feasibility of the project, the
approximate site of the reservoir and the optimum location and height of the dam.
(ii) Extensive soundings and borings are made and topography considered in detail so as to
fully define the dam, the crane routes roads and other structures within the sounding.
(iii) Before the construction process is started adequate horizontal and vertical control
points are established at the appropriate locations preferably using a rectangular
coordinate system.
 (iv) The information gathered in (i) to (iv) are used to aid the design of the dam and finally
facilitate and guide the setting out process before the actual construction commences.

Horizontal and vertical Curves

Highway Curves
 Many alignments are composed of one or more straight lines, or tangent alignments.
 Power lines, pipe lines, and low speed city streets are several examples.
 But for railroad or higher speed vehicular traffic, instantaneous changes in direction, either
horizontally or vertically, are at best uncomfortable for the passengers and at worst,
hazardous.
 To lessen the forces involved when a vehicle changes direction, a gradual change is utilized
resulting in a curve in the alignment.
 There are three general types of curves;
(i) Circular (or simple) curves,
(ii) Spiral (or transition) curves, and
(iii) Vertical (or parabolic) curves.

Stationing
 A station is a linear distance of 100 feet along some described alignment. Without a described
alignment, the station has no direction and therefore is rather meaningless.

 One of the basic tasks of a survey crew is to layout or stake centerline and vertical alignments.

 One of the tools available to make this job easier is centerline stationing.

 Stationing is the assignment of a value representing the distance from some arbitrary starting
point.

 Where the stationing begins is not generally too important, but any point along the alignment
can be related to any other point on the same alignment by using the stationing.
 This value is preceded by an alphanumeric alignment designation.

Through chainage
 Through chainage is a horizontal distance from the start of a scheme for a route construction.
 If the distance from the start of the route (chainage 0.00m) to a tangent point T1 is 2115/50m,
then it is said that the chainage of T1 is 2115.50m written as (chn 2115.50m)
 If the route centre line is being staked out at 20m chord intervals, then the peg immediately
prior to T1 must have chainage of 2100m (an integer number of 20m intervals)
 The next peg on the centre line must therefore have a chainage of 2120m.
 It follows that the length of the first sub-chord and last sub-chord are not always full length of
the interval.

Horizontal curves
  Horizontal curves are, in effect, transitions between two tangents.
 These deflection changes are necessary in virtually all highway alignments to avoid impacts on a
variety of field conditions (e.g., right-of-way, natural features, man-made features).

Types of horizontal curves

(i) Simple Curves
 Simple curves are continuous arcs of constant radius that achieve the necessary roadway
deflection without an entering or exiting taper.
 The radius (R) defines the circular arc that a simple curve will transcribe.
 All angles and distances for simple curves are computed in a horizontal plane.
 Because of their simplicity and ease of design, survey, and construction, IDOT typically uses the
simple curve on highways.

(ii) Compound Curves

 Compound curves are a series of two or more simple curves with deflections in the same
direction.
 IDOT uses compound curves on highway mainline only to meet field conditions (e.g., to avoid
obstructions that cannot be relocated) where a simple curve is not applicable and a spiral curve
normally would not be used.
 Where a compound curve is used on a highway mainline, the radius of the flatter circular arc
(R1) should not be more than 50% greater than the radius of the sharper circular arc (R2).
(iii) Spiral curves

 Spiral curves provide an entering transition into a simple curve with a variable rate of curvature
along its layout.
 As an option to a simple curve, a restricted horizontal alignment and high speed conditions may
be conducive to the introduction of a spiral curve.

