Introduction to Communications CHANNEL- The medium by which the electronic water is used as the medium.

Passive sonar
Communication-Communication is the process of signal is sent from one place to another. Many “listens” for underwater sounds with sensitive
exchanging information. People communicate to different types of media are used in communication hydrophones. Active sonar uses an echo-
convey their thoughts, ideas, and feelings to others. systems, including wire conductors, fiber-optic cable, reflecting technique similar to that used in radar
The process of communication is inherent to all and free space. for determining how far away objects under water
human life and includes: • Electrical Conductors. In its simplest form, are and in what direction they are moving.
-Verbal the medium may simply be a pair of wires The earth itself can be used as a communication
-Nonverbal that carry a voice signal from a microphone medium, because it conducts electricity and can
-Print to a headset. It may be a coaxial cable such also carry low-frequency sound waves.
-Electronic processes as that used to carry cable TV signals. Or it Alternating-current (ac) power lines, the
Communication System may be a twisted-pair cable used in a local- electrical conductors that carry the power to
area network (LAN). operate virtually all our electrical and electronic
• Optical Media. The communication medium devices, can also be used as communication
may also be a fiber-optic cable or “light pipe” channels. The signals to be transmitted are
that carries the message on a light wave. simply superimposed on or added to the power
These are widely used today to carry long- line voltage. This is known as carrier current
distance calls and all Internet transmission or power line communications
The process of communication begins when a human communications. The information is (PLC). It is used for some types of remote control
being generates some kind of message, data, or other converted to digital form that can be used to of electrical equipment and in some LANs.
intelligence that must be received by others. A turn a laser diode off and on at high speeds. RECEIVER-A receiver is a collection of electronic
message may also be generated by a computer or Alternatively, audio or video analog signals components and circuits that accepts the
electronic current. In electronic communication can be used to vary the amplitude of the transmitted message from the channel and
systems, the message is referred to as information, or light. converts it back to a form understandable by
an intelligence signal. This message, in the form of an • Free Space. When free space is the medium, humans. Receivers contain amplifiers,
electronic signal, is fed to the transmitter, which then the resulting system is known as radio. Also oscillators, mixers, tuned circuits and filters, and
transmits the message over the communication known as wireless, radio is the broad general a demodulator or detector that recovers the
channel. The message is picked up by the receiver and term applied to any form of wireless original intelligence signal from the modulated
relayed to another human. Along the way, noise is communication from one point to another. carrier.
added in the communication channel and in the Radio makes use of the electromagnetic Communications System
receiver. Noise is the general term applied to any spectrum. Intelligence signals are converted
phenomenon that degrades or interferes with the to electric and magnetic fields that
transmitted information. propagate nearly instantaneously through
TRANSMITTER-A collection of electronic space over long distances. Communication
components and circuits designed to convert the by visible or infrared light also occurs in free
electrical signal to a signal suitable for transmission space.
over a given communication medium. Transmitters Other Types of Media TRANSCEIVER-A communication equipment
are made up of oscillators, amplifiers, tuned circuits .Although the most widely used media are that incorporates circuits that both send and
and filters, modulators, frequency mixers, frequency conducting cables and free space (radio), other receive. In a transceiver, all the transmitter and
synthesizers, and other circuits. types of media are used in special receiver circuits are packaged within a single
communication systems. For example, in sonar,
housing and usually share some common circuits 1. Analog-An analog signal is a smoothly and compatible with the medium, and multiplexing allows
such as the power supply. continuously varying voltage or current. more than one signal to be transmitted concurrently
Channel Impairments over a single medium.
1. ATTENUATION-Attenuation is the loss of Baseband Transmission
signal strength in networking cables or • Putting the original voice, video, or digital
signals directly into the medium is referred to
as baseband transmission.