(iv) Reversed curves

 Reverse curves are two simple curves with deflections in opposite directions that are joined by a
relatively short tangent distance.
 In rural areas, a minimum of 500 ft (150 m) should be provided between the PT and PC of the
two curves for appearance.
 Super-elevation development for reverse curves requires special attention.
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE SELECTION OF HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
 Some of the factors that influence the location and configuration of the horizontal alignment
include:
(i) Physical controls - topography, watercourses, geophysical conditions, land use and man-
made features.
(ii) Environmental considerations - effect on adjacent land use, community impacts, ecologically
sensitive areas.
(iii) Economics - construction costs, right-of-way costs, utility impacts, operating and
maintenance costs.
(iv) Safety - sight distance, consistency of alignment, human factor considerations.
(v) Highway classification and design policies - functional classification, level of service, design
speed, design standards.
 Although the designer must attempt to optimize the horizontal alignment with respect to these
factors, the alignment cannot be finalized until it has been compared and coordinated with the
vertical and cross-sectional features of the highway.

ELEMENTS OF A SIMPLE CURVE

(i) Point of Intersection (PI)
The point of intersection marks the point where the back and forward tangents intersect.
The surveyor indicates it one of the stations on the preliminary traverse.
(ii) Intersecting Angle (I)
The intersecting angle is the deflection angle at the PI. The surveyor either computes its
value from the preliminary traverse station angles or measures it in the field.
(iii) Radius (R)
The radius is the radius of the circle of which the curve is an arc.
(iv) Point of Curvature (PC)
The point of curvature is the point where the circular curve begins. The back tangent is
tangent to the curve at this point.
(v) Point of Tangency (PT)
The point of tangency is the end of the curve. The forward tangent is tangent to the curve at
this point.
(vi) Long Chord
The long chord is the chord from the PC to the PT measured along the curve. PT.
(vii) Tangent Distance (T)
(viii) The tangent distance is the distance along the tangents from the PI to the PC or PT. These
distances are equal on a simple curve
(ix) External Distance (E)
The external distance is the distance from the PI to the midpoint of the curve. The external
distance bisects the interior angle at the PI.
(x) Central Angle Middle Ordinate (M)
The central angle is the angle formed by two radii drawn from the center of the circle of the
circle (0) to the PC and PT. The central angle is equal in value to the I angle.

(xi) Degree of Curve (D)

The degree of curve defines the “sharpness” or “flatness” of the curve.
Geometric Properties
 Horizontal curves occur at locations where two roadways intersect, providing a gradual
transition between the two.
 The intersection point of the two roads is defined as the Point of Tangent Intersection (PI). The
location of the curve's start point is defined as the Point of Curve (PC) while the location of the
curve's end point is defined as the Point of Tangent (PT). Both the PC and PT are a distance
from the PI, where is defined as Tangent Length. Tangent Length can be calculated by finding
the central angle of the curve, in degrees. This angle is equal to the supplement of the interior
angle between the two road tangents.

 = tangent length (in length units)

 = central angle of the curve, in degrees
 = curve radius (in length units)
  Similarly, the middle ordinate can be found. The middle ordinate is the maximum distance
between a line drawn between PC and PT and the curve. It falls along the line between the
curve's vertex and the PI.

 Similarly, the geometric formula for cord length can find , which represents the cord length
for this curve.

Example 2: Determining Stationing

Example
A 7-degree horizontal curve covers an angle of 63o15’34”. Determine the radius, the length
of the curve, and the distance from the circle to the chord M.
Solution
 D = 7 degrees, the curve’s radius R can be computed.
Calculation of the curve’s length L, once the curve’s central angle is converted from
63o15’34” to 63.2594 degrees.

 If metric units are used, the definition of the degree of the curve must be carefully examined.
Because the definition of the degree of curvature D is the central angle subtended by a 100-foot
arc, then a “metric D” would be the angle subtended by a 30.5-meter arc. The subtended angle
Δ does not change, but the metric values of R, L, and M become

 Knowing these basics we can determine the deflection angles between stations.
 From basic geometry we know that:

• Circumference = A = πD or 2πR
 If we say that the length along the arc is L, then we can determine the interior angle of the circle
subtended by the arc. To do that, let’s calculate the fractional part of the arc to the
circumference.
 This represents the fractional part of the total circle subtended by the arc. We will call the
subtended angle Δ.

 We also know that the deflection angle α is 1/2 Δ, by combining terms we can write the
deflection angle like so,

 These are the formulas we would use to calculate the curve deflections for circular curves.
 A Radian is the angle subtended by an arc whose length equals the length of the Radius, or 57°
17’ 44.8”, or 57.295779513°.