• In many instances, baseband signals are
incompatible with the medium. Although it is
theoretically possible to transmit voice
signals directly by radio, realistically it is
connections. 2. Digital-Digital signals, in contrast to analog impractical. As a result, the baseband
2. Noise- Noise is a channel impairment that signals, do not vary continuously, but change information signal, be it audio, video, or data,
causes an interruption in the received in steps or in discrete increments. is normally used to modulate a high-
signal at the destination. Noise can be frequency signal called a carrier.
caused by external or internal noise source. • The higher- frequency carriers radiate into
space more efficiently than the baseband
signals themselves. Such wireless signals
consist of both electric and magnetic fields.
Simplex-The simplest way in which electronic These electromagnetic signals, which are
communication is conducted is one-way able to travel through space for long
communications, normally referred to as simplex distances, are also referred to as radio-
3. Distortion-Distortion is an impairment communication. frequency (RF) waves, or just radio waves.
characterized by, as the name implies, a Half Duplex-The form of two-way communication in Broadband Transmission
distortion in the signal and the signal may which only one party transmits at a time is known as -Modulation is the process of having a baseband
have a bandwidth larger than the channel half duplex communication. The communication is voice, video, or digital signal modify another,
bandwidth. Distortion causes a variation in two-way, but the direction alternates: the higher-frequency signal, the carrier. The
signal frequency and may be a linear or non- communicating parties take turns transmitting and information or intelligence to be sent is said to be
linear distortion. receiving. impressed upon the carrier. The carrier is usually
Linear-A linear distortion is defined as a change in Full Duplex-In full duplex transmission mode, the a sine wave generated by an oscillator. The carrier
amplitude or phase with no new frequencies communication between sender and receiver can is fed to a circuit called a modulator along with
added. occur simultaneously. The sender and receiver can the baseband intelligence signal. The intelligence
Non-linear-A non-linear distortion occurs when both transmit and receive at the same time. Full signal changes the carrier in a unique way. The
new frequency components are generated. duplex transmission mode is like a two-way road, in modulated carrier is amplified and sent to the
which traffic can flow in both directions at the same antenna for transmission. This process is called
time. broadband transmission.
Modulation and Multiplexing-Modulation and
multiplexing are electronic techniques for transmitting
information efficiently from one place to another.
Types of electronic Communications Modulation makes the information signal more
Types of modulation Multiplexing- The use of modulation also permits modulate a carrier on the same frequency. All use the
• Amplitude Modulation- the baseband another technique, known as multiplexing, to be used. same communications channel simultaneously. The
information signal called the modulating Multiplexing is the process of allowing two or more unique coding is used at the receiver to select the
signal varies the amplitude of the higher- signals to share the same medium or channel. A desired signal.
frequency carrier signal. multiplexer converts the individual baseband signals
• Frequency Modulation- the information to a composite signal that is used to modulate a The Electromagnetic Spectrum
signal varies the frequency of the carrier. carrier in the transmitter. At the receiver, the -Electromagnetic waves are signals that oscillate; i.e.,
• Phase Modulation- varying the phase angle. composite signal is recovered at the demodulator, the amplitudes of the electric and magnetic fields
• Frequency-shift Keying- the data is then sent to a demultiplexer where the individual vary at a specific rate. The field intensities fluctuate up
converted to frequency-varying tones. baseband signals are regenerated. and down, and the polarity reverses a given number of
• Phase-shift Keying- the data introduces a times per second. The electromagnetic waves vary
180º-phase shift. sinusoidally. Their frequency is measured in cycles
• Modem (modulator-demodulator)- per second (cps) or hertz (Hz). These oscillations may
translate the data from digital to analog and occur at a very low frequency or at an extremely high
back again. frequency. The range of electromagnetic signals
encompassing all frequencies is referred to as the
electromagnetic spectrum.

Three Basic Types of Multiplexing

-In frequency-division multiplexing, the intelligence
signals modulate sub-carriers on different
frequencies that are then added together, and the
composite signal is used to modulate the carrier. In
optical networking, wavelength division multiplexing
(WDM) is equivalent to frequency-division
multiplexing for optical signal.
Frequency
Frequency is the number of times a particular
-In time-division multiplexing, the multiple
phenomenon occurs in a given period of time. In
intelligence signals are sequentially sampled, and a
electronics, frequency is the number of cycles of a
small piece of each is used to modulate the carrier. If
repetitive wave that occurs in a given time period. A
the information signals are sampled fast enough,
cycle consists of two voltage polarity reversals,
sufficient details are transmitted that at the receiving
current reversals, or electromagnetic field
end the signal can be reconstructed with great
oscillations. The cycles repeat, forming a continuous
accuracy.
but repetitive wave. Frequency is measured in cycles
per second (cps). In electronics, the unit of frequency
-In code-division multiplexing, the signals to be
is the hertz, named for the German physicist Heinrich
transmitted are converted to digital data that is then
Hertz, who was a pioneer in the field of
uniquely coded with a faster binary code. The signals
electromagnetics. One cycle per second is equal to Frequency Ranges from 30 Hz to 300 GHz HIGH FREQUENCIES (HFs)
one hertz, abbreviated (Hz). EXTREMELY LOW FREQUENCIES (ELFs) -3 MHz to 30 MHz
-30 to 300 Hz -These are the frequencies generally known as short
Wavelength -These include ac power line frequencies (50 and 60 waves. All kinds of simplex broadcasting and half
Wavelength is the distance occupied by one cycle of Hz are common), as well as those frequencies in the duplex two-way radio communication take place in
a wave, and it is usually expressed in meters. One low end of the human audio range. this range. Broadcasts from Voice of America and the
meter (m) is equal to 39.37 in (just over 3 ft, or 1 yd). British Broadcasting Company occur in this range.
Wavelength is measured between identical points on VOICE FREQUENCIES (VFs) Government and military services use these
succeeding cycles of a wave. If the signal is an -300 to 3000 Hz frequencies for two-way communication. An example
electromagnetic wave, one wavelength is the distance -This is the normal range of human speech. Although is diplomatic communication between embassies.
that one cycle occupies in free space. It is the human hearing extends from approximately 20 to Amateur radio and CB communication also occur in
distance between adjacent peaks or valleys of the 20,000 Hz, most intelligible sound occurs in the VF this part of the spectrum.
electric and magnetic fields making up the wave. range.
Wavelength is also the distance traveled by an VERY HIGH FREQUENCIES (VHFs)
electromagnetic wave during the time of one cycle. VERY LOW FREQUENCIES (VLFs) -30 MHz to 300 MHz
Electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light, or -3000 to 30000 Hz -This popular frequency range is used by many
299,792,800 m/s. The speed of light and radio waves -Extend from 9 kHz to 30 kHz and include the higher services, including mobile radio, marine and
in a vacuum or in air is usually rounded off to end of the human hearing range up to about 15 or 20 aeronautical communication, FM radio broadcasting
300,000,000 m/s or 186,000 mi/s. The speed of kHz. Many musical instruments make sounds in this (88 to 108 MHz), and television channels 2 through
transmission in media such as a cable is less. range as well as in the ELF and VF ranges. The VLF 13. Radio amateurs also have numerous bands in this
λ =300,000,000/f. range is also used in some government and military frequency range.
communication. ---For example, VLF radio
Bandwidth-is that portion of the electromagnetic transmission is used by the navy to communicate ULTRAHIGH FREQUENCIES (UHFs)
spectrum occupied by a signal. It is also the frequency with submarines. -300 MHz to 3 GHz
range over which a receiver or other electronic circuit -This, too, is a widely used portion of the frequency
operates. More specifically, bandwidth is the LOW FREQUENCIES (LFs) spectrum. It includes the UHF TV channels 14 through
difference between the upper and lower frequency -30 kHz to 300 kHz 51, and it is used for land mobile communication and
limits of the signal or the equipment operation range. -The primary communication services using this range services such as cellular telephones as well as for
BW=f2-f1 are in aeronautical and marine navigation. military communication. Some radar and navigation
Frequencies in this range are also used as subcarriers, services occupy this portion of the frequency
Channel Bandwidth signals that are modulated by the baseband spectrum, and radio amateurs also have bands in this
- When information is modulated onto a carrier information. Usually, two or more subcarriers are range.