Pi = π = 3.1415926
Circumference = 2πR
Degrees in a circle = 360°
Radius of a one degree curve = 5729.5779513 ft.
D = Degree of Curve.
R = Radius of the curve.
Δ = Delta, the central angle of the curve.
α = Alpha, the deflection angle to the point to be set.
Example

The tangent length of a simple curve was 202.12 m and the deflection angle for a 30-m chord 2◦
18’.Calculate the radius, the total deflection angle, the length of curve and the final deflection angle.
Solution

If the curve is to be placed on a horizontal alignment that has an intersection angle of 35o
and chainage of 2507.56m at the IP then determine the chainages of TP1 and TP2.

Setting out curves

  This is the process of establishing the centre-line of the curve on the ground by means of pegs at
a given interval e.g. 10m, 30m etc.

Horizontal curve staking (Deflection method for stationing)

 A curve may be set out
(i) By linear Methods, where chain and tape are used or
(ii) By Angular or instrumental methods, where a theodolite with or without a chain is used
 Before starting setting out a curve by any method, the exact positions of the tangents points
between which the curve lies, must be determined. Following procedure is adopted:-

Procedure:-
(i) After fixing the directions of the straights, produce them to meet in point (B)
(ii) Set up the Theodolite at the intersection point (B) and measure the angle of intersection (I)
.Then find the deflection angle ( ) by subtracting (I) from 1800 i.e φ=1800 – I.
(iii) Calculate the tangent length from the following equation
(iv) Tangent length = R tanφ/2
(v) Measure the tangent length (BT1) backward along the rear tangent BA from the
intersection point B, thus locating the position of T1.
(vi) Similarly, locate the position of T2 be measuring the same distance forward along the
forward tangent BC from B.
(vii) After locating the positions of the tangent points T1 and T2, their chainages may be
determined. The chainage of T1 is obtained by subtracting the tangent length from the
known chainage of the intersection point B. And the chainage of T2 is found by adding the
length of curve to the chainage of T1.
(viii) Then the pegs are fixed at equal intervals on the curve. The interval between pegs is usually
30m or one chain length.
(ix) This distance should actually be measured along the arc, but in practice it is measured along
the chord, as the difference between the chord and the corresponding arc is small and
hence negligible. In order that this difference is always small and negligible, the length of
the chord should not be more than 1/20th of the radius of the curve. The curve is then
obtained by joining all these pegs. ……...............
(x) The distances along the centre line of the curve are continuously measured from the point
of beginning of the line up to the end .i.e the pegs along the centre line of the work should
be at equal interval from the beginning of the line up to the end. There should be no break
in the regularity of their spacing in passing from a tangent to a curve or from a curve to the
tangent. For this reason, the first peg on the curve is fixed
(xi) At such a distance from the first tangent point (T1) that its chainage becomes the whole
number of chains i.e the whole number of peg interval. The length of the first sub chord is
thus less than the peg interval and it is called a sub-chord. Similarly there will be a sub-chord
at the end of the curve. Thus a curve usually consists of two sub-chords and a no. of full
chords.
  The deflection method requires that chord lengths be calculated.
C = 2R sin D / 2
Sin D = C /R

The following are the methods of setting out simple circular curves by the use of chain and tape:-
(i) By offsets from the tangents.
(ii) By successive bisection of arcs.
(iii) By offsets from chords produced.
By offsets from the tangents.
 When the deflection angle and the radius of the curve both are small, the curves are set out by
offsets from the tangent.
 Offsets are set out either
(i) Radially
(ii) Perpendicular to the tangents according as the centre of the curve is accessible or inaccessible

 Offsets are given by:

Ox = (R2 +x2)1/2 – R …….. (Exact relation.)
 When the radius is large, the offsets may be calculated by the approximate formula which is as
under
Ox = x2 ……… (Approximate)
2R
By offsets perpendicular to the Tangents
  Theoretically this method is exact, but in practice errors of measurement propagate round the
curve. It is therefore generally used for minor curves.
 In Figure below, line OE bisects chord T1A at right-angles, then ET1O = 90◦ − δ, ∴ CT1A = δ, and
triangles CT1A and ET1O are similar, thus:

Let the length of chord be x

Y3= R – (R2 – x2) 1/2 …………… (Exact)
Ox = x2 ……… (Approximate)
2R

Example
Calculate the offsets at 20m intervals along the tangents to locate a curve having a radius of
400m the deflection angle being 600.
Solution. Given:
Radius of the curve, R = 400m
Deflection angle, φ = 600
Therefore tangent length = R. tan φ/2
 = 400 x tan 600
= 230.96 m
Radial offsets. (Exact method)
Ox= (R2 + x2 ) 1/2 - R …………… (Exact)
O20 = (4002+202)1/2 - 400 = 400.50 - 400 = 0.50 m
O40 = (4002+402)1/2 - 400 = 402.00 - 400 = 2.00 m
O60 = (4002+602)1/2 - 400 = 404.47 - 400 = 4.47 m
O80 = (4002+802)1/2 - 400 = 407.92 - 400 = 7.92 m
O100 = (4002+1002)1/2- 400 = 412.31 - 400 = 12.31 m
By the approximate Formula

Setting out with inaccessible intersection point

 In Figure below it is required to fix T1 and T2, and obtain the angle ∆, when I is inaccessible.
 Project the straights forward as far as possible and establish two points A and B on them.
Measure distance AB and angles BAC and DBA then: angle IAB = 180◦ − BAC and angle IBA = 180◦
− DBA, from which angle BIA is deduced and angle
 The triangle AIB can now be solved for lengths IA and IB. These lengths, when subtracted from
the computed tangent lengths (R tan∆/2), give AT1 and BT2, which are set off along the straight
to give positions T1 and T2 respectively.
Incremental chord method – Staking full stations with unknown chord lengths
 In the incremental method, the instrument is set up on the PC, deflection angles are measured
from the back tangent, and chords are measured from the previous set station.

Passing a curve through a given point

 In Figure below, it is required to find the radius of a curve which will pass through a point P, the
position of which is defined by the distance IP at an angle of φ to the tangent

Solution
Ө + α +β = 1800
Also using triangle IOP
Sine rule
OP/ sin β= OI/sin α
OP=R and OI= R sec∆/2
Thus
Sin α= OI sin β/ OP
Sin α = R sec∆/2 sin β/ R
Sin α= sec∆/2 sin β

Example
 Two straights intersecting at a point B have the following bearings, BA 270◦, BC 110◦. They are to
be joined by a circular curve which must pass through a point D which is 150 m from B and the
bearing of BD is 260◦.
Find the required radius, tangent lengths, length of curve and setting-out angle for a 30m chord.
(LU)

Total chord method

 The total chord method differs from the incremental chord method only in that the chords are
measured from the PC.

Examples

The straight lines ABI and CDI are tangents to a proposed circular curve of radius 1600 m. The
lengths AB and CD are each 1200 m. The intersection point is inaccessible so that it is not
possible directly to measure the deflection angle; but the angles at B and D are measured as:
ABD = 123◦ 48’, BDC = 126◦ 12’ and the length BD is 1485 m. Calculate the distances from A and
C of the tangent points on their respective straights and calculate the deflection angles for
setting out 30-m chords from one of the tangent points.

Solution
Compound curves computation

 A compound curve consists of a number of circular curves of different radii joined together with
centres all lying on the side of the curve.
 The point of curvature of the next curve is the point of tangency of the previous one.
 The figure below shows a compound curve
 The equations of the compound curve can be derived by considering the closed traverse loop
12345 and applying the usual conditions of a closed traverse i.e. algebraic sum of departures
and latitudes are zero.
 Assuming the direction of 1-2 as the North line, the azimuth and length of others lines can be
tabulated as follows.