somewhere in the electromagnetic spectrum, the added, and the combination is used to modulate the
resulting signal occupies a small portion of the final high-frequency carrier. MICROWAVES and SUPERHIGH FREQUENCIES
spectrum surrounding the carrier frequency. The MEDIUM FREQUENCIES (MFs) (SHFs)
modulation process causes other signals, called -300 kHz to 3 MHz -3 GHz to 30 GHz
sidebands, to be generated at frequencies above and -The major application of frequencies in this range is -Frequencies between the 1000-MHz (1-GHz) and
below the carrier frequency by an amount equal to the AM radio broadcasting (535 to 1605 kHz). Other 30-GHz range are called microwaves. Microwave
modulating frequency. applications in this range are various marine and ovens usually operate at 2.45 GHz. Superhigh
amateur radio communication. frequencies (SHFs) are in the 3- to 30-GHz range.
The Electromagnetic Spectrum These microwave frequencies are widely used for
satellite communication and radar. Wireless local- 0.4- to 0.8-µm range (400 to 800 nm). Light
area networks (LANs) and many cellular telephone wavelengths are usually expressed in terms of
systems also occupy this region. angstroms (Å). An angstrom is one ten-thousandth of
a micrometer; for example, 1 Å 5 10210 m. The visible
EXTREMELY HIGH FREQUENCIES (EHFs) range is approximately 8000 Å (red) to 4000 Å (violet).
-30 GHz to 300 GHz Red is low-frequency or long-wavelength light,
-Electromagnetic signals with frequencies higher than whereas violet is high-frequency or short-wavelength
30 GHz are referred to as millimeter waves. light.
Equipment used to generate and receive signals in -Light is used for various kinds of communication.
this range is extremely complex and expensive, but Light waves can be modulated and transmitted
there is growing use of this range for satellite through glass fibers, just as electric signals can be
communication telephony, computer data, short-haul transmitted over wires. The great advantage of light
cellular networks, and some specialized radar. wave signals is that their very high frequency gives
them the ability to handle a tremendous amount of
The Optical Spectrum information. That is, the bandwidth of the baseband
INFRARED signals can be very wide.
-The infrared region is sandwiched between the
highest radio frequencies (i.e., millimeter waves) and ULTRAVIOLET
the visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. -Ultraviolet light (UV) covers the range from about 4 to
Infrared occupies the range between approximately 400 nm. Ultraviolet generated by the sun is what
0.1 millimeter (mm) and 700 nanometers (nm), or 100 causes sunburn. Ultraviolet is also generated by
to 0.7 micrometer (μm). One micrometer is one- mercury vapor lights and some other types of lights
millionth of a meter. Infrared wavelengths are often such as fluorescent lamps and sun lamps.
given in micrometers or nanometers. -Ultraviolet is not used for communication; its primary
-Infrared signals are used for various special kinds of use is medical.
communication. For example, infrared is used in -Beyond the visible region are the X-rays, gamma rays,
astronomy to detect stars and other physical bodies and cosmic rays. These are all forms of
in the universe, and for guidance in weapons systems, electromagnetic radiation, but they do not figure into
where the heat radiated from airplanes or missiles communication systems.
can be picked up by infrared detectors and used to
guide missiles to targets. Infrared is also used in most
new TV remote-control units where special coded
signals are transmitted by an infrared LED to the TV
receiver for the purpose of changing channels, setting
the volume, and performing other functions. Infrared
is the basis for all fiber-optic communication.

THE VISIBLE SPECTRUM

-Just above the infrared region is the visible spectrum
we ordinarily refer to as light. Light is a special type of
electromagnetic radiation that has a wavelength in the