 The following equations are used to determine the departure and latitude
 ∆E= S sinβ
∆N= S Cos β

 The departure and latitude are then tabulated as shown below

 Then the following three equations can then be derived

 Note
Sin (a+b) = sin a Cos b+ Sin b Cos a
Sin (a-b) = Sin a Cos b – Sin b Cos a
Cos (a+b) = Cos a Cos b- Sin a Sin b
Cos (a-b) = Cos a Cos b +Sin a Sin b

 There are seven unknowns T1, T2,R1, R2,∆1 ,∆2 ,∆

 Since there are three equations, out of seven unknowns four must be known before the
equations can be fully solved.

Example

Referring to Figure below, if T1 = 100m, R1 = 140 m, ∆1 = 18°15', ∆=42°10' and the chainage of
the point of intersection is at station 50 + 19.70. Using the arc definition of degree of curve,
compute T2, R2 and ∆2 and the chainages of the point of compound curvature and the point· of
tangency. Assuming chainage interval is 30m
Solution
Vertical Alignment

 Vertical curves (VC) are used to connect intersecting gradients in the vertical plane. Thus, in
route design they are provided at all changes of gradient.
 They should be of sufficiently large curvature to provide comfort to the driver, that is, they
should have a low ‘rate of change of grade’.
 In addition, they should afford adequate ‘sight distances’ for safe stopping at a given design
speed.
 The type of curve generally used to connect the intersecting gradients g1 and g2 is the simple
parabola.
 The vertical alignment contributes significantly to a highway’s safety, aesthetics, operations, and
cost.
 Long, gentle vertical curves provide greater sight distances and a more pleasing appearance for
the driver.
 The two basic elements of vertical alignment are Grades and Vertical Curves.
 Curve a: Crest Vertical Curve (concave downward)
(i) Curve b: Sag from cross sections
(ii) From spot levels
(iii) From contours
Grades
 The effects of rate and length of grade are more pronounced on the operating characteristics of
trucks than on passenger cars and thus may introduce undesirable speed differentials between
the vehicle types.
 The term “critical length of grade” is used to indicate the maximum length of a specified
ascending gradient upon which a loaded truck can operate without an unreasonable reduction
in speed (commonly 10 mph [15 km/h]).
 Where critical length of grade is exceeded for two-lane highways, climbing lanes should be.
 The maximum grade controls in terms of design speed. Generally, maximum design grade
should be used infrequently rather than as a value to be used in most cases.
 However, for certain cases such as urban freeways, a maximum value may be applied in blanket
fashion on interchange and grade separated approaches.


Vertical Curves

 For highways and railways whenever there is a change of grade in the vertical plane, a vertical
curve is required to smoothen the change.
 Vertical curves provide gradual changes between tangents of different grades.
 The simple parabola is used in the highway profile design of vertical curves because it provide a
constant rate of change of grade.
 A vertical curve should be designed so that:

(a) To gives smooth riding qualities which again will occur if there is a constant change of
gradient; uniform rate of increase of centrifugal force

(b) Adequate sighting distance is available before the vehicle reaches the summit

(i) Sag Curves: Low Point defines location of catch basin for drainage.
(ii) Crest Curves: High Point defines limits of drainage area for roadways. Also used to determine or
set elevations based on minimum clearance requirements.

Vertical Curve Geometry

(i) Parabolas provide a constant rate of change of grade; they are ideal and almost always applied
for vertical alignments used by vehicular traffic.
(ii) The general mathematical expression of a parabola:
Equal-Tangent Vertical Parabolic Curve:

 The rate of change of grade, r, for an equal tangent parabolic curve equals the total grade
change from BVC to EVC divided by length L (on stations for the English system, or L/100 or
1/10th stations for metric units), over which the change occur.
  The value of r (which is negative for a crest curve and positive for sag curve) is an important
design parameter because it controls the rate of curvature and hence rider comfort.

Using the equation for High or Low Point on a Vertical Curve

y = yBVC + g1x + (r/2)x2

Set dy/dx = 0 and solve for x to locate turning point

0 = 0 + g1 + r x

Substitute (g2 – g1) / L for r

-g1 = x (g2 – g1) / L

-g1 L = x (g2 – g1)

x = (-g1 L) / (g2 – g1)

or

x = (g1 L) / (g1 – g2) = g1/r x – distance from BVC to HP or LP

Vertical curve design

 In order to set out a vertical curve in the field, one requires levels along the curve at given
chainage intervals.
 Before the levels can be computed, one must know the length L of the curve.
Sight Distance
 Stopping sight distance (the distance required for a given design speed to safely stop a vehicles
thus avoiding a collision with an unexpected stationary object in the roadway a head).
  Passing sight distance (the length of roadway that the driver of the passing vehicle must be able
to see initially, in order to make a passing maneuver safely).
Example

Given the information shown below of a vertical curve, compute and tabulate the curve for stakeout at
full 100m stations.

Elevation of a Vertical point of curvature= 1267m

The back tangent grade=4%

Forward tangent grade= -3.5%

Chainage of the beginning of the curve=28+60

Chainage at the end of the vertical curve= 33+60

Given the information shown below of a vertical curve, compute and tabulate the curve for stakeout at
full 100m stations.

Elevation of a Vertical point of curvature= 1267m

The back tangent grade= -4%

Forward tangent grade= 3.5%

Chainage of the beginning of the curve=28+60

Chainage at the end of the vertical curve= 33+60

Example
A grade of -3.5% meets another grade of +0.50%. The elevation of the point of intersection is 267 m and
chainage is 780m. Field coordinates require that the vertical curve should pass through a point of
elevation 268 m at chainage 780m. Compute a sutable equal tangent vertical curve and fullstations
elevations.

Example

A +3.5% grade meets a -1.5% grade at station 60+15 and elevation 250m. An equal tangent parabolic
curve 300m long has been selected to join the two tangents. Compute and tabulate the curve for
stakeout at full stations. Assume 30m chain

Spiral Curve Definition

  A transition curve is a curve of varying radius introduced between a straight and a circular curve
or between two circular curves to facilitate change over from straight to curve or from one
curve to another.
 The transition curve is a curve of constantly changing radius. If used to connect a straight to a
curve of radius R, then the commencing radius of the transition will be the same as the straight
(∞), and the final radius will be that of the curve R
 The Standard Highway Spiral is a curve whose degree varies directly as its length, beginning at
zero at the P.S. and reaching a degree of curve equal to the simple curve at the P.S.C.
 In simple terms, a spiral is a curve whose radius keeps getting shorter, Spirals are sometimes
called transition curves because they are used to transition into and out of circular curves.
 As soon as a vehicle or a train enters a curve, it experiences a centrifugal force which tends to
cause derailment, overturning or side slipping of vehicles.
 To avoid this, super elevation is provided which means raising the outer edge of a curve over the
inner one.
The Purpose in using Spiral Curves
 Consider a vehicle travelling at speed (V) along a straight. The forces acting on the vehicle will be
its weight W, acting vertically down, and an equal and opposite force acting vertically up
through the wheels.
 When the vehicle enters the curve of radius R at tangent point T1, an additional centrifugal force
(P) acts on the vehicle, as shown in Figures below.
 If P is large the vehicle will be forced to the outside of the curve and may skid or overturn. In
Figure 10.25 the resultant of the two forces is shown as N, and if the road is super-elevated
normal to this force, there will be no tendency for the vehicle to skid. It should be noted that as
 P = WV2/Rg super-elevation will be maximum at minimum radius R.
 It therefore requires a length of spiral curve to permit the gradual introduction of super-
elevation, from zero at the start of the transition to maximum at the end, where the radius is
the minimum safe radius R.
 If the friction of the tires on the roadway is sufficient to prevent this sideways slide, the
centrifugal force then creates a torsional or rotating force that will try to tip the truck over. The
sharper the curve, the greater this force will be at a given speed. 90o
  To lessen the effect of these potentially hazardous forces, roadways are super elevated or
banked through corners.
 The super elevation is designed such that the road surface is near perpendicular to the resultant
force of gravity and centrifugal inertia. The second figure shows this situation.
 However, in order to transition from a flat roadway to a fully super elevated section and still
maintain the balance of forces, the degree or sharpness of the curve must begin at zero and
increase steadily until maximum super elevation is reached. This is precisely what a Spiral Curve
does.
Spiral Curve Nomenclature
 The P.S. or “point of spiral” is the point of change from tangent to spiral. The P.S.C. or “point of
spiral to curve” is the point where the radius of the spiral has decreased to match that of the
circular curve. It is the point of change from spiral to circular curve. These terms apply to the
spiral that is transitioning into the curve travelling ahead on line. On the outgoing spiral, the
P.C.S. or “point of curve to spiral” and P.T. or “point of tangency” are mathematically identical to
the P.S.C. and the P.S. respectively.
 The difference in stationing between the P.S. and the P.S.C. is the length of the spiral. It is
expressed as “L”. The degree of curve of the circular curve and the length of the spiral dictates
the rate of change in the radius of the spiral. This rate of change, known as “a”, is the change in
degree of curve per station (100 feet) of spiral or:

Principle of the transition

 The purpose then of a transition curve is to:
(i) Achieve a gradual change of direction from the straight (radius∞) to the curve (radius R).
(ii) Permit the gradual application of super-elevation to counteract centrifugal force and
minimize passenger discomfort.
 Since P cannot be eliminated, it is allowed for by permitting it to increase uniformly along the
curve.
 From equation above), as P is inversely proportional to R, the basic requirement of the ideal
transition curve is that its radius should decrease uniformly with distance along it. This
requirement also permits the uniform application of super-elevation; thus at distance l along the
transition the radius is r and rl = c (constant):
Super Elevation
  It is raising of the outer edge of the road or railway above the inner one as shown in figure
below.
 When a vehicle moves on a curve there are two forces acting
(i) Weight of the vehicle (W)
(ii) Centrifugal force P

 In order that there is no lateral thrust the resultant force must be normal to the inclined surface.

 Note:
 The ratio of centrifugal force and weight is called the centrifugal ratio.

Interpreting Civil Engineering designs and drawings

Profile Leveling

 Profile leveling is one of the most common applications of running levels and vertical distance
measurement for the surveyor.
 The results are plotted in the form of a profile, which is a drawing that shows a vertical cross
section.
 Profiles are required for the design and construction of roads, curbs, sidewalks, pipelines etc.
 In short, profile leveling refers to the process of determining the elevation of points on the
ground at mostly uniform intervals along continuous line.
  The aim of these surveys is to reproduce on paper the existing profile along a particular line (e.g.
the centerline of existing or proposed work such as centerline of a road, railway or canal)
 The accuracy with which the ground profile is represented on the sections is dependent on the
distance between staff stations which in turn depends on the scale of the section.
 As a general rule take levels at:
i. At equal interval i.e. every 20 m
ii. points at which gradient changes
iii. edges of natural features
iv. sections which cross roads, on the kerb, on the center of the road
The sections are usually plotted to a distorted scale e.g. 1:500 for horizontal detail and 1:100 for vertical
detail.

Points to note:

i. start work on a bench mark (control point) if possible

ii. Keep backsights and foresights nearly equal in length.
iii. Make changes on firm ground
iv. Take final foresight on a benchmark
v. Don’t work with the staff extended in high winds
vi. Be cautious when setting up the level.

Plotting the Profile

 The profile drawing is basically a graph of elevations, plotted on the vertical axis, as a function of
stations, plotted on horizontal axis.
 A gridded sheet called profile paper is used to plot the profile data from the field book.
 All profile drawings must have a proper title block, and both axes must be fully labeled with
stations and elevations.
 The elevation or elevation scale is typically exaggerated; that is, it is 'stretched' in comparison to
the horizontal scale. For example the vertical scale might be 10 times larger.
 The horizontal line at the bottom of the profile does not necessary have to start at zero
elevation.
Cross-Section Leveling

 A graphic representation of the sections that are in a linear work, on cutting the axis of the
aforementioned work with vertical planes perpendicular to it and defining the trace in elevation.
 In such profiles, the gradient, the land, the slopes, the levelled areas and the embankments are
represented.
 These sections are equidistant throughout the trace and their number is variable. Its
representation is made on two axes, the x-axis', coincident with the gradient and the y-axis',
perpendicular to this gradient by means of the axis of the trace. Inside, the numeric date is
located, corresponding to the different points of the profile.
 The term cross-section generally refers to a relatively short profile view of the ground, which is
drawn perpendicular to the route centerline of a highway or other types of linear projects.
 Cross-sectional drawings are particularly important for estimating the earthwork volumes
needed to construct a roadway; they show the existing ground elevations, the proposed cut or
fill side slopes, and the grade elevation for the road base.
 There is really no difference in procedure between profile and cross-section leveling except for
the form of the field notes.
 Cross-section rod shots are usually taken during the route profile survey from the same
instrument positions used to take rod shots along the centerline.
 Cross-section data are obtained at the same locations along the route that are used for the
profile rod-shot stations.
 Works of narrow width such as sewer and pipelines require only one line of levels along the
centerline of the proposed trench.
 Wider works such as roads and railways will require the use of ground on either side of the
centerline.
 Information relating to relative ground levels is obtained by taking cross sections normal to the
centerline.
 The width of these must be adequate to cover the proposed works e.g. 15 m on either side of
the centerline of a normal road.
 The centerline is first set out, pegs being placed at points where cross sections are required, and
then the cross sections are then set out.
 The choice of points is governed by the same principles as those of taking long sections and the
aim is to reproduce the ground profile accurately.
 In the actual leveling cross sections may be completed one at a time, setting up the instrument
as many times as is needful.
 This approach facilitates booking but is tedious especially in steeply sloping terrain. In such a
case it is convenient to take staff reading on other cross sections as the ground allows, though
care should be taken in their booking.
 Kerbs Detail

 Kerbs indicate the boundary between the carriage way and the shoulder or islands or footpaths.
 Kerbs often have a vertical or nearly-vertical face, also called "barrier", "non-mountable", or
"insurmountable curb".
 Vertical-faced curb is used to discourage motor vehicle drivers from leaving the roadway. The
square (90°-edge) or close-to-square type is still almost always used in towns and cities, as it is a
straight step down and thus less likely to be tripped-over by pedestrians.
 By contrast, a slope-faced curb allows motor vehicles to cross it at low speed.
 Slope-faced curb is most often used on major suburban thoroughfares.


(a) Low or mountable kerbs:

 This type of kerbs is provided such that they encourage the traffic to remain in the through
traffic lanes and also allow the driver to enter the shoulder area with little difficulty.
 The height of this kerb is about 10 cm above the pavement edge with a slope which allows the
vehicle to climb easily.
 This is usually provided at medians and channelization schemes and also helps in longitudinal
drainage.

(b) Semi-barrier type kerbs:

 When the pedestrian traffic is high, these kerbs are provided.
 Their height is 15 cm above the pavement edge.
 This type of kerb prevents encroachment of parking vehicles, but at acute emergency it is
possible to drive over this kerb with some difficulty.
(c) Barrier type kerbs:
 They are designed to discourage vehicles from leaving the pavement.
 They are provided when there is considerable amount of pedestrian traffic.
 They are placed at a height of 20 cm above the pavement edge with a steep batter.
(d) Submerged kerbs:
 They are used in rural roads.
 The kerbs are provided at pavement edges between the pavement edge and shoulders.
 They provide lateral stability to the pavement.

Shoulders:

 Shoulders are provided along the road edge and are intended for accommodation of stopped
vehicles, serve as an emergency lane for vehicles and provide lateral support for base and
surface courses.
 The shoulder should be strong enough to bear the weight of a fully loaded truck even in wet
conditions.
 The shoulder width should be adequate for giving working space around a stopped vehicle.
 It is desirable to have a width of 4.6 m for the shoulders. A minimum width of 2.5 m is
recommended for 2-lane rural highways in India